Application of the Momentum Equation

6.1
The figure below shows a smooth curved vane attached to a rigid foundation. The jet
of water, rectangular in section, 75mm wide and 25mm thick, strike the vane with a
velocity of 25m/s. Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of the force
exerted on the vane and indicate in which direction these components act.
[Horizontal 233.4 N acting from right to left. Vertical 1324.6 N acting downwards]

6.2
A 600mm diameter pipeline carries water under a head of 30m with a velocity of
3m/s. This water main is fitted with a horizontal bend which turns the axis of the
pipeline through 75 (i.e. the internal angle at the bend is 105). Calculate the resultant
force on the bend and its angle to the horizontal.
[104.044 kN, 52 29']

6.3
A horizontal jet of water 2103 mm2 cross-section and flowing at a velocity of 15 m/s
hits a flat plate at 60 to the axis (of the jet) and to the horizontal. The jet is such that
there is no side spread. If the plate is stationary, calculate a) the force exerted on the
plate in the direction of the jet and b) the ratio between the quantity of fluid that is
deflected upwards and that downwards. (Assume that there is no friction and therefore
no shear force.)
[338N, 3:1]

6.4
A 75mm diameter jet of water having a velocity of 25m/s strikes a flat plate, the
normal of which is inclined at 30 to the jet. Find the force normal to the surface of the
plate.
[2.39kN]

6.5
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45 rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
internal angle of 135). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is
100kN/m2 and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe
is 0.075m3.
[13.94kN at 67 40' to the horizontal]

6.6
The force exerted by a 25mm diameter jet against a flat plate normal to the axis of the
jet is 650N. What is the flow in m3/s?
[0.018 m3/s]

6.7
A curved plate deflects a 75mm diameter jet through an angle of 45. For a velocity in
the jet of 40m/s to the right, compute the components of the force developed against
the curved plate. (Assume no friction).
[Rx=2070N, Ry=5000N down]

6.8
A 45 reducing bend, 0.6m diameter upstream, 0.3m diameter downstream, has water
flowing through it at the rate of 0.45m3/s under a pressure of 1.45 bar. Neglecting any
loss is head for friction, calculate the force exerted by the water on the bend, and its
direction of application.
[R=34400N to the right and down,  = 14]

Laminar Pipe Flow

7.1
The distribution of velocity, u, in metres/sec with radius r in metres in a smooth bore
tube of 0.025 m bore follows the law, u = 2.5 - kr2. Where k is a constant. The flow is
laminar and the velocity at the pipe surface is zero. The fluid has a coefficient of
viscosity of 0.00027 kg/m s. Determine (a) the rate of flow in m3/s (b) the shearing
force between the fluid and the pipe wall per metre length of pipe.
[6.14x10-4 m3/s, 8.49x10-3 N]

7.2
A liquid whose coefficient of viscosity is m flows below the critical velocity for
laminar flow in a circular pipe of diameter d and with mean velocity u. Show that the
pressure loss in a length of pipe is 32um/d2.
Oil of viscosity 0.05 kg/ms flows through a pipe of diameter 0.1m with a velocity of
0.6m/s. Calculate the loss of pressure in a length of 120m.
[11 520 N/m2]

7.3
A plunger of 0.08m diameter and length 0.13m has four small holes of diameter
5/1600 m drilled through in the direction of its length. The plunger is a close fit inside
a cylinder, containing oil, such that no oil is assumed to pass between the plunger and
the cylinder. If the plunger is subjected to a vertical downward force of 45N
(including its own weight) and it is assumed that the upward flow through the four
small holes is laminar, determine the speed of the fall of the plunger. The coefficient
of velocity of the oil is 0.2 kg/ms.
[0.00064 m/s]

7.4
A vertical cylinder of 0.075 metres diameter is mounted concentrically in a drum of
0.076metres internal diameter. Oil fills the space between them to a depth of 0.2m.
The rotque required to rotate the cylinder in the drum is 4Nm when the speed of
rotation is 7.5 revs/sec. Assuming that the end effects are negligible, calculate the
coefficient of viscosity of the oil.
[0.638 kg/ms]

Dimensional analysis

8.1
A stationary sphere in water moving at a velocity of 1.6m/s experiences a drag of 4N.
Another sphere of twice the diameter is placed in a wind tunnel. Find the velocity of
the air and the drag which will give dynamically similar conditions. The ratio of
kinematic viscosities of air and water is 13, and the density of air 1.28 kg/m3.
[10.4m/s 0.865N]

8.2
Explain briefly the use of the Reynolds number in the interpretation of tests on the
flow of liquid in pipes.
Water flows through a 2cm diameter pipe at 1.6m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number
and find also the velocity required to give the same Reynolds number when the pipe is
transporting air. Obtain the ratio of pressure drops in the same length of pipe for both
cases. For the water the kinematic viscosity was 1.3110-6 m2/s and the density was
1000 kg/m3. For air those quantities were 15.110-6 m2/s and 1.19kg/m3.
24427, 18.4m/s, 0.157]

8.3
Show that Reynold number, ud/, is non-dimensional. If the discharge Q through an
orifice is a function of the diameter d, the pressure difference p, the density , and the
viscosity , show that Q = Cp1/2d2/1/2 where C is some function of the non-
dimensional group (d1/2d1/2/).

8.4
A cylinder 0.16m in diameter is to be mounted in a stream of water in order to
estimate the force on a tall chimney of 1m diameter which is subject to wind of
33m/s. Calculate (A) the speed of the stream necessary to give dynamic similarity
between the model and chimney, (b) the ratio of forces.

Chimney:  = 1.12kg/m3  = 1610-6 kg/ms

Model:  = 1000kg/m3  = 810-4 kg/ms

[11.55m/s, 0.057]

8.5
If the resistance to motion, R, of a sphere through a fluid is a function of the density 
and viscosity  of the fluid, and the radius r and velocity u of the sphere, show that R
is given by
Hence show that if at very low velocities the resistance R is proportional to the
velocity u, then R = kru where k is a dimensionless constant.
A fine granular material of specific gravity 2.5 is in uniform suspension in still water
of depth 3.3m. Regarding the particles as spheres of diameter 0.002cm find how long
it will take for the water to clear. Take k=6 and =0.0013 kg/ms.
[218mins 39.3sec]

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Pressure and Manometers

1.1

What will be the (a) the gauge pressure and (b) the absolute pressure of water at depth
12m below the surface? water = 1000 kg/m3, and p atmosphere = 101kN/m2.
[117.72 kN/m2, 218.72 kN/m2]

a)

b)

1.2
At what depth below the surface of oil, relative density 0.8, will produce a pressure of
120 kN/m2? What depth of water is this equivalent to?
[15.3m, 12.2m]

a)
b)

1.3
What would the pressure in kN/m2 be if the equivalent head is measured as 400mm of
(a) mercury =13.6 (b) water ( c) oil specific weight 7.9 kN/m3 (d) a liquid of density
520 kg/m3?
[53.4 kN/m2, 3.92 kN/m2, 3.16 kN/m2, 2.04 kN/m2]

a)

b)

c)

d)

1.4
A manometer connected to a pipe indicates a negative gauge pressure of 50mm of
mercury. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe in Newtons per square metre is the
atmospheric pressure is 1 bar?
[93.3 kN/m2]

1.5
What height would a water barometer need to be to measure atmospheric pressure?
[>10m]

1.6
An inclined manometer is required to measure an air pressure of 3mm of water to an
accuracy of +/- 3%. The inclined arm is 8mm in diameter and the larger arm has a
diameter of 24mm. The manometric fluid has density 740 kg/m3 and the scale may be
read to +/- 0.5mm.
What is the angle required to ensure the desired accuracy may be achieved?
[12 39']
Volume moved from left to right =

The head being measured is 3% of 3mm = 0.003x0.03 = 0.00009m

This 3% represents the smallest measurement possible on the manometer, 0.5mm =

0.0005m, giving

1.7
Determine the resultant force due to the water acting on the 1m by 2m rectangular
area AB shown in the diagram below.
[43 560 N, 2.37m from O]

The magnitude of the resultant force on a submerged plane is:

R = pressure at centroid area of surface

This acts at right angle to the surface through the centre of pressure.

By the parallel axis theorem (which will be given in an exam), ,

nd
where IGG is the 2 moment of area about a line through the centroid and can be
found in tables.

For a rectangle

As the wall is vertical, ,

1.8
Determine the resultant force due to the water acting on the 1.25m by 2.0m triangular
area CD shown in the figure above (with question 1.7). The apex of the triangle is at
C.
[43.5103N, 2.821m from P]

For a triangle
Depth to centre of gravity is .

Distance from P is

Distance from P to centre of pressure is

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Forces on submerged surfaces

2.1
Obtain an expression for the depth of the centre of pressure of a plane surface wholly
submerged in a fluid and inclined at an angle to the free surface of the liquid.
A horizontal circular pipe, 1.25m diameter, is closed by a butterfly disk which rotates
about a horizontal axis through its centre. Determine the torque which would have to
be applied to the disk spindle to keep the disk closed in a vertical position when there
is a 3m head of fresh water above the axis.
[1176 Nm]

Answer:

The question asks what is the moment you have to apply to the spindle to keep the
disc vertical i.e. to keep the valve shut?

So you need to know the resultant force exerted on the disc by the water and the
distance x of this force from the spindle.

We know that the water in the pipe is under a pressure of 3m head of water (to the
spindle)
 Diagram of the forces on the disc valve, based on an imaginary water surface.

, the depth to the centroid of the disc

h' = depth to the centre of pressure (or line of action of the force)

Calculate the force:

Calculate the line of action of the force, h'.

By the parallel axis theorem 2nd moment of area about O (in the surface)
where IGG is the 2nd moment of area about a line through the centroid
of the disc and IGG = r4/4.

So the distance from the spindle to the line of action of the force is
And the moment required to keep the gate shut is

2.2
A dock gate is to be reinforced with three horizontal beams. If the water acts on one
side only, to a depth of 6m, find the positions of the beams measured from the water
surface so that each will carry an equal load. Give the load per meter.
[58 860 N/m, 2.31m, 4.22m, 5.47m]

First of all draw the pressure diagram, as below:

The resultant force per unit length of gate is the area of the pressure diagram. So the
total resultant force is

Alternatively the resultant force is, R = Pressure at centroid Area , (take width of gate
as 1m to give force per m)

This is the resultant force exerted by the gate on the water.

The three beams should carry an equal load, so each beam carries the load f, where

If we take moments from the surface,

Taking the first beam, we can draw a pressure diagram for this, (ignoring what is
below),

We know that the resultant force, , so

And the force acts at 2H/3, so this is the position of the 1st beam,

Taking the second beam into consideration, we can draw the following pressure
diagram,

The reaction force is equal to the sum of the forces on each beam, so as before

The reaction force acts at 2H/3, so H=3.27m. Taking moments from the surface,

For the third beam, from before we have,

2.3
The profile of a masonry dam is an arc of a circle, the arc having a radius of 30m and
subtending an angle of 60 at the centre of curvature which lies in the water surface.
Determine (a) the load on the dam in N/m length, (b) the position of the line of action
to this pressure.
[4.28 106 N/m length at depth 19.0m]

Draw the dam to help picture the geometry,

Calculate Fv = total weight of fluid above the curved surface (per m length)

Calculate Fh = force on projection of curved surface onto a vertical plane

The resultant,

acting at the angle

As this force act normal to the surface, it must act through the centre of radius of the
dam wall. So the depth to the point where the force acts is,

y = 30sin 39.31=19m

2.4
The arch of a bridge over a stream is in the form of a semi-circle of radius 2m. the
bridge width is 4m. Due to a flood the water level is now 1.25m above the crest of the
arch. Calculate (a) the upward force on the underside of the arch, (b) the horizontal
thrust on one half of the arch.
[263.6 kN, 176.6 kN]

The bridge and water level can be drawn as:

1. The upward force on the arch = weight of (imaginary) water above the arch.
b)

The horizontal force on half of the arch, is equal to the force on the projection of the
curved surface onto a vertical plane.

2.5
The face of a dam is vertical to a depth of 7.5m below the water surface then slopes at
30 to the vertical. If the depth of water is 17m what is the resultant force per metre
acting on the whole face?
[1563.29 kN]

h2 = 17.0 m, so h1 = 17.0 - 7.5 = 9.5 . x = 9.5/tan 60 = 5.485 m.

Vertical force = weight of water above the surface,

The horizontal force = force on the projection of the surface on to a vertical plane.
The resultant force is

And acts at the angle

2.6
A tank with vertical sides is square in plan with 3m long sides. The tank contains oil
of relative density 0.9 to a depth of 2.0m which is floating on water a depth of 1.5m.
Calculate the force on the walls and the height of the centre of pressure from the
bottom of the tank.
[165.54 kN, 1.15m]

Consider one wall of the tank. Draw the pressure diagram:

density of oil oil = 0.9water = 900 kg/m3.

Force per unit length, F = area under the graph = sum of the three areas = f1 + f2 + f3
To find the position of the resultant force F, we take moments from any point. We
will take moments about the surface.

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Application of the Bernoulli Equation

3.1
In a vertical pipe carrying water, pressure gauges are inserted at points A and B where
the pipe diameters are 0.15m and 0.075m respectively. The point B is 2.5m below A
and when the flow rate down the pipe is 0.02 cumecs, the pressure at B is 14715 N/m2
greater than that at A.

Assuming the losses in the pipe between A and B can be expressed as where v is
the velocity at A, find the value of k.
If the gauges at A and B are replaced by tubes filled with water and connected to a U-
tube containing mercury of relative density 13.6, give a sketch showing how the
levels in the two limbs of the U-tube differ and calculate the value of this difference in
metres.
[k = 0.319, 0.0794m]
Part i)

Taking the datum at B, the Bernoulli equation becomes:

By continuity: Q = uAAA = uBAB

giving

Part ii)

3.2

A Venturimeter with an entrance diameter of 0.3m and a throat diameter of 0.2m is

used to measure the volume of gas flowing through a pipe. The discharge coefficient
of the meter is 0.96.
Assuming the specific weight of the gas to be constant at 19.62 N/m3, calculate the
volume flowing when the pressure difference between the entrance and the throat is
measured as 0.06m on a water U-tube manometer.
[0.816 m3/s]

What we know from the question:

Calculate Q.

For the manometer:

For the Venturimeter

Combining (1) and (2)

3.3
A Venturimeter is used for measuring flow of water along a pipe. The diameter of the
Venturi throat is two fifths the diameter of the pipe. The inlet and throat are connected
by water filled tubes to a mercury U-tube manometer. The velocity of flow along the
pipe is found to be m/s, where H is the manometer reading in metres of
mercury. Determine the loss of head between inlet and throat of the Venturi when H is
0.49m. (Relative density of mercury is 13.6).
[0.23m of water]

For the manometer:

For the Venturimeter

Combining (1) and (2)

but at 1. From the question

Substitute in (3)

3.4
Water is discharging from a tank through a convergent-divergent mouthpiece. The
exit from the tank is rounded so that losses there may be neglected and the minimum
diameter is 0.05m.
If the head in the tank above the centre-line of the mouthpiece is 1.83m. a) What is
the discharge?
b) What must be the diameter at the exit if the absolute pressure at the minimum area
is to be 2.44m of water? c) What would the discharge be if the divergent part of the
mouth piece were removed. (Assume atmospheric pressure is 10m of water).
[0.0752m, 0.0266m3/s, 0.0118m3/s]
From the question:

Apply Bernoulli:

If we take the datum through the orifice:

Between 1 and 2

Between 1 and 3
If the mouth piece has been removed,

3.5
A closed tank has an orifice 0.025m diameter in one of its vertical sides. The tank
contains oil to a depth of 0.61m above the centre of the orifice and the pressure in the
air space above the oil is maintained at 13780 N/m2 above atmospheric. Determine the
discharge from the orifice.
(Coefficient of discharge of the orifice is 0.61, relative density of oil is 0.9).
[0.00195 m3/s]

From the question

Apply Bernoulli,

Take atmospheric pressure as 0,

3.6
The discharge of a Venturimeter was found to be constant for rates of flow exceeding
a certain value. Show that for this condition the loss of head due to friction in the
convergent parts of the meter can be expressed as KQ2 m where K is a constant and Q
is the rate of flow in cumecs.
Obtain the value of K if the inlet and throat diameter of the Venturimeter are 0.102m
and 0.05m respectively and the discharge coefficient is 0.96.
[K=1060]

3.7
A Venturimeter is to fitted in a horizontal pipe of 0.15m diameter to measure a flow
of water which may be anything up to 240m3/hour. The pressure head at the inlet for
this flow is 18m above atmospheric and the pressure head at the throat must not be
lower than 7m below atmospheric. Between the inlet and the throat there is an
estimated frictional loss of 10% of the difference in pressure head between these
points. Calculate the minimum allowable diameter for the throat.
[0.063m]

From the question:

Friction loss, from the question:

Apply Bernoulli:

3.8
A Venturimeter of throat diameter 0.076m is fitted in a 0.152m diameter vertical pipe
in which liquid of relative density 0.8 flows downwards. Pressure gauges are fitted to
the inlet and to the throat sections. The throat being 0.914m below the inlet. Taking
the coefficient of the meter as 0.97 find the discharge
a) when the pressure gauges read the same b)when the inlet gauge reads 15170 N/m2
higher than the throat gauge.
[0.0192m3/s, 0.034m3/s]
From the question:

Apply Bernoulli:

1.

By continuity:
b)

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Tank emptying

4.1
A reservoir is circular in plan and the sides slope at an angle of tan-1(1/5) to the
horizontal. When the reservoir is full the diameter of the water surface is 50m.
Discharge from the reservoir takes place through a pipe of diameter 0.65m, the outlet
being 4m below top water level. Determine the time for the water level to fall 2m
assuming the discharge to be cumecs where a is the cross sectional area
of the pipe in m2 and H is the head of water above the outlet in m.
[1325 seconds]
From the question: H = 4m a = (0.65/2)2 = 0.33m2

In time t the level in the reservoir falls h, so

Integrating give the total time for levels to fall from h1 to h2.

As the surface area changes with height, we must express A in terms of h.

A = r2

But r varies with h.

It varies linearly from the surface at H = 4m, r = 25m, at a gradient of tan-1 = 1/5.

r = x + 5h

25 = x + 5(4)

x=5

so A = ( 5 + 5h )2 = ( 25 + 25h2 + 50h )

Substituting in the integral equation gives

From the question, h1 = 4m h2 = 2m, so

4.2
A rectangular swimming pool is 1m deep at one end and increases uniformly in depth
to 2.6m at the other end. The pool is 8m wide and 32m long and is emptied through an
orifice of area 0.224m2, at the lowest point in the side of the deep end. Taking Cd for
the orifice as 0.6, find, from first principles,
a) the time for the depth to fall by 1m b) the time to empty the pool completely.
[299 second, 662 seconds]

The question tell us ao = 0.224m2, Cd = 0.6

Apply Bernoulli from the tank surface to the vena contracta at the orifice:
p1 = p2 and u1 = 0.

We need Q in terms of the height h measured above the orifice.

And we can write an equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating give the total time for levels to fall from h1 to h2.

a) For the first 1m depth, A = 8 x 32 = 256, whatever the h.

So, for the first period of time:

b) now we need to find out how long it will take to empty the rest.

We need the area A, in terms of h.

So

Total time for emptying is,

T = 363 + 299 = 662 sec

4.3
A vertical cylindrical tank 2m diameter has, at the bottom, a 0.05m diameter sharp
edged orifice for which the discharge coefficient is 0.6.
a) If water enters the tank at a constant rate of 0.0095 cumecs find the depth of water
above the orifice when the level in the tank becomes stable.
b) Find the time for the level to fall from 3m to 1m above the orifice when the inflow
is turned off.
c) If water now runs into the tank at 0.02 cumecs, the orifice remaining open, find the
rate of rise in water level when the level has reached a depth of 1.7m above the
orifice.
[a) 3.314m, b) 881 seconds, c) 0.252m/min]

From the question: Qin = 0.0095 m3/s, do=0.05m, Cd =0.6

Apply Bernoulli from the water surface (1) to the orifice (2),
p1 = p2 and u1 = 0. .

With the datum the bottom of the cylinder, z1 = h, z2 = 0

We need Q in terms of the height h measured above the orifice.

For the level in the tank to remain constant:

inflow = out flow

Qin = Qout

(b) Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level

h1 = 3 and h2 = 1 so

T = 881 sec

1. Qin changed to Qin = 0.02 m3/s

From (1) we have . The question asks for the rate of surface rise
when h = 1.7m.
i.e.

The rate of increase in volume is:

As Q = Area x Velocity, the rate of rise in surface is

4.4
A horizontal boiler shell (i.e. a horizontal cylinder) 2m diameter and 10m long is half
full of water. Find the time of emptying the shell through a short vertical pipe,
diameter 0.08m, attached to the bottom of the shell. Take the coefficient of discharge
to be 0.8.
[1370 seconds]

From the question W = 10m, D = 10m do = 0.08m Cd = 0.8

Apply Bernoulli from the water surface (1) to the orifice (2),

p1 = p2 and u1 = 0. .

With the datum the bottom of the cylinder, z1 = h, z2 = 0

We need Q in terms of the height h measured above the orifice.

Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level

But we need A in terms of h.

Surface area A = 10L, so need L in terms of h

Substitute this into the integral term,

4.5
Two cylinders standing upright contain liquid and are connected by a submerged
orifice. The diameters of the cylinders are 1.75m and 1.0m and of the orifice, 0.08m.
The difference in levels of the liquid is initially 1.35m. Find how long it will take for
this difference to be reduced to 0.66m if the coefficient of discharge for the orifice is
0.605. (Work from first principles.)
[30.7 seconds]

by continuity,
defining, h = h1 - h2

Substituting this in (1) to eliminate h2

From the Bernoulli equation we can derive this expression for discharge through the
submerged orifice:

So

Integrating

4.6
A rectangular reservoir with vertical walls has a plan area of 60000m2. Discharge
from the reservoir take place over a rectangular weir. The flow characteristics of the
weir is Q = 0.678 H3/2 cumecs where H is the depth of water above the weir crest. The
sill of the weir is 3.4m above the bottom of the reservoir. Starting with a depth of
water of 4m in the reservoir and no inflow, what will be the depth of water after one
hour?
[3.98m]

From the question A = 60 000 m2, Q = 0.678 h 3/2

Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level

From the question T = 3600 sec and h1 = 0.6m

Total depth = 3.4 + 0.58 = 3.98m

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Notches and weirs

5.1
Deduce an expression for the discharge of water over a right-angled sharp edged V-
notch, given that the coefficient of discharge is 0.61.
A rectangular tank 16m by 6m has the same notch in one of its short vertical sides.
Determine the time taken for the head, measured from the bottom of the notch, to fall
from 15cm to 7.5cm.
[1399 seconds]

From your notes you can derive:

For this weir the equation simplifies to

Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level

h1 = 0.15m, h2 = 0.075m
5.2
Derive an expression for the discharge over a sharp crested rectangular weir. A sharp
edged weir is to be constructed across a stream in which the normal flow is 200
litres/sec. If the maximum flow likely to occur in the stream is 5 times the normal
flow then determine the length of weir necessary to limit the rise in water level to
38.4cm above that for normal flow. Cd=0.61.
[1.24m]

From your notes you can derive:

From the question:

Q1 = 0.2 m3/s, h1 = x

Q2 = 1.0 m3/s, h2 = x + 0.384

where x is the height above the weir at normal flow.

So we have two situations:

From (1) we get an expression for b in terms of x

Substituting this in (2) gives,

So the weir breadth is

5.3
Show that the rate of flow across a triangular notch is given by Q=CdKH5/2 cumecs,
where Cd is an experimental coefficient, K depends on the angle of the notch, and H is
the height of the undisturbed water level above the bottom of the notch in metres.
State the reasons for the introduction of the coefficient.
Water from a tank having a surface area of 10m2 flows over a 90 notch. It is found
that the time taken to lower the level from 8cm to 7cm above the bottom of the notch
is 43.5seconds. Determine the coefficient Cd assuming that it remains constant during
his period.
[0.635]

The proof for is in the notes.

From the question:

A = 10m2  = 90 h1 = 0.08m h2 = 0.07m T = 43.5sec

So

Q = 2.36 Cd h5/2

Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level
5.4
A reservoir with vertical sides has a plan area of 56000m2. Discharge from the
reservoir takes place over a rectangular weir, the flow characteristic of which is
Q=1.77BH3/2 m3/s. At times of maximum rainfall, water flows into the reservoir at the
rate of 9m3/s. Find a) the length of weir required to discharge this quantity if head
must not exceed 0.6m; b) the time necessary for the head to drop from 60cm to 30cm
if the inflow suddenly stops.
[10.94m, 3093seconds]

From the question:

A = 56000 m2 Q = 1.77 B H 3/2 Qmax = 9 m3/s

a) Find B for H = 0.6

9 = 1.77 B 0.63/2

B = 10.94m

b) Write the equation for the discharge in terms of the surface height change:

Integrating between h1 and h2, to give the time to change surface level
5.5
Develop a formula for the discharge over a 90 V-notch weir in terms of head above
the bottom of the V.
A channel conveys 300 litres/sec of water. At the outlet end there is a 90 V-notch weir
for which the coefficient of discharge is 0.58. At what distance above the bottom of
the channel should the weir be placed in order to make the depth in the channel
1.30m? With the weir in this position what is the depth of water in the channel when
the flow is 200 litres/sec?
[0.755m, 1.218m]

Derive this formula from the notes:

From the question:

 = 90 Cd 0.58 Q = 0.3 m3/s, depth of water, Z = 0.3m

giving the weir equation:

a) As H is the height above the bottom of the V, the depth of water = Z = D + H,

where D is the height of the bottom of the V from the base of the channel. So

1. Find Z when Q = 0.2 m3/s

5.6
Show that the quantity of water flowing across a triangular V-notch of angle 2 is

. Find the flow if the measured head above the bottom of the
V is 38cm, when =45 and Cd=0.6. If the flow is wanted within an accuracy of 2%,
what are the limiting values of the head.
[0.126m3/s, 0.377m, 0.383m]

Proof of the v-notch weir equation is in the notes.

From the question:

H = 0.38m  = 45 Cd = 0.6
The weir equation becomes:

Q+2% = 0.129 m3/s

Q-2% = 0.124 m3/s

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Application of the Momentum Equation

6.1
The figure below shows a smooth curved vane attached to a rigid foundation. The jet
of water, rectangular in section, 75mm wide and 25mm thick, strike the vane with a
velocity of 25m/s. Calculate the vertical and horizontal components of the force
exerted on the vane and indicate in which direction these components act.
[Horizontal 233.4 N acting from right to left. Vertical 1324.6 N acting downwards]

From the question:

Calculate the total force using the momentum equation:

Body force and pressure force are 0.

So force on vane:

6.2
A 600mm diameter pipeline carries water under a head of 30m with a velocity of
3m/s. This water main is fitted with a horizontal bend which turns the axis of the
pipeline through 75 (i.e. the internal angle at the bend is 105). Calculate the resultant
force on the bend and its angle to the horizontal.
[104.044 kN, 52 29']

From the question:

Calculate total force.

Calculate the pressure force

p1 = p2 = p = hg = 3010009.81 = 294.3 kN/m2

There is no body force in the x or y directions.

These forces act on the fluid

The resultant force on the fluid is

6.3
A horizontal jet of water 2103 mm2 cross-section and flowing at a velocity of 15 m/s
hits a flat plate at 60 to the axis (of the jet) and to the horizontal. The jet is such that
there is no side spread. If the plate is stationary, calculate a) the force exerted on the
plate in the direction of the jet and b) the ratio between the quantity of fluid that is
deflected upwards and that downwards. (Assume that there is no friction and therefore
no shear force.)
[338N, 3:1]

From the question a2 = a3 =2x10-3 m2 u = 15 m/s

Apply Bernoulli,

Change in height is negligible so z1 = z2 = z3 and pressure is always atmospheric p1=

p2 = p3 =0. So

u1= u2 = u3 =15 m/s

By continuity Q1= Q2 + Q3

u1a1 = u2a2 + u3a3

so a1 = a2 + a3

Put the axes normal to the plate, as we know that the resultant force is normal to the
plate.

Q1 = a1u = 210-315 = 0.03

Q1 = (a2 + a3) u

Q2 = a2u
Q3 = (a1 - a2)u

Calculate total force.

Component in direction of jet = 390 sin 60 = 338 N

As there is no force parallel to the plate Fty = 0

Thus 3/4 of the jet goes up, 1/4 down

6.4
A 75mm diameter jet of water having a velocity of 25m/s strikes a flat plate, the
normal of which is inclined at 30 to the jet. Find the force normal to the surface of the
plate.
[2.39kN]
From the question, djet = 0.075m u1=25m/s Q = 25(0.075/2)2 = 0.11 m3/s

Force normal to plate is

FTx = Q( 0 - u1x )

FTx = 10000.11 ( 0 - 25 cos 30 ) = 2.39 kN

6.5
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45 rising in the vertical plane (i.e. and
internal angle of 135). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet and 300mm diameter
at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By
neglecting friction, calculate the force and its direction if the inlet pressure is
100kN/m2 and the flow of water through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe
is 0.075m3.
[13.94kN at 67 40' to the horizontal]

1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis system

p1 = 100 kN/m2, Q = 0.3 m3/s  = 45

d1 = 0.15 m d2 = 0.3 m

A1 = 0.177 m2 A2 = 0.0707 m2

3 Calculate the total force

in the x direction
by continuity , so

and in the y-direction

4 Calculate the pressure force.

We know pressure at the inlet but not at the outlet.

we can use Bernoulli to calculate this unknown pressure.

where hf is the friction loss

In the question it says this can be ignored, hf=0

The height of the pipe at the outlet is 1m above the inlet.

Taking the inlet level as the datum:

z1 = 0 z2 = 1m

So the Bernoulli equation becomes:

5 Calculate the body force

The only body force is the force due to gravity. That is the weight acting in the y
direction.

There are no body forces in the x direction,

6 Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

6.6
The force exerted by a 25mm diameter jet against a flat plate normal to the axis of the
jet is 650N. What is the flow in m3/s?
[0.018 m3/s]

From the question, djet = 0.025m FTx = 650 N

Force normal to plate is

FTx = Q( 0 - u1x )

650 = 1000Q ( 0 - u )

Q = au = (d2/4)u

650 = -1000au2 = -1000Q2/a

650 = -1000Q2/(0.0252/4)

Q = 0.018m3/s

6.7
A curved plate deflects a 75mm diameter jet through an angle of 45. For a velocity in
the jet of 40m/s to the right, compute the components of the force developed against
the curved plate. (Assume no friction).
[Rx=2070N, Ry=5000N down]

From the question:

Calculate the total force using the momentum equation:

Body force and pressure force are 0.

So force on vane:

6.8
A 45 reducing bend, 0.6m diameter upstream, 0.3m diameter downstream, has water
flowing through it at the rate of 0.45m3/s under a pressure of 1.45 bar. Neglecting any
loss is head for friction, calculate the force exerted by the water on the bend, and its
direction of application.
[R=34400N to the right and down,  = 14]

1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis system

p1 = 1.45105 N/m2, Q = 0.45 m3/s  = 45

d1 = 0.6 m d2 = 0.3 m

A1 = 0.283 m2 A2 = 0.0707 m2
3 Calculate the total force

in the x direction

by continuity , so

and in the y-direction

4 Calculate the pressure force.

We know pressure at the inlet but not at the outlet.

we can use Bernoulli to calculate this unknown pressure.

where hf is the friction loss

In the question it says this can be ignored, hf=0

Assume the pipe to be horizontal

z1 = z2

So the Bernoulli equation becomes:

5 Calculate the body force

The only body force is the force due to gravity.

There are no body forces in the x or y directions,

6 Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

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Laminar flow in pipes examples.

7.1
The distribution of velocity, u, in metres/sec with radius r in metres in a smooth bore
tube of 0.025 m bore follows the law, u = 2.5 - kr2. Where k is a constant. The flow is
laminar and the velocity at the pipe surface is zero. The fluid has a coefficient of
viscosity of 0.00027 kg/m s. Determine (a) the rate of flow in m3/s (b) the shearing
force between the fluid and the pipe wall per metre length of pipe.
[6.14x10-4 m3/s, 8.49x10-3 N]

The velocity at distance r from the centre is given in the question:

u = 2.5 - kr2

 Also we know:  = 0.00027 kg/ms 2r = 0.025m

We can find k from the boundary conditions:

when r = 0.0125, u = 0.0 (boundary of the pipe)

 0.0 = 2.5 - k0.01252

 k = 16000

u = 2.5 - 1600 r2

 a)
 Following along similar lines to the derivation seen in the lecture notes, we
can calculate the flow Q through a small annulus r:

b)

The shear force is given by F =  (2r)

From Newtons law of viscosity

7.2
A liquid whose coefficient of viscosity is m flows below the critical velocity for
laminar flow in a circular pipe of diameter d and with mean velocity u. Show that the
pressure loss in a length of pipe is 32um/d2.
Oil of viscosity 0.05 kg/ms flows through a pipe of diameter 0.1m with a velocity of
0.6m/s. Calculate the loss of pressure in a length of 120m.
[11 520 N/m2]

See the proof in the lecture notes for

Consider a cylinder of fluid, length L, radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe
The fluid is in equilibrium, shearing forces equal the pressure forces.

Newtons law of viscosity ,

We are measuring from the pipe centre, so

Giving:

In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity,

The value of velocity at a point distance r from the centre

At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;

At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is laminar:

The flow in an annulus of thickness r

So the discharge can be written

To get pressure loss in terms of the velocity of the flow, use the mean velocity:

1. From the question = 0.05 kg/ms d = 0.1m

u = 0.6 m/s L = 120.0m

7.3
A plunger of 0.08m diameter and length 0.13m has four small holes of diameter
5/1600 m drilled through in the direction of its length. The plunger is a close fit inside
a cylinder, containing oil, such that no oil is assumed to pass between the plunger and
the cylinder. If the plunger is subjected to a vertical downward force of 45N
(including its own weight) and it is assumed that the upward flow through the four
small holes is laminar, determine the speed of the fall of the plunger. The coefficient
of velocity of the oil is 0.2 kg/ms.
[0.00064 m/s]

Flow through each tube given by Hagen-Poiseuille equation

There are 4 of these so total flow is

Force = pressure area

Flow up through piston = flow displaced by moving piston

Q = Avpiston

3.2410-6 = 0.042vpiston

vpiston = 0.00064 m/s

7.4
A vertical cylinder of 0.075 metres diameter is mounted concentrically in a drum of
0.076metres internal diameter. Oil fills the space between them to a depth of 0.2m.
The rotque required to rotate the cylinder in the drum is 4Nm when the speed of
rotation is 7.5 revs/sec. Assuming that the end effects are negligible, calculate the
coefficient of viscosity of the oil.
[0.638 kg/ms]

From the question r-1 = 0.076/2 r2 = 0.075/2 Torque = 4Nm, L = 0.2m

The velocity of the edge of the cylinder is:

ucyl = 7.5 2r = 7.520.0375 = 1.767 m/s

udrum = 0.0

Torque needed to rotate cylinder

Distance between cylinder and drum = r1 - r2 = 0.038 - 0.0375 = 0.005m

Using Newtons law of viscosity:

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Dimensional analysis

8.1
A stationary sphere in water moving at a velocity of 1.6m/s experiences a drag of 4N.
Another sphere of twice the diameter is placed in a wind tunnel. Find the velocity of
the air and the drag which will give dynamically similar conditions. The ratio of
kinematic viscosities of air and water is 13, and the density of air 1.28 kg/m3.
[10.4m/s 0.865N]

Draw up the table of values you have for each variable:

variable water air

u 1.6m/s uair
Drag 4N Dair
  13
 1000 kg/m 3
1.28 kg/m3
d d 2d

Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity over density =   

The Reynolds number =

Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; u, d, 

From Buckinghams  theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

As each  group is dimensionless then considering the dimensions, for the first group,
1:

(note D is a force with dimensions MLT-2)

M] 0 = c1 + 1

c1 = -1

L] 0 = a1 + b1 - 3c1 + 1

-4 = a1 + b1

T] 0 = -a1 - 2

a1 = - 2

b1 = -2

And the second group 2 :

M] 0 = c2

L] 0 = a2 + b2 - 3c2 + 2

-2 = a2 + b2

T] 0 = -a2 - 1
a2 = -1

b2 = -1

So the physical situation is described by this function of nondimensional numbers,

For dynamic similarity these non-dimensional numbers are the same for the both the
sphere in water and in the wind tunnel i.e.

For 1

For 2

8.2
Explain briefly the use of the Reynolds number in the interpretation of tests on the
flow of liquid in pipes.
Water flows through a 2cm diameter pipe at 1.6m/s. Calculate the Reynolds number
and find also the velocity required to give the same Reynolds number when the pipe is
transporting air. Obtain the ratio of pressure drops in the same length of pipe for both
cases. For the water the kinematic viscosity was 1.3110-6 m2/s and the density was
1000 kg/m3. For air those quantities were 15.110-6 m2/s and 1.19kg/m3.
[24427, 18.4m/s, 0.157]
Draw up the table of values you have for each variable:

variable water air

u 1.6m/s uair
p pwater pair
 1000 kg/m3 1.19kg/m3
 ms ms
 1000 kg/m3 1.28 kg/m3
d 0.02m 0.02m

Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity over density =   

The Reynolds number =

Reynolds number when carrying water:

To calculate Reair we know,

To obtain the ratio of pressure drops we must obtain an expression for the pressure
drop in terms of governing variables.

Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; u, d, 

From Buckinghams  theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

As each  group is dimensionless then considering the dimensions, for the first group,
1:
M] 0 = c1

L] 0 = a1 + b1 - 3c1 + 2

-2 = a1 + b1

T] 0 = -a1 - 1

a1 = -1

b1 = -1

And the second group 2 :

(note p is a pressure (force/area) with dimensions ML-1T-2)

M] 0 = c2 + 1

c2 = -1

L] 0 = a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1

-2 = a2 + b2

T] 0 = -a2 - 2

a2 = - 2

b2 = 0

So the physical situation is described by this function of nondimensional numbers,

For dynamic similarity these non-dimensional numbers are the same for the both
water and air in the pipe.
We are interested in the relationship involving the pressure i.e. 2

8.3
Show that Reynold number, ud/, is non-dimensional. If the discharge Q through an
orifice is a function of the diameter d, the pressure difference p, the density , and the
viscosity , show that Q = Cp1/2d2/1/2 where C is some function of the non-
dimensional group (d1/2p1/2/).
Draw up the table of values you have for each variable:

The dimensions of these following variables are

 ML-3

u LT-1

dL

 ML-1T-1

Re = ML-3 LT-1L(ML-1T-1)-1 = ML-3 LT-1 L M-1LT = 1

i.e. Re is dimensionless.

We are told from the question that there are 5 variables involved in the problem: d, p,
,  and Q.

Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; Q, d, 

From Buckinghams  theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

As each  group is dimensionless then considering the dimensions, for the first group,
1:

M] 0 = c1 + 1

c1 = -1

L] 0 = 3a1 + b1 - 3c1 - 1

-2 = 3a1 + b1

T] 0 = -a1 - 1

a1 = -1

b1 = 1

And the second group 2 :

(note p is a pressure (force/area) with dimensions ML-1T-2)

M] 0 = c2 + 1

c2 = -1

L] 0 = 3a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1

-2 = 3a2 + b2

T] 0 = -a2 - 2

a2 = - 2

b2 = 4
So the physical situation is described by this function of non-dimensional numbers,

The question wants us to show :

Take the reciprocal of square root of 2: ,

Convert 1 by multiplying by this number

then we can say

8.4
A cylinder 0.16m in diameter is to be mounted in a stream of water in order to
estimate the force on a tall chimney of 1m diameter which is subject to wind of
33m/s. Calculate (A) the speed of the stream necessary to give dynamic similarity
between the model and chimney, (b) the ratio of forces.

Chimney:  = 1.12kg/m3  = 1610-6 kg/ms

Model:  = 1000kg/m3  = 810-4 kg/ms

[11.55m/s, 0.057]

Draw up the table of values you have for each variable:

variable water air

u uwater 33m/s
 F Fwater Fair
 1000 kg/m 3
1.12kg/m3
  kgms kg/ms
d 0.16m 1m

Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity over density =   

The Reynolds number =

For dynamic similarity:

To obtain the ratio of forces we must obtain an expression for the force in terms of
governing variables.

Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; u, d,  F, 

From Buckinghams  theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

As each  group is dimensionless then considering the dimensions, for the first group,
1:

M] 0 = c1 + 1

c1 = -1

L] 0 = a1 + b1 - 3c1 - 1

-2 = a1 + b1

T] 0 = -a1 - 1
a1 = -1

b1 = -1

i.e. the (inverse of) Reynolds number

And the second group 2 :

M] 0 = c2 + 1

c2 = -1

L] 0 = a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1

-3 = a2 + b2

T] 0 = -a2 - 2

a2 = - 2

b2 = -1

So the physical situation is described by this function of nondimensional numbers,

For dynamic similarity these non-dimensional numbers are the same for the both
water and air in the pipe.

To find the ratio of forces for the different fluids use 2

8.5
If the resistance to motion, R, of a sphere through a fluid is a function of the density 
and viscosity  of the fluid, and the radius r and velocity u of the sphere, show that R
is given by

Hence show that if at very low velocities the resistance R is proportional to the
velocity u, then R = kru where k is a dimensionless constant.
A fine granular material of specific gravity 2.5 is in uniform suspension in still water
of depth 3.3m. Regarding the particles as spheres of diameter 0.002cm find how long
it will take for the water to clear. Take k=6 and =0.0013 kg/ms.
[218mins 39.3sec]

Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; u, r,  R, 

From Buckinghams  theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

As each  group is dimensionless then considering the dimensions, for the first group,
1:

M] 0 = c1 + 1

c1 = -1

L] 0 = a1 + b1 - 3c1 - 1
-2 = a1 + b1

T] 0 = -a1 - 1

a1 = -1

b1 = -1

i.e. the (inverse of) Reynolds number

And the second group 2 :

M] 0 = c2 + 1

c2 = -1

L] 0 = a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1

-3 = a2 + b2

T] 0 = -a2 - 2

a2 = - 2

b2 = -1

So the physical situation is described by this function of nondimensional numbers,

or
he question asks us to show or

Multiply the LHS by the square of the RHS: (i.e. 2(1/12) )

So

The question tells us that R is proportional to u so the function f must be a constant, k

The water will clear when the particle moving from the water surface reaches the
bottom.

At terminal velocity there is no acceleration - the force R = mg - upthrust.

From the question:

 = 2.5 so  = 2500kg/m3  = 0.0013 kg/ms k = 6

r = 0.00001m depth = 3.3m

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Back To June 1996 Questions Page

 CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers
Question 1

1(a) State Buckingham’s  Theorems and explain the uses of dimensional analysis.

(8 marks)

1(b) An apparatus is used to measure the pressure drop in a pipe of 3cm diameter in
which water is flowing at 1.1 m/s. Use Buckingham’s  Theorems to calculate the
velocity of air in a 2 cm diameter pipe which will give kinematically similar
conditions.

If the pressure drop over a certain length of pipe bearing water is 1 kN/m2, what is the
equivalent pressure drop in the pipe bearing air?

For water kinematic viscosity was 1.31  10-6 m2/s and the density 1000 kg/m3. For
air those quantities were 15.1  10-6 m2/s and 1.19 kg/m3.

(12 marks)

1(a):

There are two theorems accredited to Buckingham, and know as his  theorems.

1st  theorem:

A relationship between m variables (physical properties such as velocity, density etc.)

can be expressed as a relationship between m-n non-dimensional groups of variables
(called  groups), where n is the number of fundamental dimensions (such as mass,
length and time) required to express the variables.

2nd  theorem

Each  group is a function of n governing or repeating variables plus one of the

remaining variables.

In engineering the application of fluid mechanics in designs make much of the use of
empirical results from a lot of experiments. This data is often difficult to present in a
readable form. Even from graphs it may be difficult to interpret. Dimensional
analysis, for which the Buckingham  theorems give a good strategy to perform,
provides a method for choosing relevant data and how it should be presented.

If it is possible to identify the factors involved in a physical situation, dimensional

analysis can form a relationship between them.

Often hydraulic structures are too complex for simple mathematical analysis and a
hydraulic model is build. Usually the model is less than full size but it may be greater.
The real structure is known as the prototype. Measurements taken from the model
require a suitable scaling law to predict the values in the prototype. Dimensional
analysis can help derive this.

1(b):

If p is the pressure drop over the length of pipe.

The variables which govern laminar flow in a pipe are:

Name Symbol Dimension

pressure drop p ML-1T-2

length L L

density  ML-3

diameter D L

velocity u LT-1

coeff. Dynamic  ML-1T-1

viscosity

roughness height k L

So the defining function can be written:

 ( p, L, , u, D, , k ) = 0
There are 7 variables so m = 7
There are 3 dimensions so n = 3

Number of  groups = m -n = 7 - 3 = 4 groups.

i.e.  ( 1, 2, 3, 4 ) = 0

Choose  , u, D as the governing (or repeating variables).

Group 1:

1 = a ub Dc p

In terms of dimensions:

M0 L0 T0 = Ma L-3a Lb T-b Lc M L-1 T-2

M: 0 = a +1
L: 0 = -3a + b + c -1
 T: 0 = -b -2
a = -1 , b = -2 , c = 0

1 =  u-2 p =

Group2

2 = a ub Dc L

In terms of dimensions:

M0 L0 T0 = Ma L-3a Lb T-b Lc L
M: 0 = a
L: 0 = -3a + b + c +1
T: 0 = -b

a = 0 , b = 0 , c = -1

2 = D-1 L =

Group3

3 = a ub Dc 
In terms of dimensions:
M0 L0 T0 = Ma L-3a Lb T-b Lc M L-1 T-1
M: 0 = a + 1
L: 0 = -3a + b + c -1
T: 0 = -b - 1
a = -1 , b = -1 , c = -1

3 =  u-1 D-1  =

Group4

4 = a ub Dc k
In terms of dimensions:
M0 L0 T0 = Ma L-3a Lb T-b Lc M L-1 L
M: 0 = a
L: 0 = -3a + b + c +1
T: 0 = -b
a = 0 , b = 0 , c = -1

4 = D-1 k =
Note that this is the same as 2

So

writing 1a = 2 / 1 = , And inverting 3 which gives Re.

For kinematically similar conditions the Reynolds number is the same for both air and
water:

For pressure drop:

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CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers

 Question 2

2(a) Obtain the expression for the centre of pressure of an irregular plane surface
wholly submerged in a fluid.
(8 marks)

2(b) A gate which is a quarter of a circle or radius holds back 2.0 m of water as shown
in the diagram.

Figure 1

Calculate the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force on a unit length of the gate.

(12 marks)

2(a):

This plane surface is totally submerged in a liquid of density and inclined at an

angle of to the horizontal. Taking pressure as zero at the surface and measuring
down from the surface, the pressure on an element , submerged a distance z, is
given by

and therefore the force on the element is

The resultant force can be found by summing all of these forces i.e.

(assuming and g as constant).

The term is known as the 1st Moment of Area of the plane PQ about the free
surface. It is equal to i.e.

where A is the area of the plane and is the depth (distance from the free surface) to
the centroid, G. This can also be written in terms of distance from point O (
as )

The resultant force on a plane

This resultant force acts at right angles to the plane through the centre of pressure, C,
at a depth D. The moment of R about any point will be equal to the sum of the
moments of the forces on all the elements of the plane about the same point. We
use this to find the position of the centre of pressure.

It is convenient to take moments about the point where a projection of the plane
passes through the surface, point O in the figure.

We can calculate the force on each elemental area:

And the moment of this force is:

 are the same for each element, so the total moment is

We know the resultant force from above , which acts through the
centre of pressure at C, so

Equating gives,

Thus the position of the centre of pressure along the plane measure from the point O
is:

It look a rather difficult formula to calculate - particularly the summation term.

Fortunately this term is known as the 2nd Moment of Area , , of the plane about the
axis through O and it can be easily calculated for many common shapes. So, we
know:

And as we have also seen that 1st Moment of area about a line through O,

Thus the position of the centre of pressure along the plane measure from the point O
is:

and

depth to the centre of pressure is

To calculate the 2nd moment of area of a plane about an axis through O, we use the
parallel axis theorem together with values of the 2nd moment of area about an axis
though the centroid of the shape obtained from tables of geometric properties.

The parallel axis theorem can be written

where is the 2nd moment of area about an axis though the centroid G of the plane.

Using this we get the following expressions for the position of the centre of pressure

2(b):

Horizontal force:

Vertical force:

Sector from centre of gate to where water surface touches is angle

cos  = 2/4,  = 60 which is 60/360 =1/6 of a circle

Rv = weight of imaginary water

Rv = g ( 1/6 of the circle - the triangle )
42 = 22 + x2
x = 3.46 m
Total thrust:

This acts a the angle:

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CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers

Question 3

3(a) Where does most of the energy loss occur in a Venturi meter and why is this the
case?

(8 marks)

3(b) A Venturi meter is being calibrated in a laboratory. The meter is lying

horizontally and has a diameter of 75 mm at the entrance and 50 mm at the throat. The
flow rate is obtained by measuring the time required to collect a certain quantity of
water. The average number of such measurements gives 0.614 m3 of water flowing in
55.82 seconds. If the pressure gauge at the throat reads 20 kN/m2 less than that at the
entrance, calculate the head loss due to friction using the Bernoulli equation.

(12 marks)

3(a):
Read this in any fluid mechanics text book.

3(b):

d1 = 75 mm = 0.075 m
d2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
p2 - p1 =20 kN / m2 = 20 000 N / m2

Apply Bernoulli from 1 to 2

As horizontal then z1 = z2, rearranging gives:

 p1 - p2 = 20 000 N/m2

By continuity

Q = au = a1u1 = a2u2

so

d12 u1 = d22 u2

Substituting in the equation for hf gives;

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CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers

Question 4

4)
A pipeline of constant 0.6 m diameter with its centre line in the horizontal plane turns
through an angle of 75 . The pipeline carries water at the rate of 0.85 m3/s. A
pressure gauge at the bend indicates that the pressure is equivalent to 41.3 m of water.
Calculate the force exerted on the bend by the water and the direction it acts.

(20 marks)

As constant diameter p1 = p2 = p, A1 = A2 = A and u1 = u2 = u

A = d/4 = 0.2827 m2
u = Q/A = 3.006 m/s
p = 41.3 m of water
p = 41.3  1000  9.18 = 405 153 N/m2
 = 75
Calculate the total force

In the x-direction:

In the y-direction:

Calculate the pressure force

Calculate the body force

There are no body forces as the pipe is in the horizontal plane.

Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

This is in the direction , to the left and up.

The force on the bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite direction

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CIVE1400 Examination 1996. Answers

Question 5

5(a) Using the Bernoulli equation, show that the discharge through an orifice is given
by where Ao is the area of the orifice and h is the head of water
above the orifice.

(5 marks)
5(b)
A tank of water is 5.6 m by 4.3 m in plan with vertical sides. Water from the tank
discharges to the atmosphere through a 200 mm diameter orifice in the base. Over a
period of 5 mins 7 secs the water level drops from 1.9 m to 0.7 m above the orifice.
What is the value of the coefficient of discharge of the orifice? Work from first
principles.
(15 marks)
5(a):

The general arrangement and a close up of the hole and streamlines are shown in the
figure below

Tank and streamlines of flow out of the sharp edged orifice

The streamlines contract after the orifice to a minimum value when they all become
parallel, at this point, the velocity and pressure are uniform across the jet. This
convergence is called the vena contracta

Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface to point 2 at the
centre of the orifice.

At the surface:

velocity is negligible (u1 = 0)

pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0).
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so again
pressure is atmospheric (p = 0).

If we take the datum line through the orifice then z1 = h and z2 =0, leaving
This is the theoretical value of velocity.

Friction losses have not been taken into account. To incorporate friction we use the
coefficient of velocity to correct the theoretical velocity,

The actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice.
We obtain this area by using a coefficient of contraction for the orifice

So the discharge through the orifice is given by

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = Cc  Cv

We can integrate this expression to get the time the level in the tank takes to fall a
certain amount.

Tank emptying from level h1 to h2.

The tank has a cross sectional area of A.

In a time dt the level falls by dh or the flow out of the tank is

(-ve sign as h is falling)

Rearranging and substituting the expression for Q through the orifice gives

This can be integrated between the initial level, h1, and final level, h2, to give an
expression for the time it takes to fall this distance

5(b):

A = 4.3  5.6 = 24.08 m

h1 = 1.9 m
h2 = 0.7 m
do = 0.20 m
Ao = do2/4 = 0.0314 m2

Time for fall in the level = 5  60 + 7 = 307 sec.

Substituting these into the equation gives:

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