Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning by C P Arora 3 Ed

REFRIGERATION
AND
AIR CONDITIONING
THIRD EDITION
About the Author
C P Arora was formerly Professor, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi. He did his MS from the University of Illinois, USA,
under the TCM program and was the first to obtain a PhD
in engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi. He has guided 11 students in completing their PhD
theses. He has over 38 years of teaching experience and
has been a Visiting Faculty at the University of Leeds, UK,
and Visiting Professor at the University of Basrah, Iraq
and California State University Sacramento, USA.
Professor Arora is a life member and was the President (1979–80) of the Indian
Society of Mechanical Engineers. He was Chairman, NCST Panel of Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning (1974–86); Chairman, Organizing Committee, Fourth
National Symposium on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (1975) and Editor of
the Journal of Thermal Engineering. He has also published a number of research
papers.
Refrigeration
and
Air Conditioning
THIRD EDITION
C P Arora
Former Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
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Cover: SDR
RQXYCDDFDDRAD
To
My Beloved Family
Sarla
Amitabh
Shubhra
Smita
and
Sangeeta
Contents
Preface xvii
List of Principal Symbols xxiii
Visual Preview xxvii
1. Introduction 1
1.1 A Brief History of Refrigeration 1
1.2 Systeme International d’Unites (SI Units) 4
1.3 Thermodynamic Systems, State, Properties, Processes,
Heat and Work 8
1.4 First Law of Thermodynamics 9
1.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics 11
1.6 Non-flow Processes 11
1.7 Steady-Flow Processes 12
1.8 Thermodynamic State of a Pure Substance 13
1.9 Heat Exchange Processes 16
1.10 Production of Low Temperatures 18
1.11 Saturation Pressure versus Saturation Temperature
Relationship 22
1.12 The Gaseous Phase: Equation of State 23
1.13 Clapeyron Equation 26
1.14 Property Relations 27
1.15 Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants 27
1.16 Modes of Heat Transfer 35
1.17 Laws of Heat Transfer 36
1.18 Electrical Analogy 39
1.19 Steady-State Conduction 42
1.20 Heat Transfer from Extended Surface 49
1.21 Unsteady-State Conduction 53
1.22 Forced Convection Correlations 54
1.23 Free Convection Correlations 55
1.24 Design of Heat Exchangers 55
1.25 Mass Transfer 57
1.26 Analogy between Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer 58
References 60
Revision Exercises 61
viii Contents
2. Refrigerating Machine and Reversed Carnot Cycle 64

2.1 Refrigerating Machines 64
2.2 A Refrigerating Machine—The Second Law Interpretation 64
2.3 Heat Engine, Heat Pump and Refrigerating Machine 67
2.4 Best Refrigeration Cycle: The Carnot Principle 71
2.5 Vapour as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 80
2.6 Gas as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 82
2.7 Limitations of Reversed Carnot Cycle 84
2.8 Actual Refrigeration Systems 85
3. Vapour Compression System 87

3.1 Modifications in Reversed Carnot Cycle with Vapour
as a Refrigerant 87
3.2 Vapour Compression Cycle 89
3.3 Vapour Compression System Calculations 91
3.4 Ewing’s Construction 99
3.5 Standard Rating Cycle and Effect of Operating Conditions 103
3.6 Actual Vapour Compression Cycle 114
3.7 Standard Rating Cycle for Domestic Refrigerators 118
3.8 Heat Pump 121
3.9 Second Law Efficiency of Vapour Compression Cycle 122
References 123
4. Refrigerants 128
4.1 A Survey of Refrigerants 128

4.2 Designation of Refrigerants 129
4.3 Comparative Study of Methane Derivatives in
Use Before the Year 2000 133
4.4 Comparative Study of Ethane Derivatives in Use
Before the Year 2000 134
4.5 Refrigerants in Use after the Year 2000 135
4.6 Selection of a Refrigerant 136
4.7 Thermodynamic Requirements 137
4.8 Chemical Requirements 147
4.9 Physical Requirements 150
4.10 Ozone Depletion Potential and Global
Warming Potential of CFC Refrigerants 153
4.11 Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 154
4.12 Substitutes for CFC 12 157
4.13 Substitutes for CFC 11 169
Contents ix
4.14 Substitutes for HCFC 22 170

4.15 Substitutes for CFC R 502 171
4.16 Atmospheric Gases as Substitutes for CFC Refrigerants 171
4.17 Using Mixed Refrigerants 174
4.18 Binary Mixtures 174
4.19 Classification of Mixtures 180
4.20 Evaluation of Thermodynamic Properties
of R 290/R 600a Mixtures 188
4.21 Azeotropic Mixtures 191
4.22 Use of Minimum and Maximum Boiling Azeotropes 193
4.23 Non-isothermal Refrigeration 195
4.24 Refrigerant Piping and Design 201
4.25 Lubricants in Refrigeration Systems 207
4.26 Secondary Refrigerants 208
References 210
5. Multipressure Systems 214
5.1 Introduction 214

5.2 Multistage or Compound Compression 214
5.3 Multi-Evaporator Systems 222
5.4 Cascade Systems 226
5.5 Solid Carbon Dioxide—Dry Ice 228
5.6 Manufacture of Solid Carbon Dioxide 228
5.7 System Practices for Multi-stage Systems 233
References 234
6. Refrigerant Compressors 236
6.1 Types of Compressors 236

6.2 Thermodynamic Processes During Compression 239
6.3 Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Compressors 242
6.4 Effect of Clearance on Work 246
6.5 Principal Dimensions of a Reciprocating Compressor 247
6.6 Performance Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors 248
6.7 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors 253
6.8 Construction Features of Reciprocating Compressors 256
6.9 Rotary Compressors 256
6.10 Screw Compressors 257
6.11 Scroll Compressors 259
6.12 Centrifugal Compressors 260
6.13 Performance Characteristics of a Centrifugal Compressor 268
x Contents
6.14 Alternatives to R 11 (CFC 11) 274

6.15 Comparison of Performance of Reciprocating and
Centrifugal Compressors 281
References 282
7. Condensers 286
7.1 Heat Rejection Ratio 286
7.2 Types of Condensers 286
7.3 Heat Transfer in Condensers 288
7.4 Wilson’s Plot 300
References 301
8. Expansion Devices 303

8.1 Types of Expansion Devices 303
8.2 Automatic or Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve 303
8.3 Thermostatic-Expansion Valve 305
8.4 Capillary Tube and Its Sizing 311
References 317
9. Evaporators 319
9.1 Types of Evaporators 319
9.2 Heat Transfer in Evaporators 322
9.3 Extended Surface Evaporators 329
9.4 Augmentation of Boiling Heat Transfer 334
9.5 Pressure Drop in Evaporators 340
References 347
10. Complete Vapour Compression System 349

10.1 The Complete System 349
10.2 Graphical Method 349
10.3 Analytical Method 352
10.4 Newton–Raphson Method 355
10.5 Optimal Design of Evaporator 358
10.6 Installation, Service and Maintenance of
Vapour Compression Systems 359
References 365
Contents xi
11. Gas Cycle Refrigeration 367

11.1 Limitations of Carnot Cycle with Gas as a Refrigerant 367
11.2 Reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman Cycle 367
11.3 Application to Aircraft Refrigeration 371
11.4 Ranque–Hilsch Tube 383
11.5 The Joule–Thomson Coefficient and Inversion Curve 385
11.6 Reversed Stirling Cycle 389
References 399
12. Vapour–Absorption System 402

12.1 Simple Vapour–Absorption System 402
12.2 Maximum Coefficient of Performance of a
Heat Operated Refrigerating Machine 403
12.3 Common Refrigerant-Absorbent Systems 405
12.4 Modifications to Simple Vapour-Absorption System 406
12.5 Actual Vapour-Absorption Cycle and its Representation
on Enthalpy-Composition Diagram 411
12.6 Representation of Vapour Absorption Cycle
1
on ln p – Diagram 419
T
12.7 Practical Single-effect Water–Lithium
Bromide Absorption Chiller 423
12.8 Double-effect H2O – LiBr2 Absorption System 428
12.9 Electrolux Refrigerator 431
12.10 New Mixtures for Absorption System 432
References 434
13. Ejector-Compression System 437

13.1 Water as a Refrigerant 437
13.2 Steam Ejector System 438
13.3 Theoretical Analysis of the Steam Ejector 439
References 445
14. Properties of Moist Air 446

14.1 Brief History of Air Conditioning 446
14.2 Working Substance in Air Conditioning 447
14.3 Psychrometric Properties 452
14.4 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) 459
xii Contents
14.5 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or

Temperature of Adiabatic Saturation 461
14.6 Psychrometric Chart 464
14.7 Application of First Law to a Psychrometric Process 469
References 472
15. Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 474

15.1 Mixing Process 474
15.2 Basic Processes in Conditioning of Air 477
15.3 Psychrometric Processes in Air-Conditioning Equipment 482
15.4 Simple Air-Conditioning System and
State and Mass Rate of Supply Air 493
15.5 Summer Air Conditioning-apparatus Dew Point 497
15.6 Winter Air Conditioning 508
16. Design Conditions 514

16.1 Choice of Inside Design Conditions 514
16.2 Comfort 519
16.3 Outside Design Conditions 521
16.4 Choice of Supply Design Conditions 522
16.5 Critical Loading Conditions 526
16.6 Clean Spaces 528
References 528
17. Solar Radiation 530

17.1 Distribution of Solar Radiation 530
17.2 Earth-Sun Angles and their Relationships 535
17.3 Time 541
17.4 Wall Solar Azimuth Angle and Angle of Incidence 543
17.5 Direct Solar Radiation on a Surface 543
17.6 Diffuse Sky Radiation on a Surface 545
17.7 Heat Gain through Glass 547
17.8 Shading from Reveals, Overhangs and Fins 551
17.9 Effect of Shading Device 555
17.10 Tables for Solar Heat Gain through Ordinary Glass 556
17.11 The Flat-Plate Solar Collector 568
References 571
Contents xiii
18. Heat Transfer through Building Structures 574

18.1 Fabric Heat Gain 574
18.2 Overall Heat-Transmission Coefficient 574
18.3 Periodic Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs 581
18.4 Finite Difference Approximation of One-Dimensional
Heat Transfer Through Wall 584
18.5 Empirical Methods to Evaluate Heat Transfer
through Walls and Roofs 594
18.6 Natural Ventilation through Infiltration 606
18.7 Passive Heating and Cooling of Buildings 611
18.8 Water Vapour Transfer through Structures 614
References 618
19. Load Calculations and Applied Psychrometrics 621

19.1 Preliminary Considerations 621
19.2 Internal Heat Gains 622
19.3 System Heat Gains 625
19.4 Break-up of Ventilation Load and
Effective Sensible Heat Factor 627
19.5 Cooling Load Estimate 628
19.6 Heating Load Estimate 629
19.7 Psychrometric Calculations for Cooling 635
19.8 Selection of Air-Conditioning Apparatus
for Cooling and Dehumidification 640
19.9 Evaporative Cooling 651
19.10 Building Requirements and Energy
Conservation in Air Conditioned Buildings 653
References 659
20. Design of Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662

20.1 Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662
20.2 Heat and Moisture Transfer in
Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662
20.3 Coil Equipment—Design of Cooling and
Dehumidifying Coils 668
20.4 Optimal Design of Cooling and
Dehumidifying Coils 682
20.5 Spray Equipment—Design of Air Washers
and Cooling Towers 683
References 694
xiv Contents
21. Transmission and Distribution of Air 696
21.1 Room Air Distribution 697

21.2 Total, Static and Velocity Pressures 705
21.3 Friction Loss in Ducts 709
21.4 Dynamic Losses in Ducts 713
21.5 Air Flow through a Simple Duct System 726
21.6 Air-duct Design 729
21.7 Processing, Transmission and
Distribution of Air in Clean Rooms 741
21.8 Air Locks, Air Curtains and Air Showers 744
References 744
22. Fans 747

22.1 Types of Fans 747
22.2 Fan Characteristics 747
22.3 Centrifugal Fans 748
22.4 Axial-Flow Fans 752
22.5 System Characteristics 753
22.6 Fan Arrangements 759
References 764
23. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Control 766

23.1 Basic Elements of Control 766
23.2 Detecting Elements 767
23.3 Actuating Elements 771
23.4 Electric Motors and Controls 775
23.5 Controls in Refrigeration Equipment 780
23.6 Controlling Room Conditions at Partial Load 783
23.7 Induction System 789
References 795
24. Applications in Food Refrigeration/Processing and

Industrial Air Conditioning 797
24.1 Typical Examples of Food Processing
by Refrigeration and Storage 797
24.2 Transport Refrigeration 806
24.3 Cooling and Heating of Foods 810
24.4 Freezing of Foods 814
Contents xv
24.5 Freeze Drying 825

24.6 Heat Drying of Foods 834
24.7 Tunnels Ventilation 843
24.8 Station Air Conditioning 844
24.9 Mine Air Conditioning and Ventilation 845
References 847
Appendix A Thermodynamic Properties Correlations

for Refrigerants 850
A.1 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 12 850
A.2 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 134a 852
A.3 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 152a 854
A.4 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 22 856
A.5 Correlations for Thermodynamic Properties of R 290 and
R 600a 858
Appendix B Tables 861

B.1 Thermophysical Properties of Air at Atmospheric Pressure 861
B.2 Thermophysical Properties of Saturated Water and Steam 862
B.3 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants 863
B.4 Thermodynamic Properties of R 744 (Carbon Dioxide) 865
B.5 Thermodynamic Properties of R290 (Propane) 867
B.6 Thermodynamic Properties of R 22 871
B.7 Thermodynamic Properties of R717 (Ammonia) 875
B.8 Thermodynamic Properties of R12 878
B.9 Thermodynamic Properties of R134a 879
B.10 Thermodynamic Properties of R 152a 882
B.11 Thermodynamic Properties of R 600a (Isobutane) 886
B.12 Thermodynamic Properties of R 123 (Trifluoro Ethane) 890
B.13 Thermodynamic Properties of R 245 fa
(Pentafluoro Propane) 891
B.14 Thermodynamic Properties of R 404A
[R125/R143a/R134a(44/52/4)] 892
B.15 Thermodynamic Properties of R407C
[R32/R125/R134a(23/25/42) 893
B.16 Thermodynamic Properties of R410A [R32/R125/(50/50)] 894
B.17 Thermodynamic Properties of R507A [R125/R143a(50/50)] 895
B.18 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated R11 896
B.19 Thermodynamic Properties of R290/R600a Mixture 897
B.20 Thermodynamic Properties of Water-Lithium Bromide
Solutions 902
B.21 Thermodynamic Properties of R718 (Water) 903
B.22 Outdoors Design Data 914
B.23 The Error Function 915
B.24 Conversion Tables 916
xvi Contents
Appendix C Chart Ex. Sheets

C.1 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for R 123
C.2 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for R 134a
C.3 Pressure Diagram of R 22 Vapour
C.4 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R 717
(Ammonia) Vapour
C.5 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R 11 Vapour
C.6 Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for CO2
C.7 Psychrometric Chart Barometric Pressure 101.325 kPa
C.8 Inp-1/T Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions
C.9 Enthalpy-Concentration Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions
C.10 Enthalpy-Composition Diagram for NH3-H2O System
Index 918
Preface
The need for a modern textbook in the field of refrigeration and air conditioning
has been felt for a long time. This book presents a basic as well as applied
thermodynamic treatment of the subject in a very comprehensive manner based on
years of teaching and learning effort at the Indian Institutes of Technology, Mumbai
and Delhi, and interaction with the industry.
The book is intended to serve as a text for undergraduate and to some extent
postgraduate students of engineering. It should also serve as a useful reference for
practising engineers. A few texts follow the extremely rigorous approach, whereas
others are restricted to merely the elementary and empirical form. In this text a con-
scious effort has been made to maintain a reasonable level of rigour, but at the same
time to employ simple techniques for solving fairly complex problems. Throughout
the book, emphasis has been laid on physical understanding while at the same time
relying on simple analytical treatment. A sound physical basis has also been laid for
obtaining fairly precise estimates of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment.
The presentation of the subject follows the classical line of separately treating the
topics in refrigeration and air conditioning, the two being linked via the medium of
the refrigerant evaporator. Accordingly, Chapters 1 to 13 are devoted to refrigera-
tion and Chapters 14 to 22 to air conditioning. Chapters 23 and 24 deal with motors
and controls and applications of refrigeration and air-conditioning process in food
preservation.
The text and illustrative examples are in SI units throughout the book. Charts and
tables, such as pressure-enthalpy diagrams for refrigerant 11 and carbon dioxide,
enthalpy-composition diagrams for ammonia-water and lithium bromide-water sys-
tems, tables for solar radiation heat gain through glass, equivalent temperature
differentials for walls and roofs, etc., have been adapted in SI units and are provided
along with others, such as pressure-enthlapy diagram for refrigerant 12,
psychrometric chart, etc.
Any claim to originality that may be advanced for the material presented here in
refrigeration is with respect to (i) Ewing’s construction to find the suction state for
maximum COP, (ii) a comparison of refrigerants based on normal boiling points
thus introducing the concept of thermodynamic similarity, (iii) a study of azeotropes,
xviii Preface
(iv) class of service of compressors, (v) illustrative examples on both air-cooled and
water-cooled condensers, (vi) the sizing of the capillary tube according to Fanno-
line flow, (vii) the influence of a refrigerant on the augmentation of boiling heat
transfer, (viii) heat-transfer analysis of both dry and flooded evaporators, (ix) the
simulation of the vapour compression system, and (x) the analysis and calculations
for mixtures in the vapour-absorption system using enthalpy-composition diagrams.
The approach to the subject of air conditioning is both fundamental and practice-
oriented. A basic calculation procedure is given for the preparation of psychrometric
charts. Lucid explanations, expressions and diagrams are given to develop the
understanding of sensible, latent and total heat processes and loads. A separate chap-
ter is devoted to solar radiation, leading not only to the study of solar-heat gains and
cutting-solar load, but also to provide to the reader the basic knowledge to enable
him to design systems for solar-energy utilization. The chapter on air-conditioning
equipment design makes use of the concept of enthalpy potential involving simulta-
neous heat and mass transfer. Examples on air transmission include the static regain
method of duct designing which leads to a balanced air-distribution system.
Chapter 23 adequately fills the need to provide essential information on the elec-
trical aspects of the control of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment. It also
gives methods for the control of room conditions at partial loads. Finally, Chapter
24 takes up typical applications of refrigeration and air-conditioning to food preser-
vation. These include chilling, freezing, freeze-drying and heat-drying.
The twentieth century saw large scale development in commercial refrigeration and
air conditioning, particularly after du Pont introduced a family of chloro-fluoro-car-
bons, the so-called CFCs with the trade name of Freons. Now, as the new century
begins, another revolution is taking place in the industry for replacing these very CFCs
with alternatives on account of the ozone-depletion-potential of these refrigerants. The
author, therefore, considers that it is his duty, and he owes it to the readers to present
this updated version with exhaustive revision of the contents of the book.
Many research and postgraduate students are interested in evaluating
thermodynamic properties of new refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures. The basic
procedure to evaluate the thermodynamic properties of pure refrigerants is,
therefore, given in Chapter 1, and the same for ideal and non-ideal mixtures
and particularly Propane/Isobutane mixtures in Chapter 4. Chapter 4 on refrigerants
contains an exhaustive treatment of the topics substitutes for CFC Refrigerants,
particularly CFC 12, and Non-isothermal Refrigeration using non-azeotropic mix-
tures of refrigerants. In addition, empirical relations for thermophysical properties
of refrigerants, and supercritical vapour compression cycle for CO2 as refrigerant
with a potential to substitute for CFCs are also given in this chapter.
Chapter 9 on Evaporators includes many illustrative examples for simulation and
design of flooded and direct-expansion chillers which include pressure drop
calculations and use of Slipcevic correlations for tubes with roughened surfaces.
Since water-lithium bromide system has recently gained some popularity with the
use of waste heat for refrigeration, the representation of vapour absorption cycle on
lnp versus 1/T diagram and practical single-effect and double-effect water-lithium
bromide vapour absorption cycles have been described in Chapter 12 on Vapour
Absorption System.
Preface xix
In Chapter 20 on Design of A/C Apparatus the treatment of the topic has been
greatly extended to include determination of air-side heat transfer coefficient and
cooling tower selection. Examples include those on induced-draft counterflow and
crossflow atmospheric cooling towers.
Prominent features added in the second edition were
(i) Standard rating cycle for domestic refrigerators and second law efficiency in
Chapter 3
(ii) Calorimetric method of determining refrigerating capacity of hermetic
compressors in Chapter 6, R22 centrifugal compressors in Chapter 6 also due
to the present trend of their use as substitutes for R11 chillers
(iii) Linde–Hampson process for liquefaction of gases in Chapter 11; also,
reversed stirling cycle in this chapter due to the application of this cycle in a
big way in Philips Liquefier
(iv) Clean spaces in Chapter 16 and processing and transmission of air in clean
rooms in Chapter 21
(v) Flat-plate solar collector in Chapter 17 as an extension of the topic of solar
radiation
(vi) Water vapour transmission and use of vapour barriers in Chapter 18
(vii) Building design features and measures for conservation of energy in Chapter
19
(viii) Static regain method of duct design in Chapter 21
(ix) Example on conversion of split-phase motor into capacitor-start motor to
increase starting torque which may help using compressor of one refrigerant
with another refrigerant in Chapter 23
(x) Freeze-drying of Yoghurt in Chapter 24
Further, a major contribution to this edition is in the form of a detailed Appendix
which is now presented in three parts as follows:
A. Correlations on thermodynamic properties of refrigerants R12, R134a,
R152a, R22, R290 and R600a
B. Tables on thermodynamic properties of the above and other refrigerants,
R290/R600a mixtures, etc.
C. Charts
When the second edition was published in 2000, the refrigeration and air-condi-
tioning industry was embarking on to an era of new refrigerants. Due to the problem
of the depletion of the ozone layer, CFC refrigerants R11, R12, R113, R114, and
R502 were to be phased out on 31.12.2000, and alternative HFC and HCFC refrig-
erants were to be used from 1.1.2001.
The second edition did provide a study of the alternative refrigerants which were
planned. But since 2000, certain new refrigerants have taken their place as substi-
tutes. They have come to be accepted by the industry, and plants working on them
have been designed and installed. For example, HFC 134a now occupies place of
pride as a substitute for CFC R12. However, HCFC R22 continues to be used and
loved by the industry, although an HFC blend R410A is also favoured by some. At
the same time, there is a newfound enthusiasm for ammonia. Further, HCFC R123
has now replaced CFC R11. Both the HCFCs, R22 and R123, are permitted for use
till 2030.
xx Preface
Hence, it had become absolutely necessary to revise the book.

In this revision, topics on R11 and R12 have been retained to an extent for the
sake of comparison. But there is greater emphasis on R123 and R134a. Emphasis on
R22 and ammonia remains as such. Detailed comparisons have, however, been made
between HCFC R22 and HFC alternatives R410A and R407C. Similarly, compari-
sons have been made between HCFC R123 and the HFC alternative R245fa.
Accordingly, a number of comparison tables, and solved problems have been intro-
duced in Chapters 3, 4, and 6 in the edition.
For the same reasons, tables of properties of HCFC R123, and HFCs R134a,
R404A, R407C, R410A, and R507A have been added in Appendix B. In addition,
vapour-region pressure-enthalpy diagrams of R123 and R134a have been included
in Appendix C.
There are other inclusions in this edition. ‘Scroll compressors’ are the new positive
displacement machine. They were developed a decade ago, but have become very
popular only in recent years. They are being employed with R134a, and with R22 in
low-to-medium capacity machines in the range of 1 to 12 TR. Hence, a section on the
working of scroll compressors has been devoted in Chapter 6 on compressors.
Also, taking note of the need of students to learn more about the practical aspects
of a system, a detailed section on ‘Installation, Service, and Maintenance’ has been
included in Chapter 10 on Complete Vapour Compression System.
An interesting feature of air conditioning is the ‘comfort zone’. As it forms the
basis of design, an ASHRAE ‘Comfort Chart’ has now been included in Chapter 16
on Design Conditions.
Lastly, to ignite the imagination of the student on the wide variety of
Industrial air-conditioning applications, three typical HVAC applications, ‘Tunnels
Ventilation’, ‘Station Air Conditioning’, and ‘Mine Ventilation and Air Condition-
ing’ have been described in Chapter 20 on Applications.
I bow with gratitude before the Divine Father, Mother, Friend, and Beloved, the
source of all knowledge, Who made me an instrument to write this book.
At this juncture, I remember my father’s words: “My investment is in my
children”. Truly speaking, the benefits of this book flow from the investment made
by my father.
I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to the Divine for the Love, Kindness and
Affection bestowed on me through my children and their spouses: Sangeeta–Vivek,
Smita–Rajat, Shubhra–Hemant, and Amitabh–Shailaja and grandchildren Himali,
Ishika, Vaibhav, Aakriti, Shreya, Atyant, and two new and loving grandchildren,
Anisha and Rishi, born since the publication of the last edition.
I am indebted to my numerous students whose stimulating interest inspired this
work. I am extremely grateful to my many friends and colleagues for appreciating
the value of such a book and for urging me on to its completion. They include Prof.
A K De and Prof. B B Parulekar of IIT Bombay, Prof. C P Gupta of the University of
Roorkee, Prof. R D Garg, Prof. H B Mathur, Prof. S M Yahya, Prof. Prem Vrat,
Prof. O P Chawla, Dr R S Agarwal, Dr P L Dhar and Dr M S Das of IIT Delhi, Prof.
YVSR Sastry of the Delhi College of Engineering, Dr N J Dembi of Regional Engi-
neering College, Srinagar, Dr S N Saluja of Hull College of Higher Education,
Preface xxi
Mrs L I Trifonova of Higher Technological Institute, Sofia, Mr R S Mital of Voltas

Limited, Mumbai, and Mr S K Mehta of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai.
I would like to express my grateful thanks to Cambridge University Press for
granting permission to include some tables and charts in the Appendix from “Ther-
modynamic Tables in SI Units” by Haywood, and also to E.I. du Pont de Nemours
and Co. for similar permission to include the thermodynamic properties of R 22.
I would also like to thank the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, for providing
partial financial support in the preparation of the manuscript.
I am grateful to my research student Dr T P Ashok Babu of REC, Surathkal, for
his timely and excellent piece of work on substitutes for CFC 12 and for permitting
me to include data and tables from his thesis in this book.
I would also like to thank the following reviewers for taking out time to go
through the book.
V C Gupta Indore Institute of Science and Technology
Indore, Madhya Pradesh
S C Sharma Medicaps Institute of Technology and
Management, RGPV, Indore, Madhya Pradesh
G D Agarwal Malaviya National Institute of Technology
Jaipur, Rajasthan
Anil Tiwari NIT, Raipur, Chattisgarh
Santanu Banerjee Birbhum Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Birbhum, West Bengal
Sukumar Pati Haldia Institute of Technology
Haldia, West Bengal
V K Gaba Birla Institute of Technology
Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand
M Ramgopal Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur, West Bengal
B R Barve Rizvi College of Engineering, Mumbai
University, Mumbai, Maharashtra
V Thirunavukarasu SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai, Tamil Nadu
M P Maiya Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai, Tamil Nadu
S Srinivasa Rao National Institute of Technology (NIT-W)
Warangal, Andhra Pradesh
B Umamaheswar Goud JNTU College of Engineering
Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh
May this wonderful subject of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, and this book
inspire teachers, students, and practicing engineers to explore new vistas in the field.
Please feel free to send in your feedback at the book’s website.
C P Arora
List of Principal Symbols
Capital letters
A Area
AF Face area
C Velocity, thermal conductance, concentration (in mass transfer), clearance
factor, heat capacity/specific heat
D Diameter, diffusion coefficient, mass of vapour distilled from generator
E Emissive power
F Force, genometric factor, rich solution circulation
G Mass velocity
H Enthalpy, head
I Solar radiation intensity
ID Intensity of direct solar radiation
Id Identity of diffuse solar radiation
K Dynamic loss coefficient
L Fin width, length, air mass
M Molecular weight, stability criterion in finite difference approximation
N Number of tubes
P Perimeter, power requirement
Q Heat transfer
QL Latent heat transfer
Qs Sensible heat transfer
×
QL Volume flow rate of air
R Gas constant, thermal resistance
S Entropy
T Absolute temperature
U Internal energy, overall heat transfer coefficient
V Volume
Vp Piston displacement
W Work, moisture content of material
X Bypass factor
Small letters
a Velocity of sound, absorptivity
c Specific heat
cp Specific heat at constant pressure
cL specific heat at constant volume
xxiv List of Principal Symbols
d Solar declination angle

f Heat transfer coefficient, friction factor, specific rich solution circulation
g Acceleration due to gravity
h Specific enthalpy, heat transfer coefficient, hour angle
hM Mass transfer coefficient
k Thermal conductivity
kd Diffusion coefficient
kw Diffusion coefficient based on specific humidity
l Fin height, tube length
m Mass, polytropic index of expansion
n Polytropic index of compression, number of moles, recirculation number
p Pressure
Dp Pressure loss
ps Static pressure
pT Total pressure
pL Velocity pressure
q Heat flux, heat transfer per unit mass
r Radius, compression ratio, reflectivity
s Specific entropy
t Celsius temperature
te Sol-air temperature
DtE Effective temperature difference
u Specific internal energy, tangential velocity
L Specific volume
w Specific work, moisture removal
x Distance, dryness fraction, liquid phase mole fraction
y Vapour phase mole fraction
z Height above datum
Greek letters
a Thermal diffusivity, wall solar azimuth angle
b Coefficient of thermal expansion, solar altitude
g Adiabatic index, solar azimuth angle
d Joule Thomson coefficient
x Coefficient of performance
e Emissivity, heat exchanger effectiveness
l Decrement factor
h Efficiency
hp Polytropic efficiency
f Flow coefficient, relative humidity, time lag
s Stefan-Boltzman constant, surface tension
m Dynamic viscosity, head coefficient, degree of saturation
n Kinematic viscosity
r Density
y Zenith angle
x Concentration by weight
List of Principal Symbols xxv
t Time, transmissivity
q Angle of incident, excess temperature
w Specific humidity, angular velocity
0u Lockhart-Martinelli parameter for two phase turbulent flow
Dimensionless numbers
Bi Biot number
Bo Boiling number
Co Condensation number
Fo Fourier number
Gr Grashof number
Kf Load factor in boiling
Le Lewis number
Nu Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Re Reynolds number
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number
St Stanton number
q Trouton number
Subscripts
A Absorber
C Convective
I Infiltration
R Radiative
S Apparatus dew point, wetted surface
TP two phase
a Ambient, poor solution, dry air
b Black body
c Cold, clearance, condensate, critical
d Dynamic loss, diffusion, vapour from generator, dew point, discharge
e Entrainment
f Friction, saturated liquid, fin, fouling, fluid
fg Vaporization
g Glass, saturated vapour, air-side
h Generator, hot
i Inside, initial
is Isentropic
k Heat rejection
m Log mean
max Maximum
min Minimum
n Nozzle, normal to surface
o Outside, heat absorption or refrigeration, molar, stagnation
r Radial, refrigerant-side, rich solution, reduced property
xxvi List of Principal Symbols
rel Relative
s Suction, at normal boiling point, saturation, saturated solid
sd Shading
sg Sublimation
t Total, based on extended surface side area
u Tangential
v Vapour, volumetric
w Wall, water
x x-direction
¥ Free stream
Superscripts
* Per ton refrigeration, thermodynamic wet bulb
¢ Pure substance
L Saturated liquid mixture, wet bulb
V Saturated vapour mixture
Visual Preview
Introduction
The student is first

introduced to the theories
and concepts regarding the
working of an air conditioner Introduction
and refrigerator.
1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION
The methods of production of cold by mechanical processes are quite recent. Long
back in 1748, William Coolen of Glasgow University produced refrigeration by
creating partial vacuum over ethyl ether. But, he could not implement his experience
Heated Air at 55°C
Refrigerator Cabinet
Condenser – 15°C Air out
55°C
High Pressure Evaporator
Vapour (Freezer)
Outside Air at Outside Air at

High Pressure 45°C 45°C
Liquid at 60°C Electric Motor – 25°C
Partition QH
Fan QL
Motor W 7°C
Wall
Capillary
Return Air Return Air Compressor Tube
at 25°C at 25°C
Expansion
Valve Low Pressure
Vapour at
Low Pressure 10 – 20°C
Air in
Low Temperature
Liquid at 5 – 10°C
Evaporator W
Supply Air to Compressor

Room at 15°C
Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of a room air conditioner Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram of a domestic refrigerator
Vapour Compression System 9 Solved Examples

(e) Carnot COP
-max =
273
= 6.8
Solved Examples are
40 - (0)
COP of the cycle
provided in sufficient number
-=
h1 - h4
=
112.8
= 4.3
in each chapter and at
h2 - h1 213.96 - 187.5
appropriate locations to aid in
Example 3.2 R 134a System understanding of the text
Chlorine in the Freon 12 (CCl2F2) molecule depletes the ozone layer in the
earth’s upper atmosphere. R 12 has now been replaced by the ozone-friendly
material.
R 134 a (C2H2F4)
For the conditions of Example 3.1, do calculations for R 134a, and compare
results.
Solution From the table of properties of R 134a in the Appendix, we have

p0 = 0.2958 MPa pk = 1.0166 MPa h4 = 256.41 kJ/kg
h1 = 398.6 kJ/kg v1 = 0.06931 m3/kg
s1 = 1.7541 kJ/kgK s¢2 = 1.7111 kJ/kg K, h¢2 = 419.43 kJ/kg
Cp at pk = 1.145 kJ/kg K T2¢ = 313 K
(a) For isentropic compression,
T2
s2 = s1 = 1.7541 + Cp ln
313
Þ T2 = 317.6 K (44.4°C)
b
h2 = h2¢ + Cp T2 - T2¢ g
= 419.43 + 1.145(4.4) = 424.5 kJ/kg
w = h2 – h1 = 424.5 – 398.6 = 25.9 kJ/kg
qo = h1 – h4 = 398.6 – 256.41 = 142.19 kJ/kg
Practice Problems 124 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Over 150 Practice Problems Revision Exercises

are given to provide hands- 3.1 A 15 TR Freon 22 vapour compression system operates between a condenser
temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C.
on practice to students in (a) Determine the compressor discharge temperature:
(i) Using the p-h diagram for Freon 22.
problem-solving. (ii) Using saturation properties of Freon 22 and assuming the specific
heat of its vapour as 0.8 kJ/kg. K.
(iii) Using superheat tables for Freon 22.
(b) Calculate the theoretical piston displacement and power consumption of
the compressor per ton of refrigeration.
3.2 A simple saturation ammonia compression system has a high pressure of
1.35 MN/m2 and a low pressure of 0.19 MN/m2. Find per 400,000 kJ/h of
refrigerating capacity, the power consumption of the compressor and COP of
the cycle.
3.3 (a) A Freon 22 refrigerating machine operates between a condenser tem-
perature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C. Calculate the
increase (per cent) in the theoretical piston displacement and the power
consumption of the cycle:
Concepts
pk
oili
ng Normal boiling point of
r-b
we
Lo
pk refrigerants is emphasized
ing
oil as an important performance
ln p sat
p0
e r-b
H igh criterion.
p0
1/To 1/Tk
1/T
T sat
Fig. 4.1(b) Comparison of pressures of lower-boiling and higher boiling
refrigerants at given evaporator and condenser temperatures
Comfort Airconditioning
Chapters 14 to 22 are primarily for comfort air
conditioning topics like ASHRAE comfort chart,
solar radiation heat gain, pyrometric calculations
for cooling and heating, design of A/c apparatus
and fan-duct system interaction.
g q
H RH 15
R 20° % D p¢
20 0
% CW 60 RH Q& B¢ = Q& *
10 B % D pB
18° 50
CW
B D p¢
Q& C¢ = Q& C
Dew-point temperature, °C
15
10 D pC
Humidity ratio, g/kg
H D p¢
%R Q& D¢ = Q& D
Summer
10 30
Winter
D pD
5 Distribution Branches
5
RB QB
0
–5 Main Duct RA RC QC
From Space Fan To Space
–10
QA QD
A/C 0 RD
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Apparatus
30 32
Fig. 16.2 ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones
Fig. 22.11 Simple fan-system network

Tables Table 4.9
Designation
Common CFCs and possible alternatives with normal boiling points
Category Chemical N.B.P., °C Flammability

Formula
Refrigerants in use before R 113 CFC C2 Cl3 F3 47.68 Non-flammable
R 141b HCFC CH3 CCl2 F 32.1 Slightly flammable
2000, and alternative R 152 HFC CH2 F CH2 F 30.7 Flammable
R 123 HCFC C H Cl2 CF3 27.82 Non-flammable
refrigerants have been R 11 CFC CCl3 F 23.7 Non-flammable
R 245fa HFC 14.9 Flammable
compiled in a list and are R 600a (Isobutane) HC (CH3)3 CH – 11.67 Flammable
R 134 HFC CHF2 CHF2 – 19.8 Non-flammable
compared, and comparison R 152a HFC CH3 CHF2 – 24.02 Slightly flammable
R 134a HFC CF3 CH2F – 26.07 Non-flammable
of CFC 11 alternatives is R 12 CFC CCl2 F2 – 29.8 Non-flammable
R 717 (Ammonia) NH3 – 33.3 Flammable
summarized for centrifugal R 22 HCFC CHClF2 – 40.8 Non-flammable
R 290 (Propane) HC C3 H8 – 42.1 Flammable
compressors. R 407 C HFC – – 43.63/–36.63 –
R 502 CFC – 45.4 Non-flammable
R 404 A HFC – – 46.22/– 45.47 –
R 507 A HFC – – 46.74 –
R 143a HFC CH3 CF3 – 47.35 Slightly flammable
R 125 HFC CHF2 CF3 – 48.55 Non-flammable
R 410 A HFC – – 51.44/– 51.36 –
R 32 HFC CH2F 2 – 52.024 Slightly flammable
Calculation of Enthalpy of Mixture in Vapour Phase

od developed by Agarwal and Arora2 will now be described. Figures
re 4.15 shows the vapour-liquid domes of pure components 1 and 2, and
mixture of certain composition on a p-h diagram. Apart from numerous self-
Component 1
Mixture
explanatory figures, an innovative
Component 2
new pH diagram has been
0°C 0°C
developed to estimate the
p e
properties of mixed refrigerants,
p
(p1sat)0°C
a1 b1
t
as the need of the day is to find
0°C
(p2sat)0°C
a2
(hfg1) 0°C
b2 new refrigerant blends as
(hfg2) 0°C 0°C p0 0
alternatives. This is for PG and
h 01 0 02 d
Fig. 4.15 Proposed method for vapour mixture enthalpy calculation

research students.
figure illustrates how the enthalpies of saturated liquid and satu
may be calculated. The proposed method assumes values for reference
i f d li id fb h h 1 d2
Simulation Problems Example 9.4 Estimation of D-X Chiller Capacity (Simulation)

The following specifications are given for an R 22 D-X Chiller.
For advanced students, Condensing temperature, tk 43°C
Saturated suction temperature 2°C
procedures to develop Number of passes, n 8
computer methods for design, Tubes in each pass
Evaporator superheat
12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 32, 32, 34
5°C
simulation and optimization of Inlet water temperature, tw1 11.1°C
Outlet water temperature, tw2 7.2°C
refrigeration systems Refrigerant pressure drop in
are given. evaporator 0.14 bar (assumed)
Shell diameter, Ds 0.406 m
Tube length between tube sheets, l 2.213 m
Tube ID, Di 0.0158 m
Tube OD, D0 0.0191 m
Tube pitch (triangular), PT 0.0222 m
Number of baffles 21
Baffle pitch, PB 0.0762 m
Baffle cut 0.094 m
h f f h h ll k h d d
where HL is in kg/dm3, and the constants are as follows:
Appendices D1 = 0.2477199 D2 = – 0.1480948 D3 = 0.008001550
D4 = – 0.01962269 D5 = 0.0023223 D6 = – 0.0001057677
For the benefit of students Zero-Pressure Constant Volume Specific Heat
pursuing postgraduate studies CLo = CL1 + CL2 T + CL3 T 2 + CL3 T 3 (A.1.8)
where the units of specific heat are in kJ/kg.K, and the constants are
and research, correlations of CL1 = 0.0479836 CL3 = –2.94985 ´ 10–6
properties of refrigerants are CL2 = 0.00238154 CL4 = 1.37374 ´ 10–9
given in Appendix A. A.2 CORRELATIONS FOR THERMODYNAMIC

PROPERTIES OF R 134a
The correlations given by Wilson and Basu* have been used:
Vapour Pressure Correlation

P2 P ( P - Ts )
ln Ps = P1 + + P3 Ts + P4 Ts2 + 5 6 ln (P6 – Ts) (A.2.1)
Ts Ts
* Wilson D.P. and Basu R.S., ‘Thermodynamic properties of a new statospherically safe
working fluid-Refrigerant 134a’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 94, pp. 2095–2118, 1988.
90
Charts
0.6
80 20 0.5
70 15
0.4 Many new tables and charts
0.3
50
60
10 m
8.0
kg
3
0.2
have been introduced in
t = 40 °C 6.0 Appendices B and C to
J = 180 °C
Vapour Pressure, MPa

190
200
170
160
expand the scope of study

150
140
130
30
120
100
110
4.0
ur
0.1
90
80
a po
70
0.09
60
50
40
30
0.08
v
20 3.0
and problem-solving.
ted
0.07
0.6
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.7
ura
0.06
2.0
Sa t
10 0.05
1.5 0.04
/k )
kg
0
J/(
0.03
0k
5
5
0
1.35
5
0
140
0
5
5
1.0
1.9
0
5
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.5
2.0
1.5
s=
–10°C 0.80 0.02
0.60
0
2.1
–20
0.01
300 350 400 450 500 550
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Appendix C-1: Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 123

Introduction
1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION
The methods of production of cold by mechanical processes are quite recent. Long
back in 1748, William Coolen of Glasgow University produced refrigeration by
creating partial vacuum over ethyl ether. But, he could not implement his experience
in practice. The first development took place in 1834 when Perkins proposed a
hand-operated compressor machine working on ether. Then in 1851 came Gorrie’s
air refrigeration machine, and in 1856 Linde developed a machine working
on ammonia.
The pace of development was slow in the beginning when steam engines were the
only prime movers known to run the compressors. With the advent of electric motors
and consequent higher speeds of the compressors, the scope of applications of
refrigeration widened. The pace of development was considerably quickened in the
1920 decade when du Pont put in the market a family of new working substances, the
fluoro-chloro derivatives of methane, ethane, etc.—popularly known as chloro
fluorocarbons or CFCs—under the name of Freons. Recent developments involve
finding alternatives or substitutes for Freons, since it has been found that chlorine
atoms in Freons are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere. Another noteworthy development was that of the ammonia-water
vapour absorption machine by Carre. These developments account for the major
commercial and industrial applications in the field of refrigeration.
A phenomenon called Peltier effect was discovered in 1834 which is still not
commercialized. Advances in cryogenics, a field of very low temperature refrigera-
tion, were registered with the liquefaction of oxygen by Pictet in 1877. Dewar made
the famous Dewar flask in 1898 to store liquids at cryogenic temperatures. Then
followed the liquefaction of other permanent gases including helium in 1908 by
Onnes which led to the discovery of the phenomenon of superconductivity. Finally
in 1926, Giaque and Debye independently proposed adiabatic demagnetization of a
paramagnetic salt to reach temperatures near absolute zero.
Two of the most common refrigeration applications, viz., a window-type room air
conditioner and a domestic refrigerator, have been described in the following pages.
2 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
1.1.1 Room Air Conditioner

Figure 1.1 shows the schematic diagram of a typical window-type room air condi-
tioner, which works according to the principle described below:
Consider that a room is maintained at constant temperature of 25°C. In the air
conditioner, the air from the room is drawn by a fan and is made to pass over a
cooling coil, the surface of which is maintained, say, at a temperature of 10°C. After
passing over the coil, the air is cooled (for example, to 15°C) before being supplied
to the room. After picking up the room heat, the air is again returned to the cooling
coil at 25°C.
Now, in the cooling coil, a liquid working substance called a refrigerant, such as
CHC1F2 (monochloro-difluoro methane), also called Freon 22 by trade name, or
simply Refrigerant 22 (R 22), enters at a temperature of, say, 5°C and evaporates,
thus absorbing its latent heat of vaporization from the room air. This equipment in
which the refrigerant evaporates is called an evaporator.
Heated Air at 55°C
Condenser
High Pressure
Vapour
Outside Air at Outside Air at

High Pressure 45°C 45°C
Liquid at 60°C Electric Motor
Partition
Fan
Motor W
Wall
Return Air Return Air Compressor

at 25°C at 25°C
Expansion
Valve Low Pressure
Vapour at
Low Pressure 10 – 20°C
Low Temperature
Liquid at 5 – 10°C
Evaporator
Supply Air to
Room at 15°C
Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of a room air conditioner
After evaporation, the refrigerant becomes vapour. To enable it to condense back

and to release the heat—which it has absorbed from the room while passing through
the evaporator—its pressure is raised by a compressor. Following this, the high
pressure vapour enters the condenser. In the condenser, the outside atmospheric air,
say, at a temperature of 45°C in summer, is circulated by a fan. After picking up the
Introduction 3
latent heat of condensation from the condensing refrigerant, the air is let out into the
environment, say, at a temperature of 55°C. The condensation of refrigerant may
occur, for example, at a temperature of 60°C.
After condensation, the high pressure liquid refrigerant is reduced to the low
pressure of the evaporator by passing it through a pressure reducing device called
the expansion device, and thus the cycle of operation is completed. A partition wall
separates the high temperature side of the condenser from the low temperature side
of the evaporator.
The principle of working of large air conditioning plants is also the same, except
that the condenser is water cooled instead of being air cooled.
1.1.2 Domestic Refrigerator

The working principle of a domestic refrigerator is exactly the same as that of an air
conditioner. A schematic diagram of the refrigerator is shown in Fig. 1.2. Like the
air conditioner, it also consists of the following four basic components:
(i) Evaporator; (ii) Compressor; (iii) Condenser; (iv) Expansion device.
Refrigerator Cabinet
– 15°C Air out

55°C
Evaporator
(Freezer)
– 25°C
QH
QL
7°C
Capillary
Tube
Air in
Compressor
Fig. 1.2 Schematic diagram of a domestic refrigerator
But there are some design features which are typical of a refrigerator. For
example, the evaporator is located in the freezer compartment of the refrigerator.
The freezer forms the coldest part of the cabinet with a temperature of about –15°C,
while the refrigerant evaporates inside the evaporator tubes at –25°C. Just below the
freezer, there is a chiller tray. Further below are compartments with progressively
higher temperatures. The bottom-most compartment which is meant for vegetables
is the least cold one. The cold air being heavier flows down from the freezer to the
bottom of the refrigerator. The warm air being lighter rises from the vegetable com-
partment to the freezer, gets cooled and flows down again. Thus, a natural convec-
tion current is set up which maintains a temperature gradient between the top and
the bottom of the refrigerator. The temperature maintained in the freezer is about –
15°C, whereas the mean inside temperature of the cabinet is 7°C.
The design of the condenser is also a little different. It is usually a wire and tube
or plate and tube type mounted at the back of the refrigerator. There is no fan. The
refrigerant vapour is condensed with the help of surrounding air which rises above
by natural convection as it gets heated after receiving the latent heat of condensation
from the refrigerant. The standard condensing temperature is 55°C.
Note In both the room air conditioner as well as the refrigerator a long narrow bore tube,
called the capillary tube, is employed as the expansion device.
In the modern no-frost refrigerators, the evaporator is located outside the freezer com-
partment. The cold air is made to flow by forced convection by a fan.
Working Substances in Refrigerating Machines The working substance being

used in air conditioners is R22. In refrigerators R12 has been used before the year
2000. But R12 is a CFC (chloro-fluoro carbon). Because of the ozone-layer deple-
tion problem, alternatives such as the following are being used in place of R12.
(i) Refrigerant 290 or R290, viz., Propane (C3H8).
(ii) Refrigerant 134a or R134a, viz., Tetra-fluoroethane (C2H2F4)
(iii) Refrigerant 600a or R 600a, viz., Isobutane (C4H10).
1.2 SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL D’UNITES (SI UNITS)
SI or the International System of Units is the purest form and an extension and
refinement of the traditional metric system. In SI, the main departure from the tradi-
tional metric system is in the use of Newton as the unit of force.
There are six basic SI units as given in Table 1.1. The units of other thermody-
namic quantities may be derived from these basic units.
Table 1.1 Basic SI units
Quantity Unit Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Introduction 5
The unit of temperature is kelvin which measures the absolute temperature given by
T = t + 273.15
where t is the Celsius temperature in °C.
1.2.1 Unit of Force

Force F is proportional to mass m and acceleration a, so that
F = C(m) (a) (1.1)
where C is a proportionality constant. The SI unit of force, viz., Newton denoted by
the symbol N is derived from unit values taking the proportionality constant as unity.
Thus, one newton is
FG mIJ = 1 kg × m
1N = (1 kg) 1
H sK2
s 2
The MKS unit of force, kgf, defined by Eq. (1.1) is

FG m IJ
H K
1 kgf = 1 (1 kg) 9.80665 2 = 1 kgf
9.80665 s
which represents a unit weight or the gravitational force on one kilogram mass. In
the above definition, the value of the constant C is taken as equal to the standard
gravitational acceleration so that one kilogram mass has one kilogram weight.
It can be seen that
FG m IJ
H
1 kgf = (1 kg) 9.80665
s2 K
= 9.80665 N
Also, we known that

1 lbf = 0.453592 kgf
1.2.2 Unit of Pressure

The SI unit of pressure p can also be derived from its definition as force per unit
area. Thus
[F]
[ p] = = N/m2
[ A]
The unit is also called pascal and is denoted by the symbol Pa.
Another common SI unit of pressure is bar which is equivalent to a pressure of
105 N/m2 or 0.1 MN/m2 or 100 kN/m2. Its conversion to MKS and FPS units is as
follows
105 / 9.80665 kgf

1 bar = 4 2
= 1.0197 kgf/cm2 or ata
10 cm
. (2.54)2 = 14.5 lbf/in2

= 102
0.453592
It can be seen that one standard atmosphere is given by

1 atm = 1.033 kgf/cm2 = 14.696 lbf/in2
1033
.
= = 1.01325 bar
10197
.
= 760 mm Hg or 760 torr
Accordingly,
1
1 torr = 1 mm Hg = atm = 133 N/m2
760
The conversion of one technical atmosphere, i.e. ata is obtained as:
1 ata = 1 kgf/cm2 = (9.80665) (104) = 980665 N/m2
= 0.980665 bar
= (0.980665) (14.5) = 14.22 lbf/in2
98066.5
= = 736 torr or mm Hg
133
The conversion of other units of pressure are
F 10 ´ 1I F mI
1 cm H O = G 1000 J kg G 9.80665 J = 98.1 N/m
4
2 H K H s K 2
2
F N /m I = 3390 N/m
H mm HgJK
1 in Hg = (25.4 mm) G133
2
2
1.2.3 Unit of Energy (Work and Heat)

The unit of work or energy is obtained from the product of force and distance moved.
The SI unit of work is Newton metre denoted by Nm or Joule denoted by J. Thus
1 Nm = 1 J = (1 kg m/s2 ) (1 m) = 1 kg m2/s2
Since both heat and work are energy, the SI unit of heat is the same as the unit of
work, viz., joule. The conversion of the MKS unit of heat, viz., kcal, is obtained
from its mechanical equivalent of heat which is 427 kcal/kgfm. Thus:
1 kcal = 427 kgf m = (427) (9.80665 N)m
= 4186.8 Nm or J = 4.1868 kJ
Also 1 kcal = (1 kg of water) (1°C)
= 1 ´ 9 1b °F = 3.968 Btu
0.453 5
Hence 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ = 3.968 Btu
1 kJ = 0.948 Btu = 0.239 kcal
1 Btu = 0.252 kcal = 1.055 kJ
1.2.4 Unit of Power

The SI unit of power is watt, denoted by the symbol W. It is defined as the rate of
doing 1 Nm of work per second. Thus
1 W = 1 J/S = 1 Nm/s
Introduction 7
It may also be noted that watt also represents the electrical unit of work defined by
1 W = 1(volt) ´ 1 (ampere) = 1 J/s
The conversion of the horsepower unit can also be obtained
ft.1bf (550 ´ 0.3048 m) (0.453592 ´ 9.80665 N)
1 hp (imperial) = 550 =
s s
= 746 Nm/s or J/s or W
kgf. m m
1 hp(metric) = 75 = (75 ´ 9.80665 N)
s s
= 736 Nm/s or J/s or W
Further, the units of energy can be derived from those of power. Thus
1 J = 1 Ws
1 kWH = 3,600,000 J = 3,600 kJ = 860 kcal = 3,410 Btu
1 hp/hr = 746 ´ 3,600 J = 2,680 kJ = 641 kcal = 2,540 Btu
(imperial)
1 hp/hr = 736 ´ 3,600 J = 2,650 kJ = 632 kcal = 2,510 Btu
(metric)
1.2.5 Unit of Enthalpy

The interconversion of units of enthalpy are as follows
1 kJ/kg = 0.239 kcal/kg = 0.42 Btu/lb
1 kcal/kg = 4.19 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lb
1 Btu/lb = 0.556 kcal/kg = 2.33 kJ/kg
Note The definition of enthalpy (H) (and specific enthalpy (h)) is obtained by the
application of the First Law of Thermodynamics to a thermodynamic process.
1.2.6 Units of Entropy and Specific Heat

These are expressed as
1 kJ/kg.K = 0.239 kcal/kg°C or Btu/lb°F
1 kal/kg°C = 1 Btu/lb°F = 4.1868 kJ/kg.K
Note The definition of entropy (S) (and specific entropy (s)) is obtained by the
application of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to a thermodynamic process.
1.2.7 Unit of Refrigerating Capacity

The standard unit of refrigeration in vogue is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted
by the symbol TR. It is equivalent to the production of cold at the rate at which heat
is to be removed from one US tonne of water at 32°F to freeze it to ice at 32°F in one
day or 24 hours. Thus
1 ´ 2,000 lb ´ 144 Btu/lb
1 TR =
24 hr
= 12,000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min
where the latent heat of fusion of ice has been taken as 144 Btu/lb. The term one ton
refrigeration is a carry over from the time ice was used for cooling. In general 1 TR
always means 12,000 Btu of heat removal per hour, irrespective of the working sub-
stance used and the operating conditions, viz., temperatures of refrigeration and heat
rejection. This unit of refrigeration is currently in use in the USA, the UK and India.
In many countries, the standard MKS unit of kcal/hr is used.
It can be seen that
1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr
= 12,000 = 3,024.2 kcal/hr
3.968
= 50.4 kcal/min » 50 kcal/min
Also, since 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ, the conversion of ton into equivalent SI unit is:
1 TR = 12,000 ´ 1.055 = 12,660 kJ/hour
= 211 kJ/min = 3.5167 kW
Example 1.1 The performance test of an air conditioning unit rated as 140.7
kW (40 TR) seems to be indicating poor cooling. The test on heat rejection to
atmosphere in its condenser shows the following:
Cooling water flow rate: 4 L/s
Water temperatures: In 30°C: Out 40°C
Power input to motor: 48 kW (95% efficiency)
Calculate the actual refrigerating capacity of the unit.
Solution Heat rejected in condenser

Q condenser = m
w Cw Dtw
= 4 (4.1868) (40 – 30) = 167.5 kW
Work input
W = 48 (0.95) = 45.6 kW
Refrigeration capacity (by energy balance)
Q refrigeration = Q condenser – W
= 167.5 – 45.6 = 121.9 kW (34.7 TR)
The unit is operating below its rated capacity of 40 TR.
1.3 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS, STATE, PROPERTIES,

PROCESSES, HEAT AND WORK
Thermodynamic systems are of two types. They are either closed or open as
illustrated in Fig. 1.3. A closed system is one across whose boundary only heat Q
and work W flow. In an open system the working fluid also crosses the control
surface drawn around the system. Everything outside the system is surroundings.
The system plus surroundings combine to make the universe.
Introduction 9
W
Control Surface
System Working Working

Boundary Closed Substance in Open Substance out
System W System
Surroundings
Q Q
Fig. 1.3 Closed and open systems
The state of a thermodynamic system is characterised by its properties. The change

of state of the working substance represents a thermodynamic process. Thermody-
namic processes occurring in a closed system are called non-flow processes. Likewise,
thermodynamic processes occurring in an open system are called flow processes.
Further, the processes that can be reversed such that the system and environment,
both, can be restored to the initial state are called reversible processes. The processes
which, when reversed, will not restore both the system and environment to the initial
state are called irreversible processes.
The properties are either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties do not
depend on the size of the system. These are, e.g., pressure p and temperature T. The
extensive properties depend on the size of the system, e.g., volume V, internal
energy U, enthalpy H, entropy S, etc. Their numerical values per unit mass of the
working substance are called the specific properties denoted by lower case symbols,
viz., L, u, h, s, etc. The specific properties are intensive properties.
A thermodynamic process is accompanied with heat and work interactions
between the system and the surroundings. The heat added to the system is considered
as positive, and that rejected by the system as negative. The sign convention for work
is the opposite. The work done by the system is positive and the work done on the
system is negative.
The heat and work interactions per unit mass of the working substance in the
system are denoted as q and w.
Note The work done in a reversible process in a simple compressible system is
z
given by
z
W= p dV
Note that in an irreversible process, the work is not given by p dV.
1.4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics is mathematically stated as follows:
z z
dQ = d W (1.2)
Accordingly, during a thermodynamic cycle, viz., a cyclic process the system

undergoes, the cyclic integral of heat added is equal to the cyclic integral of work
z
done. Equation (1.2) can also be written for a cycle as
(dQ – dW) = 0
Equation (1.3) below is a corollary of the first law. It shows that there exists a
property U, named internal energy of the system/substance, such that a change in its
value is equal to the difference in heat entering and work leaving the system. Accord-
ingly, for a process in a closed system, the first law can be written as:
d Q = dU + dW (1.3)
For the change of state of a system from initial state 1 to final state 2, this
becomes
Q = U2 – U1 + W
Another property named enthalpy H can also be defined now as a combination of
properties U, p and V,
H = U + pV, h = u + pL
For a reversible process, since dW = pdV, the first law can also be written as
dQ = dU + pdV, dq = du + pdL (1.4a)
dQ = dH – Vdp, dq = dh – L dp (1.4b)
The first law can be applied to a process in an open system. Figure 1.4 repre-
sents an open system undergoing a steady-state steady-flow (SSSF) process.
For the process, the first law takes the form of a steady-flow energy equation as in
Eq. (1.5)
Q = m
[(u2 – u1) + (p2 L2 – p1 L1) + 1 (C22 – C12)
2
+ g (z2 – z1)] + W
(C 2 – C21) + g(z2 – z1)] + W
[(h2 – h1) + 1 2
=m (1.5)
2
Here, in addition to change in internal energy, changes in kinetic and potential
energies are also considered since these are significant. In addition, work, equal to
( p2 L2 – p1 L1), to make the fluid enter and leave the system called the flow work is
also considered.
Shaft Work = W
(1) (2)
m kg Open
System m kg
u 1, p 1, v1, T 1, C 1 u 2, p 2, v2, T 2, C 2
z1 Q = Heat Added z2
Reference Line
Fig. 1.4 Representation of a steady-state steady-flow process

Introduction 11
Writing Eq. (1.5) on the basis of a unit mass entering and leaving the system, we
have Eq. (1.6)
C12 C22
q + h1 + + gz1 = h2 + + gz2 + w (1.6)
2 2
1.5 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics can be mathematically state for a thermody-

namic cycle in the form of Clausius Inequality as given in Eq. (1.7)
z
dQ
T
£0 (1.7)
The equality holds for a reversible cycle, and the inequality for an irreversible
cycle.
Just as the application of first law to a thermodynamic process led to the estab-
lishment of a new property, named internal energy (U ), the application of the second
law to a process leads to the establishment of another new property named entropy
(S ), defined as follows in Eq. (1.8)
FG d Q IJ
dS º
HTK rev
(1.8)
Thus, for a reversible process, between two given states, from initial state 1 to
final state 2 in a closed system, or inlet state 1 to exist state 2 in an open system, the
change in entropy is given by
z FGH dTQIJK z FGH IJ

2 2
dq
S2 – S1 =
1 rev
, s2 – s1 =
1
T K rev
It is found by applying Clausius inequality that for an irreversible process
z FGH dTQIJK , s z FGH IJ

2 2
dq
S2 – S1 >
1
2 – s1 >
1
T K
z
2
Note For a reversible process in a compressible system work done W = pdV. Hence, the
1
area under the curve on P-V diagram gives work done in the process. Similarly, for a
z
2
reversible process, heat transfer Q = TdS. Hence, the area under the curve on T-S
1
diagram gives heat transfer during the process.
1.6 NON-FLOW PROCESSES
Processes in a closed system are referred to as non-flow processes. Since the veloci-
ties are small, and hence dissipation due to friction is negligible, most non-flow
processes are considered as reversible.
In a reversible constant volume process, W = z pdV = 0.
z
Hence, from first law, Q = U2 – U1.
In a reversible constant pressure process, W = pdV = p(V2 – V1), and from first
z
law, Q = (U2 – U1) + p(V2 – V1) = H2 – H1.
Also, from second law and property relation, Q = TdS
= T (S2 – S1) = H2 – H1.
In an isothermal process, Q = T(S2 – S1) = (U2 – U1) + W.
z
In an adiabatic process, Q = 0 and W = – (U2 – U1). In a reversible adiabatic
process, in addition, we have from second law, Q = TdS = 0. Hence, S2 = S1. A
reversible adiabatic process is, therefore, an isentropic process.
A general process can be represented by the polytropic relation
p1 V1n = p2 V2n = pV n = Constant
in which n is the polytropic index. For the polytropic process, we have Eq. (1.9) for
work
z
W = pdV =
n
1- n
( p2V2 – p1V1)
LMF p I n -1
OP
MNGH p JK - 1P
n 2
n
Q
= p1V1 (1.9)
1- n 1
1.7 STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
The steady-flow energy equation is applicable to flow processes, viz. processes in

an open system. In most flow processes, the irreversibility due to viscous friction
cannot be neglected on account of significant velocities encountered. It is, therefore,
necessary to calculate the unknown quantity by first assuming the process as revers-
ible, and then multiplying or dividing the result by a process efficiency.
Boiling and Condensation
1 2
q = – h2 – h1 + (C – C 21) @ h2 – h1
2 2
as the velocities are small, and the change in kinetic energy can be neglected. If there
is a significant pressure drop as in direct-expansion evaporators in refrigeration, the
process is not completely reversible.
Isothermal Process Neglecting kinetic and potential energies
q – w = h2 – h1
Adiabatic Process In nozzles and diffusers, there is no heat transfer or work done.
In these devices, there is interconversion between kinetic energy and enthalpy. Thus
we have
Introduction 13
1 2
(C – C21) = h1 – h2
2 2
In turbines and compressor, assuming no heat transfer and neglecting changes in
kinetic and potential energies, we obtain for work
w = h1 – h2
To account for irreversibility in processes, the efficiencies are defined as follows:
Nozzle and Turbine Efficiency
h1 - h2
h=
h1 - h2 s
Diffuser and Compressor Efficiency
h1 - h2 s
h=
h1 - h2
In these equations, h2 represents the enthalphy at the end in the actual process and
h2s represents the enthalpy if the process is executed reversibly, viz., isentropically
between the pressure limits p1 and p2.
Throttling Process It is an irreversible adiabatic process. It is employed to reduce
the pressure of a fluid by introducing a restriction in the flow passage as illustrated
in Fig. 1.5.
(1) Restriction (2)
A 1, p 1, v1, T 1, h 1, C 1 A 2, p 2, v2, T 2, h 2, C 2
Fig. 1.5 Representation of a throttling process
As the process is adiabatic and no external work is done, we have
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Since p2 < p1, V2 > V1. Hence if A1 = A2, C2 > C1. Making A2 > A1 such that
C2 = C1, or since kinetic energy change is negligible, we find that in a throttling
process
h 1 = h2
Accordingly, throttling is also referred to as an isenthalpic-expansion process.
1.8 THERMODYNAMIC STATE OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
The working substance used in refrigerating machines is called a refrigerant. A

refrigerant is usually a pure substance, though research is on to use mixtures also.
A knowledge of two independent properties is required to determine the thermo-
dynamic state of a pure substance. In the case of equilibrium between two phases of
a pure substance, only one independent property is required to define the state.
The equilibrium between phases, and the state of a pure substance are best
described by the phase diagrams such as the p – L and T – s diagrams shown in
Figs 1.7(a) and 1.7(b). The continuous lines on these diagrams represent the locii of
equilibrium/saturation states in which phase change occurs, e.g., s and f1 between
solid and liquid, and f2 and g between liquid and vapour. The temperature for change
from solid state s to liquid state f1 or vice versa, is the melting/freezing/fusion tem-
perature. The temperature for change from liquid state f2 to vapour state g, and vice
versa, is the boiling/condensation temperature. Similarly the temperature for change
between solid state s and vapour state g is the sublimation/ablimation temperature.
VC
pC = 221.2 bar
Critical Point
TC = 647.3 K
G
T
p = 1 atm
E F
Gid
CEB Triple Point Line F

273.15 K B
C 273.16 K
Sublimation
A
V
(a) Water
E
F
C
T
B F
B C
A
V
(b) Normal Substance
Fig. 1.6 Temperature-specific volume phase diagrams for water
and normal substances
Consider a unit mass of solid at S below its melting point at 1 atm pressure. Let
heat be supplied to it, and let us follow the events that occur at constant pressure
as shown in Fig. 1.6(a) for water and Fig. 1.6(b) for a normal substance, Figs. 1.7(a)
and 1.7(b) are for a normal substance. We observe the following from Fig. 1.7.
Introduction 15
Critical Point
S
Superheat
F Evaporation Region
G
S s f1 f2 F+G A g
G
p
T=
Tc
S Triple Point Line
ptp s
f 1, f 2 g Cr Gid
itic
Sublimation al
Iso
S s S+G g the
rm
T=
vfg Tt
p
vf vg
v
Fig. 1.7(a) p-L phase Diagram for a Normal Substance
Point of
inflexion pc
=
p m
at
Critical Point
Saturated Solid
F ed
1
=
G
ine
t
S at u r a
p
id L
S
L iqu
+ F Evaporation Superheat
tp
F Region
p
A g
=
f1 f2
p
Gid
Sa
s
F+G
tu
ra
S
te
d
Triple Point Line G

Va
TtpT
po
ur
S
Li
ne
s Sublimation
s¢ g
S S+G
Saturated
Solid Line sfg
sf s sg
Fig.1.7(b) T-s phase diagram for a normal substance
(i) Temperature rises until point s is reached.
(ii) Further heating results in melting of solid at constant (melting point) tempera-
ture until point f1 is reached.
(iii) Change of phase from solid to liquid is complete at f1. Heating of liquid now
results in rise in temperature until point f2 is reached.
(iv) Further heating at f2 results in vaporization of liquid at constant (boiling point)

temperature until point g is reached.
(v) Change of phase from liquid to vapour is complete at g. Heating of vapour/
gas at g results in rise in temperature again until, say, point G above the boil-
ing point temperature is reached.
States, f1, f2 and g are saturation states. f1 represents saturated liquid state in
equilibrium with saturated solid state s, and f2 represents saturated liquid state in
equilibrium will saturated vapour stage g. Now onwards, the subscripts 1 and 2 from
f1 and f2 will be dropped, and the context will tell which one we are referring to.
Note that there is a large change in volume equal to Lfg = Lg – Lf during vaporiza-
tion from f2 to g. Similarly, we have latent heat of vaporization hfg = hg – hf , and
entropy of vaporization sfg = sg – sf .
State S below the melting point temperature Ts = Tf1 is a subcooled solid state.
State G above the boiling point temperature Tf2 = Tg is a superheated vapour state.
Any liquid state F between f1 and f 2 below the boiling point temperature is a
subcooled liquid state. Any state A in the liquid plus vapour (F + G) region repre-
sents a mixture of vapour at g and liquid at f2. The position of A is governed by the
quality or dryness fraction x of vapour and (1 – x) of liquid.
Consider now the reverse process of cooling of superheated vapour at G. The
processes followed will be desuperheating from G to g, condensation from g to f2,
subcooling from f2 to f1, freezing from f1 to s, and subcooling from s to S.
Consider now that the heating of solid is carried out at lower pressures. As the
pressure is lowered, there is a marked decrease in boiling point temperature, and
an increase in volume and enthalpy accompanying vaporization. This continues
until triple point pressure ptp and temperature Ttp are reached. On the triple point
line, all the saturation states s, f 1, f 2 and g lie. Thus, all the three phases exist in
equilibrium at the triple point. The triple point for water is at 273.16 K (0.01°C)
temperature, and 0.006112 bar pressure.
Below the triple point pressure, saturated solid at s on heating directly changes
into saturated vapour at g. This is called sublimation. Similarly, saturated vapour at
g on cooling directly changes to saturated solid at s. This is called ablimation or
freeze-condensation.
Consider now the heating at pressures above atmospheric. In general, at higher
pressures, the boiling point increases, and there is a marked decrease in Lfg, hfg and
sfg. At a certain high pressure, Lfg, hfg and sfg become zero. This is referred to as the
critical point. The properties at this point are denoted as critical pressure pc, critical
temperature Tc and critical volume Lc. The same for water are:
pc = 221.2 bar, Tc = 647.3 K, Lc = 0.00317 m3/kg
At pressures above critical, there is no definite transition between liquid and
vapour phases.
Note that the gaseous state Gid at low pressures (tending to zero) and high
temperatures represents the ideal or perfect gas state following the equation pL = RT.
1.9 HEAT EXCHANGE PROCESSES
Heat is normally absorbed or rejected by a working substance at a constant pressure.

It has been seen that when a working substance exchanges heat, then either
Introduction 17
(i) the temperature of the substance changes and the substance remains in a single
phase, or
(ii) the temperature of the substance remains constant but a phase change occurs.
The heat transferred without a phase change results in a temperature rise and is
called sensible heat, and that transferred resulting in a change of phase at constant
temperature is called latent heat.
Sensible heat is measured by the expression
QS = mCp DT
where m is the mass, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, and D T is the
temperature change of the working substance. In general, chilled water or salt
solutions of either NaCl or CaCl2 called brines are used as carriers of refrigeration
for the absorption of heat. Chilled water is used for air conditioning in central air-
conditioning plants. Brines have freezing points lower than 0°C and are, therefore,
used as coolants in applications below 0°C refrigeration temperature, such as in cold
storages, ice plants, skating rinks, etc.
Latent heat exchange processes correspond to those of melting, evaporation and
sublimation, and vice versa, viz., fusion, condensation and desublimation and the
heat transferred is measured by
QL = mD h
where Dh is the latent heat for the corresponding process, e.g., hfg for latent heat of
vaporization, hsg for sublimation and hsf for fusion. The subscripts s, f and g denote,
solid, liquid and gas respectively. Evaporation is the most commonly used method
in refrigeration for the absorption of heat. Sublimation is used in a process called
freeze drying. In this, the product is first frozen and cooled until it reaches below its
triple point temperature. It is then placed in a chamber which is evacuated to a pres-
sure sufficiently below the triple point pressure. Heat is then supplied to the product
and in a freeze-condenser the sublimated vapours are condensed at a temperature of
about – 40°C. The food thus dried generally retains its original flavour and value
and can be reconstituted into its original condition by the addition of water. Freeze
drying is used in the manufacture of certain high-value food products and medicines.
Wide use is made of the melting of ice in homes, stores, transports, etc., for the
preservation of products at refrigerated temperatures. The main drawbacks of ice
are the temperature limitation of 0°C and the spoilage caused by the melted water.
These drawbacks can be avoided by the use of solid carbon-dioxide, also called dry
ice, which sublimates at atmospheric pressure. Dry ice is rather widely used in
refrigerated air transport. In recent times, liquid nitrogen has also become quite
popular in transport refrigeration.
Example 1.2 100 kg of ice at –5°C is placed in a bunker to cool some vegeta-
bles. 24 hours later, the ice has melted into water at 10°C. What is the average
rate of cooling in kJ/h and TR provided by the ice? Given:
Specific heat of ice, Cps = 1.94 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat of water, Cp = 4.1868 kJ/kg.K
f
Latent heat of fusion of ice at 0°C, hsf = 335 kJ/kg.
F
10 °C
t
s Latent Heat of Fusion f Sensible
Heating of Water
0°C
S
– 5°C
Sensible Heating of Ice
Q
Fig. 1.8 Figure for Example 1.2
Solution The change of temperature with heat supplied is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Q = m [Cps (ts – tS) + hsf + Cpf (tF – tf )]
= 100 [1.94 (0 + 5) + 355 + 4.1868 (10 – 0)] = 38,660 kJ
38,660
Capacity = = 1611 kJ/h
24
1611
= = 0.127 TR
12 ,660
1.10 PRODUCTION OF LOW TEMPERATURES
The various principles and processes involved in the production of low temperatures
are as follows:
(i) Throttling expansion of a liquid with flashing.
(ii) Reversible adiabatic expansion of a gas.
(iii) Irreversible adiabatic expansion (throttling) of a real gas.
(iv) Thermoelectric cooling.
(v) Adiabatic demagnetization.
1.10.1 Expansion of a Liquid with Flashing

Consider the throttling of a saturated liquid initially at 1 at pressure p1 as shown in
Fig. 1.9. The state after expansion is at 2. The process is accompanied by an increase
in entropy along with a drop in pressure due to which the volume increases and a part
of the liquid is vaporized, thus cooling the remaining liquid. The expansion, with the
vaporization of a part of the liquid causing the lowering of its temperature, is called
flashing. This method is most commonly used for obtaining low temperatures. It will
be seen that for the process
h1 = h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2 L2 = Lf2 + x2Lfg2
It may be noted that the temperature will similarly drop from T1 to T2 if the liquid
had isentropically expanded from 1 to 2¢. But the isentropic expansion of a liquid is
not employed in refrigeration for reasons explained in Sec. 3.1.
Introduction 19
1 T1
x2
p1 T2 g2
T
f2 2 2
p2
s2 = s1 s
Fig. 1.9 Reversible and irreversible adiabatic expansion of a liquid
1.10.2 Reversible Adiabatic Expansion of a Perfect/Ideal Gas

This method is used with permanent gases such as air. The gas is initially com-
pressed and cooled and then expanded reversibly in an adiabatic reciprocating or
turbo-type expander, thus doing external work. The reversible adiabatic expansion
of an ideal gas from p1 to p2 follows the path pV g = C. The work done is given by the
shaded area shown in Fig. 1.10. The expression for work is obtained by adding the
flow work components to the non-flow work. Thus, we have for specific work.
w= z pdL = za
1
pd L + z 2
1
pdL + z2
b
pdL + zb
a
pdL = - z 2
1 Ldp
Fig. 1.10 Work done in a reversible adiabatic-expansion process
which gives on integration for a perfect gas
FG p IJ
z
1/g
g
w = – L1
H pK dp = ( p1L1 – p2L2)
1
g -1
Also since q=0
we obtain from the steady-state steady-flow energy equation
h1 – h2 = w = – Ld p =
g
g -1
( p1L1 – p2L2) z
g R
which for an ideal gas, on putting = Cp, becomes
g -1
w = h1 – h2 = Cp (T1 – T2)
The temperature after expansion is given by
FG p IJ
g - 1
g
T2
HpK
2
=
T1 1
1.10.3 Irreversible Adiabatic Expansion (Throttling) of a Real Gas

Herein again, the initially compressed and cooled gas is expanded, but irreversibly,
through a throttle device with restriction to flow. It has been shown that for this
process
h 1 = h2
and for a perfect gas T1 = T2, since enthalpy is a function of temperature only.
Real gases, however, show a departure from ideal gas behaviour and usually pro-
duce a substantial decrease in temperature under certain conditions, viz., initial low
temperature and high pressure of the gas. The decrease in temperature dT corre-
sponding to a drop in pressure dp, defined by
FG ¶ T IJ
H ¶ pK h
= d or mJ
is known as the Joule-Thomson coefficient. For an ideal gas this coefficient is zero.
For a real gas, we have:
For cooling d is positive Initial state of gas at high pressure and low
temperature
For no change d=0 Ideal gas behaviour
in temperature
For heating d is negative Initial state of gas at high temperature.
1.10.4 Thermoelectric Cooling

In 1834, Jean Peltier, a French watchmaker and an amateur scientist, discovered that
cooling is produced at one junction of two dissimilar metals, if a current is passed
through them. Simultaneously, heat is produced at the other junction (Fig. 1.11).
The Peltier heats absorbed at the cold end and rejected at the hot end are given by
Q c = Pc I
Qh = Ph I
where Pc and Ph are the Peltier coefficients which are functions of temperatures Tc
and Th of the cold and hot ends respectively. It may be seen that if Th is maintained
at ambient temperature, Tc will be lower than the ambient temperature. It is also to
be noted that which of the junctions or ends will become cold or hot depends on the
direction of flow of the current.
The phenomenon is called the Peltier effect. The actual cooling produced at the
cold end would, however, be reduced due to irreversible processes of Joule and
Fourier heat transfers. The energy balance of the system is
Q k – Q o = EI
Introduction 21
where I is the current, E is the emf applied and Q o and Q k are the actual amounts of
heat flows at the cold and hot ends respectively.
Fig. 1.11 Peltier effect
1.10.5 Adiabatic Demagnetization

In 1926, Giaque and Deby independently proposed that cooling could be produced
by the adiabatic demagnetization of a paramagnetic salt. Figure 1.12 provides a
schematic representation of such a process.
To Pump
Vacuum or
Exchange Gas
Liquid Helium
N S
Paramagnetic Liquid Hydrogen

salt or Nitrogen
Fig. 1.12 Arrangement for adiabatic demagnetization of a paramagnetic salt
The paramagnetic salt is suspended in a tube containing low pressure gaseous

helium as exchange gas to provide thermal communication with the surrounding
bath of liquid helium. The liquid helium bath and the salt are first cooled to about
1 K by pumping helium to the lowest practical pressure. A magnetic field is applied,
causing magnetization of the salt. The heat produced is removed by the helium bath
such that the temperature of the bath again approaches 1 K. Next, the exchange gas
is removed by pumping and the magnetic field is turned off. The temperature of the
salt then decreases as a result of adiabatic demagnetization.
1.11 SATURATION PRESSURE VERSUS SATURATION

TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP
The whole matter of phase equilibrium is best summarised in phase diagram in

Fig. 1.13 between saturation pressure psat and saturation temperature T sat of a
substance. Any point on a line in this diagram represents two phases in equilibrium
state such as s and f1 on fusion line, f 2 and g on vaporization line and s and g on
sublimation line. The triple point is one unique point where all saturation states s, f1,
f2 and g conjoin. The vaporization line begins at the triple point, and ends at the
critical point. It is called the vapour pressure curve.
Tc
nce
r
e for Wate
Normal Substar
Fusion Line fo pc Critical
Point
Fusion Lin
on
ne ti
Liquid
Li riza
Phase
p o
S2 F f2
Va
G
s f1 g
p sat
1 atm
Solid
Phase
Vapour
S G Phase
s g Triple Point
S1
e G
Lin NBP of
tion Refrigerant 22
l ima
Sub
T sat – 40.8 °C
Fig. 1.13 Saturation pressure versus saturation temperature phase diagram
of a pure substance
The saturation temperature at 1 atm pressure is the normal boiling point of the
substance. The figure shows the N.B.P. of one of the most commonly used
refrigerants, viz., Refrigerant 22 (CHClF2) as –40.8°C. Equation recommended by
Reynolds14 represents the saturation pressure versus saturation temperature data of
Refrigerant 22 very accurately.
4 ,818.96
ln psat = 71.55415 – – 7.861 ln T sat + 9.0807 ´ 10–3 T sat
T sat
+ 0.445747
e38117
. - T j sat
ln (381.17 – T sat
) (1.10)
T sat
Herein, the pressure is in Pa.
Example 1.3 Find saturation pressure of Refrigerant 22 at 40°C (313 K).

Introduction 23
Solution Substituting values in Eq. (1.10), we obtain

sat
ln p = 71.55415 – 15.396 – 45.1711 + 2.8423 + 0.4099 = 14.236
Þ psat = 1,527,660 Pa
Note ln psat versus 1/T sat relationship can be simplified; and can be expressed in the form
of Antonie equation as follows in Eq. (1.11)
B
ln psat = A – (1.11)
T sat
which is a straight line, and is quite accurate.
Example 1.4 Using the vapour pressure data of Freon 22 and propane at
40°C and –30°C given below, find the values of the constants of the Antonie
equation for the two refrigerants, and verify their validity for pressure at 5°C.
t sat T sat p sat

Freon 22 Propane
°C K Pa
40 313.15 1,533,500 1,366,400
5 278.15 584,000 547,750
–30 243.15 163,500 166,400
Solution Substituting values and solving, we get the Antonie equations:

For Freon 22
2.43492 ´ 103
ln psat = 22.01864 –
T sat
Putting T sat = 278.15 K, we get
psat = 5.765 ´ 105 Pa
The error in comparison to actual value of 5.84 ´ 105 Pa is 1.28% only.
For Propane
2.309424 ´ 103
ln psat = 21.50251 –
T sat
At T = 278.15 K, p = 5.402 ´ 105 Pa
sat sat
The error in comparison to actual value of 547,750 Pa is 1.38% only.
Note If a number of data points are used, and least squares method is employed
for finding A and B, the accuracy would still be better.
1.12 THE GASEOUS PHASE: EQUATION OF STATE
Pressure p, specific volume L and temperature T are the three measurable properties
of a substance. The equation expressing their relationship in the gaseous phase is
called the equation of state. This functional relationship between p-L-T of a gas can
be either theoretical, or generalized or an empirical equation fitted from experimen-
tal data.
The simplest theoretical equation of state is the ideal or perfect gas equation
representing behaviour of a gas at low pressures (tending to zero) and high tempera-
tures such as at point Gid in Figs 1.6 and 1.7. This equation is
RT
Lid =
p
where R = R /M is the gas constant for the particular gas, R is the universal gas
constant having the value 8.3143 kJ/kmol K, and M is the molecular mass of the
substance.
In addition, the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas are functions of
temperature only. These are given by,
du = C Lo dT , u2 – u1 = CLo (T2 – T1)
dh = Cpo dT, h2 – h1 = Cpo (T2 – T1)
where CLo and Cpo are zero-pressure constant volume and zero-pressure constant
pressure specific heats. It can be shown that
C p o – C Lo = R
and the ratio of specific heats Cpo/CLo is denoted as g. Their values for air as a perfect
gas are:
Cpo = 1.005 kJ/kg. K, CLo = 0.718 kJ/kg.K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg. K
g = 1.4, M = 28.966
For a real gas, the actual volume can be expressed by the general relation
RT
L = Lreal = z
p
where z = Lreal/Lid = pL/RT is called the compressibility of the gas.
Many different equations of state have been proposed to represent the real
volume of gases. In 1949, Redlich-Kwong12 (R-K) proposed the equation as follows
in Eq. (1.12)
RT a
p= - (1.12)
L -b 2
T ( L + L b)
in which Lis the molar volume (volume of M kg of gas). Its constant a and b found
from conditions of critical isotherm at the critical point are expressed in terms of
critical constants Tc and pc as follows:
R 2 Tc5/ 2 R Tc
a = 0.42748 , b = 0.08664
pc pc
Often constants a and b are replaced by constants A and B written as:
a b b b Bp
A2 = 2 2.5 , B = , and h = = =
R T RT L z RT / p z
so that the R-K equation can be written in terms of z in place of L as follows in
Eq. (1.13)
Introduction 25
1 a FG h IJ
z=
1- h
-
b RT 15. H 1 + hK
1 A2 FG h IJ = p L
=
1- h
-
B H 1 + hK RT (1.13)
Note that h here is a function equal to b/L, and not the enthalpy.
A modification of the R-K equation is Peng-Robinson11 (P-R) equation as given
in Eq. (1.14)
RT a
p= - 2 (1.14)
L -b L + 2bL - L 2
LM R| F I U|OP
1/ 2
2
where a=
0.45724 R 2 Tc2
MN
1 + f (w ) 1 -
T
S| GH JK V|P
pc Tc
T WQ
0.0778 RTc
b=
pc
f (w) = 0.37464 + 1.54226 w – 0.26992 w2
w = Accentric factor = – 1.0 – log (psat
r )Tr = 0.7
T
Tr = Reduced temperature =
Tc
p
pr = Reduced pressure =
pc
A very popular empirical equation is the Martin-Hou9 equation. A modified
Martin-Hou equation, as recommended by Reynolds14, which applies with great
accuracy to one of the most commonly used refrigerants, viz., Refrigerant
22 (CHClF2), is given in Eq. (1.15) in simplified form:
RT
5
A + Bi T + Ci e - 4 .2 T / Tc
p= +å i (1.15)
L - b i=2 (L - b )i
where R is the gas constant for the refrigerant equal to 96.15 J/kg.K, p is in Pa, L is
in m3/kg, and the constants are:
b = 1.248556 ´ 10–4
A2 = – 1.169819 ´ 102 B2 = 1.164312 ´ 10–1 C2 = – 1.1841 ´ 103
A3 = – 2.929526 ´ 10 –2
B3 = 2.303194 ´ 10 –4
C3 = 2.48896
A4 = 2.419193 ´ 10–4 B4 = –6.796677 ´ 10–7 C4 = 0.0
A5 = –2.434584 ´ 10–7 B5 = 6.302018 ´ 10–10 C5 = –1.2062 ´ 10–6
Example 1.5 Solution Procedure for Martin-Hou Equation

Using Eq. (1.15), find the specific volume of saturated vapour of Refrigerant
22 at 40°C (313 K) temperature. Critical temperature of the refrigerant is 369 K.
Solution The saturation pressure of Refrigerant 22 at 40°C is 1,533,500 Pa. At

the pressure and 313 K temperature, the ideal gas volume is
RT 9615
. ( 313)
Lid = = = 0.01962 m3/kg
p 1,533,500
Using a value close to this as first approximation, we find, by substituting values
in Eq. (1.15) by successive approximations, that at L = 0.0151 m3/kg, the right hand
side is
RHS = 2,009,60 – 508,900 + 33,760 + 580 – 100
= 1,534,940 Pa @ LHS
The error is only 0.01%. Hence, the required volume is 0.0151 m3/kg.
1.13 CLAPEYRON EQUATION
The Clapeyron equation relates the enthalphy of vaporization of a substance with

the slope dpsat/dT sat of its vapour pressure curve. It is written as given in Eq. (1.16)
FG d p IJ sat
h fg
H dT K =
T ( vg - v f )
(1.16)
The example below illustrates the application of this equation to find the latent
heat of vaporization of a refrigerant.
Example 1.6 Calculation of Latent Heat of Vaporization of R22.

From the following handbook data for R22,
t p Lf Lg
°C bar L/kg m3/kg
–4 4.358 0.77 0.0536
0 4.976 0.778 0.0471
+4 5.657 0.787 0.0416
Calculate the latent heat of vaporization of R22 of 0°C.

Solution
FG D p IJ sat
129.9 kPa
At 0°C,
H DT K =
8° C
= 16.237 kPa/°C
FG D p IJ sat
(hfg)0°C =
H DT K T(Lg – L f )
= 16.237 (273.16) (0.0471 – 0.00077)

= 205.48 kJ/kg
Note The value of dpsat /dT sat at 0°C can also be found by differentiation from Eq. (1.10).
Introduction 27
1.14 PROPERTY RELATIONS
dQ = dU + dW is the first law equation which is applicable to all process in a closed

system. For the particular case of reversible processes in a closed system, since d W
= pdV and d Q = TdS, this equation takes the form
TdS = dU + pdV (1.17a)
TdS = dH – Vdp (1.17b)
By dividing both sides by mass m, these can also be written on the basis of a unit
mass of the substance as given below in Eqs. (1.18a) and (1.18b)
Tds = du + pdL (1.18a)
Tds = dh – Ldp (1.18b)
These are the two well-known T–ds equations. Although derived for a reversible
process in a closed system, these are actually in terms of properties of a system/
substance. Hence, these are applicable to all processes whether reversible or irre-
versible, and whether in a closed system or in an open system. These equations are
referred to as property relations, and are used to evaluate the changes in entropy in
terms of changes in other properties employing the relationships as illustrated in
Eqs. (1.19a) and (1.19b)
1 p
ds = du + dL (1.19a)
T T
1 v
ds = dh – dp (1.19b)
T T
1.15 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS2
For establishing the thermodynamic properties of refrigerants, and for that matter,
for any pure substance, the following minimum experimental data/correlations are
required:
(i) psat versus T sat, or T sat versus psat.
(ii) p-L-T data or equation of state for gaseous phase.
(iii) Liquid density r or specific volume Lf.
(iv) Liquid specific heat Cf.
(v) Zero-pressure (ideal gas) constant pressure specific heat Cpo or constant
volume specific heat CLo (= Cpo – R) of the gaseous phase.
Then the latent heat is calculated from the Clapeyron equation. The only other
properties that need to be calculated are internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. For
the purpose, the relations given in Eqs (1.20), (1.21), (1.22), and (1.23) for changes
in u, h and s at constant temperature in the gaseous phase are used:
OP
(u2 – u1)T = z LMMN FGH
2
1
T
¶p
¶T
IJ
K v
- p dL
PQ (1.20)
(h2 – h1)T = z LMMN FGH

1
2
v - T
¶v
¶T
IJ
K p
OP
PQ dp (1.21)
(s2 – s1)T = – z FGH IJK

2
1
¶v
¶T v
dp (1.22)
(s2 – s1)T = z FGH IJK

1
2 ¶p
¶T v
dL (1.23)
Note that Eq. (1.20) for internal energy change requires a p-explicit equation of
state, where as Eq. (1.21) for enthalpy change requires a L-explicit equation of state.
If only a p-explicit equation of state is available, then enthalpy change can be found
from internal energy change using the relationship:
(h2 – h1)T = (u2 – u1)T + (p2 L2 – p1 L1)T (1.24)
1.15.1 Enthalpy Calculations

Figure 1.14 illustrates the method of calculation of enthalpy with the help of pressure-
enthalpy (p – h) diagram. Since there is no absolute value of enthalpy, and only
differences in enthalpies of state points are required in calculations, a reference state
has to be chosen for the purpose to which an arbitrary value of enthalpy is assigned. In
Fig. 1.14, the reference state chosen is that of saturated liquid at point 1. In the case of
water, point 1, usually, is the saturated liquid state at its triple point (0.01°C) to
which a value of h1 = hf1 = 0 kJ/kg is assigned. In the case of refrigerants, the refer-
ence state chosen is that of saturated liquid at 0°C. And since the refrigerants work at
temperatures below 0°C also, in order to avoid negative values of enthalpies in
calculations, the value of enthalpy assigned at the reference temperature is, usually,
h1 = hf1 = 200 kJ/kg. Note that the pressure at 1 is (psat)0°C.
Critical Point
qui d
e d Li S
tu ra t
at
Sa
. Va
0 °C
p our
5
ttp 6 4
(psat)0 °C 1 2
p
Triple Point Line

ptp
T = T4 = T3
0°C
p=0
(hfg)0°C 0 3 Zero-pressure
Line
h1 = hf1 = 200 kJ/kg
h
Fig. 1.14 Figure demonstrating method of calculation of enthalpy
Introduction 29
Now the enthalpy of saturated vapour at 2 at the reference temperature and

pressure is given by
h2 = h1 + (hfg)0°C = 200 + (hfg)0°C
Then, for the calculation of the enthalpy of vapour at any state 4 at temperature T4
and pressure p4, the path followed is from 2 to 0, 0 to 3 and 3 to 4. State 0 is at the
same temperature as 2 but at zero pressure. Similarly, state 3 is at the same tempera-
ture as 4 but at zero pressure. Both states 0 and 3 are, therefore, ideal gas states at
temperatures 0°C and T respectively. It is seen that
h4 = h2 + (h0 – h2) + (h3 – h0) + (h4 – h3)
where
h3 – h0 = z
T3
T4
Cpo dT
Now, (h4 – h3) represents the change in enthalpy at constant temperature
T4 = T3 as a result of change in pressure from 0 to p4 = p. Similarly, (h2 – h0) repre-
sents the change in enthalpy at 0°C as a result of change in pressure from 0 to p2.
These represent differences in enthalpies of real gas and ideal gas at the same tem-
perature. The difference hR = (h – hid)T is termed residual enthalpy, and can be
found either from Eq. (1.21) or Eq. (1.24) by integrating between pressure limits of
p = 0 to p, or between volume limits if L = ¥ (at p = 0) to L.
The enthalpy of saturated vapour at any point 5 can be similarly calculated. Then,
the enthalpy of saturated liquid at 6 can be found from
h6 = h5 – (hfg)T
z
or from
T6
h 6 = h1 + cf dT
T1
Example 1.7 Calculation of Enthalpy of Vapour Using R-K Equation of

State
Using Redlich-Kwong equation of state, calculate the enthalpy of superheated
vapour of propane at 2 MPa and 350 K. Take hf = 0 at 200 K (psat = 19.97 kPa)
as the reference state. Critical data for propane are:
Tc = 369.8 K, pc = 4.236 MPa, Lc = 0.005066 m3/kg
Assume zero-pressure constant pressure specific heat of propane as constant as
Cpo = 1.6794 kJ/kg.K
Solution Refer to Fig. 1.14. Reference state 1 is at 200 K, and not 0°C. From
Clapeyron equation, we find:
(hfg)200 K = 456.24 kJ/kg
Hence, h2 = h1 + (hfg) 200 K = 456.24 kJ/kg
Gas constant for propane
R 8.3143
R= = = 0.18855 kJ/kg.K
M 44
Constants of Redlich Kwong equation

Tc5/ 2
a = 0.42748 R2
pc
(188.55) 2 (369.8)5 / 2
= 0.42748 = 9416
4.236 ´ 106
R Tc
b = 0.08664
pc
(188.55) (369.8)
= 0.08664 = 1.426 ´ 10–3
4.236 ´ 106
Substituting values in R-K equation, we get
L2 = 1.865 m3/kg
L4 = 0.02534 m3/kg
p L
z2 = 2 2 = 0.9876
RT2
p4 L 4
z4 = = 0.7677
RT4
Redlich-Kwong12 derived the following expression for residual enthalpy
hR h - hid 3 A2 Bp LM OP
RT
=
RT
= -
2 B
ln 1 +
z N
+ (z – 1)
Q (1.25)
The constants at points 2 and 4 are:

a
A22 = 2 2.5 = 4.692 ´ 10–7
R T2
a
A42 = 2 2.5 = 1.1582 ´ 10–7
R T2
b
B2 = = 3.782 ´ 10–8
RT2
b
B4 = = 2.16 ´ 10–8
RT5
Residual enthalpies at points 2 and 4 are:
Fh - h I 3 4.692 ´ 10 -7 LM 3.782 ´ 10 -8 ´ 19.97 ´ 10 3 OP
GH RT JK
id
= - × ln 1 +
2
2 3.782 ´ 10 - 8
N 0.9876 Q
+ (0.9876 – 1) = – 0.02663
Þ id
(h – h )2 = – (0.18855) (200) (0.02663) = – 1.0 kJ/kg
Fh - h I
id 3 4.692 ´ 10 -7 LM 3.782 ´ 10 -8 ´ 2 ´ 10 6 OP
GH RT JK 4
= - ×
2 3.782 ´ 10 -8
ln 1 +
N 0.7677 Q
+ (0.7677 – 1) = – 0.6723
Introduction 31
Þ (h – hid)4 = – (0.18855) (350) (0.6723) = – 44.35 kJ/kg

Change in enthalpy at zero pressure
z
350
h3 – h0 = Cpo dT = 1.6794 (350 – 200) = 251.91 kJ/kg
200
Enthalpy of superheated propane vapour at 4
h4 = h2 + (h0 – h2) + (h3 – h0) + (h4 – h3)
= h2 – (h – hid)2 + (h3 – h0) + (h – hid)4
= 456.24 + 1.0 + 251.91 – 44.35 = 664.8 kJ/kg
Note The value from table is 641.6 kJ/kg. The error is due to the following reasons:
(i) Redlich-Kwong equation has been used in place of an equation fitting actual
p-v-T data.
(ii) A constant and approximate value of C po has been used.
1.15.2 Enthalpy from Residual Internal Energy

If only a p-explicit equation is available, the enthalpy change at constant tempera-
ture between points 2 and 0, and 4 and 3 can be calculated by using Eq. (1.24). For
the purpose, we have for residual internal energy from Eq. (1.20)
z FGH FG ¶ p IJ I
v
uR = (u – uid)T =
v=¥
H ¶TK
T
v
JK
- p d vT
LM p - T F ¶ pI OP d v
z
v=¥
=
v MN GH ¶ T JK PQ v
T
Using this expression, one can find u0 and then h0 from Eq. (1.24) at t0 = 0°C
(T0 = 273.15 K) and p0 = 0. Then, one can find the enthalpy at 4 using the relationship
h4 = h0 + (h3 – h0) + (h4 – h3)
z
T = T3
e j
v = v4
id
= h0 + Cp0 dT + u - u + p4 L4 – p3 L3 (1.25a)
T v=¥
To
Putting Cpo = CLo + R, and p3 L3 = RT3 (ideal gas state at T3), we have
z
T = T3
e j
v = v4
h4 = h0 – RT0 + p4 L4 + Cvo d T + u - uid (1.25b)
T v=¥
To
Note Often, state 0 with enthalpy h 0 is employed as the new reference state for
further calculation of enthalpies, and entropies in the entire vapour region.
Example 1.8 Residual Internal Energy from Modified Martin-Hou Equation

Derive an expression for (u – uid)T from Eq. (1.15).
Solution We have Eqs. (1.26), (1.27), (1.28) by differentiating partially with

respect to T
FG ¶ p IJ = R + å 1 LM B 5
k - kT / Tc OP
H¶TK v - b
v
( v - b) N
i=2
i i - Ci
Tc
e
Q (1.26)
LM p - F ¶ p I T OP = RT + A + B T + C e - kT / TC
MN GH ¶ T JK PQ v - b å (v - b)
5
i i i
i
v i=2
Ci kT - kT / TC
5 BiT - e
RT Tc
–
v -b
+ å (v - b)i
(1.27)
i=2
FG1 + kT IJ
LM p - F ¶ p I T OP d v = Ai + Ci e - kT / Tc
H TK
z zå
v=¥ v=¥ 5
MN GH ¶ T JK PQ
c
v v v i =2 ( v - b) i
LM A + C e FG1 + kT IJ OP
H T KP
- kT / Tc
5
= å- M
M i i
N (- i + 1) (v - b) PQ
c
i -1 (1.28)
i=2
Example 1.9 Reference State Enthalpy of Freon 22 Vapour

Find the value of ideal gas enthalpy h0 at T0 = 273.15 K and p0 = 0 of Freon 22
vapour using the modified Martin-Hou equation. Tc for Freon 22 is 369 K.
Solution Refer to Fig. 1.14.

First we find p2 = (psat)273.15 K = 4.976 ´ 105 Pa from Eq. (1.10)
Next we find L2 = 0.0471 m3/kg at p2 and T2 from Eq. (1.15)
Then, h2 = hf1 + (hfg)273.15 K = 200 + 205.48 = 405.48 kJ/kg
u2 = h2 – p2 L2
= 405.48 – 497.6 (0.0471) = 382.04 kJ/kg
Now, substituting values of Ai, Ci, k, Tc, and b in Eq. (1.28), we have for T2 = 273.15 K
and L2 = 0.0471 m3/kg,
u2 – u2id = u2 – u0 = – 7020 J/kg = – 7.02 kJ/kg
Þ u0 = u2 + 7.02 = 389.06 kJ/kg
Þ h0 = u0 + R T0 = 389.06 + 0.09615 (273.15)
= 415.32 kJ/kg
Example 1.10 Enthalpy of Freon 22 Vapour

Taking the value of reference state enthalpy h0 as found in Example 1.9,
calculate the enthalpy of Freon 22 superheated vapour at 1650 kPa and 95°C
(368.15 K).
Introduction 33
Solution From Eq. (1.15), L = 0.0187 m3/kg at 1650 kPa and 368.15 K.
Substituting values of constants, and L and T, we get:
L = 0.0187
eu - u j id
368.15 K L = ¥
= – 27,440 J/kg = – 27.44 kJ/kg
The expression for CLo for Freon 22 from Appendix is as follows in Eq. (1.29)
C4
CLo = C1 + C2 T + C3 T2 – J/kg.K (1.29)
T
where C1 = 117.767818, C2 = 1.6997296
C3 = – 8.83043292 ´ 10–4, C4 = 3.32541759 ´ 105
z
368.15
CLo dT = 70,750 J/kg = 70.75 kJ/kg
273.15
z eu - u j
T v
id
h = h0 – RT0 + pL + CLo dT + (1.30)
T v=¥
To
= 415.32 – 0.09615(273.15) + 1650(0.0187) + 70.75 – 27.44

= 463.22 kJ/kg
1.15.3 Entropy Calculations

The method of calculation of entropy is similarly illustrated in Fig. 1.15. The value
of entropy assigned to the reference state of saturated liquid at 0°C is usually s1 = sf1
= 1.0 kJ/kg. K. Then, the entropy at 2 is
( h f g ) 0°C
s2 = s1 + (sfg)0°C = 1.0 + kJ/kg. K
27315 .
°C
c
a
)0
kP
t
a
1 sa
kP
10
(p
p4
1
=
=
=
0
p
p
0
p
273.15 K (0 °C)
T=T 3
4
6 5
1 0°C 2 O
T
Oi
(sfg)0°C
s1 = sf1 = 1.0 kJ/kgK

×
s
Fig. 1.15 Figure demonstrating method of calculation of entropy
And the entropy of vapour at any point 4 is given by

s4 = s2 + (s0 – s2) + (s3 – s0) + (s4 – s0)
– as - s f z as - s f
T3
p2 dT p4
= s2 id
0° C + C po + id
T4 p
po
To
T o
We note that in the calculation of residual entropy sR = (s – sid), the lower limit of
integration is not po = 0 but po equal to some very low pressure, say 10 kPa, at which
the gas behaves as an ideal gas. Correspondingly, the volume at 0 is L0id = RT0/p0, and
the volume at 3 is L3id = RT3/p0. This is done because of a mathematical anamoly
since s ® ¥ as p ® 0. The path followed for entropy calculation is shown in
Fig. 1.15. In case a lower reference pressure is chosen such as p0¢ = 1, 0.1, 0.01, etc.,
kPa, this will not affect the values at 4 since the new path followed will now be
2 – 0¢, 0¢ – 3¢, and 3¢ – 4.
Example 1.11 Residual Entropy from Modified Martin-Hou Equation

Derive an expression for residual entropy from Eq. (1.15).
z FGH IJ
v
¶P
Solution sR = (s – sid)T =
vid
¶T K v
dv
k - kT / Tc
z zå
v v 5 Bi - Ci e
R Tc
= dL +
v id
v-b v id i = 2
( v - b) i
k - kT / Tc
5 Bi - Ci e
p v Tc
= R ln o + å i -1
(1.31)
RT i = 2 ( - i + 1) ( v - b )
Note In the integration of the first term (L – b) has been approximated to L. The
term containing 1/(Lid – b)i–1, obtained after the integration of the second term, is approxi-
mated to zero as Lid > > L.
Example 1.12 Reference State Entropy of Freon 22 Vapour

Find the reference state entropy s0 of Freon 22 vapour at 273.15 K and 10 kPa
using modified Martin-Hou equation.
Solution Ideal gas volume at 273.15 K

R T0 0.09615 (27315
. )
L0id = = = 2.62625 m3/kg
p0 10
Specific volume of saturated Freon 22 vapour at 273.15 K
L2 = 0.0471 m3/kg, from Eq. (1.15)
Substituting values in Eq. (1.31), we get
(s – sid)0°C = s2 – s0 = – 0.4016 kJ/kg
( h fg ) 0° C 205
Now, s2 = s1 + =1+ = 1.7518 kJ/kg.K
27315
. .
27315
Þ s0 = s2 + 0.4016 = 2.1534 kJ/kg.K
Introduction 35
Note It will be interesting to see how the value of s0 will change if p0¢ = 1 kPa
is taken. It will be seen that s0¢ > s0. But, it will not effect the value of s 4 since s3¢ > s3. See
Fig. 1.15.
Example 1.13 Entropy of Freon 22 Vapour

Find the entropy of superheated Freon 22 vapour at 1650 kPa and 95°C
(368.15 K).
Solution Ideal gas volume at 368.15 K

RT 0.09615(36815
. )
L4id = = = 3.5398 m 3/kg
p0 10
Specific volume of superheated vapour at 1650 kPa and 368.15 K
L4 = 0.0187 m3/kg, from Eq. (1.15)
Using Eq. (1.29)
z z
T T
dT dT T
s3 – s0 = C po = CL o + R ln
T0
T T0
T T0
T
+ C1 ln
T LM
+ C2 (T - T0 )
= R ln
T0 T0 N
C3
e j FG 1 - 1 IJ OP10 -3
+
2
T 2 - T02 - 2 C4
H T T KQ0
= 0.827 kJ/kg.K
v = 0.0187
s4 – s3 = es - s j id
368.15 K v id = 3.5398
= – 1.1488 kJ/kg.K
Hence, s4 = s0 + (s3 – s0) + (s4 – s3)

= 2.1534 + 0.827 – 1.1488 = 1.8316 kJ/kg.K
1.16 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
The difference in temperature provides the necessary potential for heat transfer.
There are three modes of heat transfer. They are conduction, convection and
radiation.
Essentially heat is transferred within a stationary medium by conduction, viz.,
from particle to particle, whether it be solid, liquid or gas. In convection, there must
be a bulk flow of the fluid. Heat is carried away from the wall surface by the flowing
fluid. Convection, however, takes place in two ways, viz., forced convection and
natural or free convection. In forced convection, the flow of the fluid is produced by
an external source such as a pump or a fan. Examples are the shell and tube con-
denser of a refrigeration plant in which the flow of water is maintained by a pump,
and the air-cooled condenser of an air conditioner in which the flow of air is
maintained by a fan. In natural or free convection, the flow of the fluid is produced
by the difference in density due to temperature difference. The higher temperature

fluid, being lighter, rises up and the lower temperature fluid, being heavier, settles
down. Thus a natural convection current is set up in the fluid. One example is the
air-cooled condenser of a domestic refrigerator. In radiation, heat is transferred
in the form of electromagnetic waves. For radiative heat transfer, therefore, the
presence of a medium is not necessary.
1.17 LAWS OF HEAT TRANSFER
The heat flux q is the heat transfer rate Q& per unit area A normal to the direction of
flow of heat. The various laws relate the heat transfer rate or heat flux to temperature
difference DT. The unit of DT is degrees kelvin (K) or degrees celsius (°C). Both
have the same numerical value.
1.17.1 Fourier Law of Heat Conduction

The heat flux by conduction is proportional to the temperature gradient within a
¶T
body. Thus at any point P in a body, if the temperature gradient is as shown in
¶x
Fig. 1.16, then the heat flux is given by
Q& ¶T
q= µ
A ¶x
¶ T
or Q& = – kA (1.32)
¶x
Fig. 1.16 Temperature distribution in a conduction medium
where k is the constant of proportionality, called thermal conductivity which is a

property of the material of the body. The minus sign is inserted to make Q& positive
¶T
since is negative. Equation (1.32) is called the Fourier law of heat conduction.
¶x
Introduction 37
The SI unit of thermal conductivity can be derived as below

[ Q& ] [ D x ]
[k] =
[ A] [ D T ]
(J /s) m
= = Wm–1 K–1
m2 K
Physically, thermal conductivity represents the amount of heat that will flow per
unit time, per unit area normal to the direction of flow of heat, through a unit thick-
ness of the material and when the temperature difference across the material is unity.
Experimental measurements of q and DT/Dx can be made to determine the thermal
conductivity of materials. It is seen that the order of decreasing thermal conductivity
is as follows:
Metals; non-metals; liquids; insulating materials; gases.
Metals
Common metals used in heat exchangers are copper, aluminium and iron. Their ther-
mal conductivities in Wm–1 K–1 units are as follows:
Copper 387
Aluminium 203
Iron 73
It is seen that copper has the highest thermal conductivity. It is, therefore, used in
condensers, evaporators, etc., in Freon refrigeration systems. However, ammonia
attacks copper. Hence, iron is used in ammonia heat exchangers. As aluminium is
cheap, and widely available, attempts are being made to use it in Freon systems.
Thermal conductivities of other important substances (average values) are:
Liquids
Water 0.556
Ammonia 0.54
Freon 22 0.093
Gases
Air 0.024
Water vapour 0.0206
Low temperature insulating materials
Expanded polysterene (Thermocole) 0.037
Polyurethane foam(PUF) 0.0173
The low values of thermal conductivities of these insulating materials are essen-
tially due to the low conductivity of gas/air trapped inside, as these are manufactured
by blowing agents like air/R134a into the melted polyesterene and polyurethane
respectively.
1.17.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling for Convection

When a fluid flows over a wall which is at a different temperature than the fluid, heat
will flow from the wall to the fluid or from the fluid to the wall depending on the
direction of the temperature gradient. Although this mode of heat transfer is named
convection, the physical mechanism of heat transfer at the wall is a conduction
process.
Consider a fluid flowing along a wall maintained a temperature Tw as shown in

Fig. 1.17. The free stream temperature of the fluid is T¥. Then a temperature field
varying from Tw to T¥ will establish itself in the fluid near the wall. Let dT be the
distance from the wall of the point in the fluid at which the temperature of the fluid just
becomes equal to the free stream temperature T¥. The distance dT is termed the ther-
mal boundary layer. The distance d from the wall in which the fluid velocity becomes
equal to the free stream velocity is called the hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Q = hA (Tw - T•)
Temperature
Flow Distribution T
T
(Tw – T ) T•
Tw
Fig. 1.17 Temperature distribution in thermal boundary layer in convection
The concept of the heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient or surface

conductance, denoted by the symbols h or f, was introduced by Newton. He recom-
mended the following equation to evaluate the heat transfer rate by convection.
Q& = hA (Tw – T¥) = hA DT (1.33)
where A is the wall surface area and DT = (Tw – T¥).
It must be noted that this h or f is not a property of the fluid. However, it depends
on the thermophysical or heat transport properties of the fluid such as thermal
conductivity k, dynamic viscosity m, density r and specific heat Cp. In addition, it
also depends on the hydrodynamic or flow parameters such as velocity of flow and
characteristic dimensions.
The SI unit of the heat transfer coefficient can now be derived as follows:
[Q& ]
[h] =
[ A] [ D T ]
J/ s
= Wm–2 K–1
=
m2 K
Typical values of h are given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficients
Mode and Medium h, W m–1 K–1

Free convection, air 5 – 25
Forced convection, air 10 – 100
Forced convection, water 5,000 – 10,000
Boiling refrigerant 500 – 2,000
Condensing refrigerant 1,500 – 2,500
Introduction 39
1.17.3 Thermal Radiation

The thermal radiation emitted by a body per unit area of its surface is called emissive
power which is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
For an ideal radiator or black body, the emissive power Eb is given by the Stefan-
Boltzman law that follows in Eq. (1.34)
Eb = s T 4 (1.34)
where s is the constant of proportionality called the Stefan-Boltzman constant
having a numerical value of 5.669 ´ 10–8 W m–2 K–4.
The emissive power of an actual radiator is expressed by the relation given in
Eq. (1.35)
E = e Eb = e s T 4 (1.35)
E
where e= is the emissivity of the actual surface.
Eb
Thermal radiations emitted by two bodies of areas A1 and A2, at temperatures T1 and
T2 will then be given by
Q&1 = e1 A1 s T14 and Q&2 = e2 A2 s T24
However, the heat exchange by thermal radiation between two bodies will also
depend on the extent to which the two bodies “see” each other geometrically. The
expression for such a heat exchange may be expressed as given in Eq. (1.36)
Q& = s A1 F12 (T14 – T24) = s A2 F21 (T14 – T24) (1.36)
where A1 F12 = A2 F21 is the reciprocity relation, and F12 and F21 are geometric
factors which depend on the emissivities e1 and e2, and the geometry and orientation
of the bodies.
In the case of a small body of area A1 surrounded by a large body of area A2,
completely seeing each other, we have
F12 = e1 (1.36)
so that Q& = e1 A1 s (T14 – T24) (1.37)

Often, the heat exchange by radiation Q& R between two surfaces is expressed in terms
of a radiation coefficient hR defined by
Q& R = hR A1 (T1 – T2) = A1 F12 s (T14 – T24)
so that
F12 s (T14 - T24 )
hR =
(T1 - T2 )
1.18 ELECTRICAL ANALOGY1
It is found convenient to handle complicated heat transfer problems involving com-

posite materials and multi-modes by unifying the concept of heat transfer with that
of the flow of electric current. Comparing the flow of electrical energy and the flow
of heat, it is found that the following similarities hold.
Quantity Electrical Energy Heat

Driving potential Voltage, V Temperature difference, DT
Flow Current, I Heat transfer rate, Q&
The governing law for the transfer of electrical energy is Ohm’s law
V
I=
Re
where Re is the electrical resistance. One can similarly express the heat transfer rate
by Eq. (1.38)
DT
Q& = = C DT (1.38)
R
where R is the thermal resistance and C = 1/R is the thermal conductance. The units
of the two quantities are W–1 K and WK–1 respectively.
Comparring Eq. (1.38) with Eqs (1.32), (1.33) and (1.36) we obtain expressions
for conductive, convective and radiative resistances respectively as follows:
Dx
RCOND = , for plane wall of thickness Dx (1.39)
kA
1
RCONV = (1.40)
hA
DT
RRAD = (1.41)
s A1 F12 ( T14 - T24 )
1.18.1 Resistances in Series

When resistance are in series as shown in Fig. 1.18 (a), it implies that the heat
transfer rate through all the resistances is the same. We can then write: as given in
Eq. (1.42)
Q& = T1 - T2 = T2 - T3 = T3 - T4 = D T (1.42)
R1 R2 R3 R
T1 R1 T2 R2 T3 R3 T4
Q Q
( T 1 – T 2) ( T2 – T3) ( T 3 – T 4)
( T 1 – T 4)
(a) Resistances in Series

Introduction 41
Q1 R1
T1 Q2 R2 T2
Q Q
Q3 R3
( T 1 – T 2)
(b) Resistances in Parallel

Fig. 1.18 Thermal resistances in series and in parallel
where DT = (T1 – T4) is the overall temperature difference, and R is the overall
thermal resistance. From Eq. (1.42), the individual temperature drops are:
&
T1 – T2 = Q R1
&
T2 – T3 = Q R2
&
T3 – T4 = Q R3
&
Adding, T1 – T4 = Q (R1 + R2 + R3)
Q& = T1 - T4 DT
Þ =
R1 + R2 + R3 R
so that the overall thermal resistance R is given by Eq. (1.43)
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + L + (1.43)
1.18.2 Resistances in Parallel

When resistances are in parallel, as shown in Fig. 1.18(b), the net heat transfer rate is
equal to the sum of the heat transfer rates through all sections. At the same time, the
temperature drop DT across each resistance is the same. Hence,
DT
Q&1 =
R1
DT
Q& 2 =
R2
DT
Q& 3 =
R3
Adding Q& = Q&1 + Q&2 + Q& 3
= DT
LM 1 +
1
+
1 OP = DT
NR 1 R2 R3 Q R
whence we get for the overall thermal resistance Eq. (1.44)
1 1 1 1
= + + +L+L (1.44)
R R1 R2 R3
1.19 STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
In general, the temperature distribution throughout a body may vary with location
and time. Under steady-state conditions, however, the temperature does not change
with time. We shall now examine some steady-state heat conduction problems in
one dimension.
1.19.1 Heat Flow Through a Slab or Plane Wall

Let there be a slab of thickness Dx, the two faces of
which are maintained at temperature T1 and T2 as T1
shown in Fig. 1.19. Consider a section at a distance
x from one end. Let the temperature gradient at this
section be dT/dx. Then heat entering the wall, per Qx Q x + dk
unit time, at this section is x
dT
Q& x = – kA (1.45) dx
T
dx
Similarly, heat leaving the wall at (x + dx) is x=0 x= x
d Q& x
Q& x + d x = Q& x + dx (1.46) x
dx Fig. 1.19 Heat conduction
Under steady-state conditions through a plane
wall
Q& x = Q& x + d x
so that from Eqs (1.45) and (1.46) we have Eq. (1.47)
d 2T
=0 (1.47)
d x2
Using the boundary conditions
(i) T = T1 at x = 0, (ii) T = T2 at x = Dx
and solving the differential Eq. (1.47), we obtain for the temperature distribution in
the wall
T - T1 x
= (1.48)
T2 - T1 Dx
which is linear with respect to x. The temperature gradient is
dT T - T1
= 2 (1.49)
dx Dx
which is constant. The heat transfer rate is given by the Fourier law in Eq. (1.50)
dT kA (T1 - T2 ) T - T2
Q& = – kA = = 1 (1.50)
dx Dx D x/k A
It is seen that the thermal resistance of the wall is
Dx
R=
kA
Introduction 43
1.19.2 Heat Flow Through a Cylinder

Consider a cylindrical shell of thickness dr at a distance r from the axis of a cylindri-
cal tube or pipe of length L and outer and inner radii of r0 and r1 respectively, as
shown in Fig. 1.20. The area of the inside surface of the shell will be 2p rL. Then the
heat flows in the radial direction at r and r + dr are:
dT d Q&r
Q& r = – k (2p rL) , Q& r + d r = Q& r + × dr
dr dr
Under steady-state conditions, equating the two we get
d Q& r
=0
dr
d FG
dT IJ = 0
Þ
dr
r
H
dr K (1.51)

(i) T = Ti at r = r1
(ii) T = To at r = r0
dr
r
ro
ri
Ti
To
Fig. 1.20 Heat conduction through a hollow cylinder
and solving Eq. (1.51) we get for the temperature distribution

FG r IJ
T - To
ln
Hr K
Fr I
o
= (1.51a)
ln G J
Ti - To
Hr K
i
o
and for heat flow we have Eq. (1.52)
dT dT
Q& = – kA = – k(2p rL)
dr dr
Ti - To
=
FG 1 IJ ln FG r IJ (1.52)
H 2p kL K H r K
o
The thermal resistance of the cylindrical shell is then as follows in Eq. (1.53)
FG r IJ
Hr K
o
ln
i
R= (1.53)
2p k L
1.19.3 Heat Flow Through a Composite Wall with Convection Boundaries

Consider a wall comprising of more than one material and convection at the two
surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.21. It is seen that all the thermal resistances are in series.
An equivalent electrical analogue of the wall is also shown in the figure. The overall
thermal resistance is given by Eq. (1.54)
1 DxA D xB D xC 1
R= + + + + (1.54)
ho A kA A kB A kC A hi A
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
Ti
A B C
xA xB xC
h0 hi
Q Q
1 xA xB xC 1
h 0A k AA k BA k CA h iA
Fig. 1.21 Composite plane wall with resistances in series
where subscripts A, B and C refer to the three materials of the wall and hi and ho
are the convective heat transfer coefficients between the inside and outside wall
surfaces and surrounding air.
Similarly, if some of the resistances are in parallel while some are in series as
shown in Fig. 1.22, then the overall thermal resistance is given by
R=
1
+ RA +
LM 1 OP + R +
1
(1.55)
MN R1 PQ
E
ho A 1 1 hi A
+ +
B RC RD
Introduction 45
T0 B
T1
T2
E
A C
T3
T4
Ti
h0 D
hi
RB
RA RC RE
Q Q
RD
1 1
h 0A h iA
Fig. 1.22 Composite plane wall with resistances in series as well as in parallel
In both cases, if To and Ti are the outside and inside air temperatures respectively,
then the heat flow rate is given by
T - Ti
Q& = o
R
Example 1.14 An exterior wall of a house consists of 10.2 cm brick and 3.8
cm gypsum plaster. What thickness of loosely-packed rockwool insulation should
be added to reduce the heat transfer through the wall by 80 per cent?
The thermal conductivities of brick, gypsum plaster and rockwool are 0.7, 0.48
and 0.065 W.m–1 K–1 respectively.
Solution Since DT is the same in both cases, we have ( Q& R)¢ = 0.2 ( Q& R) = DT
Q& ¢ with insulation R without insulation
Þ = 0.2 =
&
Q without insulation R ¢ with insulation
The resistances of brick and plaster are (per unit area of wall)
0102
.
Rbrick = = 0.145 m2.K.W–1
0.7
0.038
Rplaster = = 0.079 m2.K.W–1
0.48
Then the resistance without insulation is
R = Rbrick + Rplaster
= 0.145 + 0.079 = 0.224 m2.K.W–1
and the resistance with insulation is
R 0.224
R¢ = = = 1.122 m2.K.W–1
0.2 0.2
Hence, the resistance of rockwool is
Rrockwool = R ¢ – R
= 1.122 – 0.224 = 0.898 m2.K.W–1
The required thickness of rockwool insulation is, therefore,
Dxrockwool = (k AR)rockwool
= (0.065) 1 (0.898) = 0.0585 m (» 6 cm)
1.19.4 Heat Flow Through a Composite Cylinder

Consider a composite tube of three materials with fluids flowing inside as well as
outside the tube as shown in Fig. 1.23. Summing up all the resistances which are in
series, we obtain Eq. (1.56)
r r r
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
1 r1 r2 r1 1
R= + + + + (1.56)
hi Ai 2 p k A L 2 p k B L 2 p k C L ho Ao
Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 T0
Q Q
1 r3 r4 1
r
hi Ai ln 2 ln
r2
ln
r3 ho Ao
r1
2 p k CL
2 p k AL
Fig. 1.23 Heat flow through a composite cylinder with convection boundaries
Introduction 47
For the case of a single tube as in heat exchangers, this becomes

r
ln o
1 ri 1
R= + + (1.57)
hi Ai 2p k L ho Ao
where Ao and Ai are the outside and inside tube surface areas respectively. Then the
heat flow rate can be determined using the expression in Eq. (1.57).
Example 1.15 A 3 cm OD pipe is to be covered with two layers of insulation,

each having a thickness of 2.5 cm. The average thermal conductivity of one insula-
tion is five times that of the other. Determine the percentage decrease in heat trans-
fer if the better insulating material is next to the pipe than if it is the outer layer.
Assume that the outside and inside surface temperatures of the composite
insulation are fixed.
Solution Let the thermal conductivity of the poorer insulation be k1 = 5k, and that
of the better insulation be k2 = k.
Case I: Better insulating material next to pipe
DT
Q& I =
1 r2 1 r
ln + ln 3
2p k1 L r1 2p k2 L r2
2p L D T 2p k L D T
= =
1 4 1 6.5 10774
.
ln + ln
k 2.5 5k 4
Case II: Poorer insulating material next to pipe
2p L D T 2p k L D T
Q& II = =
1 4 1 6.5 0.683
ln + ln
5k 2.5 k 4
Percentage reduction in heat flow
1 1
Q& II - Q& I -
´ 100 = 0.683 10774
. ´ 100 = 36.6%
Q& II 1
0.683
1.19.5 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

In order to calculate the rate of heat flow through a combination of resistances, the
concept of overall heat transfer coefficient is introduced. Denoting it by the symbol
U we express it by the relation
DT
Q& = UA DT =
R
1
so that =R
UA
For a plane composite wall with all resistances in series as in Fig. 1.21, we find by
comparison with Eq. (1.54) that
1 1 DxA D xB 1
= + + +L+
UA hi A kA A kB A ho A
1 1 DxA D xB 1
Þ = + + +L+ (1.58)
U hi kA kB ho
For a composite cylinder, the overall heat transfer coefficient can be based on either
the outside or the inside tube surface area. Thus, we have
DT
Q& = Uo Ao DT = Ui Ai DT =
R
Then, by comparison with Eq. (1.56), we obtain
r r
ln 2 ln 3
1 1 1 r1 r2 1
= = + + +L+ (1.59)
U o Ao U i Ai hi Ai 2p k A L 2p k B L ho Ao
Equation (1.59) may be used to determine Uo or Ui. We see that Uo Ao = Ui Ai.
Example 1.16 (a) Find the overall heat transfer coefficient of a flat built-up
roof having the construction shown in Fig. 1.24.
(b) Find the value of U if rigid roof deck insulation of resistance R = 0.76 K.W–1
is added to this construction.
6
5 4
1
2
3
Metal Suspension
System(Negligible Resistance)
Fig. 1.24 Built-up roof construction for example 1.16
Solution
(a) The values of resistances per unit area as found from ASHRAE Handbook3
are as follows:
Introduction 49
Resistance Construction material Unit resistance, Dx/k or

No. 1/h m2.K.W–1
1. Inside surface (still air) 0.107
2. Metal lath and 0.75 inch plaster 0.083
3. Air space (greater than 9 cm width) 0.164
4. Concrete slab, 5 cm 0.391
5. Built-up roofing, 9.5 cm 0.058
6. Outside surface (20 kmph wind velocity) 0.03
Total thermal resistance, Ra 0.833
Overall heat transfer coefficient for construction ‘a’

1 1
Ua = = = 1.2 W.m–2. K–1
Ra 0.833
(b) Total thermal resistance for construction ‘b’
Rb = Ra + 0.76 = 0.833 + 0.76 = 1.593 m2. K.W–1
Overall heat transfer coefficient for construction ‘b’
1 1
Ub = = = 0.68 W.m–2. K–1
Rb .
1593
1.20 HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACE
A heat exchanger is an apparatus which affects the transfer of heat from one fluid to
another. The overall heat transfer coefficient of a heat exchanger surface is determined
principally by the greatest single resistance. As an illustration, neglecting the thermal
resistance of the metal wall of a heat exchanger, the overall heat transfer coefficient
between the two fluids is given by
1 1 1
= +
UA hi Ai ho Ao
Taking Ai = Ao = A, and values of hi and ho as 1000 and 10 W. m–2. K–1 respectively,
we see that
1 1 1
= + = 0.101
U 1000 10
Þ U = 9.9 W.m–2.K–1
so that the value of U is less than the value of the lower of the two heat transfer
coefficients, viz., ho = 10, in this case. The lower coefficient is, therefore, the con-
trolling coefficient. The influence of the higher coefficient is only marginal. The
size of the heat exchanger will thus be uneconomically large. There are two methods
by which the heat exchange can be improved.
One is to augment the lower heat transfer coefficient.
The other is to employ an extended surface on the side of the lower coefficient.
Both methods decrease the thermal resistance, one by increasing h, and the other
by increasing A.
Consider an extended surface in the form of a thin rod protruding from a surface
into a surrounding fluid as shown in Fig. 1.25. The root or base of the rod is at
temperature T1 while the fluid temperature is T¥. The length, cross-sectional area
and perimeter of the rod are l, A and P respectively. The temperature distribution
along the rod is also shown in Fig. 1.25.
Base/Root
Area Convective
Q CONV
A Film
Q Qx Qx + dx T=T b (Thickness)
Tip
x dx
T = T1 T = T2
T1
= (T – T )
T2
T
Fig. 1.25 Heat flow and temperature distribution along the length of a rod
protruding from a surface
Consider an element dx at a distance x from the base of rod. The heat flows by
conduction within the rod, and by convection from its surface to the surrounding
fluid. The energy balance over the element d x under steady-state gives
Q – Q = Q
x x+dx conv
FG - k A d T IJ - FG - k A d T IJ
H dxK H dxK x x + dx
= h(Pdx) (T – T¥ ) (1.60)
where T is the temperature of the rod at x, k is the thermal conductivity of the rod,
and h is the heat transfer coefficient from the surface to the fluid. Equation (1.60)
can be simplified to
d 2q
= m2q = 0 (1.61)
d x2
by putting q = excess temperature = (T – T¥),
Introduction 51
hP
and m=
kA
(i) q = T1 – T¥ = q1 at x = 0, and
dq
(ii) = 0 at x = l (no heat conduction at tip)
dx
we obtain the solution of Eq. (1.61) for temperature distribution as
q cosh m (l - x )
= (1.62)
q1 cos ml
Then the heat flow from the base of the rod (at x = 0) is given by Eq. (1.63)
dq
Q 1 = – kA
dx x=0
= mk Aq1 tanh ml
= h Pk A q1 tanh ml (1.63)
The term h Pk A q1 = mk Aq1 is constant. The value of tanh ml increases with ml
and tends to unity. It becomes 0.964 at ml = 2 and 0.9951 at ml = 3 as seen from
Table 1.3. It is, therefore, apparent that increasing the length of an extended surface
beyond ml = 2 or 3 does not improve the heat flow.
For a rectangular fin of height l, width L and thickness b, in place of a rod, as
shown in Fig. 1.25 the cross-sectional area and perimeter are
A = bL, P = 2L + 2b = 2(L + b) » 2L
so that the parameter m is
hP 2h ( L + b) 2h
m= = @
kA kbL kb
The entire fin is not at temperature T1. It drops from T1 at the root to T2 at the tip.
Hence, the whole fin surface is not equally effective.
The fin efficiency hf is now defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by a
fin to that which would be transferred if the entire fin surface were assumed to be at
the base temperature. Thus
Q1 with fin
hf =
Q with fin surface at base temperature
For a rectangular fin, therefore,
mk Aq 1 tanh ml tanh ml
hf = =
h ( Pl ) q 1 ml
Table 1.3 gives the values of tanh ml and hf as a functions of ml. It is seen that
tanh ml, and hence Q1 increase rapidly at first as l increases. The increase, then,
slows down finally reaching an asymptotic value at ml » 3. The fin efficiency is quite
high upto ml » 0.5, but decreases rapidly as ml increases.
Table 1.3 Numerical values of tanh ml and hf
ml 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6

tanh ml 1 0.4621 0.7616 0.9052 0.964 0.995 0.9993 0.9999 1
hf 0.924 0.7616 0.603 0.482 0.332 0.2498 0.20 0.167
1.20.1 Efficiency of Circular Fins and Finned Tube Arrays

A largely empirical method, developed by Schmidt15 for finding the efficiency of a
circular fin the configuration of which is shown in Fig. 1.26, is summarized as
follow in Eqs. (1.64) and (1.65).
tanh (m r f )
hf = (1.64)
(m r f )
FG R - 1IJ LM1 + 0.35 ln FG R IJ OP
where f=
Hr K N H r KQ (1.65)
Fig. 1.26 Circular fins
However, in air conditioning, continuous plate fins are used in finned tube cooling
coils. The two array configurations, viz., the rectangular tube array and the angular
tube array (hexangular fin) are shown in Figs 1.27 and 1.28 respectively.
M
M
Fig. 1.27 Rectangular tube array fin Fig. 1.28 Triangular tube array
hexangular fin
Introduction 53
Schmidt, again, provides an empirical method for calculating the efficiency of

these fins. The method is based on selecting a circular fin with an equivalent
radius Re that has the same fin efficiency as the rectangular fin as follows in
Eqs. (1.66) and (1.67).
For the Rectangular Tube Array Fin
Re
= 1.28 y (b – 0.2)1/2 (1.66)
r
For the Triangular Tube Array Hexangular Fin
Re
= 1.27 y (b – 0.3)1/2 (1.67)
r
In both the above expressions, from Figs. (1.27) and (1.28)
M L
y= and b =
r M
in which L is always selected to be greater than or equal to M.
1.21 UNSTEADY-STATE CONDUCTION
In unsteady-state conduction, the temperature of the body changes with time. This
change in temperature is represented by ¶T/¶ t where t stands for time. Thus, in the
case of a plane wall element dx (Fig. 1.19), we have
¶T
Q x – Q x + d x = Cp (A dx) (1.68)
¶t
where r is the density, and Cp is the specific heat of the wall.
The right hand side in Eq. (1.68) represents the increase in stored energy of the
element. Substituting for Q x and Q x + d x from Eqs (1.45) and (1.46) we obtain the
unsteady-state heat conduction equation in one dimension as
¶ 2T 1 ¶T
= (1.69)
¶x2 a ¶t
where a = k/rCp is called the thermal diffusivity of the wall material. It will be seen
that the units of thermal diffusivity are m2 s–1.
Various analytical methods have been used to solve Eq. (1.69). These include,
among others, the methods of separation of variables and the method of transforma-
tion of coordinates. In all cases, the solutions are of the following dimensionless form
q FG
x IJ
qi
=f
H
L
, Bi, Fo
K
where
q = excess temperature at any time t at x = t – treference
qi = initial excess temperature at x
x/L = dimensionless distance
hL
Bi = Biot number =
k
at
Fo = Fourier number = 2
L
Here h represents the heat transfer coefficient at the surface and L is the distance
between the centre line of the material and the surface. Many charts, such as those of
Gurnie-Lurie and Heisler5, present the solution of Eq. (1.69) in graphical form. In
addition to analytical methods, there are also numerical methods employed to solve
this equations. One such method using finite difference approach has been employed
in Chapter 18.
1.22 FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS
Correlations for the heat transfer coefficient h in forced convection are expressed in
the following form
Nu = f (Re, Pr)
where Nu, Re and Pr are dimensionless numbers expressed as follows:
hL
Nu = Nusselt number =
k
Lur Du r
Re = Reynolds number = or
m m
Cp m
Pr = Prandtl number =
k
Here L is any characteristic length in the flow geometry. In the case of pipes, it is
equal to the diameter D. Also u is the mean flow velocity and k, r, Cp and m are the
thermal conductivity, density, specific heat and dynamic viscosity of the fluid
respectively.
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces. It
is a flow criterion. Generally, for a pipe, the flow is streamlined or laminar when
Re < 2100, and turbulent when Re > 2300. For intermediate values of Re, the flow is
in the transition region.
For turbulent flow in smooth tubes, the following correlation is commonly used.
Dittus-Boelter equation
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n (1.70)
where
n = 0.4 for heating
= 0.3 for cooling
For turbulent flow of fluids perpendicular to tubes such as water in the shell the
following correlation (see Kern7) is used
FG m IJ 0.14
Hm K
0.55 1/3
Nu = 0.36 (Re) Pr (1.71)
w
For determining Nu and Re, the outside diameter of the tube is taken as the charac-
teristic length. The velocity is measured in the free stream. The properties of the
fluid are taken at the bulk mean temperature, whereas mw is at the wall temperature.
Introduction 55
1.23 FREE CONVECTION CORRELATIONS
In free or natural convection, the flow velocity is developed as a result of the tem-
perature difference causing a buoyancy force to act on the fluid. The flow criterion
in the case of free convection is, therefore, the Grashof number which is defined by
g b r 2 D TL3
Gr =
m2
in which b is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the fluid defined by
1 FG ¶ v IJ
b=
v H¶TK p
For an ideal gas
RT FG IJ
¶v R 1
L=
p
,
¶TH K p
=
p
, so that b =
T
Also, DT = (Tw – T¥) is the temperature difference between the wall and the sur-
rounding fluid.
Free convection correlations are found to have the following form
Nu = f (Gr, Pr)
In many cases, the relationship simplifies to
Nu = C (Gr × Pr)m = C Ram
The product (Gr × Pr) is named Rayleigh number (Ra). It is a criterion of transition
from laminar to turbulent flow in free convection.
For laminar flow, 104 < Gr × Pr < 109
For turbulent flow, Gr × Pr > 109
For the case of air, Eq. (1.72) is simplified as written below in Eqs (1.73a), (1.73b),
(1.74a) and (1.74b).
Vertical plate or cylinder to air
F DT IJ
h = 1.42 G
1/ 4
H LK laminar (1.73a)
h = 0.95 (DT )1/3 turbulent (1.73b)

Horizontal cylinder to air
FG DT IJ 1/ 4
h = 1.32
H DK laminar (1.74a)
h = 1.24 G
F DT IJ 1/ 3
H DK turbulent (1.74b)
1.24 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
The thermal design of a heat exchanger is primarily concerned with the determi-
nation of the heat transfer area required to transfer a specified amount of heat
between two fluids with specified flow rates and inlet temperatures.
In a heat exchanger, usually, the temperatures of fluids on both sides of the heat
transfer surface vary as a result of heat exchange except in the case of the fluid
undergoing change of phase. This variation has to be taken into account in any
design procedure.
There are three basic types of heat exchangers. They are:
(i) Parallel flow.
(ii) Counter flow.
(iii) Cross flow.
In parallel flow, both the fluids flow past the heat transfer surface in the same
direction as shown in Fig. 1.29. In counter flow, the two fluids flow in opposite
directions as shown in Fig. 1.30. In cross flow, the two fluids flow at right angles to
each other.
T h1
Ho
tF
lui
d
Th T h2
T
T
T2
Tc T c2
luid
ld F
Co
T c1
A
Fig. 1.29 Temperature variation in parallel flow heat exchanger
1.24.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method

It is proposed to calculate the required heat transfer surface area by the equation
Q = UA DTm
where DTm is the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) given by
DT1 - DT2
DTm = (1.75)
DT1
ln
DT2
where DT1 and DT2 are the temperature differentials between the two fluids at the
two ends of the heat exchanger.
There are two great advantages of counter flow heat exchangers.
(i) A counterflow heat exchanger has a higher value of LMTD, for the same end
temperatures as obtained from Eq. (1.75) and seen from Fig. 1.30.
Hence, it requires smaller heat transfer surface area A than parallel flow heat
exchanger for a specified heat transfer rate.
(ii) It can also be seen from Fig. 1.30 that in the case of counterflow heat
exchanger, the hot fluid can be cooled to the inlet temperature of the cold
fluid (from th1 to tc1), and similarly, cold fluid can be heated to the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid (from tc1 to th1) at least theoretically in the limit, if
large heat transfer surface area is provided. This is not possible in parallel
flow heat exchanger.
Introduction 57
Th1
T1
Th
Th2
Tc2
T
T
T2
Tc
Tc1
A
Fig. 1.30 Temperature variation in counter flow heat exchanger
Note In the case of phase change of a fluid, the temperature on one side is constant as in
condensers and evaporators. In these cases, both types have the same LMTD, and there is
no difference between counterflow and parallel flow.
1.25 MASS TRANSFER
In mass transfer, we deal with the movement of species in a multicomponent system.

The driving potentials for the transfer of mass can be obtained in various ways. But
here we shall confine our discussion to molecular diffusion and convective mass
transfer.
1.25.1 Molecular Diffusion: Fick’s Law

Mass transfer by molecular diffusion of a specifies through another stationary
medium is analogous to heat transfer by conduction. Fick’s Law relates the diffusion
rate or mass flow m A of a species A to its driving potential which is the concen-
tration gradient ¶CA/¶x as follows in Eq. (1.76)
m A ¶ CA
=–D (1.76)
A ¶x
where A is the normal area and D is called the diffusion coefficient or mass transfer
diffusivity. The unit of diffusion coefficient is found to be m2 s–1. It has the dimen-
sions of kinematic viscosity n = m/r or thermal diffusivity a = k/rC.
1.25.2 Convective Mass Transfer

In molecular diffusion, bulk velocities are insignificant. Most physical applications
of mass transfer, however, involve the bulk motion of fluids. This gives rise to con-
vective mass transfer which is similar to convective heat transfer. Accordingly, we
define the mass transfer coefficient hM by the relation
m A k
= hM (Cw – C¥) = w (ww – w¥) (1.77)
A r
where Cw and C¥ denote the concentrations of the species A at the wall and free
stream. We see that hM has the units of m s–1. The expression r hM is replaced by
diffusion coefficient kw, and C by specific humidity w in the case of diffusion of
water vapour into air. Its use is illustrated in Chapters 14 and 20. It is seen that
kw = rhM if DC = Dw, which is a satisfactory assumption (see Chap. 14).
1.26 ANALOGY BETWEEN MOMENTUM, HEAT AND

MASS TRANSFER
D has the same significance in mass transfer as n in moment um transfer and a in

heat transfer. Dimensionsless numbers can be formed from the ratio of any two of
these properties.
Prandtl Number (as defined earlier for convective heat transfer)
n Cp m
Pr = =
a k
Lewis Number
a k
Le = =
D r Cp D
Schmidt number
n m Dynamic viscosity
Sc = = =
D rD Mass diffusivity
where the product rD is termed as mass diffusivity. It has the units of kgm–1 s–1.
1.26.1 Analogy between Momentum and Heat Transfer

Then if n = a or Pr = 1, the velocity and temperature distributions in the flow will be
the same. In that case, the heat transfer coefficient h can be determined from the knowl-
edge of the friction factor f by the similarity relation called Reynolds analogy, viz.,
f
St = (1.78)
2
where St denotes the Stanton number defined by
Nu h h
St = = =
Re × Pr r u Cp G Cp
Here G = ru is the mass velocity.
To account for some variation in Pr, Eq. (1.78) is modified to
F I
f
jH = St × Pr2/3 =
2
= GHh
G Cp JK
Pr 2 / 3 (1.79)
which is called the Colburn analogy, and jH is the Colburn j-factor for heat transfer.
1.26.2 Analogy between Momentum and Mass Transfer

Similarly, the velocity and concentration profiles will have the same shape if n = D,
or Sc = 1. Thus, the Schmidt number plays the same role in mass transfer as does the
Introduction 59
Prandtl number in heat transfer. An equivalent of the Nusselt number in mass trans-
fer is the Sherwood number defined by
h L k L
Sh = M = w
D rD
where L is any characteristic length. The convective mass transfer correlations are,
therefore, expressed in the form
Sh = f (Re, Sc)
similar to forced convection heat transfer correlations which are usually expressed
in the form Nu = f (Re × Pr).
The Stanton number can then be replaced by the number
Sh hM r hM
= = (1.80)
Re × Sc u G
in mass transfer correlations, as given in Eq. (1.80). And similar to Eq. (1.78), we
can write for mass transfer factor jM as
FG Sh IJ Sc FG r h IJ Sc f
H Re × ScK H GK
2/3 M 2/3
jM = = = (1.81)
2
The numerical value of the Schmidt number for the diffusion of water vapour into air
at 25°C and 1 atm pressure is 0.6.
1.26.3 Analogy between Heat and Mass Transfer

Combining Eqs. (1.78) and (1.80) to eliminate f / 2, we obtain a similarity relation
between heat transfer and mass transfer coefficients as follows in Eq. (1.82)
h Sc FG IJ 2/3
hM
= rCp
Pr H K
FG a IJ 2/3
= rCp
H DK
= rCp Le2/3 (1.82)
where Le = a/D is the Lewis number.
If Le = 1, the temperature and concentration profiles are the same and then jM =
jH. Incidentally for air and water vapour mixtures at atmospheric pressure, the value
of the Lewis number is approximately equal to unity. This simplifies the design of
air-conditioning equipment. Writing h as fg for heat transfer coefficient of air, and
hM as kw /r for diffusion of water vapour in air, we have for Le = 1
fg
kw =
Cp
as used in Chapters 14 and 16.
Empirical relations for Sh and Nu for air over water droplets can be expressed as
follows:
h L k L
Sh = M = w = 2 + 0.6 Re0.5 Sc0.33 (1.83a)
D rD
hL
Nu = = 2 + 0.6 Re0.5 Pr0.33 (1.83b)
k
The average value of diffusivity D of water vapour in air is 2.495 ´ 10–5 m2 s–1.
Example 1.17 Mass Transfer Coefficient of Water Vapour in Air.

Air at 35°C and 1 atm flows at a mean velocity of 30 m/s over a flat plate 0.5 m
long. Calculate the mass transfer coefficient of water vapour from the plate into
air. Assume the concentration of vapour in air as very small. The diffusion coef-
ficient of water vapour into air is 0.256 ´ 10–4 m2 s–1. The Colburn j-factor for
heat transfer coefficient is given by jH = 0.0296 Re–0.2.
Solution Properties of air at 35°C, 1 atm

r = 1.146 kg. m–3
Cp = 1.006 kJ. kg–1 K–1
m = 2 ´ 10–5 kg. m–1 s–1
Pr = 0.706
m 2 ´ 10 -5
Sc = = = 0.682
rD . ) (0.256 ´ 10 -4 )
(1146
Lur ( 0.5) ( 30) (1146
. )
Re = = -5
= 859,600
m 2 ´ 10
jM = jH = 0.0296 Re–0.2 (1.84)

= 0.0296 (859,600) –0.2
= 1.925 ´ 10 –3
2/3
hM = jM u/(Sc)
(0.001925) (30)
= = 0.075 m. s–1
(0.682) 2 / 3
References
1. Arora C P, Heat and Mass Transfer, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1979.
2. Arora C P, Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1998.
3. Ashok Babu T P, A theoretical and experimental investigation of alternatives
to CFC 12 in refrigerators, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT, Delhi, 1997.
4. ASHRAE, Handbook of Fundamentals, 1993.
5. Heisler M P, ‘Temperature charts for induction and contact temperature
heating’, Transactions ASME, Vol. 69, pp. 227–236, 1947.
6. Holman, J P, Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
7. Kern D Q, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, p. 137, 1950.
Introduction 61
8. Martin J J, ‘Correlations and equations used in calculating the thermodynamic

properties of Freon refrigerants’, ASME symposium, Thermodynamic and
Transport Properties of Gases, Liquids and Solids, McGraw-Hill, Feb. 1959.
9. Martin J J and Y C Hou, ‘Derivation of an equation of state for gases, AlChE J.,
Vol. 1, pp. 142–151, 1955.
10. O’Leary, R A, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 42, No. 5, Nov. 1941.
11. Peng P V and D B Robinson, ‘A new two constant equation of state, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Fundamentals, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 59–64, 1976.
12. Redlich Otto and J N S Kwong, ‘On the thermodynamics of solutions.
An equation of state. Fugacities of gaseous solutions’. Chem. Rev., Vol. 44,
pp. 232–244, 1949.
13. Reid R C and T K Sherwood, The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw-
Hill, 4th Ed., 1988.
14. Reynolds C W, ‘Thermodynamic properties in S.I. Graphs, tables and com-
putational equations for forty substances, Stanford University, Stanford,
CA94305, USA, 1979.
15. Schmidt T E, ‘La production calorifique des surfaces munies d’ailettes’,
Annexe Du Bull. De ‘L’ Institut Int. Du Froid, Annexe G-5, 1945–46.
Revision Exercises
1.1 (a) A creamery must cool 11,350 kg of milk received each day from 30°C to
3°C in 3 hours. What must be the capacity of the refrigerating machine? Take
the specific heat of milk as 3.92 kJ/kg.K.
(b) If the compressor in the above case operates 8 hours per day with surplus
refrigeration accumulated in brine storage tanks, what must the capacity be?
1.2 Cold salt brine at – 2°C is used in a packing plant to chill food slabs from
40°C to 3.4°C in 18 hours. Determine the weight of brine required to cool 100
food slabs of 225 kg each if the final temperature of brine is 1.7°C, Given:
Specific gravity of brine = 1.05
Specific heat of brine = 3.77 kJ/kg.K
Specific heat of food slabs = 3.15 kJ/kg.K
1.3 A cold-storage room has inside dimensions of 12 m ´ 7.5 m ´ 3 m. The overall
coefficient of heat transfer through the walls and ceiling is 0.55 W. m–2 K–1 and
for the floor is 2.2 W.m–2. K–1. The inside temperature is to be maintained
at –5°C. If the outside air is at 45°C and the air adjacent to the floor is at 30°C,
determine the capacity of the refrigerating unit for 70 per cent running time.
1.4 10 kg of air at 65°C and 3.5 bar expands reversibly and polytropically to
1.5 bar. The index of expansion is 1.25. Find the final temperature, work
done, heat transferred and change of entropy. Assuming the process to be
adiabatic, find the final temperature and work done.
1.5 Air at 3.5 bar and 30°C flows at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an insulated
turbine. If the air delivers 11.5 hp to the turbine blades and the change
in kinetic energy is negligible, at what temperature does the air leave the
turbine?
1.6 A fluid expands from 3 bar and 150°C to 1 bar in a nozzle. The initial velocity
is 90 m/s. The isentropic efficiency is likely to be 0.95. Estimate the final
velocity assuming the fluid to be steam and air.
1.7 A real gas expands isenthalpically from 135 bar and –75°C to 7 bar. If the
Joule-Thomson coefficient in the range is 0.2°C/bar, what is the final
temperature of the gas?
1.8 R 22 saturated liquid at 35°C is throttled to a pressure corresponding to a
temperature of 5°C. Determine the extent of flashing of the liquid into vapour.
1.9 The exterior wall of a house is made of 10 cm of common brick (k = 0.7 W.
m–1 K–1) followed by a 3.79 cm layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W.m–1.
K–1). What thickness of thermocole insulation (k = 0.037 W.m–1. K–1) should
be added to reduce the heat loss or gain through the wall to 25%?
1.10 Twelve thin brass fins, 0.75 mm thick, are placed axially on a 5 cm diameter
´ 5 cm long cylinder which stands vertically and is surrounded by air at 38°C.
The fins extend 2.5 cm from the cylinder surface which is at a temperature of
150°C. The thermal conductivity of brass is 78 W.m–1 .K–1and the heat trans-
fer coefficient for air is 23 W.m–2.K–1. What is the rate of heat transfer to air
from the cylinder?
1.11 Find the overall heat transfer coefficient between water and oil if the water
flows through a copper pipe 1.8 cm 1D and 2.1 cm OD while the oil flows
through the annulus between the copper pipe and a steel pipe. The water and
oil side film heat transfer coefficients are 4600 and 1250 W.m–2. K–1 respec-
tively. The fouling factors on the water and oil sides may be taken as 0.0004
and 0.001 m2 K.W–1 respectively. The thermal conductivity of the tube wall
is 330 W. m–1. K–1.
1.12 In a R134a condenser of a domestic refrigerator, having wire-and-tube
construction, Ao/Ai = 12. Heat transfer coefficient of refrigerant condensing
inside tubes is hi = 1950 W.m–2.K–1. Heat transfer coefficient by natural con-
vection of air outside tubes is ho = 19.5 W. m–2. K–1. Air enters at 35°C and
leaves at 43°C. Heat to be rejected in the condenser is 180 W. Determine the
outside tube surface area.
1.13 Plot ln psat versus 1/T sat diagrams for CO2, R 22 (CHCl F2), NH3, C3H8, R 12
(CCl2 F2), R 134a (C2 H2 F4), R 152 a (C2 H4 F2), Iso – C4 H10 and R11
(C Cl3F). Find values of constants of Antonie equation.
1.14 Calculate the latent heat of vaporization of ammonia at 40°C using the
following data from the saturation table of ammonia.
t p Lf Lg
°C bar L/kg m3/kg
30 11.67 1.68 0.11
35 13.5 1.7 0.095
40 15.54 1.73 0.083
45 17.82 1.75 0.073
50 20.33 1.78 0.063
Introduction 63
1.15 Determine the specific volume of saturated vapour by Redlich-Kwong equa-

tion for the following, and compare results with those given in the tables of
properties.
(a) Propane at –25°C where psat = 2.018 bar.
(b) Propane at 50°C where psat = 17.119 bar.
(c) Isobutane at –25°C where psat = 0.5865 bar.
(d) Isobutane at 50°C where psat = 6.92 bar.
Refrigerating Machine and
Reversed Carnot Cycle
2.1 REFRIGERATING MACHINES
There are essentially two categories of thermal plants. These are:

(i) Thermal power plants or work producing plants.
(ii) Refrigeration/heat pump plants or work consuming plants.
The work producing plants or heat engines lead to the conversion of heat to work.
The work consuming plants, viz., refrigerators/heat pumps, are not those which are in
any way related to the conversion of work into heat. No ingenuity at all is required for
the conversion of work into heat. In fact, all work (mechanical/electrical energy) that is
consumed in machinery is ultimately dissipated as heat to the environment. The objec-
tive of work consuming plants, actually, is to lead to the flow of heat from a low
temperature body to a high temperature body. The work is consumed to achieve this.
Examples of common work consuming plants, viz., refrigerators are the
following:
Cold storages. Central air conditioning plants. Domestic refrigerators. Room air
conditioners. Ice Plants. Food freezing and freeze-drying plants. Air liquefaction
plants. etc.
Heat pumps are heating plants. But they operate in the same way as refrigerators.
Refrigeration equipment, in general, is relatively smaller in size as compared
to work producing plants. The capacity of a power plant is in MW, whereas the
capacity of a refrigeration system is in kW or even less. A very large super cold
storage or a central air conditioning plant for a multistoreyed building may consume
power in the range of 2000 to 5000 kW. A window-type room air conditioner may
consume only 2.5 kW of power, and a domestic refrigerator just 100 to 250 W only.
2.2 A REFRIGERATING MACHINE—THE SECOND

LAW INTERPRETATION
A refrigerating machine is a device which will either cool or maintain a body at a

temperature below that of the surroundings. Hence, heat must be made to flow from
Refrigerating Machine and Reversed Carnot Cycle 65
a body at low temperature to the surroundings at

High Temperature
high temperature. Body
However, this is not possible on its own. We
see in nature that heat spontaneously flows from a
Q Q
high temperature body to a low temperature body.
The reverse process to complete the thermo-
dynamic cycle, in which heat Q will flow back Low Temperature
from the low temperature body to the high tem- Body
perature body, is not possible. Thus, we see that
a thermodynamic cycle involving heat transfer Fig. 2.1 A thermodynamic cycle
involving heat transfer
alone as shown in Fig. 2.1 cannot be devised. alone: Not possible
The logical conclusion is that there must be a
process in which some work is done.
The second law of thermodynamics, like the first law, is based on the observa-
tions of actually existing processes and devices in nature. Figure 2.2 shows the
schematic diagram of an actual refrigeration system which works on the well-
known vapour compression cycle. Most refrigeration devices/plants, including air
conditioners and refrigerators such as the ones illustrated in Chap. 1, work on this
cycle only.
Qk System Boundary
Condenser
Throttle
Valve
W
Compressor
Evaporator
Qo
Fig. 2.2 Illustration of an actual refrigerator/heat pump: The simple vapour
compression system
The heat and work interactions of the processes of the cycle are as follows:
(i) Heat Q0 is absorbed in the evaporator by the evaporation of a liquid refriger-
ant at a low pressure p0, and corresponding low saturation temperature T0.
(ii) The evaporated refrigerant vapour is compressed to a high pressure pk in the
compressor consuming work W. The pressure after compression is such that
the corresponding saturation temperature Tk is higher than the temperature of
the surroundings.
(iii) Heat Qk is then rejected in the condenser to the surroundings at high
temperature Tk.
z z
The application of the first law, @ Q = @ W, to the cycle gives:
– Qk + Qo = –W
Qk – Qo = W
This, also, represents an energy balance of the system in Fig. 2.2 obtained by
drawing a boundary around it.
There are two statements of the second law of thermodynamics, the Kelvin-
Planck statement, and the Clausius statement. The Kelvin-Planck statement pertains
to heat engines such as E represented in Fig. 2.3.
The Clausius statement pertains to refrigerators/heat pumps R. The above obser-
vation from illustration of actually existing refrigerators/heat pumps leads to the
Clausius statement which is as follows:
“It is impossible to construct a device which will operate in a cycle and produce
no effect other than the transfer of heat from a low temperature body to a high
temperature body”.
The statement implies that a refrigerator R of the type shown in Fig. 2.4 which
will absorb heat Qo from a low temperature body and transfer it to a high tempera-
ture body is impossible.
High Temperature TH High Temperature Tk

Reservoir Body
QH Q
Wnet = QH – QL
QL Q
Low Temperature TL Low Temperature

Reservoir Body To
Fig. 2.3 Schematic representation Fig. 2.4 Refrigerator without any

of a heat engine Work Input: Impossible
The only alternative is that there must be

some work input Win. Accordingly, we obtain
a schematic representation of a refrigerating High Temperature Tk
Body
machine/heat pump as shown in Fig. 2.5, and
from the first law Win = Qk – Qo. Accordingly, Qk = Qo + Win
heat transferred Qk is more than heat absorbed
Qo by the amount of work input Win. Win = Qk – Qo
Now, the stress on the words ‘operating in Qo
a cycle’ is significant. For, in a single process,
it may be possible to obtain removal of heat Low Temperature
Body To
from a low temperature body without doing
external work, e.g., by the evaporation of a
refrigerant, for instance liquid Freon 22 after Fig. 2.5 Schematic representation
of a refrigerator/heat pump
throttling expansion to, say, 1 bar correspond-
ing to a saturation temperature of –40°C as shown in Fig. 2.6. However, this could
not happen continuously. This process could continue only if one had an infinite
supply of high pressure Freon 22 liquid in the cylinder. But that is not possible in
nature. To obtain refrigeration continuously, the refrigerant vapour after evapora-
tion at low pressure will have to be brought back to the initial state of high pressure
liquid again. That will mean forming a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Throttle Valve
Evaporator
Saturated
Vapour at
1 bar, – 40°C
Qo
(Refrigeration)
Liquid
Freon 22
at High
Pressure Liquid at
1 bar, – 40°C
Fig. 2.6 A process: Producing refrigeration while W = 0
The Clausius statement eliminates the possibility of obtaining refrigeration with-

out doing work. The statement necessitates a further clarification regarding heat-
operated refrigerating machines such as the vapour absorption type or ejector type,
using heat directly to produce refrigeration. Such systems may be considered as a
combination of a heat engine and a refrigerating machine. The heat engine part of
the system utilizes heat from a body at a higher temperature than the surroundings
and delivers the required mechanical work, within the system, which is directly used
by the refrigerating machine part. Thus the usual process of the conversion of ther-
mal energy, first into work (or electrical energy) and then its utilization in a refriger-
ating machine, is replaced by a combined process.
2.3 HEAT ENGINE, HEAT PUMP AND

REFRIGERATING MACHINE
It may be concluded from the preceding discussion that a reversible heat engine may
be converted into a refrigerating machine by running it in the reversed direction.
Schematically, therefore, a refrigerating machine is a reversed heat engine which
can be seen by comparing Figs. 2.5 and 2.3.
As for the heat pump, there is no difference in the cycle of operation between a
refrigerating machine and a heat pump. The same machine can be utilized either
(i) to absorb heat from a cold body (a cooled space) at temperature To and reject
it to the surroundings at temperature Tk ³ Ta, or
(ii) to absorb heat from the surroundings at temperature To £ Ta and reject it to a
hot body (a heated space) at temperature Tk,
where Ta is the temperature of the surroundings.
Figure 2.7 illustrates the manner of application of heat engine E, heat pump H and
refrigerating machine R. It implies that the same machine can be used either for
cooling or for heating. When used for cooling, it is called a refrigerating machine
and when used for heating it is called a heat pump.
Heat Source T1
WE
E Heated Space Tk
WH
T2 Ta Tk Ta
Surroundings
Ta
To Ta
WR
Cooled Space To
Fig. 2.7 Comparison of heat engine, heat pump and refrigerating machine
The main difference between the two is in their operating temperatures. A

refrigerating machine operates between the ambient temperature Ta » Tk and a low
temperature To. A heat pump operates between the ambient temperature Ta » To and a
high temperature Tk. The heat engine operates between the heat source temperature T1
and ambient temperature Ta » T2.
Another essential difference is in their useful function. In a refrigerating machine,
the heat exchanger that absorbs heat is connected to the conditioned space. In a heat
pump, instead, the heat exchanger that rejects heat is connected to the conditioned
space. The other heat exchanger in each case is connected to the surroundings. Thus
if a refrigerating machine, that is used for cooling in summer, is to be used as a heat
pump for heating in winter, it will be necessary, either
(i) to rotate the machine by 180° to interchange the positions of the two heat
exchangers between the space and the surroundings, or
(ii) to exchange the functions of the two heat exchangers by the operation of
valves, e.g., a four-way valve in a window-type air conditioner.
Such an operation of a refrigerating machine is termed as reversed cycle heating.
2.3.1 Energy Ratios or Coefficients of Performance

The performance of a heat engine is described by its thermal efficiency. The per-
formance of a refrigerating machine or a heat pump is expressed by the ratio of
useful heat to work, called the energy ratio or coefficient of performance (COP).
Thus we have for a refrigerating machine:
Cooling energy ratio, or COP for cooling
Qo Qo 1
-c = = = (2.1)
W Qk - Qo Qk
-1
Qo
And we have for a heat pump:
Heating energy ratio, or COP for heating
Qk Qk 1
-h = = = (2.2)
W Qk - Qo 1- o
Q
Qk
An idea about the approximate magnitude of the numerical values of these
coefficients can be had from the following approximate calculations. The thermal
efficiency of a heat engine is of the order of 30 per cent (say) so that
Qk - Qo
Dth = = 0.3
Qk
Then, if the engine is reversed in operation to work as a refrigerator or a heat
pump with operating conditions unchanged (although in actual practice the operat-
ing temperatures will be different), we should have
Qo 1 - D th
-c = = = 2.33
Qk - Qo D th
and
Qk 1
-h = = = 3.33
Qk - Qo D th
For vapour compression systems, -c is of the order of 3 for water-cooled and
2 for air-cooled air-conditioning applications and 1 for domestic refrigerators.
For air cycle refrigeration systems, -c » 1 and for vapour absorption systems, it is
well below unity. Steam ejector machines have still lower values.
However, the latter two are heat-operated refrigerating machines, and the defini-
tion of their coefficients of performance is altogether different. Hence, no compari-
son need be made at this stage.
2.3.2 Power Consumption of a Refrigerating Machine

Power consumption W of a refrigerating machine is determined in terms of kW.
However, the power consumption of the motors is sometimes rated in horsepower
(HP). We have
W
HP =
0.746
where W is in kW.
A quantity which is frequently used for comparison is horsepower per ton
refrigeration. It is determined as follows:
W
HP/kW refrigeration =
0.746 Q o
where Q o is the refrigerating capacity in kW. Then, since 1 TR = 3.5167 kW,

W
HP/TR = (3.5167)
0.746 Q o
4.71 W
=
Q o
4.71
= (2.3)
-c
Thus HP/TR is inversely proportional to COP for cooling. In the above deriva-
tion, imperial horsepower has been used. If the horsepower is metric, then
W
HP =
0.736
4.78
HP/TR = -
0
2.3.3 Heat Pump vs. Electric Resistance Heater

It may be seen from the simple transposition of Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) that
Qk Q
=1+ o
W W
-h = 1 + -c (2.4)
The above relationship expresses a very interesting feature of a heat pump.
According to Eq. (2.4), COP for heating is always greater than unity. It is so since
Qk is always greater then Qo by the amount W.
Thus for the purpose of heating, it is far more economical to use a heat pump rather
than an electric-resistance heater. For example, if W is the energy consumption of an
electric resistance heater, the heat released to the space will be W only. But if this
electrical energy W is utilized in a heat pump, the heat pumped to the space will be
Qk = -h W = (1 + -c) W
Therefore, whatever is the value of -c (even zero), Qk will always be greater than
or equal to W. The value of -h for air-conditioning applications is of the order of 3.
Then the heat pumped will be 3 W in a heat pump unit while the power consumption
is only W. The heat pump, therefore, is a definite advancement over the simple
electric-resistance heater. Only the cost of the heat pump (which is a refrigerating
machine also) is prohibitive. But when an air-conditioning plant is already installed
for cooling in summer, it would always be prudent to use it for heating as well in
winter, operating as a heat pump.
Suppose a room loses Q k kW of heat during winter. Then, it requires an equal
amount of heat addition to maintain it at a desired temperature. Figure 2.8 illustrates
the two methods for heating the room:
(i) Using electric resistance heater. The power consumption is
W = Q k
(ii) Using heat pump. The power consumption is

Q k 1
W = @ Q k
-h 3
if -h = 3. Thus, power consumption of the heat pump is very much lower.
Heater W = Qk Qk = Heating Load
Room
Qk
Qk 1
HP W= Qk
Eh 3
Qo
Surroundings
Fig. 2.8 Heating of a room by electric heater and heat pump
2.4 BEST REFRIGERATION CYCLE: THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE
It is possible to show that the cooling energy Tk

ratio of a refrigeration cycle working
between two temperatures will be maximum Q k, R Q k, I
when the cycle is a reversible one. For the
purpose, consider a reversible refrigerating WR R I WI
machine R and another irreversible refriger-
ating machine I, both working between two Qo Qo
heat reservoirs at temperatures Tk and To,
and absorbing the same quantity of heat Qo To
from the cold reservoir at To as shown in Fig.
2.9 (a). Fig. 2.9 (a) Reversible and irreversible
Now, to prove the contrary, let us assume refrigerating machines
that the COP of the irreversible machine is higher than that of the reversible ma-
chine, viz., -I > -R. Hence
Q o Q
> o
WI WR
WR > W1
And since Qk, R = Qo + WR
Qk, I = Qo + WI
we have Qk, R > Qk, I
and
Qk, R – Qk, I = WR – WI = Wnet
If now, the reversible refrigerating machine is made to work as a heat engine and
the irreversible refrigerating machine continues to work as a refrigerating machine,
as shown in Fig. 2.9(b), the resultant combined system will work as a perpetual
motion machine of the second kind taking heat equal to Qk, R – Qk, I from the hot
reservoir and converting it completely into work, thus violating the Kelvin-Planck
statement of the Second Law applicable to heat engines as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Tk System Boundary
Q k, R Q k, I
Wnet = WR – WI WR WI
R I
WI
Qo Qo
To
Fig. 2.9(b) Reversible refrigerating machine working as a heat engine in

combination with on irreversible refrigerating machine
Tk
Qk, R – Qk, I
Combined System Wnet = WR – WI
Fig. 2.10 Combined system resulting in a perpetual motion machine of the

second kind thus violating the Second Law
It is, therefore, concluded that a refrigeration cycle operating reversibly between

two heat reservoirs has the highest coefficient of performance. Likewise, it can also
be shown that all reversible refrigeration cycles have the same COP. These are two
corollaries of Second Law comprising the Carnot Principle.
2.4.1 Reversed Carnot Cycle 3 2

Tk
We now know that a reversible refrigeration
cycle has the maximum COP. We know
further that a reversible heat engine can be W
reversed in operation to work as a refrigerating
4
machine. To 1
T
Sadi Carnot, in 1824, proposed a reversible

heat-engine cycle as a measure of maximum Qo
possible conversion of heat into work. A
reversed Carnot cycle can, therefore, be
employed as a reversible refrigeration cycle, 5 s 6
which would be a measure of maximum possi- Fig. 2.11 Reversed Carnot Cycle
ble COP of a refrigerating machine operating between two temperatures Tk of heat

rejection and To of refrigeration.
A reversed Carnot cycle, for a unit mass of the working substance, is shown in
Fig. 2.11 on a T–s diagram. The cycle consists of two isothermals and two isentropics
as follows:
Process 1—2 Isentropic compression, s1 = s2
Process 2—3 Isothermal heat rejection to the hot reservoir at Tk = const.
Process 3—4 Isentropic expansion, s3 = s4
Process 4—1 Isothermal heat absorption from the cold reservoir at
To = const.
The areas on the T-s diagram, representing ò Tds give the heat transfers, and work
done in the cycle as follows:
Heat absorbed from cold body, Qo = To Ds = area 1-4-5-6
Heat rejected to hot body, Qk = Tk Ds = area 2-3-5-6
Work done, W = Qk – Qo = (Tk – To) Ds = area 1-2-3-4
Hence we obtain Carnot values of COP for cooling and heating as
Q To I
-c, Carnot = o = =
W Tk - To Tk
- I
To
Q Tk I
-h, Carnot = k = =
W Tk - To I - To / Tk
Effect of Operating Temperatures We, thus, see that the Carnot COP depends
on the operating temperatures Tk and To only. It does not depend on the working
substance (refrigerant) used.
For cooling, To is the refrigeration temperature and Tk is the temperature of heat
rejection to the surroundings. The lowest possible refrigeration temperature is To = 0
(absolute zero) at which -c = 0. The highest possible refrigeration temperature is To
= Tk, i.e., when the refrigeration temperature is equal to the temperature of the sur-
roundings (ambient) at which -c = ¥. Thus, Carnot COP for cooling varies between
0 and ¥.
For heating, To is the temperature of heat absorption from the surroundings and
Tk is the heating temperature. Theoretically, the COP for heating varies between 1
and ¥.
It may, therefore, be noted that to obtain maximum possible COP in any application,
(i) the cold body temperature To should be as high as possible, and
(ii) the hot body temperature Tk should be as low as possible.
The lower the refrigeration temperature required, and higher the temperature of
heat rejection to the surroundings, the larger is the power consumption of the refrig-
erating machine. Also, the lower is the refrigeration temperature required, the lower
is the refrigerating capacity obtained.
Consider now, for example, a domestic refrigerator which produces refrigeration
at –25°C (248 K). Let heat be rejected to the ambient at 60°C (333 K).
The maximum possible COP of this refrigerator would be
248 248
(COPc)max = = = 2.9
333 - 248 85
Thus, the refrigerator would produce a maximum of 290 W of refrigeration per
100 W of power consumption. The most popular size, 165 L internal volume refrig-
erators of most manufacturers produce 89 W of refrigeration, and the power of the
electric motors running these refrigerators is around 110 W. Considering that the
refrigerators have a running time of 75% only, the average power consumption
would come to 82.5 W. Thus, the actual COP of these machines would be only 1.08.
Compare this with the COP of a room air conditioner which produces refrigera-
tion at a higher temperature of about 5°C (278 K). Assuming the temperature of heat
rejection the same as 60°C (333 K), the maximum possible COP would be
278 278
(COPc)max = = =5
333 - 278 55
It would, thus, produce 5 kW of refrigeration per kW of power consumption.
A 1.5 TR (5.3 kW) air conditioner will have a minimum power consumption of
1.05 kW. The actual air conditioner will, however, have power consumption of the
order of 2.0 kW or more considering 75% running time. The actual COP is thus 2.6
or even less.
The above two examples show that the COP of a refrigeration system decreases,
and power consumption increases as we go to lower and lower refrigeration tem-
peratures.
2.4.2 Selection of Operating Temperatures

The selection of temperature T0 depends on the particular application of refrigera-
tion. Consider, for example, the simple summer air-conditioning system shown in
Fig. 2.12(a). The room is maintained at temperature ti equal to 25°C.
To offset the heat entering the room, the air must be supplied at a temperature
lower than 25°C, at ts equal to 15°C.
The air conditioner will, therefore, cool the room air from 25°C to 15°C and then
supply it back to the room.
Accordingly, the refrigerant temperature to must be less than 15°C to absorb heat
Qo from the air maintaining a finite temperature difference Dt across the heat ex-
changer as shown in Fig. 2.12(b). If the temperature difference is zero, the area
requirement of the heat exchanger will be infinite. Thus for air conditioning in sum-
mer, the temperature to is of the order of 0 to 10°C usually about 5°C. In a similar
manner, the approximate refrigeration temperature requirements can be found out
for various other applications as given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Refrigeration temperature requirements of common applications
No. Application Refrigeration

Temperature, to, °C
1. Air conditioning in summer 0 to 10
2. Cold storages –10 to 2
3. Domestic refrigerators –25
4. Frozen foods –35
5. Freeze drying and IQF (Instant Quick Freezing) –35 to –45
Recirculated Room Air Room Q (Heat Gain of Room)

ti = 25°C
25°C = ti
ts = 15°C
Supply Air
ts Fan
Air Conditioner
Fig. 2.12(a) Simple summer air-conditioning system
f Air
Cooling o 25°C
15°C Qo t2
t1
to < 15°C (say 5°C)
Evaporation of Refrigerant
Fig. 2.12(b) Temperatures in a cooling coil
The selection of temperature Tk depends on the surrounding medium used for

heat rejection. There are three possible media in the surroundings to which heat Qk
may be rejected, viz., air, water and ground. The units that use air as a cooling
medium are called the air-cooled units and those using water are called the water-
cooled units.
Consider an air-cooled unit. Let the surrounding air temperature (in summer) be
45°C. Also, let the rise in temperature of air, after absorbing heat Qk, be 10°C, as
shown in Fig. 2.13(a). Hence the temperature of heat rejection tk has to be greater
than 55°C, say 65°C, so that the temperature differentials Dt1 and Dt2, across the heat
exchanger (HE) are 20°C and 10°C respectively, and the arithmetic mean tempera-
ture difference is (20 + 10)/2 = 15°C.
Refrigerant
tk = 65°C tk > 55°C (say 65°C)
t2 = 10°C
Qk th2 = 55°C
t1 = 20°C
Air 20 + 10
ium, tm = = 15°C
ng Med 2
th1 = 45°C Cooli
Fig. 2.13(a) Temperatures during heat rejection in an air-cooled refrigerating machine
Air is widely used as a cooling medium in small refrigerating machines such as

refrigerators, water coolers, window-type air conditioners and small-package units.
Water as a cooling medium is preferable to air as it affords a lower value of Tk
because of the following reasons:
(i) It is available at a temperature lower than that of air. Its temperature approaches
the wet bulb temperature of the surrounding air. This is the limiting temperature
to which heated water can be cooled in a cooling tower or a spray pond.
(ii) The specific heat of water is about four times that of air. Thus, for the same
heat rejection Qk and the same mass flow, the temperature rise of water is
one-fourth that of air and correspondingly Tk is lower.
(iii) Water has a higher heat transfer coefficient than air mainly because of its high
thermal conductivity, say, 5000 as against 100 in forced convection and 10 in
free convection for air in Wm–2 K–1. Thus, for the same heat rejected Qk and
the same area of the heat exchanger, the temperature difference Dt required
across the heat exchanger is less which also results in a lower value of Tk.
Note The lower value of heat transfer coefficient of air is made up by providing extended
surface on air-side in actual equipment.
Consider, for example, a water-cooled unit, in place of the air-cooled unit of the
preceding example. Let the wet bulb temperature of the surrounding air be 28°C
(even though the dry bulb temperature may be 45°C). Then the temperature of water
from the cooling tower may be taken to be about 30°C. With the same mass flow for
air and water, the temperature rise of water as a result of its higher specific heat will
be 10/4 = 2.5°C only, though taken as 5°C in design as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b). The
temperature of water leaving the heat exchanger is then 35°C.
Refrigerant
tk = 40°C tk > 35°C ( 40°C)
t2 = 5°C
t1 = 10°C Qk 35°C
r
, Wate 10 + 5
35°C g Medium tm = = 7.5°C
Coolin 2
Fig. 2.13(b) Temperatures during heat rejection in a water-cooled refrigerating

machine
Let the mean temperature difference required with water be 7.5°C instead of 15°C
for air as a consequence of the higher heat transfer coefficient. Then the temperature
of heat rejection required need only be 40°C for water as compared to 65°C for air.
Normal design temperature Tk in Delhi is 43°C .
Thus, the use of water as a cooling medium results in a lower Tk, higher COP and
lower power consumption in a refrigeration plant. At the same time, we have much
more compact and smaller condenser even with a smaller value of Dtm (7.5°C with
water as against 15°C with air in the above illustration).
Large refrigeration plants, including central air-conditioning plants, therefore,
are invariably water-cooled as the saving in the costs of power consumption exceeds
the added cost of a water-cooling plant (cooling tower, pump, piping, etc.). Exam-
ples 2.1 and 2.2 amply illustrate the advantages of water over air, as a cooling
medium. Although, the calculations are based on the reversed Carnot cycle for the
working substance, yet finite temperature differentials have been assumed in the
heat exchangers as external irreversibilities.
The ground is also sometimes used as a heat sink, specially in locations where
extreme high and low temperatures are reached and the ground temperatures are
lower in summer and higher in winter as compared to the surrounding temperatures.
Example 2.1
(a) The ambient air temperatures during summer and winter in a particular
locality are 45°C and 15°C respectively. Find the values of Carnot COP for
an air conditioner for cooling and heating, corresponding to refrigeration
temperatures of 5°C for summer and heating temperature of 55°C for
winter. Assume suitable temperature differences in the exchanger that
exchanges heat with the surroundings.
(b) If water from the cooling tower at 30°C is used as a cooling medium with
3°C temperature differential for air-conditioning in summer, what will be
the Carnot COP for cooling?
(c) Also, find the theoretical power consumption per ton of refrigeration in
each case. Assume no increase in the temperature of the surrounding air or
water.
Solution
(a) Air as a cooling medium
For summer: tk = 45 + 15 = 60°C (Assuming 15°C temperature
difference for air-cooled)
to = 5°C
273 + 5 278
-c, Carnot = = = 5.05
60 - 5 55
For winter: tk = 55°C
to = 15 – 5 = 10°C (Assuming 5°C temp.
difference)
273 + 55 328
-h, Carnot = = = 7.3
55 - 10 45
(b) Water as a cooling medium
tk = 30 + 10 = 40°C (Assuming 10°C temp.
difference for water-cooled)
to = 5°C
273 + 5 278
-c, Carnot = = = 7.94
40 - 5 35
(c) Power consumption
W = Q o / - ?
For the air-cooled unit, W = 211/5.05 = 41.8 kJ/min = 0.7 kW
For the water-cooled unit, W = 211/7.94 = 26.6 kJ/min = 0.44 kW
Note Saving in power with water-cooled is 37%. In actual practice, it is much more.
Example 2.2
(a) A reversed Carnot cycle air conditioner of 1 TR capacity operates with
cooling coil temperature to = 5°C. The surrounding air at 43°C is used as a
cooling medium rising to a temperature of 53°C. The temperature of heat
rejection is tk = 55°C. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the heat
exchanger between the working substance and the surrounding air is
U = 250 W. m–2 K–1. Determine the mass flow rate of the surrounding air
entering the heat exchanger, area of the heat exchanger, COP and power
consumption of the air conditioner.
(b) If water at 30°C is used as a cooling medium in the same heat exchanger,
will its area be adequate or inadequate for necessary heat rejection?
Assume that the mass flow rate of water remains the same as that of air.
Also for water, U = 2500 W. m–2 K–1.
(c) If the area is reduced to 1 m2, what will be the temperature of heat rejection
tk, temperature rise of water, COP, power consumption, percentage saving
in power consumption and percentage reduction in the heat-exchanger
area as compared with air as a cooling medium.
Solution
(a) Air as a cooling medium Referring to Fig. 2.13 (a), the various heat ex-
changer temperatures in this case are as follows:
th1 = 43°C, th2 = 53°C, tk = 55°C
273 + 5 278
COP = = = 5.56
55 - 5 50
Power consumption
Q 35167
.
W = o = = 0.63 kW
-c 556
.
Heat rejected
Q k = Q o + W = 3.5167 + 0.63 = 4.15 kW
Mass flow rate of cooling air
Q k 4.15
m a = = = 0.413 kg/s
C p Dt h 1.005(53 - 43)
LMTD in the heat exchanger
Dtm =
D t1 - Dt 2 (55 - 43) - (55 - 53) 10 = 5.58°C
Dt
=
FG55 - 43IJ =
ln 6
ln 1
Dt 2
ln
H55 - 53 K
Area of the heat exchanger
Q k 4.15 ´ 103
A= = = 2.975 m2
U Dt m 250(558
. )
(b) Water as a cooling medium

First approximation: Let tk = 35°C
273 + 5
Then COP = = 9.27
35 - 5
Q
Q k = Q o + W = Qo + o = Qo
FG1 + 1 IJ
-c H -K c
FG 1 IJ = 3.9 kW
= 3.5167 1 +
H 9.27 K
Q k 3.9
Dth = = = 2.26°C
m w C p 0.413 ( 4.1868)
th2 = 30 + 2.26 = 32.26°C
LMTD in the heat exchanger
(35 - 30) - (35 - 32.26)
Dtm = = 3.76°C
35 - 30
ln
35 - 32.26
Q k 3.9
A= = = 0.41 m2
UDt m 2.5 (3.76)
Checking with the actual area of 2.975 m2, it is seen that temperature tk could
be much lower.
Second approximation of tk = 33°C gives A = 0.95 m2.
The area required is still one-fourth of the available area of 2.975 m2. Thus,
even if tk is taken equal to th2 = 32.24 so that Dt2 = 0, then Dt1 = 32.24 – 30 =
2.24°C, and Dtm = 1.12°C, it gives an area requirement of only (1.63/1/12)
(0.95) = 1.38 m2 which is still less than 2.975 m2.
Hence the area of the heat exchanger is more than adequate with water as a
cooling medium and can be reduced to at least one-third.
(c) Water as a cooling medium (A = 1 m2)
By iteration, we find the solution, viz.,
tk = 32.94°C
273 + 5
COP = = 9.95
32.94 - 5
FG
Q k = 3.5167 1 +
1 IJ
H 9.76 K
= 3.87 kW
387
.
Dth = = 2.24°C
0.413 (4.1868)
th2 = 32.24°C
(32.9 - 30) - (32.9 - 32.24)

Dtm = = 1.5°C
32.9 - 30
ln
32.9 - 32.24
387
.
A= = 1.0 m2
2.5 (15
.)
35167
.
Power consumption, W = = 0.35 kW
9.95
0.63 - 0.35
Saving in power consumption = ´ 100 = 44.4%
0.63
Saving in area of the heat exchanger
2.975 - 1
= ´ 100 = 66%
2.975
Note Indiscriminate use of air-cooled window-type air conditioners is wasteful of energy

and equipment. Insted of using large number of window units in a big building, it is much
more desirable to install a central air conditioning plant which is always water-cooled.
This will save power and reduce cost. It will also minimise thermal pollution of the envi-
ronment by diminishing W and Q k .
2.5 VAPOUR AS A REFRIGERANT IN REVERSED

CARNOT CYCLE
The reversed Carnot cycle can be made almost completely practical by operating in
the liquid-vapour region of a pure substance as shown in Fig. 2.14.
Condensation
Tk Isentropic
T
3 2 Compression
Isentropic
Expansion
To 4 1
Evaporation
x4 x1
s
Fig. 2.14 Reversed Carnot cycle with vapour as a refrigeran
The isothermal processes of heat rejection (2-3) and heat absorption (4-1) of the
Carnot cycle are achieved by making use of the phenomena of condensation and
evaporation of a pure substance at constant pressure and temperature. This alternate
condensation and evaporation of a working substance is accompanied by alternate
isentropic compression (1-2) and expansion (3-4) processes.
It may be noted that the vapour during compression is wet although it is dry-
saturated at the end of the process. Such a compression is called wet compression.
It may also be seen that the isentropic expansion of the liquid from 3 to 4 results
in flashing of the refrigerant with consequent temperature drop from Tk to To al-
though such expansion of a liquid with partial vaporization is practically difficult to
achieve in a fast-moving piston and cylinder mechanism.
The thermodynamic analysis per unit mass of the refrigerant, for the four flow
processes of the cycle, using steady-state steady-flow energy equation is as follows:
Refrigerating effect, qo = h 1 – h 4
Heat rejected, | qk | = h2 – h3 = (hfg)k
Compressor work, |wC| = h2 – h1
Expander work, wE = h3 – h4
Net work, | w | = | wC | – wE = (h2 – h1) – (h3 – h4)
= | qk | – qo = (h2 – h3) – (h1 – h4)
q h1 - h4
COP for cooling, -c = o =
| w| (h2 - h3 ) - (h1 - h4 )
1
FG
=
IJ
h2 - h3
(2.5)
H K
h1 - h4
-1
Note qk and wC are negative with respect to the system (refrigerating machine). From
here onwards we will consider their positive values only in our calculations.
Example 2.3
(a) A Carnot refrigerator has working temperatures of –30°C and 35°C. If it
operates with R 12 as a working substance, calculate the work of isentropic
compression and that of isentropic expansion, and refrigerating effect, heat
rejected per kg of the refrigerant, and COP of the cycle.
(b) If the actual refrigerator operating on the same temperatures has a COP of
0.75 of the maximum, calculate the power consumption and heat rejected to
the surroundings per ton of refrigeration.
Solution Referring to Fig. 2.14, from the table of properties of R 12, we have:
s1 = s2 = 0.6839 kJ/(kg. K) sf4 = sf1 = 0.0371 kJ/(kg. K)
s3 = s4 = 0.2559 kJ/(kg. K) sg4 = sg1 = 0.7171 kJ/(kg. K)
h2 = 201.5 kJ/kg hf4 = hf1 = 8.9 kJ/kg
h3 = 69.5 kJ/kg hg4 = hg1 = 174.2 kJ/kg
Hence, by putting s1 = s4 and s4 = s3, we get the dryness fractions at 1 and 4 as
0.6839 - 0.0371
x1 = = 0.951
0.7171 - 0.0371
0.2559 - 0.0371
x4 = = 0.322
0.7171 - 0.0371
Enthalpies at 1 and 4
h1 = 8.9 + 0.951 (174.2 – 8.9) = 166 kJ/kg
h4 = 8.9 + 0.322 (174.2 – 8.9) = 62.1 kJ/kg
Work of compression, wC = h2 – h1 = 201.5 – 166 = 35.5 kJ/kg
Work of expansion, wE = h3 – h4 = 69.5 – 62.1 = 7.4 kJ/kg
Refrigerating effect, qo = h1 – h4 = 166 – 62.1 = 103.9 kJ/kg
Heat rejected, qk = h2 – h3 = 201.5 – 69.5 = 132 kJ/kg
Net work, w = wC – wE = 35.5 – 7.4 = 28.1 kJ/kg
= qk – qo = 132 – 103.9 = 28.1 kJ/kg
qo 103.9
COP of the cycle, -c = = = 3.74
w 28.1
Alternatively, we have for Carnot COP
To 273 - 30
(-c) Carnot = = = 3.74
Tk - To 35 - ( - 30)
(b) Actual COP, -c = 0.75 ´ 3.74 = 2.8
Q 3.5167
Power consumption per ton, W = o = = 1.256 kW
-c 2.8
Heat rejected per ton, Q k = Q o + W = 3.516 + 1.256 = 4.722 kW
2.6 GAS AS A REFRIGERANT IN REVERSED

CARNOT CYCLE
Figure 2.15 shows the Carnot cycle 1-2-3-4 with gas as a refrigerant, illustrated on
T-s and p-L diagrams.
p3
2 p4
p2
3
Tk 2
p1
To
4 1
T
Tc
4
s
Fig. 2.15(a) Reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant on T-s diagram
The four processes of the cycle are analysed as non-flow processes as follows in
Eqs. (2.6), (2.7), (2.8) and (2.9).
3
p3
Tk
=
T2
pv = C
=
Q
T3
=0
p2 2
p4 T0
Q
4 =T
=
p
0
4 =T
1 1
p1 1
V3 V4 V2 V1
V
Fig. 2.15(b) Reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant on p-v diagram
1–2 Isentropic compression: Q = 0

Pressure increases from p1 to p2
Specific volume reduces from L1 to L2
Temperature increases from To = T1 to Tk = T2
p2 L2 - p1 L1 R (Tk - To )
Work done, | w1 – 2 | = = (2.6)
C -1 C -1
2–3 Isothermal compression and heat rejection: T2 = T3 = Tk
Pressure increases from p2 to p3
Specific volume reduces from L2 to L3
L L
Work done, | w2 – 3 | = p2L2 ln 2 = RTk ln 2 (2.7)
L3 L3
Heat rejected, qk = q2 –3 = w2 –3 (for a perfect gas in an isothermal
process)
3–4 Isentropic expansion: Q = 0
Pressure falls from p3 to p4
Specific volume increases from L3 to L4
Temperature decreases from Tk = T3 to To = T4
p3 L3 - p4 L4 R (Tk - To )
Work done, w3 – 4 = = (2.8)
C -1 C -1
4–1 Isothermal expansion and heat absorption: T4 = T1 = To
Pressure falls from p4 to p1
Specific volume increases from L4 to L1
L1 L
Work done, w4 – 1 = p4L4 ln = RTo ln 1 (2.9)
L4 L4
Refrigerating effect, qo = q4 – 1 = w4 – 1 (for a perfect gas)
Net work of the cycle.

L2 L
w = | w2 – 3 | – w4 – 1 = RTk ln – RTo ln 1 (2.10)
L3 L4
L1
Refrigerating effect, qo = q4 – 1 = RTo ln (2.11)
L4
Now for the isentropic processes 1-2 and 3-4
FG p IJ Fp I
C –1 C –1
= G J
Tk C C
HpK Hp K
2 3
=
To 1 4
and
Tk L1 FG IJ C -1
L4 FG IJ C -1
To
=
L2 H K =
L3 H K
= rC – 1
where r is the compression ratio for the isentropic processes.

p2 p L L
Hence = 3 , and r = 1 = 4
p1 p4 L2 L3
L2 L p p
or = 1 = 3 = 4
L3 L4 p2 p1
since p2L2 = p3L3 and p4L4 = p1L1
We have, for the COP for cooling
L
RTo ln 1
qo L4
-c = =
w L L
RTk ln 2 - RTo ln 1
L3 L4
To
=
Tk - To
1 1
= = C -1 (2.12)
Tk
-1 r -1
To
Thus COP is a function of compression ratio only.
2.7 LIMITATIONS OF REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
It is found that serious practical difficulties are encountered in the application of

Carnot cycle.
In the reversed Carnot cycle with vapour as refrigerant, the isothermal processes
of condensation and evaporation are internally reversible processes, and they are
easily achievable in practice although there may be some problem in having only
partial evaporation. However, isentropic compression and expansion processes have
some limitations which are discussed in Chap. 3. In brief, it is difficult to design an
expander to handle a mixture of largely liquid and partly vapour for the process 3-4.
Also, because of the internal irreversibilities in the compressor and the expander, the
actual COP of the Carnot cycle is very low, though the ideal cycle COP is the maxi-
mum. A cycle which is closest to the reversed Carnot vapour cycle is the vapour
compression cycle described in Chap. 3.
There are two drawbacks of reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a refrigerant:
(i) Firstly, it is not possible to devise, in practice, isothermal processes of heat
absorption and rejection, 4-1 and 2-3 in Fig. 2.15 with gas as the working
substance. These are impractical as these will be infinitely slow.
(ii) Secondly, the cycle on p-L diagram is very narrow since the volume is chang-
ing both during the reversible isothermal and reversible adiabatic processes.
Drawn correctly to scale, the Carnot p-L diagram is much thinner than the
diagram illustrated in Fig. 2.15. As a result, the stroke volume of the cylinder
is very large. The cycle, therefore, suffers from poor actual COP as a result of
irreversibilities of the compressor and expander.
A gas refrigeration cycle, which is closest to reversed Carnot cycle with gas as a
refrigerant, is described in Chap. 11.
2.8 ACTUAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Although the Carnot cycle is theoretically the most efficient cycle between given
temperatures Tk and To, it has limitations for practical use. It is, therefore, found
useful only as a criterion of perfection of cycle. In an actual cycle, the COPs, -c and
-h, will be less than their Carnot values. For the purpose of comparison between the
actual and Carnot values, we define the second law efficiency or exergetic efficiency
for cooling and heating, (DII)c and (DII)h as below:
-c
(DII)c =
- c, Carnot
-h
(DII)h =
- h, Carnot
Note that -c and -h are the first law COPs.
The conventional refrigeration systems work on the vapour compression cycle
which is closest to the Carnot vapour cycle and has a high COP. Gas cycle refrigera-
tion is used in aircraft refrigeration. Among the less conventional ones are the
heat-operated refrigerating machines working on the vapour absorption cycle and
steam ejector cycle.
There are also the low temperature refrigeration or cryogenic cycles, e.g., Linde
cycle, Claude cycle, etc., used for the liquefaction of gases. Also, we have Philips
liquefier which employs a cycle approaching the reversible Stirling cycle.
A recent development is the thermoelectric refrigeration as described in Fig. 1.11.

But its COP is so poor that it cannot be exploited commercially. Temperatures ap-
proaching absolute zero have been obtained by adiabatic demagnetization, as de-
scribed in Fig. 1.12, on a limited scale in laboratories.
Revision Exercises
2.1 (a) A refrigerator has working temperatures in the evaporator and condenser
coils of –30 and 35°C respectively. What is the maximum possible COP
of the refrigerator?
(b) If the actual refrigerator has a refrigerating efficiency of 0.75, calculate
the refrigerating effect in kW and TR per kW of power input.
2.2 A reversed Carnot cycle has a COP for cooling of 4. Determine the tempera-
ture ratio Tk/To.
If the power consumption of the cycle is 7.5 kW, determine the refrigerating
capacity of the machine in TR.
If the cycle is used as a heat pump with the same ratio of temperatures, deter-
mine its COP for heating and the quantity of heat pumped.
2.3 A Carnot refrigerator operates with Refrigerant 134a as a refrigerant con-
densing at 50°C and evaporating at –15°C.
Find its COP using the Carnot expression as well as the properties of R134a.
Also determine the power consumption per ton of refrigeration.
2.4 The overall volume compression ratio of a reversed Carnot cycle working
with air as a refrigerant is 10. The temperature limits of the cycle are 40°C
and 0°C.
Determine:
(i) the pressure, volume and temperature at each point of the cycle,
(ii) the work done in the cycle,
(iii) the refrigerating effect, and
(iv) the COP of the cycle.
2.5 An air conditioning system is operating in an ambient of 45°C. The room
temperature is maintained at 25°C. Determine the power consumption of the
system per ton of refrigeration if it is,
(a) air-cooled as in a window-type air conditioner;
(b) water-cooled as in a central air conditioning plant.
The cooling water from cooling tower is available at 30°C. Assume suitable
operating temperatures. Actual COP of the system is only 50% of the COP of
the reversible cycle.
2.6 Determine the power consumption of a domestic refrigerator if its refrigerat-
1
ing capacity is TR. It is operating in an ambient of 40°C. Temperature in
8
the freezer must be maintained at –15°C. COP of the system is half the Carnot
COP. Assume suitable condensing and evaporating temperatures.
!
Vapour Compression
System
3.1 MODIFICATIONS IN REVERSED CARNOT

CYCLE WITH VAPOUR AS A REFRIGERANT
The reversed Carnot cycle with vapour as a refrigerant can be used as a practical
cycle with minor modifications. The isothermal processes of heat rejection and heat
absorption, accompanying condensation and evaporation respectively, are nearly
perfect processes and easily achievable in practice. The isentropic compression and
expansion processes, however, have certain limitations which are discussed below
and are, therefore, suitably modified.
3.1.1 Dry Versus Wet Compression

The compression process as shown in Fig. 3.1 involves the compression of wet-
refrigerant vapour at 1¢ to dry-saturated vapour at 2¢. It is called wet compression.
With a reciprocating compressor, wet compression is not found suitable due to the
following reasons:
pk
2
Superheat
2 horn
Tk 2
po
To
T
1 1
s
Fig. 3.1 Dry and wet compression processes
(i) First, the liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the cylinder and may
damage the compressor valves and the cylinder itself. Even though the state
of vapour at the end of wet compression is theoretically dry-saturated, it is

normal to expect some liquid droplets to remain suspended in the gas, as the
time taken by the compression process is quite small compared to the time
needed for evaporation of droplets. For example, in a modern high-speed
compressor, say, running at 2800 rpm, the time available in one revolution is
only 0.021 second.
(ii) Secondly, liquid-refrigerant droplets may wash away the lubricating oil from
the walls of the compressor cylinder, thus increasing wear.
It is, therefore, desirable to have compression with vapour initially dry saturated at
1 as shown in Fig. 3.1, or even slightly superheated if a reciprocating compressor is
used. Such compression is known as dry compression. The state of the vapour at the
end of compression will, therefore, have to be at 2, at pressure pk which is the satura-
tion pressure of the refrigerant corresponding to the condensing temperature tk, instead
of being at 2² , which would be the state point if the Carnot cycle were to be
executed. It results in the discharge temperature t2 being higher than the condensing
temperature tk. Consequently, the refrigerant leaves the compressor superheated. The
increased work of the cycle due to the substitution of wet compression by dry
compression appears as the area 2–2¢ – 2², generally known as superheat horn.
It must, however, be stated here that wet compression in some cases is indeed
desirable, and also practicable with the use of a continuous flow machine like a
centrifugal or a screw compressor with no valves in place which are an essential
feature of a reciprocating compressor. The improvement in COP with wet compres-
sion is amply illustrated in the case of ammonia in Example 3.4 in which it is shown
that the power consumption per ton refrigeration with wet compression is less by
10 percent as compared with that of dry compression.
3.1.2 Throttling Versus Isentropic Expansion

Refrigerating machines are usually much smaller devices compared to power plants.
Thus the net work required by refrigeration systems is quite small compared to the
work done in power-generating plants.
pk a 3 2 Wet Compression
Isentropic
p
Isenthalpic
po
b 4 4 1
Fig. 3.2 Comparison of throttling and isentropic expansion of liquid

on p-L diagram
Further, the positive work of the cycle, recovered during the isentropic expansion
process, as shown by area 3-a-b-4¢ in Fig. 3.2, is even smaller, as compared to the
negative work of the cycle consumed during the isentropic compression process,
Vapour Compression System 89
shown by area 1-2-a-b. This is evident from the expression for work, viz., –òLdp.
Thus for the same pressure difference dp, the work depends on the volume L of the
working substance. In the expander, the refrigerant is in the liquid state, whereas, in
the compressor, it is in the gaseous state. The volume of the vapour is very large
compared to the volume of the liquid (Lg >> Lf ). Hence, the positive work of
isentropic expansion is seldom large enough to justify the cost of an expander. On
the other hand, the thermodynamic and friction losses of an expander, if employed,
may even exceed the gain in work. Moreover, there are practical difficulties in
smoothly expanding a liquid of a highly wet vapour in an expander.
Accordingly, the isentropic expansion process of the Carnot cycle may be
replaced by a simple throttling process or an isenthalpic process by the use of an
expansion device such as a throttle valve or a capillary tube.
Ik 3
To 4 4
T
c d s
Fig. 3.3 Comparison of throttling and Isentropic expansion of liquid
on T-s diagram
The process is an irreversible one and is accompanied by increase of entropy as

shown by line 3-4 on the T-s diagram in Fig. 3.3. Thus, the substitution of the
isentropic-expansion process 3-4¢ by the isenthalpic/throttling process 3-4 would,
theoretically, result in a loss of work represented by area 3-a-b-4¢ on the p-v diagram
and a decrease in the refrigerating effect represented by area 4¢-c-d-4 on the T-s
diagram. It can be shown that both these areas are equal.
3.2 VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE
The cycle with the above two modifications is named as the vapour compression
cycle and because of its high index of performance or efficiency, it is most widely
used in commercial refrigeration systems. A complete vapour compression cycle is
shown on the T-s diagram in Fig. 3.4 and on the p-L diagram in Fig. 3.5. Figure 3.4
also presents a comparison of the vapour compression cycle 1-2-3-4 with the
reversed Carnot cycle 1-2²-3-4¢, or 1-2²-3¢-4, both operating between the same
temperature limits of Tk and To.
In the vapour compression cycle:
Refrigerating effect, qo = area 1-4-d-e
Heat rejected, qk = area 2-2¢-3-c-e
Work done, w = qk – qo = area 1-2-2¢-3-c-d-4-l
3 3 2
Tk 2
w
T
f 4 4
To 1
4
qo
w
c d e
s
Fig. 3.4 Vapour compression cycle on T-s diagram
It may maybe seen that the vapour comptession cycle presents three deviations
from the reversed Carnot cycle, as indicated below:
3
pk 2
p
po 1
4
v
Fig. 3.5 Vapour compression cycle on p-L diagram
(i) Area 4-4¢-c-d, representing a loss of the refrigerating effect, Dqo, as a result of
throttling.
(ii) Area 4-4¢-c-d, also representing a loss of positive work, Dwo, resulting from
the failure to recover expansion work. It can be shown that areas 4-4¢-c-d and
3-f-4¢ are the same.
(iii) Area 2-2¢-2² of superheat horn, representing an increase of negative work,
Dw k, as a result of dry compression.
Consequently, the theoretical COP of the vapour compression cycle is lower than
that of the reversed Carnot cycle. Nevertheless, it is closest to the Carnot cycle as
compared to other cycles and its COP approaches nearest to the Carnot value.
3.3 VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM CALCULATIONS
A schematic vapour compression system is shown in Fig. 3.6. It consists of a com-

pressor, a condenser, an expansion device for throttling and an evaporator. The
compressor-delivery head, discharge line, condenser and liquid line form the high-
pressure side of the system. The compressor and matching condenser together are
also available commercially as one unit called the condensing unit. The expansion
line, evaporator, suction line and compressor-suction head form the low-pressure
side of the system. It may be pointed out here that, in actual systems unlike in
Fig. 3.6, the expansion device is located as close to the evaporator as possible in
order to minimise the heat gain in the low temperature expansion line.
In plants with a large amount of refrigerant charge, a receiver is installed in the
liquid line. Normally, a drier is also installed in the liquid line particularly in
flurocarbon systems. The drier contains silica gel and absorbs traces of moisture
present in the liquid refrigerant so that it does not enter the narrow cross-section of
the expansion device causing moisture choking by freezing. The thermodynamic
processes are as follows:
Process 1-2 Isentropic compression: s2 = s1. Q = 0
Work done, w = – òLd p = – òdh = – (h2 – h1) (3.1)
Process 2-3 Desuperheating and condensation: pk = const.
Heat rejected, qk = h2 – h3 (3.2)
Process 3-4 Isenthalpic expansion: h3 = h4 = hf4 + x4 (h1 – hf4)
h3 - h f4
Þ x= (3.3)
h1 - h f 4
Process 4-1 Evaporation: po = const.
Refrigerating effect, qo = h1 – h4 (3.4)
Discharge or
Delivery Line
Qk
Liquid Line Condenser High Pressure

Side
Expansion
Device W
Expansion Compressor
Line Low Pressure
Evaporator Side
Suction Line
Qo
Fig. 3.6 Vapour compression system

3.3.1 Representation of Vapour Compression Cycle on Pressure-Enthalpy

Diagram
It is worth noting that two of the processes are at constant pressure and one is at
constant enthalpy. It is, therefore, found convenient to represent the vapour com-
pression cycle on a pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram as shown in Fig. 3.7. Therefore,
even though the fourth process is an isentropic one, the p-h diagram is still found
convenient as the work done is given by the increase in enthalpy.
Subcooled
Region tk Critical Point
to
3 tk 2
pk 2
Superheat
m Region
s2
x4 v1
p
=
to
s1
1
t 2 = Const.
po
t k = Const.
t o = Co
f 4
nst.
( h 1 – h 4) ( h 2 – h 1)
h
Fig. 3.7 Vapour compression cycle on p-h diagram
The cycle described and shown in Figs. 3.4, 3.5 and 3.7 is a simple saturation
cycle implying that both the states, of liquid after condensation and vapour after
evaporation, are saturated and lie on the saturated liquid and saturated vapour curves
respectively. The condensation temperature tk and evaporator temperature to, corre-
sponding to the respective saturation pressures pk and po, are also called saturated
discharge temperature and saturated suction temperature respectively. However,
the actual discharge temperature from the compressor is t2.
Figure 3.7 also shows constant temperature lines in the subcooled and superheat
regions along with constant volume lines. It may be noted that constant temperature
lines in the subcooled liquid and low pressure vapour regions are vertical as the
enthalpy of the liquid and the ideal gas are functions of temperature only and do not
depend on pressure.
Further calculations of the cycle can be done as follows:
Heat rejected, qk = qo + w = h2 – h 3
h1 - h4
COP for cooling , -c = (3.5)
h2 - h1
h2 - h3
COP for heating, -h = (3.6)
h2 - h1
refrigerating capacity Q
Refrigerant circulation rate, m = = o (3.7)
refrigerating effect per unit mass qo
Specific volume of the vapour at suction = L1
Theoretical piston displacement of the compressor or volume of the suction
vapour,
V = m L1 (3.8)
Actual piston displacement of the compressor,
1
Vp = mL
hL
where hL is the volumetric efficiency.
Power consumption, W = mw = m (h2 – h1) (3.9)
Heat rejected in the condenser, Q k = mq
k = m ( h2 - h3 ) (3.10)
Expressing the power consumption per ton of refrigeration as unit power con-
*
sumption, denoted by W , we have for mass flow rate and power consumption per
ton refrigeration,
3.5167
*
m = kg/(s) × (TR) (3.11)
qo
FG h - h1 IJ kW/TR
Hh K
*
= 3.5167
W = mw 2
(3.12)
1 - h4
It will be seen that
* 1
W µ
-?
Similarly, the suction volume requirement per ton is
* 211
V = m *
L1 = L1 m3/(min) (TR) (3.13)
q0
The isentropic discharge temperature t2 may be found by the following three
methods.
(i) Graphically from p-h diagram by drawing the isentropic from point 1 to
pk = constant line, or by iteration, finding t2 corresponding to s2 = s1.
(ii) Using saturation properties and the specific heat of vapour
T
s1 = s2 = s¢2 + Cp ln 2 (3.14)
T2¢
where s¢2 = sg2 and T ¢2 = Tk
(iii) Using superheat tables and interpolating for the degree of superheat (T2 – T ¢2)
corresponding to the entropy difference (s2 – s¢2) which is known.
The following examples illustrate the procedures.
Refrigerant Charge Refrigerant Charged in the system depends on the volume of
the system, with liquid in some parts, and vapour in others. Note that mass flow rate
is the mass of refrigerant circulated. It is not equal to the mass charged in the system.
Example 3.1 Freon 12 System

A Freon 12 vapour compression system operating at a condenser temperature of
40°C and an evaporator temperature of 0°C develops 15 tons of refrigeration.
Using the p-h diagram for Freon 12, determine.
(a) the discharge temperature and mass flow rate of the refrigerant circulated,
(b) the theoretical piston displacement of the compressor and piston displace-
ment per ton of refrigeration,
(c) the theoretical horsepower of the compressor and horsepower per ton of
refrigeration,
(d) the heat rejected in the condenser, and
(e) the Carnot COP and actual COP of the cycle.
Solution From the p-h diagram (table) of Freon 12

h1 = 187.5 kJ/kg L1 = 0.055 m3/kg
h2 = 213.96 kJ/kg
h3 = h4 = 74.6 kJ/kg
(a) Discharge temperature s2 = s1 = 0.6966 gives
t2 = 54.06°C
Refrigerating effect q0 = h1 – h4 = 187.5 – 74.6 = 112.8 kJ/kg
Refrigerant circulated
Q0 15 ´ 211
m = = = 28.0 kg/min
q0 112.8
(b) Theoretical piston displacement of compressor
V = m L1 = 28.0 (0.055) = 1.514 m3/min
Piston displacement per ton
* 1514
.
V = = 0.101 m3/min (TR)
15
(c) Power consumption
W = m
(h2 – h1)
28.0 (213.96 - 187.5)
= = 12.36 kW
60
Theoretical horsepower of the compressor
12.36 ´ 103
HP = = 16.6
746
16.6
HP/TR = = 1.1
15
(d) Heat rejected
Q k = m (h2 – h3)
28.0 (213.96 - 74.6)
= = 65.1 kW
60
(e) Carnot COP

273
-max = = 6.8
40 - (0)
COP of the cycle
h1 - h4 112.8
-= = = 4.3
h2 - h1 213.96 - 187.5
Example 3.2 R 134a System

Chlorine in the Freon 12 (CCl2F2) molecule depletes the ozone layer in the
earth’s upper atmosphere. R 12 has now been replaced by the ozone-friendly
R 134 a (C2H2F4)
For the conditions of Example 3.1, do calculations for R 134a, and compare
results.
Solution From the table of properties of R 134a in the Appendix, we have

p0 = 0.2958 MPa pk = 1.0166 MPa h4 = 256.41 kJ/kg
3
h1 = 398.6 kJ/kg v1 = 0.06931 m /kg
s1 = 1.7541 kJ/kgK s¢2 = 1.7111 kJ/kg K, h¢2 = 419.43 kJ/kg
Cp at pk = 1.145 kJ/kg K T2¢ = 313 K
(a) For isentropic compression,
T2
s2 = s1 = 1.7541 + Cp ln
313
Þ T2 = 317.6 K (44.4°C)
b
h2 = h2¢ + Cp T2 - T2¢ g
= 419.43 + 1.145(4.4) = 424.5 kJ/kg
w = h2 – h1 = 424.5 – 398.6 = 25.9 kJ/kg
qo = h1 – h4 = 398.6 – 256.41 = 142.19 kJ/kg
Q o 15 ´ 211
m = = = 22.26 kg/min
qo 142.19
(b) V = m L1 = 22.26(0.06931) = 1.543 m3/min
V 1543
.
V * = = = 0.1029 m3/min (TR)
TR 15
22.26( 424.5 - 398.6)
(c) W = m (h2 – h1) = = 9.61 kW
60
9.61 ´ 10 3
HP = = 12.88
746
12.88
HP/TR = = 0.86
15
22.26
(d) Q k = m (h2 – h3) = (424.5 – 256.41) = 62.36 kW
60
qo 142.19
(e) - = = = 5.49
w 259
.
Note R 134a requires 2% more piston displacement, 22% less power consumption, and
gives higher COP. Additionally, it has 10°C lower discharge temperature.
Example 3.3 Ammonia Ice Plant

An ammonia ice plant operates between a condenser temperature of 35°C and
an evaporator temperature of –15°C. It produces 10 tons of ice per day from
water at 30°C to ice at –5°C. Assuming simple saturation cycle, using only tables
of properties for ammonia, determine;
(a) the capacity of the refrigeration plant,
(b) the mass flow rate of refrigerant,
(c) the discharge temperature,
(d) the compressor cylinder diameter and stroke if its volumetric efficiency is
hL = 0.65, rpm N = 1200 and stroke/bore ratio L/D = 1.2,
(e) the horsepower of the compressor motor if the adiabatic efficiency of the
compressor ha = 0.85 and mechanical efficiency hm = 0.95, and
(f) the theoretical and actual COP.
Solution
(a) Refrigerating capacity
10 ´ 1000
Q 0 = [4.1868 (30 – 0) + 335 + 1.94 (0.5)]
24
= 195,960 kJ/h
= 195,960 = 54.43 kW
3600
Refer Fig. 3.8.
(b) From the table for ammonia,
h1 = hg (–15°C) = 1443.9 kJ/kg and s1 = sg(–15°C) = 5.8223 kJ/(kg) (K)
h4 = h3 = hf (35°C) = 366.1 kJ/kg
q0 = h1 – h4 = 1443.9 – 366.1 = 1077.8 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate
195,960
m = = 181.7 kg/h
1077.8
(c) From the table, entropies and enthalpies of vapour saturated at 35°C and
superheated by 50 K and 100 K are, respectively,
sg (35°C) = 5.2086, s(50 K) = 5.6466 s(100K) = 5.9806
hg (35°C) = 1488.6 h(50 K) = 1633.6 h(100K) = 1703
Now s2 = s1 = 5.8223 > 5.6466
Hence the vapour is superheated by more than 50 K.

Interpolating for discharge temperature,
5.8223 − 5.6466
t2 = 35 + 50 + (50)
5.9806 − 5.6466
= 35 + 50 + 27.1 = 112.1°C
(d) Piston displacement of compressor
p D2 1
mL
LN = Vp =
4 hL
p 2 181.7(0.509)
Þ D (1.2) D (1200) (60) =
4 0.65
whence D = 0.128 m
L = 0.154 m
(e) Enthalpy at discharge, by interpolation as for entropy
27.1
h2 = 1633.6 + (1761.6 – 1633.6) = 1633.6 + 69.4 = 1703 kJ/kg
50
Here, 1633.6 kJ/kg is the enthalpy of vapour superheated by 50 K.
Power consumption
m (h2 - h1 ) 181.7(1703 - 1443.9)
W = = = 16.21 kW
ha hm 3600 ´ 0.85 ´ 0.95
16.21 ´ 103
Horsepower HP = = 21.73 hp
746
h - h4 1077.8
(f) Theoretical COP = 1 = = 4.16
h2 - h1 1703 - 1443.9
Q0 54.43
Actual COP = = = 3.36
W 16.21
Example 3.4 Checking if Dry or Wet Compression is Desirable in

Ammonia Systems
An ammonia refrigerating machine has working temperatures of 35°C in the
condenser and –15°C in the evaporator. Assume two cases;
(a) dry compression, and
(b) wet compression
Calculate for each, the following;
(i) the theoretical piston displacement per ton refrigeration,
(ii) the theoretical horsepower per ton refrigeration, and
(iii) the coefficient of performance.
Solution (a) Dry compression The cycle is shown as 1-2-3-4 in Fig. 3.8. Points
2² and 2²¢ correspond to 50°C and 100°C superheat respectively at 35°C condensing
temperature. By interpolation for state 2 between states 2² and 2²¢ we already have
values of entropy s2 and enthalpy h2 for dry compression from Example 3.3.
1488.6 1633.6 1703
86
20
5. 66 3
= 64 22
s 5. 5.8 6
s= = .9 80
=s
2
35°C s =5
3 2 s1
2 2 2
y
Dr
et
6
42 D t
W
0.7
p
– 15°C = 27.1°C
f sf 1 1
4 1
35°C 85°C t2 135°C
– 15°C
hf = 131.3 366.1 1443.9

h, kJ/kg
Fig. 3.8 Figure for Examples 3.3 and 3.4
Refrigerant circulation rate per ton refrigeration

211
m* = = 0.1956 kg/(min) (TR)
1077.8
(i) Theoretical piston displacement per ton
V * = m*L1 ´ 60 = 0.1956 ´ 0.509 ´ 60 = 5.975 m3/h
(ii) Theoretical horsepower per ton
m* w 0.1956 ´ 259.4
HP* = = = 1.15 hp/TR
90 ´ 0.736 60 ´ 0.736
q0 1078.5
(iii) COP = = = 4.16
w 259.1
(b) Wet compression The cycle is shown as 1¢-2¢-3-4 in Fig. 3.8. The dryness at
suction at 1¢ can be calculated by interpolation for entropy.
5.2086 - 0.7426
x¢1 = = 0.88
5.8223 - 0.7426
h¢1 = 131.3 + 0.88 (1443.9 – 131.3) = 1286.1 kJ/kg
L¢1 = Lf + x (Lg – Lf) = 0.00152 + 0.88 (0.509 – 0.00152)
= 0.448 m3/kg
q0 = h¢1 – h4 = 1286.1 – 366.1 = 920 kJ/kg
w = h¢2 – h¢1 = 1488.6 – 1286.1 = 202.5 kJ/kg
Refrigerant circulation rate per ton
211
m* = = 0.229 kg/(min) (TR)
920
(i) Theoretical piston displacement per ton
V* = 0.229 ´ 0.448 ´ 60 = 6.159 m3/h
(ii) Theoretical horsepower per ton

0.229 ´ 202.5
HP* = = 1.05 hp/TR
60 ´ 0.736
920
(iii) COP = = 4.55
202.5
Note It is seen that higher COP and lower power consumption is obtained with wet
compression in the case of ammonia. However, compressor piston displacement is
increased by (6.159-5.975)/5.975, viz., 3% though.
3.4 EWING’S CONSTRUCTION
The theoretical COP of the vapour compression cycle with any refrigerant working
between given evaporation and condenser temperatures is found to depend on the
state of the suction vapour which may be wet, dry saturated or superheated. For
example, in the limiting case, when the vapour is compressed immediately after
throttling from 4 itself to 5 as shown in Fig. 3.9, the refrigerating effect as well as the
COP are both zero. As the suction state is moved to the right, the refrigerating effect
and COP go on increasing until point 1 is reached. After this point, the compression
partly takes place in the superheat region and the heat is not rejected at constant
temperature in the condenser. A trend of increasing COP may continue until the
suction state 1 m for maximum COP is reached.
For some refrigerants and certain operating conditions, the maximum COP oc-
curs with the suction state 1 m in the two phase region and for some others in the
superheat region.
.
st
on
C
=
k
p
2m 2s
.
st
on
3 5
Tk
C
2
o =
p
T
To 1s
4 1 1m
s
sm
ss
s
Fig. 3.9 Effect of variable suction state
1
Ewing has shown that when this maximum occurs with state l m in the two-phase
region, the COP is equal to that of a reversed Carnot cycle operating between the
evaporator temperature T0 and the temperature of superheated discharge vapour T2m.

To show this, consider the expression for COP
h - h4 (h1 - h4 )/ Ds
- = 1 = (3.15)
h2 - h1 (h2 - h4 )/ Ds - (h1 - h4 )/ Ds
Now, an enthalpy-entropy diagram may be employed for Ewing’s construction as
shown in Fig. 3.10. It may be seen that the term (h1 – h4)/Ds is the gradient of the
evaporator pressure p0 = const. line and is equal to T0, as long as point 1 is in the
two-phase region. The expression for COP, with the suction state in the two-phase
region, is then as given in Eq. (3.16)
T0
-= (3.16)
(h2 - h4 )/ Ds - T0
1m
Fig. 3.10 Ewing’s construction
The numerical value of the term (h2 – h4)/Ds, however, changes as point 2 shifts
along with point 1. It can be seen that the COP is maximum when this gradient is
minimum, i.e., when a line drawn from 4 to pk = const. line makes a tangent at 2m.
The corresponding suction state for maximum COP is obtained on the isentropic line
at 1m. Using the thermodynamic relation
FG DhIJ
H Ds K p
=T
LM h
2m - h4 OP = T2 m
we find that
N Dsm Q pk = const.
(3.17)
so that the slope of the tangent Dh/Ds from point 4 to the pk = const. line is equal to
the discharge temperature T2 m. The expression for maximum COP is then as follows
in Eq. (3.18)
T0 T0
-max =
LMh2 - h4 OP =
T2 m - T0
(3.18)
N Ds min Q
- T0
It must, however, be remembered that the above expression for -max is valid only
if the maximum COP occurs with the suction state 1 in the two-phase region.
3.4.1 Suction State for Maximum COP

2
Gosney has given a method of finding whether the maximum COP occurs with the
suction state in the two-phase region or in the superheat region. Consider Case I
first, in which maximum COP occurs with the suction state in the two-phase region.
Consider also a simple saturation cycle with suction state at 1s and the correspond-
ing discharge state at 2s, the discharge temperature being T2s, as shown in Figs. 3.9
and 3.10. Then from Eq. (3.16), the COP of the simple saturation cycle -s is
T0
-s = (3.19)
h2 s - h4
- T0
D ss
Now, it can be seen from Fig. 3.10 that the slope of tangent at 2m < slope of line
4-2s < slope of tangent at 2s. It implies that
h2 s - h4
T2 m < < T2s (3.20)
D ss
Comparing Eqs. (3.18), (3.19) and (3.20), we see that
T0
-max > -s > for Case I (3.21)
T2 s - T0
In a similar manner, it can be shown that for Case II, viz., for maximum COP to
occur with the suction state in the superheat region,
T0
-s < for Case II (3.22)
T2 s - T0
In this manner it can be found out whether the wet or superheated suction state is
suitable for maximum COP for a particular refrigerant. Table 3.1 shows calculations
for a number of common refrigerants for t0 = –15°C and tk = 30°C and classifies
them either as Case I or as Case II.
Table 3.1 Categorization of refrigerants for suction state for maximum COP
T0
Refrigerant -s t2s, °C Case
T2 s - T0
NH3 4.76 99 2.27 I
C4H10 (Isobutane) 4.26 30 5.74 II
C2H2F4 (Refrigerant 134a) 4.6 36.4 5.02 II
C2H6 2.41 50 3.97 II
CCl3F(Freon 11) 5.03 44 4.38 I
CCl2F2 (Freon 12) 4.7 38.3 4.84 II
CClHF2 (Freon 22) 4.66 53.3 3.68 I
C3 H8 (Propane) 4.47 37.61 4.91 II
It can be readily seen that suction vapour superheat increases the COP in pro-
pane, isobutane, tetrafluoro-ethane (Refrigerant 134a) and Freon 12 systems,
whereas, in the case of Freons 11 and 22 and ammonia systems, maximum COP is
obtained with wet suction state.
Example 3.5 Suction State for Maximum COP in Isobutane Refrigerator

Show that, for t0 = –15°C and tk = 30°C, for isobutane the suction state for
maximum COP lies in the superheat region.
Solution From the table of properties of isobutane for the saturated vapour state
at 1 at –15°C, we have p1 = 0.895 bar, h1 = 536.19 kJ/kg
s1 = 2.3073 kJ/kg. K
Also, for the saturated vapour state 2¢ at 30°C, we have
p2 = 4.08 bar
s¢2 = 2.3198 kJ/kg. K
Since s2 = s1 = 2.3073 < s¢2 = 2.3198, the state 2 after compression is wet. Isobutane,
therefore, has typical T-s diagram as shown in Fig. 3.11.
bar
4.5 bar
33.41°C 8
4.0 ar
3 30°C 2 5 b
30°C 2 3.
24.5°C
bar
95
0.8
T
– 15°C
4 1
sfg = 1.074
2.3073 2.3198
s
Fig. 3.11 Simple saturation cycle for isobutane for Example 3.5
From isobutane table, at 30°C

sf = 1.2458 kJ/kg. K = s3
sfg = 1.074 kJ/kg. K = s¢2 – s3
hf = 272.37 kJ/kg = h3 = h4
hfg = 325.59 kJ/kg = h2¢ – h3
Hence, we have
s1 = 2.3073 = 1.2458 + x2 (1.074) = s2
Þ x2 = 0.988 kJ/kg
h2 = h3 + x2 hfg = 272.37 + (0.988) (325.59)
= 598.12 kJ/kg
h1 - h4 536.19 - 272.37 263.8
-s = = =
h2 - h1 598.12 - 536.19 61.9
= 4.26
T0 258.15 258.15
= =
T2 s - T0 30 - ( -15) 45
= 5.74 < -s
Isobutane, therefore, belongs to Case II like Freon 12 and R 134a. The suction
state for maximum COP lies in the superheat region.
3.5 STANDARD RATING CYCLE AND EFFECT OF

OPERATING CONDITIONS
For the purpose of comparison, a case is made for the use of standard operating
conditions. According to the current practice, the testing of single-stage compres-
sors for air conditioning applications is carried out at t0 = 5°C, tk = 40°C and a
suction temperature of 20°C.
The following analysis shows the effect of change in operating conditions on the
performance of the vapour compression cycle.
3.5.1 Effect of Evaporator Pressure

Consider a simple saturation cycle 1-2-3-4 with R 134a as the refrigerant as shown
in Fig. 3.12 for operating conditions of tk = 40°C and t0 = 0°C. It has been seen in
Example 3.2 that for this cycle:
Volume of suction vapour, V * = 0.103 m3/(min) (TR)
9.61
Unit power consumption, W * = = 0.64 kW/TR
15
Now consider a change in the evaporator pressure corresponding to a decrease in
the evaporator temperature to –10°C. The changed cycle is shown as 1¢-2¢-3-4¢ in
Fig. 3.12. Similar calculations for the changed conditions give:
Volume of suction vapour, V * = 0.154 m3/(min) (TR)
Unit power consumption, W * = 0.87 kW/TR
It is, therefore, seen that a drop in evaporator pressure corresponding to a drop of
10°C in saturated suction temperature increases the volume of suction vapour and
hence decreases the capacity of a reciprocating compressor by
3 tk = 40°C 2 2
pk
v1
p p0 t0 = 0°C 1 v1 > v1
4 t0 = –10°C
p0
4 1
q0
h
Fig. 3.12 Effect of evaporator pressure
F1 - V I ´ 100 = 33.3%
GH ¢ JK
*
*
V
and increases the power consumption per unit refrigeration by
FW ¢ I
GG W - 1JJ ´ 100 = 36.4%
*
H *
K
It is observed that a decrease in evaporator temperature results in:
(i) Decrease in refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to (h¢1 – h¢4)
(ii) Increase in the specific volume of suction vapour from L1 to L¢1
(iii) Decrease in volumetric efficiency, due to increase in the pressure ratio, from
hL to h¢L.
(iv) Increase in compressor work from (h2 – h1) to (h¢2 – h¢1) due to increase in
the pressure ratio as well as change from steeper isentropic 1-2 to flatter
isentropic 1¢ – 2¢ as discussed in Sec. 3.5.3.
h LVp
Since Q 0 = mq
0 = q0
L1
and W * = m* w (3.23)
expressions for the dependence of capacity and unit power consumption may now be
written as follows:
Q 0 µ q = (h – h )
0 1 4
1
µ
L1
µ hL
1 1
and W* µ m * µ =
q0 h1 - h4
µ w = h 2 – h1
Note The term volumetric efficiency hv is only relevant in the case of positive displace-
ment compressors.
Hence, denoting the capacity and unit power consumption of the changed cycle
(t0 = – 10°C) by Q¢0 and W*¢, we have expression as follows in Eqs. (3.24) and (3.25)
Q0¢ h ¢ - h4 L1 h ¢L
= 1 × × (3.24)
Q0 h1 - h4 L1¢ h L
W *¢ - h - h4 h2¢ - h1¢
= c = 1 × (3.25)
W* - c¢ h1¢ - h4 h2¢ - h1
Example 3.6 Variation in Capacity of Condensing Unit with Refrigeration

Temperature
A Freon 22 condensing unit is specified to give 40 TR capacity for air condition-
ing under standard operating conditions of 40°C condensing and 5°C evaporat-
ing temperatures. What would be its capacity in TR for food freezing for which
the evaporator temperature is –35°C?

(i) At t0 = 5°C
Q 0 = 40 TR = 40 (3.5167) = 140.67 kW
q0 = h1 – h4 = 407.15 – 249.7 = 157.45 kJ/kg
Q 140.67
m = 0 = = 0.8934 kg/s
q0 157.45
Vp = m L1 = 0.8934 (0.04035) = 0.036 m3/s
w = h2 – h1 = 26.85 kJ/kg

W =m w = 24 kW
q k = h2 – h3 = 434 – 249.7 = 184.3 kJ/kg
Q k = m qk = 0.8934 (184.3) = 164.7 kW
40°C
434.0 456.5
2 2
3
v 1 = 0.04035
5°C 1 v 1 = 0.1665
p
4
– 35°C 1
4
390.85
407.15
249.7
h, kJ/kg
Fig. 3.13 p-h diagram for Example 3.6

(ii) At t0 = –35°C, since Vp remains the same

Vp 0.036
m ¢ = = = 0.2164 kg/s
L1¢ 0.1665
q ¢0 = h¢1 – h¢4 = 390.85 – 249.7 = 141.15 kJ/kg
Q 0¢ = m ¢ q ¢ = 0.2164 (141.15) = 23.15 kW (6.6 TR)
0
Thus, the compressor capacity would be reduced to 6.6 TR only from 40 TR. The
compressor motor would become very much undersize as its power requirement
would be
W = m ¢ w ¢ = 0.2164 (456.5 – 390.85)
= 142.1 kW
as against the existing motor of 24 kW only.
On the other hand, the condenser would be very much oversize as the heat
rejected would be reduced to only
Q k′ = m
′ q k′ = 0.2164 (456.5 – 249.7)
= 44.8 kW
3.5.2 Effect of Condenser Pressure

An increase in condenser pressure, similarly results in a decrease in the refrigerating
capacity and an increase in power consumption, as seen from the changed cycle
1-2¢-3¢-4¢ for t¢k = 45°C in Fig. 3.14. The decrease in refrigerating capacity is due to
a decrease in the refrigerating effect and volumetric efficiency. The increase in
power consumption is due to increased mass flow (due to decreased refrigerating
effect) and an increase in specific work (due to increased pressure ratio), although
the isentropic line remains unchanged. Accordingly, one can write for the ratios
3 tk = 45°C
pk 2
3 t k = 40°C
pk 2
t0 = 0°C v1
p0
p
4 4 1
q0
q 0 = ( h 1 – h 4)
Fig. 3.14 Effect of condenser pressure
Q0¢ h - h4¢ h ¢L
= 1 × (3.26)
Q0 h1 - h4 h L
W *¢ -¢ h - h4 h2¢ - h1
= c = 1 × (3.27)
W *
-c h1 - h4¢ h2 - h1
Note It is obvious that COP decreases both with decreasing evaporator and increasing
condenser pressures.
It may, however, be noted that the effect of increase in condenser pressure is not
as severe, on the refrigerating capacity and power consumption per ton of refrigera-
tion, as that of the decrease in evaporator pressure.
3.5.3 Effect of Suction Vapour Superheat

Superheating of the suction vapour is advisable in practice because it ensures com-
plete vaporization of the liquid in the evaporator before it enters the compressor.
Also, in most refrigeration and air-conditioning systems, the degree of superheat
serves as a means of actuating and modulating the capacity of the expansion valve. It
has also been seen that for some refrigerants such as R 134a, Isobutane, etc., maxi-
mum COP is obtained with superheating of the suction vapour.
It can be seen from Fig. 3.15, that the effect of superheating of the vapour from
t1 = t 0 to t¢1 is as follows:
(i) Increase in specific volume of suction vapour from L1 to L¢1
(ii) Increase in refrigerating effect from (h1 – h4) to (h¢1 – h4)
(iii) Increase in specific work from (h2 – h1) to (h¢2 – h¢1).
It is to be noted that (h¢2 – h¢1) is greater than (h2 – h1). This is because, although
the pressure ratio is the same for both lines, the initial temperature t¢1 is greater than
t1 and the work, given for example by the ideal gas expression,
g RT1 LM g -1 OP FG T , p , g IJ
H p K
g
MN PQ
-1 = f 2
w= ( p2 / p1 ) 1
g -1 1
is a function of initial temperature T1, pressure ratio p2/p1 and exponent g. Thus, we
see that it increases with the initial temperature T1. That is why isentropic lines on
the p-h diagram become flatter at higher temperatures as they move away more and
more from the saturated vapour curve.
Steeper Isentropic Flatter Isentropic
3 2 2
v1 v1
t0 t1
p
4 1 1
t = t1 – t0
t0 = t1 t1
h
Fig. 3.15 Effect of suction vapour superheat
An increase in specific volume decreases the capacity. On the contrary, an

increase in refrigerating effect will increase the capacity. The net effect of super-
heating is to theoretically reduce the capacity in ammonia systems and to increase it
in Freon 12 systems. The ratio of the capacities with superheating Q¢0 and without
superheating Q0, can be written as
Q0¢ h ¢ - h4 L1
= 1 × (3.28)
Q0 h1 - h4 L1¢
Similarly, for the work done per unit of refrigeration, it may be seen that there are
two contradictory influences, viz., an increase in the refrigerating effect decreasing
the mass flow requirement and hence work and an increase in the specific work itself
due to an increase in the suction temperature. The resulting work per unit refrigera-
tion may, therefore, increase or decrease depending on the refrigerant and operating
temperatures.
The effect on work or power consumption per unit refrigeration is given by the
ratio given in Eq. (3.29).
W *¢ h - h4 h2¢ - h1¢
= 1 × (3.29)
W* h1¢ - h4 h2 - h1
The COP of the cycle with superheat is given by
h ¢ - h4
-¢c = 1
h2¢ - h1¢
(h1 - h4 ) + (h1¢ - h1)
=
b g b
(h2 - h1 ) + h2¢ - h1¢ - h2 - h1 g (3.30)
As both the numerator and the denominator increase, the numerical value of COP
may increase or decrease or remain the same. It has been shown that in Freon 12
systems, superheating increases the COP whereas in Freon 22 and ammonia sys-
tems, it decreases it. In general, however, the effect of slight superheat on the
volumetric efficiency of the reciprocating compressor and the COP is beneficial as it
ensures complete vaporization of liquid refrigerant droplets in suspension in the
suction vapour.
It may be noted that superheating outside the evaporator or cold space results
in a loss.
3.5.4 Effect of Liquid Subcooling

It is possible to reduce the temperature of the liquid refrigerant to within a few
degrees of the temperature of the water entering the condenser in some condenser
designs by installing a subcooler between the condenser and the expansion valve.
The effect of subcooling of the liquid from t3 = tk to t¢3 is shown in Fig. 3.16. It will
be seen that subcooling reduces flashing of the liquid during expansion and increases
the refrigerating effect. Consequently, the piston displacement and horsepower per
ton are reduced for all refrigerants. The per cent gain is less pronounced in the case
of ammonia because of its larger latent heat of vaporization as compared to liquid
specific heat.
Normally, cooling water first passes through the subcooler and then through the
condenser. Thus, the coolest water comes in contact with the liquid being subcooled.
But this results in a warmer water entering the condenser and hence a higher con-
densing temperature and pressure. Thus, the advantage of subcooling is offset by the
increased work of compression.
This can be avoided by installing parallel cooling water inlets to the subcooler and
condenser. In that case, however, the degree of subcooling will be small and the added
cost of the subcooler and pump work may not be worthwhile.
t3 = tk
3 3 tk 2
t0
4 1
p
4
x
x q0
h
Fig 3.16 Effect of liquid subcooling
It may be more desirable to use the cooling water effectively in the condenser itself
to keep the condensing temperature as near to the temperature of the cooling water
inlet as possible.
In general, the functions of the condenser as well as the subcooler can be
combined in the condenser itself by slightly oversizing the condenser.
3.5.5 Using Liquid–Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger
If we combine superheating of vapour with liquid subcooling, we have a liquid-
vapour regenerative heat exchanger.
A liquid–vapour heat exchanger may be installed as shown in Fig. 3.17. In this,
the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is superheated in the regenerative heat
exchanger with consequent subcooling of the liquid from the condenser. The effect
on the thermodynamic cycle is shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the mass flow rate of the
liquid and vapour is the same, we have from energy balance of the heat exchanger
qN = h¢1 – h1 = h3 – h¢3 (3.31)
Condenser 2
3 1
Liquid-vapour
Regenerative
Heat Exchanger
1
Evaporator
4
Fig. 3.17 Vapour compression system with liquid-vapour regenerative heat
exchanger
t3 tk
3 3 tk g 2 2
v1
v1
1
p
4 4 t0 1
t0 t1
(h4 – h4) (h1 – h1)

h
Fig. 3.18 Vapour compression cycle with liquid-vapour regenerative heat
exchanger
The degree of superheat (t¢1 – t0) and the degree of subcooling (tk – t¢3) need not be
the same as the specific heats of the vapour and liquid phases are different. The
effect on the capacity, power requirement per unit refrigeration and COP is
expressed as follows:
Q 0¢ h1 - h4¢ L1
= × (3.32)
Q 0 h1 - h4 L1¢
W *¢ h1 - h4 h2¢ - h1¢
* =
× (3.33)
W h1 - h4¢ h2 - h1
(h1 - h4 ) + (h1¢ - h1 )
-¢c =
(h2 - h1 ) + h2¢ - b g
h1¢ - (h2 - h1 )
(3.34)
In all the above expressions, both numerators and denominators increase. The net
effect, whether positive, negative or zero, depends on the refrigerant used and the
operating conditions. In practice, the suction volume per ton and horsepower per ton
are reduced for Freon 12 and R134a. Calculations show a slight increase in the suc-
tion volume and horsepower per ton for Freon 22 and ammonia. Experiments show,
however, that the volumetric efficiency of most reciprocating compressors improves
with superheat.
In particular, it must be stated that superheating of the vapour in a liquid-vapour
regenerative heat exchanger is preferable to superheating in the evaporator itself, as
the increased refrigerating effect (h¢1 – h1) due to superheating taking place from
temperature t0 to t¢1 is transferred as (h4 – h¢4) at temperature t0, which lowers mean
refrigeration temperature. Thus, we obtain the same increase in refrigerating effect
at a lower temperature by the use of a liquid-vapour regenerative heat exchanger.
Example 3.7 Using Liquid-Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger in Freon

12 Systems
(a) A Freon 12 simple saturation cycle operates at temperatures of 35°C and

–15°C for the condenser and evaporator respectively. Determine the COP
and HP/TR of the system.
(b) If a liquid-vapour heat exchanger is installed in the system, with the tem-
perature of the vapour leaving the heat exchanger at 15°C, what will be the
change in the COP and HP/TR?
Solution (a) Simple saturation cycle Refer to Fig. 3.18. We have from tables
of properties of Freon 12
Superheated
20 K 40 K
t hf hg sg h s h s
°C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg.K) kJ/kg kJ/(kg.K) kJ/kg kJ/(kg.K)
35 69.5 201.5 0.6839 216.4 0.731 231.0 0.7741
–15 181.0 0.7052 193.2 0.751 205.7 0.7942
Hence h3 = h4 = 69.5 kJ/kg

h1 = 181 kJ/kg
s1 = 0.7052 kJ/(kg) × (K) = s2
By interpolation for the degree of superheat at discharge
0.7052 - 0.6839
Dt = (20) = 9.04°C
0.731 - 0.6839
Hence h2 = 201.5 + 10.2 (216.4 – 201.5) = 208.2 kJ/kg
20
q0 = 181 – 69.5 = 111.5 kJ/kg
w = 208.2 – 181 = 27.2 kJ/kg
1115.
COP = = 4.09
27.2
4.761
HP/TR = = 1.16
4.09
(b) Liquid-vapour heat exchanger cycle
Degree of superheat at suction
t¢1 – t1 = 15 – (–15) = 30°C
By interpolation for superheated vapour
10
h¢1 = 193.2 + (205.7 – 193.2) = 199.45 kJ/kg
20
10
s¢1 = 0.751 + (0.7942 – 0.751) – 0.7726 kJ/(kg) × (K) = s¢2
20
Now, h¢1 – h1 = 199.45 – 181 = 18.45 = h3 – h¢3
Hence, h¢3 = 69.5 – 18.45 = 51.05 kJ/kg
By interpolation for the degree of superheat
0.7726 - 0.731
Dt = 20 + (20) = 20 + 19.3 = 39.3°C
0.7741 - 0.731
19.2
Hence h¢2 = 216.4 + (231 – 216.4) = 230.5 kJ/kg
20
q¢0 = h1 – h¢3 = 181 – 51.05 = 129.95 kJ/kg
w = 230.4 – 199.45 = 30.95
129.95
COP = = 4.199
30.95
4.199 - 4.09
Increase in COP = (100) = 2.56%
4.09
4.761
HP/TR = = 1.134
4.199
. - 1134
116 .
Decrease in HP/TR = (100) = 2.5%
1.2
Note Theoretically, the increase in COP is not very large for Freon 12. And for
Freon 22 there is, in fact, a decrease in COP. However, superheat improves the perform-
ance by ensuring complete vaporization of liquid.
In refrigerators and air conditioners, the capillary tube is joined to the suction line, thus
forming a regenerative heat exchanger.
Example 3.8 Using Liquid-Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger in R 134a

Systems
(a) An R 134a simple saturation cycle refrigerator operates at 40°C condenser
and –16°C evaporator temperatures. Determine COP and HP/TR.
(b) If a liquid–vapour regenerative heat exchanger is installed in the
system, with the suction vapour at 15°C, what will be the effect on
COP and HP/TR?
Solution Refer Fig. 3.18

At tk = 40°C pk = 1.0166 MPa
h3 = 256.41 kJ/kg hg = 419.43 kJ/kg
Cp = 1.145 kJ/kg K sg = 1.711 kJ/kg
At t0 = –16°C p0 = 0.15728 MPa
h1 = 389.02 kJ/kg s1 = 1.7379 kJ/kg K
Cp = 0.831 kJ/kg K
(a) Simple saturation cycle Calculations for isentropic compression give for
discharge temperature
T
s2 = sg + Cp ln 2 = s1
Tg
T
1.7111 + 1.145 ln 2 = 1.7379
313
Discharge temperature and enthalpy
T2 = 320.5 K (47.4°C)
h2 = hg + Cp(t2 – tg)
= 419.43 + 1.145(47.4 – 40) = 427.92 kJ/kg
Refrigerating effect and specific work
q0 = h1 – h3 = 389.02 – 256.41 = 132.61 kJ/kg
w = h2 – h1 = 427.92 – 389.02 = 38.9 kJ/kg
COP and HP/TR
q0 132.61
-c = = = 3.41
w 38.9
4.761 4.761
HP/TR = = = 1.396
- 3.41
(b) Liquid–vapour regenerative heat exchanger cycle Enthalpy and entropy of
suction vapour
h1¢ = h1 + Cp (t1¢ - t1 )
= 389.02 + 0.831(31) = 414.78 kJ/kg
T1¢
s1¢ = s1 + Cp ln
T1
273 + 15
= 1.7379 + 0.831 ln = 1.8325 kJ/kg K
273 - 16
Insentropic compression gives
T2¢ T¢
s2¢ = s1¢ = 1.8325 = sg + Cp ln = 1.7111 + 1.145 ln 2
Tg 313
Discharge temperature and enthalpy
Þ T2¢ = 348 K (75°C)
h2¢ = hg + Cp (t2¢ - t g )
= 419.43 + 1.145(75 – 40) = 459.5 kJ/kg
Energy balance of regenerative heat exchanger gives
q = h1¢ – h1 = 414.78 – 389.02 = 25.76 kJ/kg = h3 – h3¢
Refregerating effect and specific work
q 0¢ = q0 + q = 132.61 + 25.76 = 158.37 kJ/kg
w¢ = h2¢ – h1¢ = 459.5 – 414.78 = 44.72 kJ/kg
COP and HP/TR
q¢ 158.37
-c = 0 = = 3.54
w¢ 44.72
4.761 4.761
HP/TR = = = 1.345
-c 354
.
There is an increase of 3.8% in COP, and decrease in HP/TR by the same
percentage nearly.
3.6 ACTUAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE
Due to the flow of the refrigerant through the condenser, evaporator and piping,
there will be drops in pressure. In addition, there will be heat losses or gains depend-
ing on the temperature difference between the refrigerant and the surroundings. Fur-
ther, compression will be polytropic with friction and heat transfer instead of
isentropic. The actual vapour compression cycle may have some or all of the items
of departure from the simple saturation cycle as enumerated below and shown on the
p-h and T-s diagrams in Figs. 3.19 and 3.20.
2 p2
3a 3b 2c 2a
3 2b
p
p01
4 1d 1c
p02 1b
1a p1
1
h
Fig. 3.19 Actual vapour compression cycle on p-h diagram
p2
2 2a
2b
2c
3
3b
3a
T
p1
1b 1a
t01 1c
4 1
t02
1d
Fig. 3.20 Actual vapour compression cycle on T-s diagram
(i) Superheating of the vapour in the evaporator, 1d–1c.

(ii) Heat gain and superheating of the vapour in the suction line, 1c–1b.
(iii) Pressure drop in the suction line, 1b-1a.

(iv) Pressure drop due to wire drawing at the compressor-suction valve, 1a–1.
(v) Polytropic compression 1–2 with friction and heat transfer to the surround-
ings instead of isentropic compression.
(vi) Pressure drop at the compressor-discharge valve, 2–2a.
(vii) Pressure drop in the delivery line, 2a–2b.
(viii) Heat loss and desuperheating of the vapour in the delivery line, 2b–2c.
(ix) Pressure drop in the condenser, 2b–3.
(x) Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser or subcooler, 3–3a.
(xi) Heat gain in the liquid line, 3a–3b. The lines 3–3a and 3a–3b are along the
saturated liquid line on the T-s diagram as the constant pressure lines in liquid
region run close to it.
(xii) Pressure drop in the evaporator, 4–1d.
It may be noted that the pressure drop in the evaporator is large. This is due to the
cumulative effect of two factors. Firstly, the pressure drops in the evaporator due to
friction. This is called the frictional pressure drop. Secondly, as evaporation pro-
ceeds, the volume increases, and hence the velocity must also increase. The increase
in kinetic energy comes from a decrease in enthalpy and, therefore, from a further
pressure drop. This pressure drop is called the momentum pressure drop.
In the condenser, the pressure drop is not significant, since the frictional pressure
drop is positive and the momentum pressure drop is negative.
It is, therefore, to be noted that pressure drop in the condenser is not very critical.
But, it is very much so in the design of evaporators as it would increase power
consumption greatly or alternatively reduce refrigerating capacity (see Sec. 9.5).
The condensers, in any case, are usually oversized to keep the condenser pressure
low and also to let condensers function as receivers. However, in the case of evapo-
rators, both undersizing and oversizing are harmful.
It may also be noted that due to the pressure drop in the evaporator from p01 to
p02, the temperature in the evaporator does not remain constant. It correspondingly
changes from t01 to t02.
Further, due to various pressure drops, the capacity of the plant is decreased and
the unit power consumption (per unit of refrigeration) is increased. Correspond-
ingly, the COP of the actual cycle is reduced.
The compressor cylinder is hotter than the surroundings. Thus it loses heat to the
refrigerant. The cooling of the compressor reduces the work of compression. Freon
compressor are, therefore, provided with parabolic fins built into the body of the
compressor cylinders on the outside during casting. The compressors are thus cooled
by air by natural convection. Ammonia and even Freon 22 compressors are water-
jacketed for the same purpose. Friction, however, increases the work of compres-
sion. The actual work of compression can be determined by knowing the initial and
the final states and finding out n, the polytropic index of the compression curve. The
heat rejected in the polytropic compression process can be obtained by applying the
SSSF energy equation
q = (h2 – h1) + w
Þ – w = (h2 – h1) – q (3.35)
Equation (3.35) represents the energy balance of the compressor. It means:
Work of compression = Increase in enthalpy of gas + Heat lost in cooling
Example 3.9 The following data were obtained from a test on a twin cylinder,
single acting 15 cm ´ 20 cm, 320 rpm compressor ammonia refrigeration plant.
Temperatures of refrigerant:
After expansion valve, entering brine cooler –25°C
Leaving brine cooler –18°C
Entering compressor –8°C
Leaving compressor 140°C
Entering condenser 130°C
Leaving condenser 30°C
Entering expansion valve 32°C
Pressures of refrigerant:
Compressor discharge and condenser 13.5 bar
Compressor suction 1.324 bar
Brine circulation rate 102 kg/min
Temperature drop of brine in cooler 7°C
Specific heat of brine 3.14 kJ/(kg) (K)
Input to motor 18.8 kW
Motor efficiency at this load 92%
Compressor jacket cooling water 5 kg/min
Temperature rise of jacket water 8.9°C
Show the thermodynamic states at various points on p-h and T-s diagrams and
calculate:
(a) Refrigerating capacity in TR assuming 2 per cent loss of useful refrigera-
tion by heat gain from room in brine cooler.
(b) Ammonia circulated.
(c) Compressor IHP and mechanical efficiency.
(d) Compressor volumetric efficiency.
(e) COP of the cycle.
Solution Referring to Fig. 3.19, the various state points are given below:
State 3b: t = 32°C p = 13.5 bar h = 351.5 kJ/kg (at 32°C)
State 4: t = – 25°C p = 1.516 bar h = 351.5 kJ/kg (saturation)
State 1d: t = –28°C (saturation) p = 1.324 bar
State 1c: t = –18°C p = 1.324 bar h = 1451.3 kJ/kg
State 1b: t = –8°C p = 1.324 bar h = 1473.6
State 1: t = –8°C h = 1473.6 kJ/kg ( = h1b)
States 2, 2a and 2b:
t = 140°C h = 1777 kJ/kg
State 2c: t = 130°C p = 13.5 bar h = 1751 kJ/kg
State 3: t = 35°C (saturation at 13.5 bar) p = 13.5 bar
State 3a: t = 30°C p = 13.5 bar h = 341.8 kJ/kg
(a) Refrigerating capacity (from brine)
Q 0 = 102 ´ 3.14 ´ 7 ´ 1.02 = 2287 kJ/min
2287
= = 10.84 TR
211
(b) Refrigerating effect

q0 = h1c – h4 = 1451.3 – 351.5 = 1099.8 kJ/kg
Ammonia circulated
2287
m = = 2.08 kg/min
1099.9
(c) Note: From 2 to 2b, it is an isenthalpic process. It has been assumed here that
enthalpy is a function of temperature only and hence t2b = t2.
Enthalpy increase during compression
h2 – h1 = 1777 – 1473.6 = 303.4 kJ/kg
Total enthalpy increase of ammonia
H2 – H1 = m (h2 – h1) = 2.08 (303.4) = 631.1 kJ/min
Heat to jacket water, Q j = 5 ´ 4.1868 ´ 8.9 = 186.3 kJ/min
Compressor work, | W | = (H – H ) + | Q |
2 1 j
= 631.1 + 186.3 = 817.4 kJ/min
= 13.62 kW
13.62 ´ 103
Compressor IHP = = 18.26
746
Compressor input = Power consumption of motor ´ motor efficiency
= 18.8 ´ 0.92 = 17.3 kW
17.3 ´ 103
Compressor BHP = = 23.19
746
IHP
Mechanical efficiency, hm = = 0.787
BHP
(d) Gas enters compressor at 1b
273 + (–8)
L1b = Lg ×
273 + (–28)
But Lg= 0.88 m3/kg (saturated vapour at –28°C)
Hence
FG 265IJ = 0.952 m /kg (It can also be obtained
L1b = 0.88
H 245K
3
directly from the p-h diagram)

Actual volume flow rate of refrigerant
V = mL
1b = 2.08 ´ 0.952 = 1.99 m3/min
Compressor piston displacement
Vp = p D2LN (2) = p (0.15)2 (0.2) (320) (2) = 2.62 m3/min
4 4
Volumetric efficiency of the compressor
V 1.99
hL = = = 0.882 (or 88.2%)

Vp 2.262
Q0 2287
(e) COP = = = 2.797
W 60 ´ 13.62
3.7 STANDARD RATING CYCLE FOR DOMESTIC

REFRIGERATORS3
Figure 3.21 shows a standard ten-state-points cycle. This cycle approximates the
design and operating conditions of a domestic refrigerator. The ten states points
correspond to the following conditions:
(i) Vapour in cylinder before compression begins at p1 = p10 – Dps, t1 = t10 where
Dps is pressure drop at suction valve.
(ii) Vapour in cylinder after compression ends, 2s after isentropic, and 2n after
actual polytropic compression at p2 = pk + Dpd, where Dpd is pressure drop at
delivery valve.
(iii) Vapour at compressor shell outlet/condenser inlet at p3 = pk , t3 = t2.
(iv) Saturated vapour state in condenser at t4 = tk = 55°C condensing temperature.
(v) Saturated liquid state in condenser at t5 = tk = 55°C.
(vi) Subcooled liquid leaving condenser at t6 = 43°C.
(vii) Subcooled liquid leaving regenerator/entering capillary at t7 = 32°C.
(viii) Liquid-vapour mixture exiting capillary/entering evaporator at t8 = t0 = –25°C
evaporator temperature.
(ix) Saturated vapour leaving evaporator at p9 = p8 – DpE where DpE is pressure
drop in evaporator.
(x) Superheated vapour leaving regenerator/entering compressor at t10 = 32°C.
32°C
43°C
t5
2n 2s
55°C 4
7
6 5 3n 3s
Pressure
32°C
– 25°C
– 25°C
8
9 10
1
Enthalpy
Fig. 3.21 Standard ten state point cycle
Note that this cycle corresponds to an ambient temperature of 43°C. Subcooling

of liquid from t6 = 43°C to t7 = 32°C takes place in the regenerator. Superheating of
vapour to t10 = 32°C takes place in the suction line, regenerator and the compressor.
For Freon 12, the following pressure drops are assumed:
DpE = 0.1 bar, Dps = 0.1 bar, Dpd = 0.25 bar
Example 3.10 Thermodynamic Calculations for 165 L Freon 12 Domestic

Refrigerator
An 89 W refrigerating capacity 165 L Freon 12 domestic refrigerator operates
on the standard cycle (Fig. 3.21). Determine:
(i) Isentropic discharge temperature.
(ii) Actual discharge temperature if experimental value of polytropic index n is
found to be 1.032.
(iii) Motor watts (isentropic).
(iv) Heat rejected in the condenser.
(v) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor if its cylinder volume is 4.33 cc,
and rpm of its motor is 2800.
Solution The pressures are:
pk = p3 = p4 = p5 = p6 = p7 = (psat)55°C = 13.61 bar
p0 = p8 = (psat)– 25°C = 1.24 bar
p9 = p10 = p8 – DpE = 1.24 – 0.1 = 1.14 bar
t9 = (tsat)1.14 bar = – 27°C
p1 = p10 – Dps = 1.14 – 0.1 = 1.04 bar
t1 = t10 = 32°C
p2 = p3 + Dpd = 13.61 + 0.25 = 13.86 bar
From the table of properties of Freon 12, we have:
h5 = (hf)55°C = 90.3 kJ/kg
h6 = (hf)43°C = 77.65 kJ/kg
h7 = (hf)32°C = 66.56 kJ/kg = h8
h9 = (hg) –27°C = 175.6 kJ/kg
h10 = 211 kJ/kg = h1
s1 = 0.85 kJ/kg. K
L10 = 0.18 m3/kg
(i) Isentropic discharge temperature,
s2s = s1 = 0.85 kJ/kg. K at p2 = 13.86 bar gives
t2s = 138°C
Þ h2s = 267 kJ/kg = h3s
(ii) Actual discharge temperature,
FG p IJ F 13.86IJ
g –1 0.032
= 305.15 G
g 1.032
HpK H 1.04 K
2
T2n = T1 = 330.7 K
1
t2n = 57.5°C
Þ h2n = 234 kJ/kg = h3n
(iii) Refrigerating effect, mass flow rate and motor watts
q0 = h9 – h8 = 175.6 – 66.56 = 109.1 kJ/kg
Q 89 ´ 10-3
m = 0 = = 0.817 ´ 10–3 kg/s
q0 109.1
W = m w = m (h2s – h1) = 0.817 ´ 10–3 (267 – 211)
= 0.046 kW (46 W)
Note The actual power of motor in the hermetic unit of 165 L refrigerator is 110 W. This
takes care of compressor and motor efficiencies.
(iv) Condenser heat rejected
Q k = m qk = m (h3n – h6) = 0.817 ´ 10–3 (234 – 77.65)
= 0.128 kW (128 W)
(v) Suction vapour volume
60m 0.817 ´ 10-3 (0.18)
Vs = L10 =
N 2800/ 60
= 3.1513 ´ 10–6 m3/rev = 3.1513 cc/rev
Volumetric efficiency of compressor
V 3.1513
hL = s = = 0.728 (72.8%)
Vp 4.33
Note Results for alternatives to CFC 12 in refrigerators are discussed in Chap. 4.
3.7.1 Pull-Down Characteristic and Ice-Making Time of Refrigerators3

According to the Indian Standards Institution (ISI) specification, for the testing of
refrigerators, the environment temperature is maintained at 43°C. The no-load test
is performed by adjusting the thermostat position corresponding to an average cabi-
net temperature of 7°C. The purpose of this test is to find the pull-down period, the
no-load power consumption, and the percentage running time as per ISI code.
The pull-down period is the time required to reach the specified temperatures
inside the cabinent after switching on the unit. The temperature at the geometric
centre of the evaporator shall not exceed –5°C at pull-down.
Another test performed on the refrigerators is the ice-making time test. For this test,
after stable operating conditions are obtained following pull-down period, a quantity
of 0.5 kg of water at 30 ± 1°C in two standard ice trays is kept in the freezer, and the
time for each ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ is noted. After specified time of 3 hours, the ice trays are
examined for the formation of ice, and the running time of the unit during the 3 hours
of operation is obtained, say, from the data acquisition system monitoring ‘ON-OFF’
cycle. This running time of the unit is the ice-making time. If ice is not formed during
3 hours of operation, the system operation is to be continued.
For the case of Freon 12 refrigerator of Example 3.8, the pull down period is 90
minutes, and the ice making time is 125 minutes.
Purpose of these tests is to compare the values for different refrigerators, and for
different refrigerants. Increase in pull-down period, running time, and ice making
time implies inadequate capacity.
3.8 HEAT PUMP
In mild winter climate, a heat pump output of 2 to 3 times the compressor power
input may be realized. If a condensing temperature of 46°C is assumed, while the
room is maintained at 24°C, for the heat-pump cycle the following values of COP
for heating versus evaporator temperature may be obtained:
4.5°C evaporator, COPH = 6.5
–18°C evaporator, COPH = 4
Note that evaporator temperature depends on outdoor air temperature.
These values are theoretical. These do not include losses due to pressure drops,
coil frosting and defrosting, etc. Inspite of the lowering of COP with the outdoor air
temperature and hence the evaporator temperature specially at the time of maximum
heating load, these air-to-air heat pumps are finding increasing applications in mild
climates.
However, despite overall actual COP ranging from 1.5 to 3, the operating cost of
air-to-air heat pumps exceeds the cost with conventional fossil-fuel-equipment. But,
water-to-air and water-to-water heat pumps which use relatively higher tempera-
tures can compete with fossil-fuel-equipment. Warm water is thus a better heat
source than outside air. In solar-assisted heat pumps, solar panels can provide warm
water in the 20–35°C temperature range even in extreme cold climates.
Example 3.11 A simple Refrigerant 134a (Tetrafluoro-ethane) heat pump

for space heating operates between temperature limits of 15 and 50°C. The heat
required to be pumped is 100 MJ/h.
Determine:
(a) the dryness fraction of refrigerant entering the evaporator,
(b) the discharge temperature assuming the specific heat of vapour as
0.996 kJ/(kg) (K),
(c) the theoretical piston displacement of the compressor,
(d) the theoretical horsepower of the compressor, and
(e) the COP.
The specific volume of Refrigerant 134a saturated vapour at 15°C is
0.04185 m3/kg. The other relevant properties of R134a are given below.
Saturation Pressure Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

temperature hf hg sf sg
°C MN/m2 kJ/kg kJ/(kg) (K)
15 0.4887 220.48 417.1 1.0725 1.72
50 1.318 271.62 423.4 1.24 1.7072

(a) Dryness fraction of refrigerant entering evaporator
h3 - h f . - 220.48
27162
x= = = 0.274
h1 - h f 407.1 - 220.48
(b) Discharge temperature
T2
s1 = s2 = s¢2 + Cp ln
T2′
T2
1.72 = 1.7072 + 1.246 ln
273 + 50
Þ T2 = 327.15 K (53°C)
Enthalpy at discharge
h2 = h¢2 + Cp (t2 – t¢2)
= 423.4 + 1.246 (53 – 50) = 427.2 kJ/kg
(c) Mass flow rate of refrigerant
Q Q k 100,000/ 3600
m = k = = = 0.179 kg/s
qk h2 - h3 427.2 - 27162.
Theoretical piston displacement of compressor
V = m L1 = 0.179 (0.04212) = 7.539 ´ 10–3 m3/s
(d) Power consumption
W = m (h2 – h1) = 0.179 (427.2 – 407.1) = 3.6 kW
Theoretical horsepower of compressor
HP = 3.6 ´ 10 = 4.82 hp
3
746
Heating capacity
Q k = m (h2 – h3) = 0.179(427.2 – 271.6) = 27.9 kW
(e) Theoretical COP
h - h3 427.2 - 27162
.
COPH = 2 = = 7.75
h2 - h1 427 .2 - 407 .1
Alternatively,
Q 27.9
COP = k = = 7.75
W 3.6
Note that only 3.6 kW of power is consumed, and 27.9 kW of heat is
delivered to conditioned space for heating. A simple electric heater would
deliver only 3.6 kW.
3.9 SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY OF VAPOUR

COMPRESSION CYCLE
The second law efficiency of a cycle is defined by the ratio

Minimum available energy required for the cycle
hII =
Actual available energy consumed in the cycle
Now, consider a vapour compression cycle refrigerator working between a sur-

roundings temperature of Tk and a refrigeration temperature of T0. The actual cycle
is 1-2-3-4 as shown in Fig. 3.4. The net work done in the cycle is w which is equal
to the actual available energy consumed in the cycle
q0
(AE) actual = w = = Area 1-2-3-c-d-4-1
COPI
where COPI is the actual first law COP of the cycle.
And the minimum available energy required for the same refrigerating effect q0 is
the work of a Carnot cycle such as 1-2¢¢-3¢-4 operating between the same tempera-
tures T0 and Tk. Thus
q0
(AE)minimum = wCarnot = = Area 1-2²-3¢-4-1
T0
Tk - T0
The second law efficiency of the refrigerator is, therefore,
( AE ) minimum w q0 / w COPI
hII = = Carnot = =
( AE ) actual w q0 / wCarnot COPCarnot
Thus, for the case of wet compression of NH3 in Example 3.4 for tk = 35°C and
t0 = –15°C, we have:
COP = 4.55
T0 258
Carnot COP = = = 5.15
Tk - T0 35 + 15
Hence, the second law efficiency of the cycle is
4.55
hII = = 0.833 (83.3%)
515
.
Thus, the second law efficiency of vapour compression cycle is quite high. Its
COP is close to Carnot cycle COP.
The ideal Carnot cycle is completely reversible. Hence, it does not involve any
irreversibilities. The vapour compression cycle involves internal irreversibilities due
to the throttling process and also due to the superheat horn. Hence, the value of hII < 1.
The actual vapour compression cycle would also have the external irreversibilities
of condensation and evaporation processes due to finite temperature differences
required for heat transfer. hP, therefore, is further reduced.
References
1. Ewing A, Report of the Refrigeration Research Committee, The Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, UK, 1914.
2. Gosney W B, The Maximum Coefficient of Performance of a Refrigerant,
Paper 2.74, XIIth International Congress of Refrigeration, Madrid, 1967.
3. ISI Code for Testing Refrigerators No. 1476–1979.
Revision Exercises
3.1 A 15 TR Freon 22 vapour compression system operates between a condenser
temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C.
(a) Determine the compressor discharge temperature:
(i) Using the p-h diagram for Freon 22.
(ii) Using saturation properties of Freon 22 and assuming the specific
heat of its vapour as 0.8 kJ/kg. K.
(iii) Using superheat tables for Freon 22.
(b) Calculate the theoretical piston displacement and power consumption of
the compressor per ton of refrigeration.
3.2 A simple saturation ammonia compression system has a high pressure of
1.35 MN/m2 and a low pressure of 0.19 MN/m2. Find per 400,000 kJ/h of
refrigerating capacity, the power consumption of the compressor and COP of
the cycle.
3.3 (a) A Freon 22 refrigerating machine operates between a condenser tem-
perature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C. Calculate the
increase (per cent) in the theoretical piston displacement and the power
consumption of the cycle:
(i) If the evaporator temperature is reduced to 0°C.
(ii) If the condenser temperature is increased to 45°C.
(b) Why is the performance of a vapour compression machine more sensi-
tive to change in evaporator temperature than to an equal change in the
condenser temperature?
3.4 In a vapour compression cycle saturated liquid Refrigerant 22 leaving the
condenser at 40°C is required to expand to the evaporator temperature of 0°C
in a cold storage plant.
(a) Determine the percentage saving in net work of the cycle per kg of the
refrigerant if an isentropic expander could be used to expand the refrig-
erant in place of the throttling device.
(b) Also determine the percentage increase in refrigerating effect per kg
of refrigerant as a result of use of the expander. Assume that compres-
sion is isentropic from saturated vapour state at 0°C to the condenser
pressure.
3.5 An ammonia refrigeration system operates between saturated suction
temperature of –20°C, and saturated discharge temperature of +40°C. Com-
pare the COP of the cycle using wet compression with that of the cycle using
dry compression.
Assume that the vapour leaving the compressor is saturated in the case of
wet compression, and the vapour entering the compressor is saturated in the
case of dry compression. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as saturated
liquid.
3.6 A standard vapour compression cycle using Freon 22 operates on simple
saturation cycle at the following conditions:
Refrigerating capacity 15 TR
Condensing temperature 40°C
Evaporating temperature 5°C
Calculate:
(a) Refrigerant circulation rate in kg/s.
(b) Power required by the compressor in kW.
(c) Coefficient of performance.
(d) Volume flow rate of the refrigerant at compressor suction.
(e) Compressor discharge temperature.
(f) Suction vapour volume and power consumption per ton of refrigeration.
Refrigeration engineers assume that if this Freon 22 compressor is used with
R 134a, its capacity would fall by about 40%. Examine this assumption by
doing cycle analysis for R134a with the same compressor.
3.7 An ammonia refrigeration plant operates between a condensing temperature
of 40°C and an evaporating temperature of –10°C. The vapour is dry at the
end of compression. Only the following property values are given:
t hf hg sf
°C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg.K
40°C 371.5 1473 1.36
–10°C 135.4 1433 0.544
The specific heat of NH3 vapour is 2.1897 kJ/kg.K. Calculate the theoretical
coefficient of performance of the cycle.
3.8 A R134a machine operates at –15°C evaporator and 35°C condenser tem-
peratures. Assuming a simple-saturation cycle, calculate the volume of the
suction vapour and power consumption per ton of refrigeration and COP of
the cycle.
Calculate the same if the system has a regenerative heat exchanger with the
suction vapour leaving at 20°C from the heat exchanger.
3.9 (a) What would be the necessary bore and stroke of a single acting four-
cylinder, 350 rpm ammonia compressor working on simple saturation
cycle between 35°C condenser and –15°C evaporator temperatures and
developing 15 tons refrigeration. Given for the compressor:
Ratio of stroke to bore = 1
Volumetric efficiency = 0.7
(b) If the index of compression is 1.15, find the error introduced in calculat-
ing the work of compression by assuming the process to be isentropic.
Also, find the heat rejected to the compressor-jacket cooling water.
3.10 A simple saturation cycle using Freon 22 is designed for a load of 100 TR.
The saturated suction and discharge temperatures are 5°C and 40°C respec-
tively. Calculate:
(a) The mass flow rate of refrigerant.
(b) The COP and isentropic horsepower.
(c) The heat rejected in the condenser.
Use the following data:

t p hf hg sf sg Lg
°C bar kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg.K) kJ/(kg.K) m3/kg
5 5.836 205.9 407.1 1.02115 1.7447 0.0404
40 15.331 249.53 416.4 1.16659 1.69953
Specific heat of vapour is 0.65 kJ/(kg.K).
3.11 A commercial refrigerator using Isobutane operates on the simple saturation
cycle with saturated suction and discharge temperature of –25°C and 55°C
respectively.
(a) Calculate the COP and power required to run the compressor per ton of
refrigeration.
(b) If the liquid is subcooled by 10°C in the condenser, calculate the COP
and the power required per ton of refrigeration.
(c) If the liquid is further subcooled in a regenerative heat exchanger with
superheating of the vapour by 30°C, what is the increase in COP and
decrease in power required?
3.12 An ammonia ice plant operates on simple saturation cycle at the following
temperatures.
Evaporating temperature –15°C
It produces 10 tons of ice per day at –5°C from water at 30°C. Determine:
(a) Capacity of the refrigeration plant.
(b) Mass flow rate of refrigerant.
(c) Isentropic discharge temperature.
(d) Compressor dimensions (bore and stroke) if its volumetric efficiency is
assumed as 65%. The compressor is to run at 1400 rpm. Take stroke/
bore ratio (L/D) as 1.2.
(e) Horsepower of the compressor if its adiabatic efficiency is taken as 85%
and mechanical efficiency as 95%.
(f) Theoretical and actual COP.
3.13 A Refrigerant 22 vapour compression system meant for food freezing oper-
ates at 40°C condensing temperature and –35°C evaporating temperature. Its
compressor is capable of pumping 30 L/s of vapour at suction.
(a) Calculate the COP of the system and its refrigerating capacity.
(b) If a regenerative heat exchanger is installed which allows suction vapour
to be heated by 30°C with liquid from the condenser at 40°C to be cooled
correspondingly, what is the new COP and refrigerating capacity?
3.14 A domestic refrigerator uses R 134a as refrigerant and operates between
evaporator and condenser temperatures of –25°C and 55°C in an ambient of
43°C. The liquid leaves the condenser at 43°C. It is further subcooled to 32°C
in a regenerative heat exchanger in which the vapour from the evaporator is
heated to 32°C. The compressor displacement volume is 4.33 cm3. Calculate
the refrigerating capacity and power consumption of the refrigerator if the

volumetric efficiency of the compressor can be taken as 0.68, and its adia-
batic efficiency 0.85. Also find the compressor discharge temperature. The
compressor is directly coupled to a motor running at 2900 rpm.
"
Refrigerants
4.1 A SURVEY OF REFRIGERANTS
The first refrigerant used was ether, employed by Perkins in his hand-operated
vapour-compression machine. In the earlier days, ethyl chloride (C2H5Cl) was used as
a refrigerant which soon gave way to ammonia as early as in 1875. At about the same
time, sulphur dioxide (SO2) in 1874, methyl chloride (CH3Cl) in 1878 and carbon
dioxide (CO2) in 1881, found application as refrigerants. During 1910–30 many new
refrigerants, such as N2O3, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, C3H8, were employed for medium and
low-temperature refrigeration. Hydrocarbons were, however, found extremely
inflammable. Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2), dichloroethylene (C2H2Cl2) and mono-
bromomethane (CH3Br) were also used as refrigerants for centrifugal machines.
A great breakthrough occurred in the field of refrigeration with the development
of Freons (a trade name) in 1930s by E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.32 Freons are
a series of fluorinated hydrocarbons, generally known as fluorocarbons, derived
from methane, ethane, etc., as bases.
With essentially fluorine, chlorine and sometimes bromine in their molecule,
these form a series of refrigerants with a wide range of normal boiling points (boil-
ing points or saturation temperatures at one atmosphere pressures) to satisfy the
varied requirements of different refrigerating machines. The presence of fluorine in
the molecule makes the compound non-toxic and imparts other desirable physical
and physiological characteristics.
Plank31 has given individual treatment to some 50 inorganic and organic
refrigerants and many more have been listed. Among the most common inorganic
refrigerants are:
Ammonia (NH3) Used with reciprocating and screw compressors, in
cold storages, ice plants, food refrigeration, etc.
Water (H2O) Used in water-lithium bromide absorption system and
steam-ejector system only for air conditioning
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Used as solid carbon dioxide or dry ice in frozen-food
transport refrigeration.
Refrigerants 129
Presently, the most commonly used organic refrigerants are the chloro-fluoro
derivatives of CH4 and C2H6. The fully halogenated ones with chlorine in their
molecule are chloro-fluorocarbons, referred to as CFCs. Those containing H atom/s
in the molecule along with Cl and F atoms are referred to as hydro-chloro-fluoro
carbons or HCFCs. And those having no chorine atom/s in the molecule are hydro-
fluorocarbons or HFCs. Simple hydrocarbons are HCs, Thus, we have HCs, HFCs,
HCFCs and CFCs.
CFCs and HCFCs were identified as high COP refrigerants, with many favour-
able properties, e.g., non-flammability, low toxicity, and material compatibility that
led to their widespread use as refrigerants.
The most common organic refrigerants that have been employed in recent times are:
Refrigerant 11 or Used with centrifugal compressors in large capacity
CFC 11 (CCl3F) central air-conditioning plants
Refrigerant 12 or Used with reciprocating compressors in small units,
CFC12 (CCl2F2) specially domestic refrigerators, water coolers, etc.
Refrigerant 22 or Used with reciprocating compressors in window-type
HCFC22 (CHClF2) air conditioners and large units such as package units
and central air conditioning plants. It is also used
for low temperature refrigeration applications, cold
storages, food freezing and storage, etc., with recipro-
cating and often with screw compressors.
Among the less common refrigerants were:
Refrigerant 113 or CFC 113 With centrifugal compressors for air conditioning
(C2Cl3F3)
Refrigerant 114 or CFC 114 With rotary compressors
(C2Cl2F4)
Refrigerant 142b or HCFC For heat pump and high condensing temperature
142b (C2H3ClF2) applications
Refrigerant 502 For large supermarket frozen food cabinets
involving high pressure ratio applications
The F-atom in the molecule of these substances makes the substances physiologi-
cally more favourable. The Cl atom in the molecule is considered responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), thus, allowing
harmful ultra-violet radiation to penetrate through the atmosphere and reach the
earth’s surface. The H atom/s in the molecule impart/s a degree of flammability to
the substance depending upon the number of these atoms.
4.2 DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS
The international designation of refrigerants uses Refrigerant or R (or alternatively

CFC, HCFC, HFC and HC as the case may be) as the designation followed by cer-
tain numerals. Thus, for a compound derived from a saturated hydrocarbon denoted
by the chemical formula
Cm Hn Fp Clq
in which (n + p + q) = 2m + 2, the complete designation is
R(m – 1) (n + 1) (p)
Hence, for dichloro-tetrafluoro-ethane in which there are two carbon atoms

(m = 2), no hydrogen atom (n = 0) and four fluorine atoms (p = 4), the designation is
R (2 – 1) (0 + 1) (4), viz., R 114 or CFC 114. In this manner, CCl3F is R 11, CCl2 F2
is R 12, CHClF2 is R 22, C2Cl3F3 is R 113, CH4 is R 50, C2H6 is R 170, C3 H8 is
R290, and so on.
The brominated refrigerants are denoted by putting an additional B and a number
to denote as to how many chlorine atoms are replaced by bromine atoms. Thus
R 13B1 is derived from R 13 with the replacement of one chlorine atom by a
bromine atom. Its chemical formula is, therefore, CF3Br.
In the case of isomers, i.e., compounds with the same chemical formula but differ-
ent molecular structure, subscripts, a, b, etc., are used after the designations.
In this manner, there are 15 fluoro-chloro derivatives of methane (Table 4.1), 55
derivatives of ethane (Table 4.2), 332 of propane, and so on. There are also
azeotropes, which are mixtures of refrigerants but which behave like pure sub-
stances. They are given arbitrary designations, e.g., R 502 for a mixture of 48.8 per
cent R 22 or HCFC22, and 51.2 per cent R 115 or CFC115.
Table 4.1 Derivatives of methane with normal boiling points (in°C)

and designations
No. of H atoms
No. of F atoms 4-H 3-H 2-H 1-H 0-H
CH4 CH3Cl CH2Cl2 CHCl3 CCl4
0-F – 164 – 23.74 40 61.2 76.7
R 50 R 40 R 30 R 20 R 10
CH3F CH2ClF CHCl2F CCl3F
1-F –78 –9 8.9 23.7
R 41 R 31 R 21 R 11
CH2F 2 CHClF2 CCl2F2
2-F – 51.6 – 40.8 – 29.8
R 32 R 22 R 12
CHF3 CClF3
3-F – 82.2 – 81.5
R 23 R 13
CF4
4-F –127.8
R 14
Unsaturated compounds, for which (n + p + q) = 2m, are distinguished by putting

the digit 1 before (m – 1). Thus ethylene is R 1150.
In the case of common inorganic refrigerants, numerical designations have been
given according to their molecular weight added to 700. Thus ammonia, whose mo-
lecular weight is 17, is designated as R 717. Similarly, water is designated as R 718
and carbon dioxide as R 744.
Also, problem arises in the case of butane, C4 H10 and higher hydrocarbons. In
the case of butane, n = 10, a double digit figure. Hence, the prescribed method of
designation cannot be used. Accordingly, n-butane and isobutane are assigned the
designations arbitrarily as R 600 and R 600a respectively.
Table 4.2 Derivatives of ethane with normal boiling points (°C) and designations
No. of No. of H atoms

F atoms 6-H 5-H 4-H 3-H 2-H 1-H 0-H
C2H6 C2H5Cl CH2Cl–CH2Cl CH2Cl–CHCl2 CHCl2–CHCl2 CHCl2–CCl3 C2Cl6
84 113 145 162 185
0–F – 88.6 12 CH3–CHCl2 CH3–CCl3 CH2Cl–CCl3
57 75 128
R170 R 160 R 150 R 140 R 130 R 120 R 110
C2H5F CH3–CHClF CH2Cl–CHClF CHCl 2–CHClF CHCl2–CCl2F CCl3–CCl2F

1-F 4 65 102 115.7
CH2Cl–CH2F CH3–CCl2F CCl3–CH2F CCl3–CHCIF
– 37.7 42 90 117
(b) CHCl2–CH2F CH2Cl–CCl2F
32.1 86
R 161 R 151 R 141 R 131 R 121 R 111
(b) CH2F–CH2F CH3Cl–CHF3 CHClF–CHClF CHClF–CCl2F CCl2F–CCl2F

– 24.7 35 66 85 92
2–F (a) CH3–CHF2 CH2F–CHCIF CH2F–CCl2F CCl3–CHF2 CCl3–CClF2
– 24.02 27 62 77 91.5
(b) CH3–CClF2 CHCl2–CHF3 CHCl2–CClF2
– 9.25 60 72
CH2Cl–CClF2
49
R 152 R 142 R 132 R 122 R 112
Refrigerants
(Contd)
131
Table 4.2 (Contd)
132
No. of No. of H atoms

F atoms 6-H 5-H 4-H 3-H 2-H 1-H 0-H
(b) CH2F–CHF2 CHClF–CHF2 CHF3–CCl2F CClF3–CCl2F
–35 17 38 47.68
(a) CH3–CF3 CH2F–CClF2 CHCIF–CClF2 CCl3–CF3
– 47.24 7 32 45.9
3–F CH2Cl–CF3 CHCl2–CF3
8 27.82
R 143 R 133 R 123 R 113
(a) CH2F–CF3 CHClF–CF3 CCl2F–CF3

– 26.1 –12 –12
4-F (b) CHF2–CHF2 CHF2–CClF2 CClF2–CClF2
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
– 20 – 16 3.6
R 134 R 124 R 114
CHF2–CF3 CClF2–CF3
5-F – 48.1 – 38
R 125 R 115
C2 F 6
6–F –78.3
R 116
Refrigerants 133
4.3 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF METHANE DERIVATIVES

IN USE BEFORE THE YEAR 2000
A study of fluoro-chloro derivatives of methane, along with their normal boiling

points and designations as given in Table 4.1, makes an interesting reading. A
comparative study of refrigerants in use before 2000 AD may be begun with the
well-known refrigerant CFC 12 or R 12, viz., CCl2 F2, with its normal boiling point
(N.B.P.) of –29.8°C. The refrigerant has commonly been used in small-capacity
unitary equipment with reciprocating compressors, such as domestic refrigerators,
water coolers, car air conditioners, etc., for refrigeration from 0 to – 25°C. It is
evident that R 12 will maintain positive pressure in the evaporator at – 25°C.
Further, because of low value of g, R 12 has low discharge temperature. It was,
therefore, found very suitable for hermetically sealed units of refrigerators on which
the manufacturers gave 5 to 10 years warrantee. Chances of burn-out of motor
windings in hermetically sealed units are few if discharge temperature and hence
winding temperature is low.
Just above R 12, along the column with zero H atoms, we have CFC 11 or R 11,
viz., CCl3F, with an N.B.P. of 23.7°C. This is a higher boiling refrigerant. Its boiling
point is 53.5°C higher than that of R 12, and hence it is a low pressure substance. It
has vacuum in the evaporator even in air conditioning applications at t0 = 5°C. It,
therefore, has a large specific volume of the suction vapour at any evaporator tem-
perature and was, therefore, found suitable for use in large capacity centrifugal com-
pressors (300 TR and above) for water chillers (water at about 7°C) for cooling air
in central air-conditioning plants. R11 could not be considered suitable for use with
reciprocating compressors.
Above R 11, we have R 10, i.e., CCl4 or carbon tetrachloride. It has a very high
boiling point and was not found suitable even for centrifugal compressors.
Below R 12, in the same column, we have CFC 13 or R 13 having N.B.P. of
– 81.5°C, and CFC 14 or R 14 with N.B.P. of – 127.8°C. Both are lower boiling, and
hence high pressure substances. Their critical temperatures are also below the nor-
mal ambient temperatures. These, therefore, cannot be condensed at normal ambient
temperatures. Because of these reasons, these substances were not used in common
refrigeration and air conditioning applications.
To the left of R 12, in the row with one H atom, we have another well-known
refrigerant HCFC 22 or R 22, viz., CHClF2. It has an N.B.P. of – 40.8°C which is
about 10°C lower than that of R 12. It is, therefore, a comparatively higher pressure
refrigerant. Consequently, it has a smaller specific volume of the suction vapour and
gives about 40 per cent more capacity in a positive displacement compressor as
compared to R 12. Previously, R 22 was employed for air conditioning in large
capacity plants and package units above 5 TR only. But now, because of the capacity
bonus, it is used even in one ton window-type air conditioners. However, its value of
g is higher than that of R 12. Therefore, it has higher compressor discharge and
winding temperatures. It is, therefore, necessary to affect greater cooling of motor
windings in R 22 hermetically sealed units with the help of incoming suction
vapours, and also by adequate heat transfer to surrounding air, even by forced con-
vection, from its body. In any case, R 22 units have more frequent burn-out prob-
lems than R 12. Warrantees are given only for 1–2 years unlike 5–10 years for R 12.
Because of its lower boiling point, R 22 also finds application in food freezing,
freeze drying, etc., maintaining positive pressure in evaporators with temperatures
as low as – 40°C.
Above R 22, in the 1–H column, we have R 21. It is, however, a little chemically
unstable. Further above is R 20 which is a very high boiling point substance unsuit-
able as a refrigerant. Below R 22, we have R 23 with an N.B.P. of – 82.2°C. It is
similar to R 13.
Other substances in Table 4.1, are either chemically unstable or highly inflamma-
ble due to the pressence of H atoms in the molecule. Methane is the most flammable
of all. R 40 or methyl chloride (CH3Cl) with an N.B.P. of –23.74°C, used to be a
very popular refrigerant in early 20th century. It is, however, poisonous and is odour-
less at the same time. Its leakage, therefore, gives no warning and may lead to death.
Its use is, therefore, banned.
Note Here, we notice that substances with normal boiling points in the range – 50 to
+ 50°C only find application as refrigerants in commercial refrigeration and air conditioning.
4.4 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ETHANE DERIVATIVES

IN USE BEFORE THE YEAR 2000
A similar study can be made of ethane derivatives given in Table 4.2. These are
mostly higher molecular weight and hence higher boiling substances. A few lower
down in the table have their N.B.P. in the range – 50 to 50°C. One of them is R 113
or C2Cl3F3. It has two isomers. One has an N.B.P. of 45.9°C. The N.B.P. of the other
is 47.6°C. It was commonly used as a refrigerant for centrigual machines for air
conditioning. It has higher boiling point than R 11. Hence it has lower pressure and
larger volumes of the suction vapour as compared to R 11. It has the advantage that
centrifugal units of smaller capacity, i.e., of the order of 150 TR, can be designed as
against 300–500 TR of R11. However, with R 113, there is vacuum, in both, evapo-
rator and condenser.
Below R 113, we have R 114 with N.B.P. of 3.6°C. It is neither suitable for
reciprocating nor for centrigual compressors. It was generally employed in rotary or
low temperature centrifugal compressors.
Another known refrigerant is R 115. Having N.B.P. of – 38°C. It is similar to
R 22 in its thermodynamic characteristics. It is used as a component of the azeotropic
mixture R 502. The other component in the mixture is R 22. The azeotrope has a
lower pressure ratio as compared to R 22. It was therefore, used in high condensing
and low evaporating temperature applications, such as heat pumps, air-cooled
frozen food cabinets, high ambient temperature applications, etc., so that the pressure
ratios and, consequently, the discharge temperatures are low. This is a great advan-
tage in hermetically sealed compressor units as the temperature of the compressor
body and, therefore, the temperature of the enclosed motor windings depends on the
discharge temperature of the gas. A lower winding temperature ensures a lower
burn-out rate and hence a longer life of the sealed unit.
Refrigerants 135
Then we have R 116 with N.B.P. of –78.3°C which is too low. Other derivatives
of ethane have not been used as refrigerants in the past.
Note Because of the problem of ozone layer depletion R11, R12, R113, R114, R115 and
R502, all CFCs have been phased out.
4.5 REFRIGERANTS IN USE AFTER THE YEAR 2000
After the finding that CFCs, and to a lesser extent HCFCs deplete the ozone layer,
over 100 countries adopted Montreal Protocal (MP) of 1987 to phase out CFCs in
the year 2000, and HCFCs by the year 2030.
HFCs and HCs do not deplete the ozone layer. They can be used even after 2030.
Their production and use is not regualated by the MP. These refrigerants include
R32, R125, R134a, R143a, R236 fa, and R245 fa, and their azeotropic or near
azeotropic blends R404A, R407C, and R410A.
HFCs have some global warming potential though some governments may con-
sider regulating their use too.
Out of the refrigerants being used prior to 2000 AD, all CFCs R11, R12, R113,
R114, and the azeotropic mixture R502 have already been phased out.
Replacements for all important R12, R11, R22, and R502 to date to be used till
2030 are as follows:
4.5.1 Replacement for R12

The replacement for R12 in unitary equipment has been the easiest. Its place, for all
practical purposes, has ben taken over completely by R134a.
Compare the NBP of –26.1°C of R134a, which is very close to –29.8°C, the NBP
of R12.
As R134a is an HFC, its use will continue well beyond 2030 provided its global
warming potential is not considered a disqualification, and provided another more
suitable refrigerant is not found.

The replacement of R11 in large capacity centrifugal machines for air conditioning
has posed problems. So far, R123 with its NBP of 27.82°C, closest to 23.71°C, the
NBP of R11, has been chosen as the most efficient option for R11 in centrifugal chill-
ers.
Another advantage of R123 is its atmospheric life-time which is the shortest
among the refrigerants.
Moreover, its benefit in reducing global warming is significant. It has very very
low global warming potential.
Nevertheless, R123 is an HCFC. Its use is slated for phase-out by 2030 despite its
unique qualities. As an exception, R123 may coutinue to be used well beyond 2030.
R11 has also been replaced by HFC R134a. But since NBP of R134a (–26.1°C) is
very very low compared to NBP of R11 (+23.71°C), it is a much higher pressure
refrigerant and it has very much smaller specific volumes of suction vapour. Hence,
tonnage of a single unit of R134a centrifugal compressor is much greater than 300–
350 TR or so of a single R11 centrifugal compressor.
Further, most R134a centrifugal chillers have lower COPs, and they are few in
number. R245fa, an HFC, however, is being seriously considered for use in place of
R11. The NBP of R245fa is 14.9°C. It is not far from 23.71°C, the NBP of R11.
R245fa offers potenial to approach R123 efficiencies. Its commercialization,
however, is uncertain. Its cost is high at present. And it has global warming potential
and flammability concerns also.

As R22 is an HCFC, its use is permitted till 2030. Also, since it is currently the most
favoured refrigerant in package units and chillers, its use continues. 70% of com-
mercial refrigeration systems still use R22.
Only in food refrigeration, its use is not being favoured. Before 2000 AD, the
trend was to replace ammonia with R22. Now, this trend has been reversed. Ammo-
nia has come back in a big way as it is environment friendly. Ammonia has even
higher COP.
Ammonia enjoys wide use today in industrial applications especially with recip-
rocating compressors in small capacity, and screw compressors in large capacity.
Food industry is preparing for R22 phase-out, and its replacement by ammonia.
However, in car air conditioners, R134a has replaced R22. R134a has lower
pressures.
But HCFC R22 still dominates in air conditioning systems using positive
displacement reciprocating, scroll, and screw compressors in medium capacity
package units, and large capacity screw chillers. Some industries are using 50/50
percent R32/R125 blend, viz., R410A also as a replacement for R22.

Presently, R404A has found application in place of R502. The NBP of R404A is
–46.22°C as against –45.6°C, the NBP of R502. A 50/50 per cent R125/R143a blend
is also an attractive alternative to R502.
Note Industries worldwide have turned to HCFCs R22 and R123. While HCFCs have a
lower ozone depletion potential than CFCs, they still damage the ozone layer. Never-
theless, use of these two HCFCs may continue well beyond 2030 because of their very
favourable properties.
4.6 SELECTION OF A REFRIGERANT
Refrigerants have to be physiologically non-toxic and-non flammable. Theromo-

dynamically, there is no working substance which could be called an ideal
refrigerant. Different substances seem to satisfy different requirements and those
also sometimes only partially. A refrigerant which is ideally suited in a particular
application may be a complete failure in the other. In general, a refrigerant may be
Refrigerants 137
required to satisfy requirements which may be classified as thermodynamic,

chemical and physical, as discussed in the following sections. The selection of a
refrigerant for a particular application, therefore, depends on satisfying its essential
requirements.
The choice of a refrigerant for a given application is governed mainly by the
refrigerating capacity (very small, small, medium or large), and refrigeration tem-
perature required, such as for air conditioning (5°C), cold-storage (–10 to 2°C),
refrigerator (– 25°C), food freezing (– 40°C), etc.
4.7 THERMODYNAMIC REQUIREMENTS
The method of evaluation of thermodynamic properties is described in Chap. 1 in

brief. Detailed thermodynamic properties tables and equations for various refriger-
ants are given in the appendix.
Table 4.3 gives the important thermodynamic properties of a number of refriger-
ants. The most important property of a refrigerant is its normal boiling point. Most
of the other thermodynamic characteristics very much depend on it.
The thermodynamic requirements of refrigerants pertain to the condensing and
evaporating pressures, critical temperature and pressure, freezing point, volume of
the suction vapour per ton, COP, power consumption per ton, etc.
4.7.1 Significance of Normal Boiling Point

Pressure–temperature relationship of a pure substance is built into the Clapeyron
equation which is expressed as
d p sat h fg
sat
= sat (4.1)
dT T (L g - L f )
Two simplifications may be introduced in the above equation. These are the
assumptions as follows:
(i) The specific volume of the liquid is very small compared to that of the vapour,
so that we may put
Lf = 0
(ii) The specific volume of the vapour is given by the ideal gas equation of state,
so that
RT sat
Lg =
psat
Substituting these values in Eq. (4.1) we get the Clausius–Clapeyron equation
d p sat p sat h fg
= (4.2)
d T sat e j
R T sat
2
Rearranging, we obtain
d (ln p sat ) h fg
FG IJ
1
= – =–b (4.3)
H K
R
d sat
T
Table 4.3 General data of refrigerants
138
Refrigerant Chemical Designa- M (Molecular ts (N.B.P.) tc (Criti- pc (Criti- Lc(Critical tf (Freezing

Formula tion Weight) °C cal Tempe- cal Pressure) Volume) Point)
rature)°C bar L/kg °C
Inorganic Refrigerants
Water H2O R 718 18.016 100.0 374.15 221.3 3.26 0.0
Ammonia NH3 R 717 17.031 – 33.313 133.0 112.97 4.13 –77.7
Carbon Dioxide CO2 R 744 44.01 –78.4 31.1 73.72 2.135 –56.6
Organic Refrigerants
Monofluoro-Tetrachloro
Methane CFCl3 R 11 137.39 23.7 197.78 43.7 1.805 –111
Difluoro-Dichloro
Methane CF2Cl2 R 12 120.92 – 29.75 112.04 41.15 1.793 –136

Trifluoro-Monochloro
Methane CF3Cl R 13 104.47 – 81.5 28.78 38.8 1.721 –180
Trifluoro-Monobromo
Methane CF3Br R 13 B1 148.9 – 58.7 67.8 40.5 — –142
Tetrafluoro Methane CF4 R 14 88.01 – 128.0 – 45.5 37.5 1.50 – 194
Monofluoro-Dichloro
Methane CHFCl2 R 21 102.92 8.9 173.5 51.6 1.915 –135
Difluoro-Monochloro
Methane CHF2Cl R 22 86.48 – 40.81 96.02 49.88 1.949 – 160
Trifluoro Methane CHF3 R 23 70.01 – 82.0 25.83 48.2 1.748 – 155
Difluoro Methane CH2F2 R 32 52.024 – 51.65 78.41 58.3 2.326
(Contd)
Table 4.3 (Contd)
Pentafluoro Ethane CF 3CHF2 R 125 120.02 – 48.1 66.25 36.31 1.748
Tetrafluoro Ethane CF3CH2F R 134a 102.03 – 26.07 101.06 40.56 1.942 – 96.6
Monochloro-Tetra-
fluoro Ethane CF3CHClF R 124 136.475 – 12.05 122.5 36.34 1.786
Dichloro-Trifluoro
Ethane CF3CHCl2 R 123 152.93 27.82 183.79 36.74 1.818
- Do - CHClFCClF2 R 123a 152.93 29.9 189.62 38.89
Tetrafluoro Ethane CHF2CHF2 R134 102.03 – 19.8 118.9
Monofluoro-Dichloro
Ethane CH3CCl2F R 141b 116.9 32.1 208.0 43.39
Trifluoro-Trichloro
Ethane CF2Cl–CFCl2 R 113 187.89 47.68 214.1 34.15 1.735 –36.6
Tetrafluoro-Dichloro
Ethane CF2Cl–CF2Cl R 114 170.91 3.6 145.8 32.75 1.715 –94
Pentafluoro-Monochloro
Ethane CF2ClCF3 R 115 154.48 –38.0 80.0 32.36 1.68 –106
Difluoro-Monochloro
Ethane CH3–CF2Cl R 142b 100.495 –9.25 137.1 42.46 2.3 –131.0
Trifluoro Ethane CH3–CF3 R 143a 84.04 – 47.24 73.1 38.11 2.305 – 111.3
Difluoro Ethane CH3–CHF2 R 152a 66.05 –24.02 113.3 45.2 2.717 –117.0
Ethyl Chloride C2H5Cl R 160 64.52 12.0 187.2 52.47 3.03 –138.7
n-perfluoro Butane C4F 10 — 238.04 – 2.0 113.2 23.3 1.588 —
Refrigerants
Difluoro Ethane CH2F–CH2F R152 66.05 30.7

139
(Contd)
140
Table 4.3 (Contd)

Hydrocarbons
Ethane C2H4 R 170 30.06 – 88.6 32.1 49.3 4.7 –183.2
Propane C3H8 R 290 44.1 –42.1 96.8 42.56 4.545 –187.1
n-butane C4H10 R 600 58.1 –0.56 153.0 35.3 4.29 – 135
Isobutane (CH3)3CH R 600a 58.13 –11.67 135.0 36.45 4.526 –159.6
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Propylene C2H4 — 42.08 –47.7 94.4 46.0 4.2 –185

Dichloroethylene C2H2Cl2 — 96.9 90.9 243 54.9 –56.6
Aliphatic Amines
Methylamine CH3NH3 — 31.06 –6.7 156.9 74.5 –92.5
Ethylamine C2H4NH3 — 45.08 7.0 164.6 54.7 –93
Refrigerants 141
where b = hfg/R represents the slope of ln psat versus 1/T sat line. In the small range of
condenser and evaporator pressures, the latent heat of vaporization may be assumed
as constant, so that the value of b may also be taken as constant. Thus ln psat–1/T sat
relationship of refrigerants (pure substances) is nearly a straight line. The equation
of the straight line is obtained by integrating Eq. (4.3)
b
ln psat = a – (4.5)
T sat
Exact equations, however, have some higher order terms as in Eq. (1.10).
Further, from the Badylkes theory of thermodynamic similarity12 it is found that
for substances belonging to the same family, the dimensionless Trouton number q is
constant. The number is defined by the expression
M (h fg ) s
q= (4.6)
Ts
where M = molecular weight
Ts = normal boiling point
(hfg)s = latent heat of vaporization at normal boiling point.
Thus, from Eqs. (4.4) and (4.5), we have
h fg M h fg q Ts
b=– = - = - = f ( Ts )
R R R
Accordingly, the slope of the ln psat–1/T sat line is a function of the normal boiling
point. Also from Eq. (4.5), at atmospheric pressure
b
a= = f ¢ (Ts)
Ts
Thus, both the constants in Eq. (4.5) are functions of the normal boiling point.
The higher the boiling point, the steeper is the slope of ln psat –1/T sat line.
Also, the higher the boiling point, the further is the line from the origin. The
ln psat–1/T sat data for a number of refrigerants is plotted in Fig. 4.1 (a).
Figure 4.1(a) is plotted for ln psat along the ordinate against 1/T sat along the ab-
scissa for a number of refrigerants. Since the slope of the line is negative, the plot is
usually made with – (1/T sat) along the abscissa as shown qualitatively in Fig. 4.1(b).
Figure 4.1 (b) compares the pressures of lower-boiling and higher-boiling
refrigerants at given evaporator and condenser temperatures. The following points
emerge from this figure:
(i) At given T0 and Tk, p0 and pk are lower for higher-boiling refrigerant. Hence,
higher boiling substances are in general low pressure refrigerants. On the con-
trary, p0 and pk are higher for lower-boiling refrigerant. These are, therefore,
high pressure refrigerants.
(ii) Because of the steeper characteristic, the high-boiling refrigerants have
higher-pressure ratios pk/p0. And because of the flatter characteristic, the
lower-boiling refrigerants have lower pressure ratios.
(iii) In addition, since slope b = –hfg/R, the high-boiling having steeper slope have
high latent heat of vaporization. And the lower boiling having flatter slope
have low latent heat of vaporization.
Temperature,
204 222 244 263.15 294 333.3 384.6 454.5
4.2
9 0
4.0
R2
R 22
2
R2
3.8 ´ R 290
3.6 ´
R 134a
3.4 R 152a
R 12
R 600a
3.2
a
00
R6
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
ln p sat, MPa
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
´
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8 ´
0.6
0.4
a
52
12
R1
R
0.2
R 134a
0.1
0.49 0.45 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.22 ´ 10
1/T sat
Fig. 4.1 In psat versus 1/T sat diagram of refrigerants

Refrigerants 143
pk
g
ilin
bo
w er-
Lo
pk
il ing
bo
ln p sat
p0 -
er
gh
Hi
p0
1/To 1/Tk
1/T
T sat
Fig. 4.1(b) Comparison of pressures of lower-boiling and higher boiling
refrigerants at given evaporator and condenser temperatures
4.7.2 Standing and Condensing and Evaporating Pressures

When the refrigerant in the gas cylinder or in the system is allowed to remain stand-
ing for a period, and come to equilibrium with the ambient temperature, the pressure
reeorded is named as the ‘standing pressure’.
Low-boiling refrigerants have higher standing pressures. High-boiling refriger-
ants have lower standing pressures. For example, at 30°C ambient temperature, the
standing pressure for R134a will be 7.702 bar, and that for R22 will be 11.919 bar,
while the same for high-boiling R123 will be just 1.0958 bar, viz., only slightly
above atmospheric. As against standing pressure, condenser and evaporator pres-
sures are the ‘operating pressures.’
The evaporating pressure p0 should be positive and as near atmospheric as possi-
ble. If it is too low, it would result in a large volume of the suction vapour. If it is too
high, overall higher pressures, including condenser pressure pk, would result necessi-
tating heavier construction and consequently, higher cost of equipment.
A positive pressure is required in order to eliminate the possibility of the entry of
air and moisture into the system. The normal boiling point of the refrigerant should,
therefore, be preferably lower than the refrigeration temperature.
Table 4.4 gives the N.B.Ps, evaporating and condensing pressures, and their
differentials and pressure ratios for some of the refrigerants for the standard rating
cycle. The table shows that the N.B.P. determines working pressures. High pressure
refrigerants are lower down in the table.
Thus, R 502, propane, R 22, R404A, R407C, R410A, and ammonia are high-
pressure refrigerants as compared to R 12. On the contrary, R 114, R 11, R 123, and
R 113 are low-pressure refrigerants. And R 134a, R152a and to an extent isobutane
have pressures close to those of R 12. Water has extremely low pressures. R 11,
R 113 and water operate at pressures below atmospheric. The condensers of these
systems are, therefore, provided with purge valves at the top for R 11 or purge units
for R 113 and water to remove air which will tend to collect in the condenser as
uncondensed gas.
Table 4.4 also shows pressure ratios which are generally found to decrease as the
boiling point decreases due to flatter ln psat versus 1/T sat line.
Propane has the lowest pressure ratio among the high pressure, low-boiling group
of refrigerants. R 152a has the lowest pressure ratio overall.
Table 4.4 Operating pressures of refrigerants
Refrigerant ts(N B P) po at 5°C pk at 40°C (pk-pL ) pk /p0

°C bar bar bar
Water 100 0.00874 0.0738 0.06506 8.45
R 113 47.6 0.1903 0.7809 0.5906 4.10
R 123 27.82 0.4086 1.545 1.1362 3.78
R 11 23.71 0.4967 1.748 1.2513 3.52
R 114 3.6 1.069 3.454 2.385 3.23
R 600a (Isobutane) – 11.67 1.88 5.361 3.481 2.85
R 152a – 24.02 3.149 9.092 5.943 1.53
R 134a – 26.074 3.5 10.167 6.667 2.545
R 12 – 29.8 3.62 9.6 5.98 2.65
Ammonia – 33.33 5.16 15.54 10.38 3.01
R 22 – 40.81 5.836 15.331 9.495 2.63
R 290 (Propane) – 42.1 5.478 13.664 8.186 2.49
R 407C – 43.63 6.66 17.5 10.84 2.63
R 502 – 45.17 6.652 16.638 9.986 2.50
R 404A – 46.22 7.13 18.3 11.17 2.57
R 410A – 51.44 9.25 24.6 15.01 2.66
4.7.3 Critical Temperature and Pressure

For high COP, in general, the critical temperature should be very high so that the
condenser temperature line on the p-h diagram is far removed from the critical point.
This ensures reasonable refrigerating effect which becomes very small if the state of
the liquid before expansion is near the critical point. Also, the critical pressure
should be low so as to result in low condensing pressure.
Table 4.3 shows that except for carbon dioxide for which the critical temperature
is 31°C for most of the common refrigerants, critical temperature is much above the
normal condensing temperature.
4.7.4 Freezing Point

Table 4.3 also gives the freezing points of various refrigerants. As the refrigerant
must operate in the cycle above its freezing point, it is evident that the same for the
refrigerant must be lower than system temperatures. It will be seen that except in the
case of water for which the freezing point is 0°C, other refrigerants have reasonably
low values. Water can, therefore, be used only in air-conditioning applications, viz.,
above 0°C.
4.7.5 Volume of Suction Vapour
The volume of the suction vapour required per unit, say per ton, of refrigeration is an
indication of the size of the compressor. Reciprocating compressors are used with
Refrigerants 145
refrigerants with high pressures and small volumes of the suction vapour. Centrifu-
gal or turbo compressors are used with refrigerants with low pressures and large
volumes of the suction vapour. A high volume flow rate for a given capacity is
required in the case of centrifugal compressors to permit flow passages of sufficient
width to minimise drag and obtain high efficiency.
Table 4.5 gives the suction volume requirements in m3 per hour per ton of refrig-
eration of some refrigerants along with their normal boiling points. Calculations
have been done for 30°C condensing and – 15°C evaporating temperatures except
for water for which the evaporating temperature is 5°C, and carbon dioxide for which
the condensing temperature is 25°C.
Table 4.5 Suction vapour volumes of refrigerants for tk = 30°C and t0 = – 15°C
Refrigerant ts q0 L V*
°C kJ/kg m3/kg m3/h/TR
Water 100 2342.5(t0 = 5°C) 147.2 825.6
R 113 47.6 122.6 1.649 186.9
R 123 27.82 142.3 0.8914 79.3
R 11 23.71 155.9 0.772 65.9
R 114 3.6 88.6 0.263 37.6
R 600a (Isobutane) – 11.67 263.9 0.4073 21.24
R 152a – 24.02 226.5 0.207 11.572
R 134a – 26.074 148.0 0.1214 10.867
R 12 – 29.8 117 0.092 10.857
Ammonia – 33.33 1103.1 0.512 6.124
R 22 – 40.81 162.7 0.0775 6.668
R 290 (Propane) – 42.1 277.9 0.15425 7.737
R 407C – 43.63 163.3 0.0805 6.241
R 404A – 46.22 114.1 0.0537 5.96
R 410A – 51.44 167.9 0.0545 4.11
Carbon Dioxide – 78.52 158.7 (tk = 25°C) 0.0166 1.33
It is seen from Table 4.5 that the required volume of the suction vapour increases
with increasing normal boiling point. Inspite of the large latent heat of vaporization
(and hence large refrigerating effect q0) for ammonia, because of its large specific
volume, its suction volume requirement is nearly the same as that of R 22. Both have
nearly equal N.B.Ps. Thus, the normal boiling point is once again established as the
single factor which determines the refrigerating capacity per unit volume of the suc-
tion vapour.
One can, therefore, conclude that high-boiling refrigerants, such as water,
R 123 and R 11 are low-pressure refrigerants and require large suction volumes.
They are suited for use with centrifugal compressors in large-capacity refrigerating
machines. Conversely, low-boiling refrigerants, such as ammonia, R 22, propane,
carbon dioxide, etc., which are high-pressure refrigerants require small suction vol-
umes and are suited for use with reciprocating compressors in medium and smaller
capacity refrigerating machines or with screw compressors in large capacity ones. In
the middle, we have isobutane, R 152a, R134a and R12 mostly used with reciprocat-
ing compressors and now rotary compressors in very small capacity machines such
as domestic refrigerators, car air conditioners, water coolers, etc.
Note that R404A, 407C, and R 410A are mixture blends. They are not pure sub-
stances. The values for ts (N.B.P.) in table represent their temperatures at which they
begin to boil at 1 atm pressure.
4.7.6 Isentropic Discharge Temperatures

Table 4.6 gives isentropic discharge temperatures of refrigerants for operating
conditions of tk = 30°C and t0 = –15°C.
It is evident that isobutane has the lowest discharge temperature. It is thus best
suited for domestic refrigerators. Sealed units of isobutane refrigerators can be
expected to give a very long life.
R 134a has a much lower discharge temperature than R 22. In fact, R 22 has the
highest discharge temperature. Accordingly, R 134a is now doing well in hermetically
sealed compressors of car air conditioners. R 134a has lower pressures also.
Also comparing R 123 with R 11, we see that large tonnage semi-hermetic cen-
trifugal compressor units with R 123 are better than R 11 units because of much
lower discharge temperature.
Table 4.6 Pressure ratios, discharge temperatures, power consumptions and
COPs of refrigerants tk = 30°C, t0 = –15°C.
Refrigerant NBP Pressure Discharge Power COP

Ratio Temp. Consumption
°C °C kW/TR
R 113 47.59 7.71 30 0.703 4.81
R 123 27.82 6.81 33 0.717 4.9
R 11 23.71 6.25 43 0.693 5.02
R 600a – 11.67 4.58 30 0.756 4.62
R 152a – 24.02 4.64 46.7 0.72 4.78
R 134a – 26.074 4.71 37 0.76 4.6
R 12 – 29.75 4.1 38 0.746 4.7
Ammonia – 33.33 4.76 39 0.739 4.76
R 22 – 40.81 4.66 53 0.753 4.66
R 290 – 42.09 4.5 36 0.767 4.5
R 407C – 43.63 4.5 48 0.781 4.5
R 502 – 45.174 4.4 38 0.802 4.38
R 404A – 46.22 4.21 36 0.833 4.21
R 410A –51.44 4.41 51 0.781 4.41
4.7.7 Coefficient of Performance and Horsepower per Ton

Table 4.6 gives values of theoretical COP and power per ton for 30°C condensing
and – 15°C evaporating temperatures for refrigerants. The Carnot value of COP for
the same operating conditions is 5.73 and HP/TR is 0.82. It is seen that R 11 has its
COP closest to the Carnot value. Other refrigerants, with the exception of carbon
dioxide, also have quite high values of COP. From the point of view of COP and
power consumption R 22 is better than ammonia. Practically, all common refriger-
ants have approximately the same COP and horsepower requirement.
Refrigerants 147
The low value of the COP of carbon dioxide is due to the fact that its critical
temperature is too low and the condensing temperature is very close to it.
One of the peculiarities of fluorocarbons is their high density coupled with a low-
boiling point. Since these are high molecular weight and high density substances,
their latent heats are not large on a mass basis as the Trouton number is observed to
be constant for a group of similar substances. However, low latent heat does not
affect the COP of the cycle as the isentropic work is also small due to
(i) low values of the ratio of specific heats, g, as seen from Table 4.7, and
(ii) small volumes of the suction vapour as seen from Table 4.5.
The very large value of the latent heat of vaporization of ammonia does not help
much in this respect as the ratio of its specific heats is also high.
Table 4.7 Average specific heats ratios and latent heats of refrigerants
at their N.B.P.s
Refrigerant NBP g (hfg)s

°C kJ/kg
Water 100 1.33 2257.9
R 113 47.6 1.09 147.2
R 11 23.7 1.11 182.5
R 600a (Isobutane) – 11.7 1.086 365.5
R 152a – 24.0 1.134 329.9
R 134a – 26.1 1.102 217.0
R 12 – 29.8 1.126 165.8
Ammonia – 33.3 1.31 1368.9
R 22 – 40.8 1.166 233.7
R 290 (Propane) – 42.1 1.126 425.8
4.8 CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS
The chemical requirements of refrigerants pertain to flammability, toxicity, reaction

with water, oil and construction materials and damage to refrigerated products.
4.8.1 Flammability
Hydrocarbons, such as methane, ethane, propane and butane are highly explosive
and flammable. Ammonia is also explosive in a mixture with air in concentrations of
16 to 25 per cent by volume of ammonia. None of the CFCs is explosive or flamma-
ble. Some of the HFCs which are being considered as alternatives to CFCs because
of the ozone layer depletions problem, such as R 152, R 152a, R 143, etc., are flam-
mable. However, R 134a is not flammable.
4.8.2 Toxicity
From the consideration of comparative hazard to life from gases and vapours,
compounds have been divided into six groups by Underwriters Laboratories.10
Group six contains compounds with a very low degree of toxicity. It includes CFCs.
Group one, at the other end of the scale, includes the most toxic substances such as
sulphur dioxide.
Because of flammability and toxicity, ammonia is not used in domestic refrigera-

tion and comfort air-conditioning.
4.8.3 Action of Refrigerant with Water

Among refrigerants, ammonia is highly soluble in water. It forms a non-ideal mix-
ture with water and possesses more than Raoult’s law solubility. For this reason, a
wet cloth is put at the point of leak to avoid harm to human beings in ammonia
refrigeration plants.
The solubility of water in fluorocarbons is rather low. It ranges from poor for
highly fluorinated compounds such as R 134a to fairly good for those containing
comparatively less fluorine.
The presence of moisture is very critical in refrigeration systems operating below
0°C. If more water is present than can be dissolved by the refrigerant, then there is
danger of ice formation and consequent choking in the expansion valve or capillary
tube used for throttling in the system. This is called moisture choking. This is
avoided by proper dehydration of the unit before charging (sealed systems are baked
at 130 to 150°C before charging and sealing) and by the use of a silica gel drier in the
liquid line.
The solvent power of R 22 for water is almost 23 times that of R 12. In R 22
systems, therefore, ice formation generally does not occur. Thus, in addition to
small, medium and large capacity air conditioning applications, R 22 is also used in
low temperature food refrigeration plants so that moisture choking would not occur
even at freezing temperatures.
In general, moisture should not be allowed to enter refrigeration systems.
4.8.4 Action with Oil

The solubility behaviour of a refrigerant and oil and consequent changes in the viscos-
ity of oil determine the steps which must be taken to provide good lubrication.
In compressors, some oil is carried by the high temperature refrigerant vapour to
the condenser and ultimately to the expansion valve and evaporator. In the evaporator,
as the refrigerant evaporates, a distillation process occurs and the oil separates
from the refrigerant. A build-up of oil in the evaporator will result in a reduced heat
transfer coefficient, oil choking in the evaporator due to restriction caused to refriger-
ant flow and even blockage and ultimately to oil starvation in the compressor.
The solubility behaviour of a refrigerant in mineral oil may be classified as in
Table 4.8 as follows:
(i) Immiscible.
(ii) Miscible.
(iii) Partially miscible.
Refrigerants that are not miscible with oil, such as ammonia or carbon dioxide,
do not present any problems. In such a case, an oil separator is installed a little away
from the compressor in the discharge line and the separated oil is continuously
returned to the crank-case of the compressor.
Refrigerants 149
Table 4.8 Solubility of refrigerants and mineral oils
Completely Partially Miscible

Miscible High Intermediate Low Immiscible
Miscibility Miscibility Miscibility
R 11 R 13 B1 R 22 R 13 NH3
R 600a
R 12 R 501 R 114 R 14 CO2
R 290
R 21 R 115 R 134a
R 152a
R 500 R 502
R 134a, which is already in use as an alternative to R 12 in domestic refrigerators,

car air conditioners, etc., is also not miscible in mineral oil. But, since we cannot
install an oil separator in hermetically sealed systems, we have to use an oil which is
miscible. Accordingly, a synthetic oil, polyol-ester (POE), is used in R 134a system.
Refrigerants that are completely miscible with oil, such as R 12, R 152a, R 290,
R 600a, etc., also do not present problems.
For R 123 naphthenic mineral oil is used. Oil which reaches the evaporator, is
returned to the compressor along with the refrigerant as it is the refrigerant-oil mix-
ture which boils off in the evaporator. Thus, the miscibility of the refrigerant with
lubricating oil ensures oil-return to the compressor. Any oil that gets separated in
the evaporator can be returned to the compressor either by gravity or by entrainment
by the high velocity suction vapours. For the purpose, the evaporatory exit should be
above the suction line. The diameters of the suction lines are so designed that the
velocity of the returning gas is sufficient enough to carry away the oil sticking to the
walls of the tubing. A high velocity, however, increases the pressure drop which is
undesirable.
In systems in which a refrigerant is only partially miscible with oil, the return of
the oil to the compressor creates problems.
Most fluorocarbons are miscible with oil in all concentrations and at all tem-
peratures. However, with R 22, there is partial miscibility. Refrigerant and oil are
miscible at the condenser temperature, but separation takes place at the evaporator
temperature. Two liquid phases are formed at low temperature, one predominantly
consisting of the refrigerant and the other, oil, thus resulting in oil separation. The
temperature at which liquid separation occurs depends on the nature of the oil and
its concentration. Thus, a solution of R 22 with 10 per cent oil will separate into
two layers at –5°C, but with 1 per cent oil, separation does not occur until –51°C.
With 18 per cent oil, separation will occur even at 0.5°C. No matter how little oil
goes into the evaporator, as the evaporation of refrigerant proceeds, the composi-
tion of oil in the liquid solution increases and it is bound to pass through the criti-
cal composition for separation which usually lies between 15 and 20 per cent of
oil in the liquid phase.
The return of oil in these compressors, therefore, presents a problem. At low
refrigeration temperatures, it is all the more acute. One solution of the problem is to
install an efficient oil separator. Another is to use synthetic oils instead of mineral
oils which are completely miscible with the refrigerant at temperatures as low as
– 80°C. Among the synthetic oils, a polybutyl silicate and alkyl benzenes have better
miscibility with R 22.
Also, in direct expansion evaporators, oil-refrigerant emulsion can be easily car-
ried to the compressor by high velocity suction vapours. These evaporators are,
therefore, preferred over flooded evaporators, and are particularly used for low tem-
perature refrigeration and with refrigerants such as R 22.
In flooded evaporators, the separated oil-rich layer, being lighter, floats on top of
the boiling liquid, and because of the extremely low velocity of the suction vapour,
it cannot be carried to the compressor. Thus, when flooded evaporators are used
with R 22, a connection must be provided for the overflow of oil from the evaporator
to the compressor crank-case.
In the case of ammonia, however, the oil being heavier than the refrigerant, it
collects at the bottom of the evaporator and can be drained out, if necessary.
4.8.5 Action with Materials of Construction

The choice of a particular refrigerant has also a bearing on the selection of the materi-
als of construction. Ammonia, for example, attacks copper and copper-bearing
materials. Iron and steel are, however, found suitable for use with ammonia. Hence,
piping, fittings and valves are manufactured from iron and steel. Joints in ammonia
systems are, therefore, of flange type with gaskets, or threaded or welded.
Most fluorocarbons are outstanding in chemical stability but, nevertheless,
undergo a variety of chemical reactions which are slow except at high temperatures.
The recommended material for use for piping with halocarbons is copper. It is soft
and amenable to bending, fitting, etc. The fittings are of flare type. Brazing is also
used for joining.
In the case of aluminium-halocarbon reactions, the heat of evolution increases
with the fluorine content, indicating chemical instability with aluminium with
increasing number of fluorine atoms. But the reverse is true for other common met-
als, viz., iron, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, etc. A more vigorous reaction can be
expected between aluminium and R 134a than between aluminium and R 22. With
regard to aluminium, it must be noted that it is generally protected by a tenacious
oxide film which makes it non-reactive. Because of its cheapness and availability,
aluminium is used in place of copper in fluorocarbon refrigeration equipment. How-
ever, the thermal conductivity of Al is half that of Cu. Hence, Cu continues to be
preferred for construction of heat exchangers in Freon systems.
4.9 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
As physical requirements, we may include properties such as dielectric strength,

thermophysical properties such as thermal conductivity, viscosity, etc., and leak ten-
dency and detection.
Refrigerants 151
4.9.1 Dielectric Strength

The dielectric strength of a refrigerant is primarily important in hermetically sealed
units in which the electric motor is exposed to the refrigerant as the windings are
cooled by the suction vapour.
As compared to nitrogen, the relative dielectric strength of R 22 is 1.31. This
shows that fluorocarbons are good electrical insulators. The values for carbon diox-
ide and ammonia are 0.88 and 0.82 respectively.
4.9.2 Thermal Conductivity

A high thermal conductivity is desirable for a high heat transfer coefficient. It is
found that R 22 has better heat transfer characteristics than R 12. The thermal con-
ductivities of R 22, kf and kg in liquid and vapour phases respectively, in W/mK are
expressed by the relations:
(kf)R22 = 2.17783 ´ 10–4 – 4.36214 ´ 10–7 T – 9.3985 ´ 10–12 T 2 (4.7)
(kg)R22 = – 4.6143 ´ 10–7 + 1.96 ´ 10–8 T + 5.7143 ´ 10–11 T 2 (4.8)
The thermal conductivity of liquid R 134a and other new refrigerants can be
estimated by the following Sato-Reidel33 similarity relation.
111
.
3 + 20 (1 - Tr ) 2 / 3
M
kf = , W/mk (4.9)
3 + 20 (1 - Trs ) 2 / 3
where Trs is the reduced temperature at the normal boiling point.
The thermal conductivity of vapour R 134a is given by Eq. (4.10)
(kg)R134a = 29.742 – 0.17962 T + 0.4265 ´ 10–3 T 2, W/mk (4.10)
The expressions for thermal conductivities of R 600a in W/m.K are
(kf)R600a = 0.21225 – 0.487 ´ 10–3 T + 0.2746 ´ 10–6 T 2
– 0.421 ´ 10–9 T3 (4.11)
(kg)R600a = 0.99013 ´ 10 – 0.87055 ´ 10 T + 0.474 ´ 10 T
–2 –4 –6 2
– 0.3715 ´ 10–9 T 3 (4.12)
4.9.3 Viscosity
Again, low viscosity is desirable for a high heat transfer coefficient. The viscosity of
fluorocarbons in vapour phase is expressed by the empirical relation27
mg = (A T – B)10–4, cP (4.13)
The constants for R22 are:
A = 575.67 and B = 3.619
Correlations for viscosity can be written in the form
log m = A + BT + CT 2 + DT 3 + L (4.14)
The following relations give viscosities of R 22 in Ns/m2 more precisely.
(log mf)R22 = 13.8457 – 0.3283T + 2.5965 ´ 10–3 T 2
– 1.046 ´ 10–5 T 3 + 2.109 ´ 10–8 T 4 – 1.691 ´ 10–11 T 5 (4.15)
(mg)R22 = – 1.00493 ´ 10–3 + 1.918 ´ 10–5 T – 1.4446 ´ 10–7 T 2

+ 5.4084 ´ 10–10 T 3 – 1.005 ´ 10–12 T 4 + 7.422 ´ 10–16 T 5 (4.16)
The expression for R 600a for liquid in m.Pa.s, and for vapour in m.Pa.s are as
follows:
0.21739 ´ 10-4
(ln mf)R600a = 0.002086 + + 0.0636 T
T
– 0.80755 ´ 10–4 T 2 (4.17)
0.88035 ´ 10-2
(ln mg)R600a = 0.01497 – + 0.00331 T
T
– 0.1854 ´ 10–5 T 2 (4.18)
2
The viscosity of liquid R 134a in Ns/m can be found by the relation given by
Shankland et. al.36, and that of vapour can be estimated by using the similarity rela-
tion given by Falkovskii15:
714.25
(ln mf)R134a = – 3.3528 + – 0.19969 ´ 10–2 T (4.19)
T
mg = 1.286 ´ 10–4 2/3
M pc T r (4.20)
4.9.4 Heat Capacity

Heat capacities of liquid and vapour R22 in kJ/kg.K are given by the expressions:
(Cpf )R22 = 1.11857 + 1.3508 ´ 10–4 T – 8.0852 ´ 10–6 T 2
+ 3.042 ´ 10–8 T 3 (4.21)
(Cpg )R22 = – 0.318712 + 6.90956 ´ 10–3 T – 1.7844 ´ 10–5 T 2
+ 1.8026 ´ 10–8 T 3 (4.22)
The specific heat of liquid R 134a is approximately given by:
(Cpf )R134a = 1.1978 + 0.00415T – 1 ´ 10–6 T 2 + 1 ´ 10–7 T 3
+ 2.5 ´ 10–9 T 4 (4.23)
4.9.5 Surface Tension

The value of surface tension is required in boiling heat transfer coefficient calcula-
tions. The empirical relation is
s = s0 TRa (1 + b TRc) (4.24)
where TR is equal to (1 – T/Tc). It is not equal to the reduced temperature which is Tr =
T/Tc. The constants for R 22 are s0 = 0.06993 N/m, a = 1.285, b = – 0.154, c = 0.87.
The equations used for estimation of s by method of corresponding states are as
follows:
s = pc2/3 Tc1/3 Q (1 – Tr)11/9 (4.25)
Q = 0.1196 1 +
LM Trs ln ( pc /101325
. ) OP – 0.279
N 1 - Tr Q (4.26)
Refrigerants 153
4.9.6 Leak Tendency

The leak tendency of refrigerants should be nil. Also, the detection of a leak should
be easy. The greatest drawback of fluorocarbons is the fact that they are odourless.
This, at times, results in a complete loss of costly gas from leaks without being
detected. An ammonia leak can be very easily detected by its pungent odour. Leaks
in ammonia plants are very common due to the use of glands and lead gaskets in
joints and due to corrosion.
Several methods are available for the detection of leaks. The most common is the
soap-bubble method. The other is the halide torch method used with fluorocarbons.
In this, a methyl alcohol or hydrocarbon flame is used which is light blue in colour,
but which turns bluish green in the presence of halocarbon vapours. For ammonia
leaks, a burning sulphur taper is used which in the presence of ammonia forms white
fumes of ammonium sulphite.
An electronic leak detector is most sensitive and is used in the manufacture and
assembly of refrigeration equipment. The operation of the instrument depends on
the flow of current due to the ionization of the leaking gas between two opposite-
charged platinum electrodes.
4.9.7 Cost of Refrigerant

The consideration of the cost of a refrigerant has for many years commended the use
of ammonia as a refrigerant in large industrial plants, such as cold storages and ice
plants. The cost factor, however, is only relevant to the extent of the price of the
initial charge of the refrigerant which is very small compared to the total cost of the
plant and its installation. The cost of losses due to leakage is also important. In
small-capacity units requiring only a small charge of the refrigerant, the cost of
refrigerant is immaterial.
Ammonia is the cheapest refrigerant. Also it is environment-friendly. The future
may see the return of ammonia in a big way.
4.10 OZONE DEPLETION POTENTIAL AND GLOBAL

WARMING POTENTIAL OF CFC REFRIGERANTS
The earth’s ozone layer in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) is needed for the
absorption of harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. In 1985, the world was shocked
to find a gaping hole above Antartic in the ozone layer that protects the earth from
ultra-violet rays. These rays can cause skin cancer. CFCs have been linked to the
depletion of this ozone layer. They have varying degrees of ozone depletion poten-
tial (ODP). In addition, they act as greenhouse gases. Hence, they have global
warming-potential (GWP) as well. According to an international agreement (Mon-
treal Protocol), the use of fully halogenated CFCs (no hydrogen at all in the mol-
ecule), that are considered to have high ODP, viz., the commonly used refrigerants
R 11, R 12, R 113, R 114 and R 5O2, have been phased out from the year 2000 AD.
HCFCs have much lower ODP. They have some GWP. They have to be phased out
by 2030. But until 2030, they can be used. R 22, is an HCFC. Its ODP is only 5% of
that of R 12. It will be phased out by the year 2030 AD. But R 22 continues to remain
very popular as a refrigerant.
Even with the measures taken so far, as late as 2008, a 2.7 million square
kilometers ozone layer hole was detected above Antarctic.
In 1974, two scientists including a radiochemist S. Rowland postulated that

CFCs, because they are so stable, have a long life in the lower atmosphere. And,
inspite of CFCs being heavier than N2 and O2, these slowly migrate into the upper
atmosphere by molecular diffusion caused by partial pressure difference. It was hy-
pothesized that the chlorine atoms from the molecule would be split off by the action
of sunlight, and the free chlorine will react with ozone in the stratosphere, according
to the following reactions:
sunlight
CCl2 F2 ¾ ¾¾
¾® CCl F2 + Cl
sunlight
O3 + Cl ¾ ¾¾
¾® ClO + O2
Thus, O3 will be depleted to O2. The problem with CFC is that of chain reaction.
A single atom of Cl released from CFC reacts taking out 100,000 O3 molecules.
That is why, even a small concentration of CFC also becomes inportant.
4.11 SUBSTITUTES FOR CFC REFRIGERANTS
CFC substitutes fall into four categories: those based on N2, HFCs and HCFCs, HCs,
and inert gases.
Hydrocarbons (HCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) provide an alternative to
fully halogenated CFC refrigerants. They contain no chlorine atom at all and, there-
fore, have zero ODP. Even hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) like R 22 and
R 123 which do contain chlorine atom/s, but in association with H-atoms, have much
reduced ODP. The association of one or more H-atoms allows them to dissociate
(break apart) faster in the lower atmosphere of the earth. Chlorine, thus released,
gets absorbed by rain water, etc., like the chlorine used in the chlorination of water.
So fewer Cl-atoms reach the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. However, HCFCs
have a level of ODP in addition to GWP. Hence, these also have to be phased out
ultimately. Till then, they can be used as transitional refrigerants.
The HFCs, on the other hand, because of their H-content may be flammable to
some extent. The degree of flammability depends on the number of H-atoms in the
molecule. Pure HCs are, of course, highly flammable.
The two most common refrigerants which have very high ODP are the highly
chlorinated CFCs R 11 and R 12. The others are R 113 and R 502. So, R 11, R 12, R
113, R 114, and R 502 have been replaced by substitutes.
R 22, which is an HCFC, has 1/20th the ODP of R 11 and R 12. Hence, it can
continue to be used for quite sometime. However, all HCFCs have GWP. Because of
this, even R 22 will have to be ultimately phased out by 2030 AD.
Based on knowledge as at present, the list of refrigerants currently being used,
and those which are potential candidates for future is as follows:
Mathne Series
HCFC R 22 (CHClF2), Monochlore difluoro methane
HFC R 32 (CH2Cl2), Difluoro methane
Ethane Series
HCFC R 123 (CHCl2 – CF3), Dichloro trifluro ethane
HFC R 125 (CHF2 – CF3), Pentafluoro ethane
Refrigerants 155
HFC R 134a (CH2F – CF3), Tetrafluoro ethane

HFC R 143a (CH3 – CF3), Trifluoro ethane
HFC R 152a (CH3 – CHF2), Difluoro ethane
Propane Series
HFC R 245fa (C3H3F3), Pentafluoro propane
HC R 290 (C3H8), Propane
Butane Series
HC R 600a (C4H10), Isobutane
Zeotropic Blends
HFC R 404A [ R125/143a/134a (44/52/4)]
HFC R 407C [ R32/125/134a (23/25/52)]
HFC R 410A [ R32/125 (50/50)]
Azeotropic Blends
HFC R 507A [ R125/143a (50/50)]
Inorganic Refrigerants
R 717 (NH3), Ammonia
R 718 (H2O), Water
R 744 (CO2), Carbon dioxide
The only refrigerant that is currently being used from methane series is R 22. The
refrigerants being currently used from ethane series are R 134a and R 123. R 152a is
also being used in Europe. Further R 600a, isobutane is also being used in domestic
refrigerators in Europe.
We have seen that N.B.P. is the single most important characteristic of a sub-
stance to be used as a refrigerant. It also governs the type of application, the equip-
ment, and the refrigerating capacity for which a particular refrigerant is to be used.
From this point of view, substances with their N.B.Ps in the range – 50°C to + 50°C
are considered suitable for use as refrigerants.
Devotta17, 18, Mclinden30 and others have conducted surveys of CFC alternatives.
Table 4.9 gives the historic, current, and future candidate refrigerents as possible
alternatives arranged in order of their decreasing N.B.Ps. The flammability or non-
flammability of these substances is also mentioned. Note that flammability may not
be hazardous in small units such as refrigerators, water coolers, etc., in which the
amount of charge is small.
On the basis of N.B.Ps it has been abserved that HCFC R123 is a potential alter-
native to R 11; HFCs R 152a and R 134a are potential alternatives to R 12; HCs
R 600a and R290 can also be used in place of R 12; HCFC R 22 could replace R 12
in some low condensing temperature applications; and, HFCs R 143a and R 125 are
potential alternatives to R 502.
Note It is seen that most of the substitutes are ethane series compounds. Note that
R 404A, R 407C, and R 507A are near azeotropic blends. The first figure under their NBP
column indicates dew temperature at atmospheric pressure. The second figure indicates
bubble temperature. Further note that difference between dew and bubble temperatures for
R 410A is only 0.08°C. It is like a pure substance. The difference for R 407C is large (7°C).
Table 4.9 Common CFCs and possible alternatives with normal boiling points
Designation Category Chemical N.B.P., °C Flammability

Formula
R 113 CFC C2 Cl3 F3 47.68 Non-flammable
R 141b HCFC CH3 CCl2 F 32.1 Slightly flammable
R 152 HFC CH2 F CH2 F 30.7 Flammable
R 123 HCFC C H Cl2 CF3 27.82 Non-flammable
R 11 CFC CCl3 F 23.7 Non-flammable
R 245fa HFC 14.9 Flammable
R 600a (Isobutane) HC (CH3)3 CH – 11.67 Flammable
R 134 HFC CHF2 CHF2 – 19.8 Non-flammable
R 152a HFC CH3 CHF2 – 24.02 Slightly flammable
R 134a HFC CF3 CH2F – 26.07 Non-flammable
R 12 CFC CCl2 F2 – 29.8 Non-flammable
R 717 (Ammonia) NH3 – 33.3 Flammable
R 22 HCFC CHClF2 – 40.8 Non-flammable
R 290 (Propane) HC C3 H8 – 42.1 Flammable
R 407 C HFC – – 43.63/–36.63 –
R 502 CFC – 45.4 Non-flammable
R 404 A HFC – – 46.22/– 45.47 –
R 507 A HFC – – 46.74 –
R 143a HFC CH3 CF3 – 47.35 Slightly flammable
R 125 HFC CHF2 CF3 – 48.55 Non-flammable
R 410 A HFC – – 51.44/– 51.36 –
R 32 HFC CH2F 2 – 52.024 Slightly flammable
It may be noted that R 123 has 98% less ODP and GWP than R 11. R 152a and
R134a have no Cl atoms. Hence, these have zero ODP. They have 74% less GWP as
compared to R 12. Hydrocarbons have zero ODP.
HCFC 123 has 4.3°C higher boiling point than CFC 11. It is, therefore, a lower
pressure replacement for CFC 11, thus having larger specific volume of suction va-
pour. Hence, its use results in 10–15% reduction in capacity if used in existing
CFC 11 centrifugal compressors.
The boiling point of HFC 134a is again 3.6°C higher than that of CFC 12. It has
lower suction pressure and larger suction vapour volume. For use in existing CFC 12
reciprocating compressors, it would require either an average increase in compres-
sor speed of 5-8%, or an equivalent increase in cylinder volume.
HCFC 22 is, nowadays, gaining greater importance even as a transition refrigerant.
It may be noted that HCFC 22 is already being used with screw compressors in
very large capacity, and with scroll compressors in package units.
Further, in addition to pure substances, binary mixtures of substances with higher
and lower boiling points mixed in proportion to give an effective boiling point nearly
equal to that of the refrigerant to be replaced (as illustrated in Fig. 4.2) can also
be used.
Refrigerants 157
R 32 ( – 52°C)
R 125 ( – 48.55°C)
R 143a ( – 47.35°C)
R 290 ( – 42.1°C)
R 22 ( – 40.8°C)
R 12 ( – 29.8°C)
R 134a ( – 26.15°C)
R 152a ( – 24.15°C)
R 134 ( – 19.8°C)
R 124 ( – 12°C)
R 600a ( – 11.73°C)
R 124b ( – 9.25°C)
Fig 4.2 Forming binary mixtures of higher and lower boiling refrigerants
Figure 4.2 illustrates how this can be done to find sustitutes for R 12 and R 22.
An example is R 290/R 600a, viz., propane/isobutane mixture in 50-50% compo-
sition by mass. This mixture has been found suitable to replace R12 in refrigerators.
The other example is R 410A formed by 50% R 32/50% R 125. It is being used as
a substitute for R 22.
It may be pointed out that mixtures boil and condense through a range of tem-
perature. This temperature glide might be an advantage in applications in which
non-isothermal refrigeration is required (See Sec. 4.23).
Ternary mixtures can also be used. Rail cars of a company in USA use du Pont’s
SUVA HP 62 HFC R 404A (R 125 + R 143a + R 134a) blend.
To sum up, Table 4.10 mentions the common refrigerants used before the year
2000, viz., CFCs 11, 12, and 502, and HCFC 22, and it lists the substitutes as follows:
(i) Short-term substitutes which are currently being used.
(ii) Long-term substitutes which might be used even after 2030.
Table 4.10 Short-and long-term substitute refrigerants
Refrigerants used Substitute Refrigerent

Before 2000 Shot Term Long Term
CFC 11 HCFC 123 HFC 245fa. Others

CFC 12 HFC 134a HFC 134a
HCFC 22 HCFC 22 HFC 134a, R 407C, R 410A.
HFC 134a Other blends of HFC 32, HFC
134a, and others
R 502 HCFC 22 HFC 125, R 507A. Other
blends of HFC 32, HFC 125,
HFC 134a, and others.
4.12 SUBSTITUTES FOR CFC 12
CFC R 12 was the most commonly used refrigerant in small hermetically sealed
systems. This was because of its high stability, excellent thermodynamic properties,
low index of compression making it suitable for use at extreme pressure ratios, etc.,
and good motor winding cooling characteristics.
Presently, HFC R 134a (Tetrafluoroethane) is the most preferred substitute for
R 12. Its N.B.P. of – 26.67°C is quite close to R 12¢s N.B.P. of –29.8°C. However,
it should be noted that R 134a has relatively high GWP. The use of oil in R 134a
system requires a very stringent quality control. R134a is not soluble in mineral oil.
The polyester-based synthetic oil that is used with it should be totally dry. This is
difficult considering the fact that the synthetic ester oils are 100 times more
hygroscopic than mineral oils.
Further, where the pressure ratio does not exceed 10, it is possible to use the
transitional substance R 22 in place of R 12. But where the condensing temperature
is high or the evaporating temperature is low (as in refrigerators), it is not possible to
use R 22 because the motor winding and the compressor would overheat. R 22 can-
not be used in car air conditioners also because the pressures would be much higher
in comparison to R 12. So, with vibrations present, and car A/C not being a com-
pletely sealed system, there would be chances of frequent gas leaks. So R 134a is
being used in place of R 12. It has lower pressures as well.
Why not hydrocarbons? Hydrocarbons have zero ODP and negligible GWP. Ear-
lier researches for alternatives had excluded hydrocarbons because of their flamma-
bility. However, hydrocarbons are readily available, much cheaper and thermody-
namically very suitable. Besides, HC R 290 (Propane) is already being used as
refrigerant in petroleum refineries. In any case, the amount of refrigerant charge
required in domestic refrigerators is only a few grams. So, propane can be consid-
ered for use at least in domestic refrigerators. In fact, it is already in use in some
refrigerators in Europe.
Another attractive HC refrigerant from the list in Table 4.9 for use in domestic
refrigerators is R 600a (Isobutane). Whereas R 290 is a lower boiling, higher pres-
sure and smaller suction vapour volume substitute, R600a is higher boiling, lower
pressure and larger suction vapour volume refrigerant.
But because of their widely different N.B.Ps, neither R 290 nor R 600a can be
used as drop-in substitutes in place of R 12. However, by mass, a 50% R 290 + 50%
R 600a mixture has exactly the same pressures as R 12. Its volume refrigerating
capacity is also the same. Hence, this mixture is favoured as a drop-in substitute.
One more attractive alternative is R 152a (Difluoroethane). Its GWP is one order
of magnitude less than that of R 134a. Hence, the Environmental Protection Agency
of Europe prefers R 152a over R 134a.
4.12.1 Comparative Study of Alternatives to CFC 12 in Domestic Refrigerators

In domestic refrigerators, the inside air is cooled through natural convection by
the evaporating refrigerant, and the refrigerant is also condensed through natural
convection by the outside air. In frost-free refrigerators, however, a fan is used to
circulate air between freezer compartment and the evaporator coil. Both in the
evaporator and the condenser, one side fluid is very low thermal conductivity air.
This results in very low heat transfer coefficients. Hence, air-side coefficient be-
comes the controlling coefficient. The overall heat transfer coefficient is lower than
this controlling coefficient. Accordingly, whichever be the refrigerant used, the
overall coefficient would not change. Hence, if an alternative refrigerant is used in a
Refrigerants 159
refrigerator in place of CFC 12, it would not be necessary to change the evaporator
and the condenser. Only the compressor, its motor and the capillary tube would have
to be changed.
Ashok Babu9 has carried out an exhaustive theoretical analysis of five pure
refrigerants R 290, R 22, R 134a, R 152a and R600a, and the binary mixture 50%
R 290 + 50% R 600a for finding out the suitability of alternate refrigerants, and for
investigating the required modifications.
Analysis was done by Ashok Babu on a 165L, 89W refrigerating capacity,
4.33 cm3 piston displacement refrigerator operating on the standard rating cycle as
described in Fig. 3.21. The pressure drops Dps and D pd at suction and discharge
valves were assumed as follows:
For R 290 and R22 Dps = 0.2 bar, Dpd = 0.4 bar
For R 12, R 134a and R 152a Dps = 0.1 bar, Dpd = 0.25 bar
For R 600a Dps = 0.03 bar, Dpd = 0.05 bar
The operating parameters are given in Table 4.11. Two sets of calculations were
done for performance parameters:
(i) One using the same R 12 compressor with alternate refrigerants considered as
drop-in substitutes.
(ii) Another with an appropriate sized compressor to obtain the same refrigerat-
ing capacity of 89 W with different refrigerants.
The results of calculations are given in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 respectively. From
Table 4.12 it is clear that the higher boiling R 600a, R 152a and R 134a give decreased
capacity and the lower boiling R 22 and R 290 give increased capacity.
Further comments about the respective alternatives are as follows:
R 600a (Isobutane) It has very large volume of the suction vapour V& */hL, about
1.8 times that of R12. Hence, it requires a much larger sized compressor. Pressure
drop across the capillary is the lowest. Hence, R 600a requires a slightly shorter
capillary than 3m of R 12. Further, R 600a has lowest value of g. Hence, it has the
lowest discharge temperature and, therefore, lowest winding temperature inspite of
it having the highest pressure ratio. However, it has vacuum in the evaporator. Ex-
periments show that it requires 1.75 times the size of R 12 compressor.
R 152a (Difluoroethane) and R 134a (Tetrafluoroethane) Both these higher
boiling substances have similar characteristics except that R 152a has slight vacuum
in the evaporator at –25°C, and that the discharge temperature of R 152a is much
higher because of its higher value of g. Otherwise, both refrigerants require larger
displacement compressors, viz., 1.35 times for R 134a and 1.43 times for R 152a.
Further, pressure drop in R 152a capillary is the same as in the case of R 12.
R 134a has larger pressure drop, 13.85 bar, as against 12.37 bar for R 12. However,
the exact capillary size needs to be calculated in each case according to m & , pk – po
and thermophysical properties.
From Table 4.12, it can be seen that the refrigerating capacity is 61 W with
R 134a as against 89 W for R 12. To obtain a capacity of 89 W with R 134a as well,
the following modifications can be considered:
160
Table 4.11 Properties data of R 12 and new proposed refrigerants for t0 = – 25°C and tk = 55°C.
Refrigerants NBP p0 pk p2/p1 pk-p0 L1 hfg g

°C bar bar bar m3/kg kJ/kg
R 290 – 42.07 2.02 19.07 10.71 17.05 0.2913 404.99 1.126
R 22 – 40.76 2.01 21.74 12.23 19.74 0.1496 223.72 1.166
R 12 – 29.79 1.24 13.61 13.47 12.37 0.1803 163.34 1.126
R 134a – 26.2 1.07 14.92 17.64 13.85 0.2592 221.83 1.102
R 152a – 25 0.98 13.32 17.67 12.34 0.4314 328.25 1.134
R 600a – 11.73 0.59 7.82 21.25 7.23 0.8876 379.49 1.086
R290/R600a 1.4 14.22 13.29 12.82 0.4142 390.13 1.104
Table 4.12 Calculated performance parameters of R 12 and new proposed refrigerants using same compressor as in R 12 refrigerator
Refrigerants m& ´ 103 hL t2n t2s Q&o Q& k Q&L W&is W&a V* ´ 103 W* COP = t stc
3 3
kg/s °C °C W W kJ/m W W m /s/TR W/TR Q&o /W&is Nm
R 290 0.5896 0.936 125 155 282 808 88.4 4.35 2080 1.76 3.84
R 22 1.135 0.925 170 178 307 936 101.9 4.76 1995 1.75 4.42
R 12 0.8022 0.772 56.8 135 89 154 555 47.5 44.47 6.39 1786 1.84 2.77
R 134a 0.4437 0.608 60.5 125 65 113 518 33.86 32.46 6.79 1761 1.91 3.10
R 152a 0.2617 0.621 66.8 155 61 106 478 34.92 29.91 7.35 1723 1.75 2.77
R 600a 0.1941 0.894 53.7 110 48 86 260 25.85 24.68 13.54 1819 1.85 1.60
R 290/
R 600a 0.3039 0.612 70.8 116 77 129 609 35.0 28.1 5.78 2066 1.70 2.93
Table 4.13 Calculated performance parameters of R 12 and new proposed refrigerants for same refrigerating capacity of 89 W
Refrigerants m& ´103 W&is Q& k Q& k cQ& h

k R 12 Vp Vp cV h
p R 12 tstQ
kg/s W W cc Nm
R 290 0.331 49.65 158.5 1.033 2.431 0.561 2.158
R 22 0.5564 49.93 150.4 0.980 2.122 0.49 2.168
R 12 0.80 47.93 153.4 1. 4.33 1. 2.77
R 134a 0.5973 45.58 151.9 0.990 5.828 1.346 4.167
R 152a 0.374 47.4 151.3 0.986 6.187 1.429 3.957
R 600a 0.355 47.27 156.4 1.02 7.917 1.83 2.933
R 290/R 600a 0.3462 51.3 147.2 0.96 4.933 1.139 3.333
Refrigerants
161
(i) Using a next higher size compressor available with the manufacturer, having a
displacement of 5.52 cm3 in place of the existing 4.33 cm3 of R 12 compressor.
(ii) Increasing evaporator temperature from – 25°C to –23°C.
(iii) Increasing liquid subcooling to 20 kJ/kg.
R 22 and R 290 (Propane) Both these are lower boiling and higher pressure
refrigerants. Hence, they require much smaller displacement compressors, coupled
to slightly larger motors. As seen from Table 4.13, R 22 requires only 0.49 times the
size of R 12 compressor, and R 290 requires about 0.56 times. Both require longer
capillaries due to larger pressure drops.
Note that R 22 has the highest discharge temperature due to a very high value of
g. However, propane has low discharge temperature as compared to R 12. James and
Missenden23 have done studies on the use of propane in domestic refrigerators.
50% R 290/50% R 600a Mixture The binary mixture of equal proportions of
R 290 and R 600a has nearly the same pressures as R 12. It also has the same pres-
sure drop across the capillary as R 12. Table 4.13 shows 13.9% larger piston
displacement required for the mixture compressor. However, experiments show that
the mixture gives only about 8% less capacity using R 12 compressor. Again, the
anamoly is due to assumption of pressure drops and heat transfer characteristics in
the compressor. It is thus found that the equal mass R 290/R 600a mixture can be
used as a drop-in substitute for R 12.
A point to be kept in mind, however, is the fact that the mixture undergoes
temperature glide during boiling and condensation. If the composition is slightly
affected, it may cause instable operation in the refrigerator.
4.12.2 What if R 22 or R 290 is Used as a Drop-in Substitute in R 12

Refrigerator?
If R 22 is charged in a R 12 refrigerator, it will result in instant burn-out of the
hermetically sealed unit. The consequences of the sequence of events that follow are
as given below:
(i) Due to the very high value of g for R 22, its discharge temperature is the
highest.
(ii) Coupled with higher mass flow rate of R 22, basically on account of higher
pressure and smaller specific volume of suction vapour, it will cause increased
load on the compressor motor.
(iii) There will also be an increase in the amount of heat rejected in the condenser
due to increased refrigerating capacity and work input.
(iv) Finally, the pressure drop required in R 22 capillary is greater, 19.74 bar, as
against 12.37 bar for R 12. Accordingly, the pressure of the refrigerant at
outlet if same capillary is used would be much higher than 2.01 bar corre-
sponding to – 25°C evaporator temperature. This higher suction pressure
would have a snow-balling effect: It will lead to even further increases in
mass flow rate, work done, discharge temperature and pressure, winding
temperature, and so on.
On the other hand, things are much better with R 290 (Propane). Both on account
of lower pk/p0 and lower g, the discharge temperature of propane is much lower than
those of either R 22 or R 12. However, the other two problems remain with R 290 viz.,
Refrigerants 163
(i) smaller specific volume of suction vapour in compressor, and

(ii) higher evaporator pressure because of using same undersize capillary.
Hence, the motor would be overloaded, resulting in eventual burn-out.
The advantage of R 290 is its relatively lower discharge temperature.
Note Accordingly, if compressor cylinder size is reduced by 44% keeping the size of the
motor same, and capillary length is suitably increased, there is no reason why R 290
could not be used in place of R 12. In fact, R 290 compressor runs cooler than R 12; of
course, R 600a compressor runs cooler than even R 290. The mixture is the best.
4.12.3 Starting Torques of Motors

Starting torques (t) of compressor motors are calculated on the basis of difference of
discharge pressure and suction pressure and displacement volume of compressor.
Thus
1
t= (pk – p0)Vp
2
The inertia forces have not been taken into account in this expression. Also,
viscosity of refrigerants has not been considered. Oil effects on starting torques are
also involved.
In Table 4.13, the starting torque requirements for appropriate sized compressors
to produce the same refrigerating capacity of 89 W for different refrigerants—as
calculated from the above expression—are listed. It is seen that R 134a (4.17 Nm),
R 152a (3.96 Nm) and R 600a (2.93 Nm) demand higher starting torque motors than
R 12 (2.77 Nm). Therefore, if available R 12 compressors of required larger
displacement volumes are used with these substitutes, the starting torques of the
motors could be inadequate, and starting problems might result. The motor could
trip constantly.
In fact, the problem does exist in the cases of R 134a and R 152a. The solution to
the problem is either to change the motor to a higher torque one, or to increase the
starting torque of the existing motor by putting a capacitor in series with the starting
winding.
The problem does not occur in the case of R 600a as the difference (pk – p0) is
small. But, it requires a larger Vp, and hence a higher starting torque of 2.93 Nm as
against 2.77 Nm for R 12. But a larger displacement R 12 compressor would have a
motor which would have a starting torque greater than 2.93 Nm, even if it is
designed for R 12, because its pk – p0 is much more than that of R 600a.
4.12.4 Motor Ratings

R 134a, R 152a and R 600a require larger displacement compressors. The use of a
larger displacement compressor, designed for R 12-without changing the motor
installed in it which has a higher rating—would result in increase in energy con-
sumption due to low efficiency as a result of operation under part-load conditions.
The motor would have to be changed to a required lower rating motor so that it does
not have to run at part loads causing increase in energy consumption.
In the case of R 134a, since the energy consumption is about 50% more than in
the case of R 12, the motor rating may have to be increased.
On the other hand, R 22 and R 290 require smaller displacement compressors. The
smaller displacement R 12 compressor would have a lower rating motor installed in it.
The motor would, therefore, need to be changed to a required higher rating.
4.12.5 Refrigerant Charge

The quantities of refrigerants charged by Ashok Babu in his experiments on 165L
refrigerator are given in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14 Quantities of refrigerants charged
Refrigerant Quantity Charged in Grams

R 12 120
R 134a 135
R 152a 66
R 600a 60
50% R 290/50%/R 600a 40
In the experiment, these quantities are about 33% more than otherwise required
due to the instruments, connecting lines, etc. The R 12 charge specified by the
manufacturer was only 90 g.
Note that refrigerant change with hydrocarbons R 290 and R 600a is very small.
This is essentially due to their very high latent heat of vaporization, and hence very
low mass flow rate.
4.12.6 Summary of Factors Favouring/Disfavouring Use of Alternatives in

Domestic Refrigerators/Water Coolers
Table 4.15 gives a summary of factors favouring and/or disfavouring use of each of
the alternatives. In this summary, R 22 has been simply ruled out because of its very
small piston displacement required, and because of its very high discharge and
winding temperatures, and also because it is an HCFC.
Table 4.15 Favourable and unfavourable factors of alternatives for use in domestic
refrigerators
Refrigerant Favourable Factors Unfavourable Factors
R 290 1. Zero GWP. 1. Flammable.
2. Compatible with mineral oil. 2. Not very suitable at high
ambient conditions of 43°C.
3. Positive pressure in evaporator. 3. Very small piston displace-
ment compressor required.
May be suitable for large size
refrigerators
4. Low discharge and winding
temperatures.
5. Low power consumption with
appropriate size motor.
6. Low starting torque motor required.
7. Small refrigerant charge required.
8. Easily available.
(Contd)
Refrigerants 165
Table 4.15 (Contd)

Refrigerant Favourable Factors Unfavourable Factors
R 134a 1. Non-flammable. 1. Higher GWP than R 152a, etc.

2. Evaporator pressure positive. 2. Synthetic oil used highly
hygroscopic causing moisture
and oil choking problems.
3. Discharge and winding tempera- 3. Stringent oil quality and
tures lower than R 12. perfect workmanship required.
4. 50% greater energy consu-
mption compared to R 12.
5. Highest starting torque motor
required.
6. Inertness between refrigerant,
oil and Cu and winding
enamel not yet established.
R 152a 1. Zero GWP. 1. Slightly flammable.
2. Compatible with mineral oil. 2. Slight vacuum in evaporator
at –25°C
3. Lower starting torque motor 3. High discharge/winding
required in comparison to R 134a. temperatures.
4. Higher starting torque motor
required in comparison to R12.
R 600a 1. Zero GWP. 1. Flammable (but quantity of
charge very small in refrige-
rators).
2. Compatible with mineral oil.
3. Lowest system pressures. Very
light construction.
4. Very low discharge/winding temp-
eratures. Compressor runs very cool.
5. Low energy consumption if appro-
priate rating motor used.
6. Lower starting torque motor required
in comparison to R 134a and R 152a.
7. Quantity of charge very small.
50% R 290 1. Zero GWP 1. Flammable
+ 2. Compatible with mineral oil. 2. Temperature glide during
50% R 600a evaporation and condensation.
Mixture 3. Pressures same as in R 12 3. Leaks and composition
system. Almost like a drop-in imbalance affects
substitute. functioning.
4. Low discharge/winding temperatures.
5. Quantity of charge very small.
It is thus seen that both the hydrocarbons, R 290 and R 600a, have many factors
which make them suitable for use in domestic refrigerators in place of R 12.
Note Neither hydrocarbons because of their flammability, nor R 22 because of high pres-
sures and temperatures, would be suitable for use in car air conditioners. R 134a has been
chosen-for automotive air conditioning.
Example 4.1 Implications of Charging Propane in R 12 Refrigerator

Figure 4.3 shows the p-h diagram of R 12 cycle in an 89 W domestic refrigera-
tor. State 1¢¢ leaving evaporator is at – 15°C.
State 1 after regenerator and at the end of suction line is at 32°C. Process 3–3¢
represents subcooling in regenerative heat exchanger between vapour and liq-
uid. State 3 leaving condenser is at 40°C.
What will be the results of charging this refrigerator with propane without
changing hermetic compressor? Find to the first approximation.
40°C
55°C
32°C
qk = 192.0 115.8
COP = = 2.09
55.5
3 3 55°C 2
13.61 128°C
s1
=
s2
p, bar
32°C 1= 0.1624 m3/kg

– 25°C – 15°C
1.228 1 1 1
4
q0 = 115.8 w =55.5
211.1
66.6
74.6
266.6
182.4
h, kJ / kg
Fig. 4.3 R 12 cycle for refrigerator in Example 4.1
Solution Figure 4.4 shows the standard refrigerator cycles with propane.
40°C
55°C
32°C
qk = 467.5 279.3
COP = = 2.07
135
3 3 55°C 2 2
19.056
120°C
s1
=
p, bar
s2
32°C v1 = 0.27165 m3/kg

– 25°C
2.022 1
4 1 1
q0 = 279.3 w = 135
282.5
304.5
560.8
637.0
772.0
h, kJ / kg
Fig. 4.4 Propane cycle for refrigerator in Example 4.1
Mass flow rate of refrigerant, piston displacement, motor watts and heat rejected
in condenser for R 12 refrigerator are as follows:
Refrigerants 167
Q& 0 89 ´ 10-3
( m& )R 12 = = = 7.68 ´ 10–4 kg/s
q0 1158
.
V&p = ( m& L1)R 12 = 7.68 ´ 10–4 (0.1624) = 1.247 ´ 10–4 m3/s
( W& )R 12 = ( m& w)R 12 = 7.68 ´ 10–4 (55.5 ´ 103) = 43 W
( Q& k )
R 12 = ( m& q )
k R 12 = 7.68 ´ 10–4 (192 ´ 103) = 147 W
With the same compressor, and hence for the same piston displacement, we have
with propane
V&p .
1247 ´ 10 -4
(m& )R 290 = = = 4.59 ´ 10–4 kg/s
L1 0.27165
( Q& 0 )
R 290 = ( m& q )
0 R 290 = 4.59 ´ 10–4 (279.3 ´ 103) = 128 W
( W& )R 290 = ( m& w)R 290 = 4.59 ´ 10–4 (135 ´ 103) = 62 W
( Q& k )R 290 = ( m& qk)R 290 = 4.59 ´ 10–4 (467.5 ´ 103) = 215 W
We clearly notice the following advantages in using the hydrocarbon HC 290 in
place of CFC 12:
(i) Refrigerating capacity is increased from 43 W to 62 W, viz., by 44%.
(ii) COP nearly remains the same.
(iii) Discharge temperature is lowered from 128°C to 120°C.
However, there are implications in charging R 290 as a ‘drop-in’ substitute in a
R 12 refrigerator without changing compressor, which are as follows:
(i) Refrigerant mass flow rate requirement decreases, due to higher latent heat
and refrigerating effect of R 290
279.3 = (q0)R 290 > (q0)R 12 = 115.8 kJ/kg
(ii) Refrigerant mass flow rate handled by compressor decreases due to large
specific volume of R 290 suction vapour
0.27165 = (L1)R 290 > (L1)R 12 = 0.1624 m3/kg
This reduces mass flow handled by compressor as below:
4.59 ´ 10–4 = ( m& )R 290 < ( m& )R 12 = 7.68 ´ 10–4 kg/s
(iii) Conditions (i) and (ii) are complimentary. However, the effect of higher
latent heat is greater. As a result, in spite of the larger specific volume and
hence smaller mass flow rate handled, the same compressor gives more
capacity, and correspondingly increases heat rejected in the condenser for
R 290 because of its higher latent heat of vaporization. Thus
128 W = (Q& 0 )R 290 > ( Q& 0 )R 12 = 89 W
215 W = (Q& ) > ( Q& )
k R 290 k R 290 = 147 W
(iv) Motor watts increase for R 290 along with higher refrigerating capacity.
62 W = ( W& )R 290 > ( W& )R 12 = 43 W
This will result in considerable overloading and overheating of motor. Conse-
quently, it may burn out inspite of the lower discharge temperature of R 290.
(v) Due to the enormous amount of heat to be rejected, and use of the same
condenser, the condensing temperature and pressure and hence discharge
temperature would rise. In case, the mean cooling medium temperature is
assumed to be 38°C, the DT across R 12 condenser would be (DTk)R12 =
55 – 38 = 17°C, and that across R 290 condenser would be
c h
Q& k
R 290
(DTk)R 290 = (DTk)R12
c h
Q& R R 12
F 215IJ = 25°C
= 17 G
H 147 K
Hence, the condensing temperature and pressure with R 290 would be
(tk)R 290 = 38 + 25 = 63°C
(pk)R 290 = 22.582 bar
And the isentropic discharge temperature would be close to 145–150°C
(much above 120°C).
(vi) Further, if the effect of using the same capillary is also considered, we see that
the pressure drops required are as follows:
R 12 R 290
Condenser pressure 13.61 19.056
Evaporator pressure 1.228 2.022
Pressure drop 12.382 17.034
in capillary bar bar
Then, assuming same pressure drop as in R 12 capillary, viz., 12.382 bar, and
neglecting the difference in thermophysical properties, we see that the pressure
of propane at exist from the capillary and entering the evaporator would be
(p0)R290 = 22.582 – 12.382 = 10.2 bar
This will correspond to an enormously high evaporation temperature of 28°C
instead of – 25°C. It will also start a vicious cycle of a very high density of
suction vapour, extremely large mass flow rate, capacity, motor watts, heat
rejected in condenser, condenser temperature and pressure, discharge tem-
perature, etc.
Example 4.2 Make suggestions regarding changes to be made if R 12 in the

refrigerator in Example 4.1 is to be replaced with propane.
Solution Mass flow rate of propane required for the same refrigerating capacity
of 89 W
0.089
m& = = 3.18 ´ 10–4 kg/s
279.3
Compressor
Theoretical piston displacement required
V&p = 3.18 ´ 10–4 (0.27165) = 8.64 ´ 10–5 m3/s
Refrigerants 169
The piston displacement must, therefore, be reduced to

Vpd i
R 290 8.64 ´ 10 -5
=
Vpd i R 12
.
1247 ´ 10 -4
= 0.53
viz., to 53% of R 12.

Motor Watts
W = 3.18 ´ 10–4 (135 ´ 103) = 43 W
Note Hence, we need a new hermetic compressor with 47% less piston displacement but
with the same size motor.
Condenser Q k = 3.18 ´ 10–4 (467.5 ´ 103) = 149 W
Heat transfer required is the same as in R 12 refrigerator.
Evaporator
Heat transfer required is same as 89 W.
Note The sizes of condenser and evaporator remain the same. Any change would
depend upon the difference in thermophysical properties.
Capillary Tube
Pressure drop required is 17.034 bar. Existing capillary gives 12.382 bar with R 12.
Hence, a capillary of longer length is required with propane giving the required mass
flow rate of 3.18 ´ 10–4 kg/s of R 290.
4.13 SUBSTITUTES FOR CFC 11
R 11 Chillers represented one of the most efficient application of electrical energy

in air conditioning.
The substitute for R 11 must have high molecular mass and N.B.P close to that of
R 11 of 23.7°C. The substance having N.B.P. close to this is R 123 as seen from
Table 4.6. HCFC R123, therefore, has been found to be the most favoured transi-
tional alternative to CFC R11. It is close to a drop-in substitute, although it gives
about 10-15% reduction in capacity. Toxicity of R 123 is relatively high compared
to R 11. Due to the toxicity of R 123 and because of it being HCFC, it is very critical
to identify a long term substitute for R11.
Apart from HCFC123, Beyerlien et al.14 have suggested some fluorinated propanes
and butanes as CFC and HCFC substitutes. And, Adcock et al l have suggested some
fluorinated ethers, HFEs, as a new series of CFC substitutes. A comparative study of
CFC11 and these substances was made by Devotta et al.18 HFC 245 fa (Pentafluoro
propane) and HFE 143 ether have their properties and performance parameters very
close to those of R 11. Comparison of all four is given in Table 4.16.
Note that the ether is flammable, and flammability index of pentafluoropropane
is uncertain.
While the search is on for a long term alternative to R 11 in large capcity air
conditioning units, R 22 would continue to be used in the transitional period with
screw compressors, R 123 with centrifugal compressors and R134a with both screw
and centrifugal compressors.
Table 4.16 Comparative Data for CFC 11, HCFC 123, HFC 245fa
(Pentafluoropropane) and Ether for tk = 40°C and t0 = 0°C
CFC11 HCFC 123 HFC 245 fa HFE 143

Formula CCl3F CHCl2–CF3 C3 H3 F5 CH2 FO CHF2
Mol. Mass 137.4 152.9 135.0 100.0
tc, °C 197.8 183.68 154.1 186.83
pc, MPa 4.37 3.662 3.64 4.141
N.B.P., °C 23.7 27.82 14.9 30.06
p0, MPa 0.04 0.03265 0.054 0.029
pk, MPa 0.175 0.15447 0.252 0.145
q0, kJ/kg 154.9 141.0 151.7 231.91
V*, m3/MJ 2.604 3.164 2.816 3.312
COP 6.06 6.1 5.861 6.023
4.14 SUBSTITUTES FOR HCFC 22
It is seen that short-term substitutes for HCFC 22 remain HCFC 22 by itself, and
HFC 134a both. HFC 134a may well remain the long-term substitute also if no other
suitable refrigerent is found.
However, the average of bubble and dew temperatures of HFC R 407C, a mixture
of R 32, R 125, and R 134a, is closest to –40.8°C the N.B.P. of HCFC 22. And R 410A
is a near azeotropic mixture of HFCs R 32 and R 125. At present, these two blends are
serious contenders to replace HCFC 22.
Another HFC blend is R 404A (see Table 4.9). Other blends of HFC 32, HFC
134a etc., may also be found till the deadline of 2030.
Table 4.17 compares the performance parameters of HCFC 22 with the blend
R 407C of R 32/R 125/R 134a (23/25/52%), and azeotropic mixture R 410A of R 32/
R 125 (50/50%).
Table 4.17 Comparison of Performance Parameters of R 407C and R 410A with HCFC
22 for tk = 40°C and t0 = 0°C
HCFC 22 R407C R410A

tc, °C 96.15 86.03 71.36
pc , MPa 4.99 4.63 4.903
N.B.P.,°C – 40.81 Bubble Dew Bubble Dew
– 43.63 – 36.63 – 51.44 – 51.36
po, MPa 0.498 0.5 0.8
to, °C 0 – 3.85 + 2.36 – 0.03 + 0.08
pk, MPa 1.5336 1.7 2.4
tk, °C 40 43.78 38.84 39.56 39.68
qo, kJ/kg 155.4 152.1 155.8
m , kg/MJ 6.435 6.5733 6.55
L1, m3/kg 0.0471 0.04687 0.03262
V*, m3/MJ 0.303 0.308 0.2137
w, kJ/kg 25.0 20.4 28.7
COP 5.8 5.1 6.2
Refrigerants 171
Note that R407C boils through –3.85°C to +2.36°C to give a mean refrigeration
temperature of 0°C at 0.5 MPa. It condenses through 43.78°C to 38.84°C to give a
mean condensation temperature of 40°C. So it boils and condenses over a range of
temperatures of 6.2 and 4.9°C respectively. Hence, evaporators and condensers have
to have counter flow designs. Issues relating to separation of refrigerant and oil in
the evaporators have also to be examined.
Further, R 407C has much lower COP. But R 407C does have closely similar
operating characteristics to R 22.
On the contrary, R 410A is nearly an azeotropic mixture. Its boiling and conden-
sation ranges are negligible. It is like a pure substance. However, it is a much
lower-boiling refrigerant than HCFC 22. Hence, it has high pressures.
But it is shown that R 410A has higher COP.
And higher evaporator heat transfer coefficients of R 410A have facilitated
sysyem designs with more, not less, dehumidification (refrigeration) capability as
compared to R 22.
However, as the critical temperature of R 410A is lower, there is a recognized
performance degradation at elevated ambient temperatures. This has effect on dehu-
midification capability.
On balance, performances of R 410A and R 22 systemes are comparable. Hence,
it is being used as a substitute to R 22.
For the values presented in Table 4.17, see Example 4.3 for calculations.
Note that R 134a, a medium pressure refrigerant is being used in Europe in
conjunction with variable speed screw compressors that are competetive to R 22.
Thus, there is no clear refrigerant choice for future equipment to replace R 22
after 2030.
4.15 SUBSTITUTES FOR CFC R 502
R502 is an azeotropic mixture of HCFCs R 22 and R 115 in 50/50% proportions by

mass. Its N.B.P. is – 45.6°C.
A new azeotropic mixture R507A formed by blending HFC 134a and HFC 125 in
50-50% proportions by mass, and near azeotropic mixture R 404A formed by HFCs
R 125/R 143/R 134a in 44/52/4% proportions make attractive alternetives.
Where as R507A is an azeotrope having N.B.P. of – 46.74°C which is very close
to the N.B.P. of R 502, R 404A boils through a range from – 46.22°C to – 45.47°C
at 1 atm pressure of 0.10132 MPa.
Note Small deviations from azeotropic behaviour occur for R 507A. Table B.17 in the
Appendix gives averages of dew and bubble pressures for any given temperature.
4.16 ATMOSPHERIC GASES AS SUBSTITUTES FOR

CFC REFRIGERANTS
Concern for protecting the environment is on the rise. It is, therefore, suggested that
the existing atmospheric gases themselves be used as refrigerants. These are air,
water vapour, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, etc.
While ammonia is already a very popular refrigerant in industrial applications

such as cold storages and ice plants, its application can grow further. This has
already put a stop to the replacement of ammonia by HCFC R 22.
It is, however, a challenge to thermal engineers to adapt water and other inert
atmospheric gases in varied applications and high performance refrigeration systems.
Air cycle refrigeration (Chapter 11) is already used in aircraft air conditioning.
Normalair-Garrett of UK, in cooperation with Hagenuk Faiveley of Germany, have
devised the system that uses air cycle technology for car air conditioners.
Environmental concerns have breathed life into natural refrigerant technologies
including air cycle.
Hydrogen is also used as a working substance in Stirling-cycle in a Philips gas
liquifier (Chapter 11). With modifications, it can be adapted for other common
applications.
Water vapour refrigeration is used in steam ejector system (Chap. 13) driven by
motive steam in very large capacity air conditioning plants.
Carbon dioxide was used as a refrigerant toward the end of nineteenth century.
Since its critical temperature is low (31°C only), it cannot be condensed in high
ambient conditions. But it can be used in a supercritical vapour compression cycle.
Improving its COP, however, offers a challenge to thermodynamics engineers.
4.16.1 Supercritical Vapour Compression Cycle with CO2 as Refrigerant

Figures 4.5 and 4.6 show the supercritical vapour compression cycle with CO2 (R 744)
as refrigerant on T-s and p-h diagrams respectively. The following operating
conditions have been chosen for air conditioning cycle:
Evaporation temperature 2°C(p0 = 36.8 bar)
Compressor discharge/Cooler pressure 100 bar
Temperature t3 after cooler coil 50°C (323 K)
ar 2
0b r
12 a
0b
10 bar
80
r
ba
7 3.7
=
p 0
50 °C 3
323 Tc = 304 K (31°C)
285 c
r
ba
3
T, K
.8
36
2 °C 1
275 1
4
s
Fig. 4.5 Supercritical vapour compression cycle with CO2 on T-s diagram
Refrigerants 173
50°C
3 3
100 2
pc = 73.7
c
2 °C
36.8
1 1
4
p, bar
tc = 31°C
208.5
173.7
315.6
350.3
394.7
h, kJ/kg
Fig. 4.6 Supercritical vapour compression cycle with CO2 on p-h diagram
Assuming 20°C superheating of vapour in regenerative heat exchanger, the prop-

erty values and calculations are as follows:
h1 = 315.6 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.157 kJ/kg K h1¢ = 350.3 kJ/kg
h2 = 394.7 kJ/kg, L¢1 = 0.014917 m3/kg
h3 = 208.5 kJ/kg, h3¢ = 173.7 kJ/kg
h - h3¢ 142.2
COPc = 1 = = 1.82
h2 - h1 79.1
35164
.
W* = (79.1) = 1.95 kW/TR
142.2
35164
.
V* = (0.014917) = 3.7 ´ 10–4 m3/s (TR)
142.2
Results for discharge pressures of 80, 100 and 120 bar, and varying degrees of
superheats are given in Table 4.18
Table 4.18 Performance parameters of CO2 at t0 = 2°C
Discharge pressure Superheat COPc W* V* ´ 104

bar °C kW/TR m3/s (TR)
80 10 1.17 3.0 7.0
20 1.28 2.74 6.8
100 10 1.78 2.01 3.5
20 1.82 1.95 3.7
30 1.88 1.87
120 10 1.51 2.33 3.4
20 1.55 2.28 3.6
It is observed that high-side pressure of 100 bar is optimum, and superheating of

vapour by 30°C gives higher COP. This corresponds to a maximum possible suction
temperature of 32°C.
4.17 USING MIXED REFRIGERANTS
The diversification of the refrigeration and air-conditioning industry has led to a

continuous search for newer working substances adapted to specific applications.
The commonly used fluorocarbons are limited in number and there are gaps in their
characteristics owing to their chemistry which need to be filled. The introduction of
mixtures in compression refrigerating machines is a step in that direction.
Mcharness and Chapman29, and Downing20 had made experimental studies on a
number of refrigerants and their mixtures. Varying the capacity of a refrigerating
machine using varying proportions of different refrigerants has now become a well-
known possibility.
The most important property of a mixture is the range of temperature at which it
boils or condenses. This enables it to achieve non-isothermal refrigeration, and when
used in applications involving cooling at a range of temperatures, it results in a
higher COP and consequent power saving.3,4
Further, some mixtures form azeotropes which have interesting possibilities.
4.18 BINARY MIXTURES
Two properties are required to define the thermodynamic state of a pure substance.
If, however, the state is saturated, only one property needs to be known.
A binary mixture consists of a higher boiling and a lower boiling component. In
the case of a binary system, three independent properties are required to define the
state, and two properties when the state is in an equilibrium saturated liquid state or
saturated vapour state. One of these properties is invariably the composition.
4.18.1 Measures of Composition in Mixtures

Consider a liquid and/or vapour mixture of two substances. The number of moles of
components in the mixture are n1 and n2. Then, the sum
n = n1 + n 2
holds for each phase separately. Let x1 and x2 denote the mole fractions of the two
components in the liquid phase. Then,
n n
x1 = 1 , x2 = 2 , x1 + x2 = 1
n n
Similarly, for the mole fractions y1 and y2 in the vapour phase, we have
y1 + y2 = 1
The relations between masses m1 and m2, moles n1 and n2 and molecular masses
M1 and M2 are
m1 = n1 M1, m2 = n2 M2
Þ m = m1 + m2 = n1 M1 + n2 M2 = nM
Refrigerants 175
where M represents the effective molecular mass of the mixture. Thus,

m 1
M= = (n1 M 1 + n2 M2)
n n
= x1 M 1 + x2 M2 for liquid mixture
= y1 M 1 + y2 M2 for vapour mixture
If x1L and x2L represent mass fractions in liquid phase, then
M1 x1 M 2 x2
x1L = = 1 – x2L, x2L = = 1 – x1L (4.27)
M1 x1 + M 2 x 2 M1 x1 + M 2 x 2
Similarly, for mass fractions x1V and x2V in vapour phase, we have
M1 y1 M 2 y2
x1V = = 1 – x2V, x2V = = 1 – x1V (4.28)
M1 y1 + M 2 y 2 M1 y1 + M 2 y 2
The relation between mass fraction and mole fraction is expressed as follows:
x1 M2
x1 or y1 = (4.29)
x 1 M 2 + x 2 M1
4.18.2 Temperature-Composition Diagram

The nature of this diagram is shown in Fig. 4.7 for any given pressure p. The
saturation temperatures of the two components at pressure p are t1sat and t2sat, the
superscript sat denoting the saturation state of the pure substance. The temperature
tB, at which a liquid mixture begins to boil is called the bubble point temperature. A
curve can be drawn passing through all such points for various liquid compositions
x = x L, as shown in Fig. 4.7. This is called the bubble point curve. It is the locus of
saturated liquid states for the mixture.
p = Constant
Superheated
sat Satur G Vapour
t1 at ed V
a pou
r Dew Point Curve
L² D/V
tD y
Sa
Dew tur A
ate V
Temperature d
Temperature’ °C
L¢
Bubble x A V
tB
Temperature L/B Liqui
d
sat
t2
Bubble
F Point Curve
Subcooled
Liquid
x y
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Composition x, y
Fig. 4.7 t-x-y diagram of binary mixtures
Similarly, the temperature tD at which a vapour mixture begins to condense is

called the dew point temperature. A curve passing through all such points is called
the dew point curve. It is the locus of saturated vapour states for the mixture. The
region below the bubble point curve is the subcooled region, and that above the dew
point curve is the superheated region. The region between the two curves is the
liquid plus vapour region. The states on these curves are the saturation states. Any
state A that falls in the liquid plus vapour region comprises of equilibrium states L of
saturated liquid, and V of saturated vapour. The compositions of the two are x L and
x V and the overall composition x at A is given in terms of the fraction z of vapour and
(1 – z) of liquid as given in Eq. (4.30)
x = zx V + (1 – z)x L (4.30)
It may be noted that there will be a different loop like the one in Fig. 4.7 for each
pressure.
Thus, when a subcooled liquid of composition x at F in Fig. 4.7 is heated it will
first rise in temperature till it reaches the bubble temperature tB at B/L when it begins
to boil. The first vapour bubble that is formed is at V having the composition y. As
the boiling proceeds, the temperature rises. Subsequent states during boiling are
along the vertical such as point A at the same overall composition with liquid at L¢
and vapour at V¢ in equilibrium. When boiling is complete, the vapour is at D/V ¢¢ at
dew temperature tD. The last drop of liquid to vaporize is at L¢¢.
Further heating will result in superheating of vapour to G. When superheated
vapour at G is cooled, the reverse processes of desuperheating to D, condensation to
B, and subcooling to F will take place.
It is observed that the temperature glide/range during evaporation and condensation
is equal to the difference in dew and bubble temperatures (tD – tB) for the composition.
The temperature-composition diagram represents vapour-liquid equilibrium of
mixtures at constant pressure. A counterpart to this diagram is the pressure compo-
sition p-x-y or p – x diagram at constant temperature as shown in Fig. 4.8.
t = Constant
Subcooled
Liquid
F p sat
Bubble B
pB
Pressure
Pressure, kPa
D Dew
pD
Pressure
p sat
G
Superheated
Vapour
0 0.2 0.4 06 0.8 1.0

Composition x, y
Fig. 4.8 p-x-y Diagram of Binary Mixtures

Refrigerants 177
At a certain temperature for a given composition of the mixture, the pressure at

which it begins to boil is called the bubble pressure pB, and the pressure at which
it begins to condense is the dew pressure pD. Both these pressures are shown in
Fig. 4.8. It is seen that dew pressure is lower than bubble pressure unlike dew
temperature which is higher than bubble temperature. It merely states the fact that
the higher the boiling point the lower the boiling pressure.
It may be pointed out that instead of the mole fractions x and y, compositions can
be expressed in terms of mass fractions x L and x V also.
4.18.3 Enthalpy-Composition Diagram

Figure 4.9 shows the nature of the enthalpy-composition diagram. Points hf1 and hf2
represent the enthalpies of the saturated liquids of the two components, and hg1 and
hg2, those of the saturated vapours, at pressure p. At any composition x at a point A in
the liquid plus vapour region for the mixture, the enthalpies of equilibrium saturated
liquid and saturated vapour states L and V are hL and hV respectively. Then, the
enthalpy at A is given by Eq. (4.31)
h = zhV + (1 – z)hL (4.31)
Figure 4.9 also shows the constant temperature lines in the subcooled region. The
line joining the equilibrium states such as L and V represent constant temperature lines
in the two-phase region, and are called tie lines. Again, there will be a pair of curves
for saturated liquid and saturated vapour mixtures for each pressure.
Superheated
Vapour p = const
G
h g1
tD
D
V
hv
A h g2
t .
ns h
co
=
tA
hf1
h
L
tA hL
B hf2
tB
F
Subcooled
Liquid
Fig. 4.9 Enthalpy-composition diagram of binary mixtures
4.18.4 Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram of a Mixture

Fig. 4.10 shows the pressure enthalpy diagram of a mixture.
tk3
tk2 = tg
3 2 2
pk
g
tk3
tf
tg
p
t2
t1 v1
f
p0
1
tf 4 t4
t1
h
Fig. 4.10 Temperatures on pressure–enthalpy diagram of a mixture
The condensation and evaportion liness, 2 – 3 and 4 – 1, are horizontal at constant

pressure, the throttling process line 3 – 4 is vertical at constant enthalpy, and the com-
pression process line 1– 2 is isentropic as in the case of a pure substance. The only
difference between pure substance and the mixture are the changes in temperature
during condensation and evaporation. Thus
t¢2 = t g ¹ t3
and t1 ¹ t 4 ¹ t f
The temperature at 2¢ is the dew temperature t g , and temperature at 3 is the
bubble temperature at pressure pk.
Similarly, temperature at 1 is the dew temperature at p0, and temperature at 4 is in
between the bubble temperature tf and dew temperature t1 at p0.
Thus, condensation temperature is not constant at tk. It varies from t k 2¢ = t g to
t k3 = t f at pk.
Similarly, evaporation temperature is not constant at t0. It varies from to4 to
t o1 = t g at p0. Both condensation and evaporation processes are non-isothermal.
Subscripts f and g refer to saturated liquid (bubble temperature) and saturated
vapour (dew temperature) states respectively.
Further, average of t k2¢ and t k3 may be made equal to tk, and average of to4 and
to1 may be made equal to to.
Example 4.3 Comparison of HFC Blends R 407 and R 410A with HCFC
22 Compare p0, pk, q0, w, COP, L1, m, and V* of R 407C and R 410A with those
of HCFC 22 for tc = 0°C and tk = 40°C.
Solution Refer Fig. 4.10

(a) For HCFC 22 From the table of properties of HCFC 22 for to = 0°C,
tk = 40°C po = 0.498 MPa pk = 1.5336 MPa L1 = 0.0471 m3/kg
Calculations give
Refrigerants 179
q0 = 156.3 kJ/kg
w = 26.9 kJ/kg
COP = 5.81
m = 6.435 kg/MJ
V* = 0.303 m3/MJ
(b) For R 407C Choose p0 = 0.5 MPa to get an average t0 » 0°C
Bubble temperature tf = –3.85°C
Dew temperature t1 = 2.36°C
Choose pk = 1.7 MPa to get average tk » 40°C
Bubble temperature t3 = 38.84°C
Dew temperature t2¢ = 43.78°C
From the table of properties of R 407C, we further have
h1 = 410.64 kJ/kg h3 = 258.51 kJ/kg h¢2 = 425.25 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.7735 kJ/kgK s¢2 = 1.7269 kJ/kgK
Cp at 1.7 MPa = 1.361 kJ/kgK
Isentropic compression gives
T
s2 = s¢2 + Cp ln 2 = s1
T2¢
T2
1.7269 + 1.361 ln = 1.7735
313
Þ T2 = 328 K (54.9°C)
Hence h2 = h¢2 + Cp (T2 – T 2¢ )
= 425.25 + 1.361 (54.9 – 40) = 440.38 kJ/kg
q0 = h1 – h3 = 410.64 – 258.51 = 152.1 kJ/kg
w = h2 – h1 = 440.38 – 410.64 = 29.74 kJ/kg
152.1
COP = = 5.11
29.74
L1 at 0.5 MPa = 0.04687 m3/kg
Q0 1000
m = = = 6.5733 kg/MJ
q0 152.1
V* = m v1 = 29.74 (0.04687) = 0.3081 m3/MJ
(c) For R410A Similarly, Choose p0 = 0.8 MPa and pk = 2.4 MPa
From the table of properties of R 410A
V* = mv1
tf = – 0.03°C t1 = 0.08°C
t3 = 39.56°C t 2¢ = 39.68°C
h1 = 421.33 kJ/kg h3 = 265.52 kJ/kg h¢2 = 425.33 kJ/kg

s1 = 1.8102 kJ/kg K s¢2 = 1.7294 kJ/kgK
Cp at 2.4 MPa = 1.811 kJ/kgK
v1 at 0.8 MPa = 0.03262 m3/kg
Calculations as in (b) give
T2 = 328.5 K (55.3°C)
q0 = 155.81 kJ/kg
w = 25.3 kJ/kg
COP = 6.2
m = 6.55 kg/MJ
V* = 0.214 m3/MJ
Note We see that R 410A has higher COP than HCFC 22. The temperature range during
evaporation is only 0.11°C. The temperature range during condensation is only 0.12°C.
4.19 CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURES
Mixtures can be classified broadly as miscible and immiscible. Miscible mixtures

can be either ideal or non-ideal. Non-ideal mixtures may have positive deviation or
negative deviation from Raoult’s law as described in the following sections. Some
non-ideal mixtures may also form azeotropes. An azeotrope is a constant tempera-
ture boiling mixture. Azeotropes may be minimum boiling or maximum boiling
depending on whether the deviation from Raoult’s law is positive or negative.
4.19.1 Ideal Mixtures

The laws governing ideal mixtures are Raoult’s law for the liquid phase and Dalton’s
law for the vapour phase. According to Raoult’s law, the partial pressures of the two
components in a liquid mixture at temperature t are given by
p1 = x1 p1sat (4.32a)
p2 = x2 p2sat (4.32b)
where p1sat and p2sat are the saturation pressures of the two components at tempera-
ture t of the mixture, and x1 and x2 are the mole fractions of the components in the
liquid phase.
According to Dalton’s law for the vapour phase, the partial pressures are given by
p1 = y1 p, (4.33 a)
p 2 = y2 p (4.33 b)
where y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the components in the vapour phase, and p
is the total pressure, which is also given by Eqs. (4.32a) and (4.32b) as
p = x1 p1sat + x2 p2sat (4.34)
This is named as Raoult’s law pressure.
Refrigerants 181
Equation (4.34) can be used to find bubble temperature by iteration for a pressure
p and liquid composition x1, x2 of the mixture. Another relation can be derived as
follows in Eq. (4.35)
p1 p2 y p y p
x1 + x2 = 1 = sat + sat = 1sat + 2sat
p1 p2 p1 p2
p1sat p2sat
Þ p=
e
p1sat - y1 p1sat - p2sat j (4.35)
Equation (4.35) can be used to find dew temperature by iteration for a given
pressure p and vapour composition y1, y2 of the mixture.
And if the temperature of the mixture is known, Eqn. (4.34) can be used to find
bubble pressure for given x, and Eqn. (4.35) to find dew pressure for given y.
These set of equations can be used to draw the temperature-composition diagram
for an ideal mixture. Equation (4.34) describes the variation of the total pressure of
a mixture with composition. It is seen that it varies linearly with molar composition
as shown in Fig. 4.11.
t = Constant
(+) p sat
p > p Raoult
p Raoult
p
p < p Raoult
p sat (–)
0 1
x, y
Fig. 4.11 Bubble point (saturated liquid) curves on p-x-y diagram showing
deviations from Raoult’s law
Another criterion of an ideal mixture is that the mixing of the constituents should
cause no change in the average intermolecular forces of attraction. This amounts to
saying that there is no change on mixing in the internal energy or volume. Accord-
ingly, there is no evolution or absorption of heat on mixing. Thus, the enthalpy of an
ideal mixture can be found by adding the enthalpies of the two components at the
temperature and pressure of the mixture in proportion to the composition, i.e.,
h = x 1 h1 + x 2 h2 .
Thus, from Figs. 4.7 and 4.9 the enthalpies at L and V are as given in Eqs. (4.36)
and (4.37)
hL = x1L [hf1 – Cf1 (t1sat – tA)] + x2L [hf2 + Cf2 (t A – t2sat)] (4.36)
hV = x1V [hg1 – Cp1 (t1sat – tA)] + x [hg2 + Cp2 (tA – t2sat)] (4.37)
where Cf and Cp are the specific heats of liquid and vapour respectively at constant
pressure. The expressions in brackets represent pure component enthalpies h1L and
h2L for the liquid phase, and h1Vand h2V for the vapour phase.
Example 4.4 Bubble and Dew Temperatures of Propane/Isobutane Mixtures

(Illustrating Calculation Procedure)
Determine the bubble and dew temperatures of, by mass, (1) 50% R 290 + (2)
50% R 600a mixtures at 14 bar and 1.4 bar.
Solution The molecular masses of R 290 and R 600a are M1 = 44 and, M2 = 58.
Given x1 = 0.5 and x2 = 0.5. From Eqn. (4.29),
M2 x 2 58 (0.5)
x1 or y1 = = = 0.5686
M1 x 1 + M 2 x 2 44 (0.5) + 58 (0.5)
Solving Eqn. (4.34)
p = x1 p1sat + x2 p2sat
by iteration for x1 = 0.5686 and x2 = 1 – x1 = 0.4314 for p = 14 bar, and 1.4 bar, we
find that
(tB)14 bar = 54.3°C
(tB)1.4 bar = – 25°C
Solving Eqn. (4.35)
p1sat p2sat
p=
e
p1sat - y1 p1sat - p2sat j
by iteration for y1 = 0.5686 and y2 = 0.4314, we get
(tD)14 bar = 62.7°C
(tD)1.4 bar = – 16.3°C
4.19.2 Non-ideal Mixtures

Non-ideal mixtures are distinguished from the ideal ones in two respects:
(i) They show a marked change in volume on mixing in the vapour phase.
(ii) There is either absorption or evolution of heat on mixing in the liquid phase.
These two types of departures from ideal behaviour are characterised by devia-
tions from (i) ideal gas equation of state and Dalton’s law in vapour phase, and
(ii) Raoult’s law in liquid phase.
A mixture with positive deviation from Raoult’s law exerts a higher vapour pres-
sure than that given by the law at a particular temperature and composition as shown
by the curve (+) for the saturated liquid states on the p-x diagram in Fig. 4.11. The
same is also shown by a curve (+) on the t-x diagram in Fig. 4.12 which shows that
the bubble temperatures of such mixtures are lower at a particular pressure and
composition.
Refrigerants 183
Mixing of components forming such mixtures is accompanied by the absorption

of heat. Such a heat of mixing Dhm is considered to be positive. The enthalpy of the
liquid mixture is, therefore, higher than the enthalpy obtained by the summation of
the liquid enthalpies of the two components in proportion to their compositions, viz.
hL = x1 h1L + x2 h2L + Dhm (4.38a)
p = Constant
p 1sat
tB > tB, Raoult
tB, Raoult (-)
tB < tB, Raoult p2sat

(+)
t
0 x 1
x
y
Fig. 4.12 Bubble point (saturated liquid) curves on t-x-y diagram showing
deviations from Raoult’s law
It is seen that the process of mixing is an endothermic reaction. The enthalpy of

the mixture in the vapour phase remaining unchanged (equal to the sum of pure
component enthalpies), this leads to a decrease in the latent heat of vaporization of
the mixture.
In contrast to the above, a mixture with negative deviation from Raoult’s law will
have the following characteristics.
(i) It will exert a lower vapour pressure than given by Raoult’s law at a particular
composition and temperature as shown by curve (–) in Fig. 4.11.
(ii) The bubble temperature of the mixture will be higher at a particular pressure
and composition as shown by curve (–) in Fig. 4.12.
(iii) Mixing of components results in the evolution of heat. The heat of mixing is
thus negative. The enthalpy of the liquid mixture is, therefore, decreased
resulting in an increased latent heat of vaporization. The process of mixing of
liquids is exothermic, and the liquid enthalpy is given by Eq. (4.38 b)
hL = x1 h1L + x2 h2L – Dhm (4.38 b)
An example of a mixture of the positive deviation type is a mixture of fluoro-

carbons, whereas the NH3 + H2O system is an example of a mixture of the negative
deviation type.
Example 4.5 Temperature-Composition and Enthalpy-Composition Dia-

grams for R 152a/R 22 Ideal Mixture
Kim25 suggested the use of R 152a/R 22 mixture in refrigerators. However, a
refrigeration engineer proposes to use R 152a/R 22 mixture in place of pure
R 22 in air conditioners. Draw t – x and h – x diagrams for the binary system, for
15 and 5 bar pressures, assuming ideal mixture behaviour (see Example 4.7 and
4.8 also).
Solution Temperature-composition diagrams

Molecular masses (M)R152a = 66.05, (M)R22 = 86.48
Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote R 152a and R 22 respectively.
At 15 bar
t1sat = 60°C, t2sat = 39.1°C
The bubble temperature will vary between 39.1°C and 60°C. Do calculations for
43, 47, 51, 55 and 57°C bubble temperatures.
Sample Calculations (Steps)
(i) At t B = 43°C, p1sat = 9.877 bar and p2sat = 1.642 bar
(ii) Find equilibrium vapour composition:
p1sat - p1sat p2sat p
y1 = = 0.15
p1sat - p2sat
(iii) Find equilibrium liquid composition:
p1 y1 p
x1 = = = 0.77
p1sat p1sat
(iv) Find equivalent mass fractions:
x1 M1
x1L = = 0.18
x1 M1 + x2 M 2
y1 M1
x1V = = 0.12
y1 M1 + y2 M 2
At 5 bar
Do calculations as above for 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16°C, since
t1sat = 19.2°C, t2sat = 0.2°C
Values obtained are given in Tables 4.19 and 4.20 respectively for 15 bar and
5 bar pressures. The same are plotted in Fig. 4.13.
Refrigerants 185
60 60
55 tD p = 15 bar 55
50 tB 50
45 45
40 40
t, °C
35 35
30 30
25 25
p = 5 bar
20 x2 = 0.258 20
x1 = 0.742
16°C x2 = 0.5125
15 tD 15
x1 = 0.835 x1 = 0.4875 p = 5 bar
x2 = 0.165 12°C
10 x1 = 0.636 x1 = 0.2825 10
tB
x2 = 0.364 8°C x1 = 0.194
x1 = 0.421L
6°C L x1 = 0.12
5 x1 = 0.308 x1 = 0.0545
5
4°C
x1 = 0.187 2°C
x1 = 0.0195
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R 152 a (x)R 22 R 22
Fig. 4.13 Temperature-composition diagram of R 152/R 22 mixtures at 15 and

5 bar pressures
Table 4.19 Vapour-liquid equilibrium of (1) R 152a and (2) R 22 mixtures at

15 bar pressure
t °C p1sat bar p2sat bar x1 y1 N 1L N 1V

39.1 15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
43 9.88 16.42 0.23 0.15 0.18 0.12
47 10.96 18.05 0.43 0.32 0.36 0.26
51 12.125 19.8 0.62 0.5 0.55 0.43
55 13.38 21.67 0.81 0.72 0.76 0.66
57 14.05 22.67 0.89 0.83 0.86 0.79
60 15 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Table 4.20 Vapour-liquid equilibrium of (1) R 152a and (2) R 22 mixtures at

5 bar Pressure
t p1sat p 2sat x1 y1 N 1L N 1V
°C bar bar
0.2 5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 2.835 5.308 0.117 0.07 0.0915 0.0545
4 3.04 5.657 0.268 0.163 0.1869 0.12
6 3.257 6.023 0.368 0.24 0.308 0.194
8 3.486 6.406 0.487 0.34 0.421 0.2825
12 3.98 7.226 0.696 0.555 0.636 0.4875
16 4.526 8.123 0.87 0.79 0.835 0.742
19.2 5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Enthalpy-composition Diagrams From the tables of properties we have the spe-

cific heats and saturated liquid and vapour enthalpies of pure refrigerants as follows:
p t1sat t2sat hf 1 hf 2 hg 1 h g2 Cp1 Cp2

bar °C °C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg.K kJ/kg.K
15 60 39.1 311.9 247.9 540.5 415.8 1.61 0.91
5 19.2 0.2 233.0 200.0 520.0 406.0 0.864 0.89
Sample Calculations for Liquid and Vapour Enthalpies At 15 Bar

At t = 43°C, hL = x1L h1L + x2L h2L = 0.18 (277.7) + 0.92 (253) = 258 kJ/kg
Note The values of h1L and h 2L have been taken equal to saturation enthalpies hf1 and hf2
of pure refrigerants
hV = x1V [hg1 – Cp1 (t1sat – t)] + x2V [hg2 + Cp2 (t – t2sat)]

= 0.12 [540.5 – 1.61 (60 – 43)] + 0.88 [415.8 + 0.91 (43 – 39.1)]
= 431.9 kJ/kg
The results are presented in Tables 4.21 and 4.22 for 15 bar and 5 bar pressures,
and in Fig. 4.14.
Table 4.21 Saturated liquid and vapour enthalpies of (1) R 152a and (2) R 22
mixtures at 15 bar
t N 1L N 1V h1L = hf1 h2L = hf2 hL hV

°C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
39.1 0.0 0.0 247.9 247.9 415.8 = hg2
43 0.18 0.12 277.7 253.0 258.0 431.9
47 0.36 0.26 285.5 258.3 268.3 450.4
51 0.55 0.43 293.5 263.6 280.2 472.0
55 0.76 0.66 301.7 269.1 293.1 500.0
57 0.86 0.79 305.7 271.8 300.5 515.5
60 1.0 1.0 311.9 311.9 540.5 = hg1
Refrigerants 187
Table 4.22 Saturated liquid and vapour enthalpies of (1) R 152a and (2)
R 22 mixtures at 5 bar
t N 1L N 1V h1L = hf1 h2L = hf2 hL hV

°C kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
0.2 0.0 0.0 200.0 200.0 406.0 = hg2
2 0.0915 0.0545 203.4 202.3 202.4 412.9
4 0.187 0.12 206.7 204.7 205.0 422.2
6 0.308 0.194 210.1 207.1 208.0 430.1
8 0.421 0.2825 213.5 209.4 211.0 440.3
12 0.636 0.4875 220.4 214.2 218.0 464.0
16 0.835 0.742 227.4 219.0 226.0 492.2
19.2 1.0 1.0 233.0 520.0 = hg1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
600 600
540.5
520
500 V 500
15 ba
r hn
V
b
465.8
5 bar V
19.2°C
V aV
h, kJ/kg Mixture
V
415.8
406
16°C
400 400
12°C
0.2°C
8°C
6°C
4°C
2°C
311.9
300 300
15 bar
= 0.18
hL c 250
Gd 247.9
233
5 bar
L
L
200 L L 200
L L
120
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R 152a ( ) R 22 R 22
Fig. 4.14 Enthalpy-composition diagrams of R 152a/R 22 mixtures at
15 and 5 bar pressures
4.20 EVALUATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

OF R 290/R 600a MIXTURES
A more rigorous method of evaluating thermodynamic properties of mixtures has

been described in the following pages. The assumptions that have been made in
developing the thermodynamic properties of mixtures of R 290 and R 600a are as
follows:
(i) There is no heat of mixing in liquid phase. So it obeys Raoult’s law.
(ii) There is no change in volume due to mixing in the vapour phase. Ideal
mixture behaviour has, therefore, been assumed and Dalton’s law of partial
pressures has been applied. However, real gas behaviour has been taken into
account by employing the actual equations of state for the individual gases
and the vapour mixture.
Note Entropy of mixing has to be considered for ideal mixtures also, since mixing, in any
case, is an irreversible process.
4.20.1 Calculations of Specific Volume, Enthalpy and Entropy of Mixture in

Liquid Phase8
The specific volume of liquid mixture LL is calculated from Eq. (4.39)
MLL = L L = x1 L 1L + x2 L 2L (4.39)
where x1 and x2 are the mole fractions and L and L are the molar volumes of its
1
L
2
L
species.
The specific enthalpy of liquid mixture hL is similarly calculated using the rela-
tions as given in Eq. (4.40)
MhL = h L = x1 h 1L + x2 h 2L (4.40)
L
where h and
1 h 2L are the molar enthalpies of its species. The value of heat of mixing
hm is assumed as zero here.
The specific entropy of liquid mixture smL is calculated from the relation given in
Eq. (4.41)
Ms L = s L = x1 s 1L + x2 s 2L – R (x1ln x1 + x2ln x2) (4.41)
where s 1L L
and s are liquid entropies of pure species and the second term is the
2
entropy of mixing.
4.20.2 Calculation of Specific Volume of Mixture in Vapour Phase

For the purpose, we need an equation of state for the components and the mixture.
The constants for the mixture can be evaluated from the constants of the components
by simple additive rules. So, Peng-Robinson37 Equation (1.14) has been chosen in
the following method. The pseudocritical temperature, pressure, and accentric
factor for the mixture for use in the equation are given by:
Tc = y1 Tc1 + y2 Tc2
p c = y 1 p c 1 + y 2 p c2
w = y1 w1 + y2 w2
Refrigerants 189
The constants for R 290 and R 600a are given in Table 4.23.
Table 4.23 Critical constants, molecular masses and accentric factors for
R 290 and R 600a
Refrigerant M pc, MPa Tc, K M f (M)

R 290 44 4.236 369.8 1.1442 0.60429
R 600a 58 3.685 409.1 1.1424 0.64783
4.20.3 Calculation of Enthalpy of Mixture in Vapour Phase

A method developed by Agarwal and Arora2 will now be described.
Figure 4.15 shows the vapour-liquid domes of pure components 1 and 2, and their
binary mixture of certain composition on a p-h diagram.
Mixture
Component 1
Component 2
0°C 0°C
p e
p
a1 b1
(p1sat)0°C t
(hfg1) 0°C 0°C
a2 b2
(p2sat)0°C
(hfg2) 0°C 0°C p0 0
h 01 0 02 d
Fig. 4.15 Proposed method for vapour mixture enthalpy calculation
The figure illustrates how the enthalpies of saturated liquid and saturated
vapour may be calculated. The proposed method assumes values for reference state
enthalpies for saturated liquid states of both the pure components 1 and 2 at a1 and
a2 at 0°C.
Consider now the saturated vapour state e on the dome for the mixture as shown in
Fig. 4.15. Let the pressure and temperature of the mixture at e be p and T respectively.
Now, the state at the same temperature T but at zero pressure is shown by point d
in the figure. Then, the enthalpy at e is related to ideal gas state enthalpy at d at
temperature T by the residual enthalpy term. Thus
he = hd + |h – hid| pp0 ® 0
The enthalpy hd, is related to the ideal gas state enthalpy h0 at point 0 at t0 = 0°C
(T0 = 273.15 K) and p0 ® 0 by the relation
z
T
hd – h0 = Cp0 dT
T0
where Cp0 is the zero-pressure constant pressure specific heat of the mixture. Now,
h0 is found from
h0 = x 1 h0 1 + x 2 h0 2
where h01 and h02 are ideal gas state enthalpies of components at point o1 and o2.
These, in turn are related to real gas saturated vapour state enthalpies hb1 and hb2 by
residual enthalpy terms, while hb1 and hb2 are given by
hb1 = ha1 + (hfg1 )0°C, hb2 = ha2 + (hfg2)0°C
Reference state enthalpies ha1 and ha2 have assigned values, say, equal to 200 kJ/kg.
Note that the pressures at b1 and b2 are ( p1sat)0°C and ( p2sat)0°C respectively.
Now, to find he from hd for the mixture, and ho1 and ho2 from hb1 and hb2 for the
components, we have to evaluate residual enthalpy terms:
p
h - h id for the mixture
0
p1sat p2sat
h - hid and h - h
id
for the components
0 0
Since Peng-Robinson equation is a p-explicit equation, we find |h – hid| from
|u – uid| using the procedure described in Sec. 1.15.2. For the purpose, we find the
differential (¶ p/¶ T )L from Eq. (1.14), as given below in Eq. (4.42)
L O
FG ¶ pIJ = R + kf (w ) MN1 + f (w ) e1 - T jPQ
1
2
T
H ¶ T K L - b (L + b) - 2b T T 2 2
c
(4.42)
0.45724 R 2 Tc2
in which k=
pc
Combining the relations as above, we find the expression for vapour phase
enthalpy as written below in Eq. 4.43
LM OP (4.43)
z
T
d L + b - 2b
(C po - R ) dT -
MN PQ
h = ho + pL – RTo + ln
To 2 2b L + b + 2b
in which d = a + kf (w) Tr 1 + f (w ) 1 - e Tr j
Cpo for mixture is obtained from Gibbs law
C po = y1 C po + y2 C po
1 2
For 50% R 290 and 50% R 600a mixture with ha1 = ha2 = 200 kJ/kg as the refer-
ence state, it is found that
ho = 568 kJ/kg
at t0 = 0°C and po = 0 for the mixture.
4.20.4 Calculation of Entropy of Mixture in Vapour Phase

Vapour phase entropy of the mixture is calculated using the relation similarly de-
rived by Smith and Van Ness37 as given below:
LM R T (L - b) OP
s = so – R ( y1 ln y1 + y2 ln y2) + R ln
N p Q o
LM 1 log F L + b - I OP
zd i dTT
T
MN 2 2b GH L + b + J
2b
2b K PQ
+ C po - R + X (4.44)
To
Refrigerants 191
L F TI OP
k f (w ) M1 +
1
f (w ) G1 - J
2
MN H TK c PQ
where X=
TTc
The second term on right hand side in Eq. (4.44) represents entropy of mixing, and
so = x1V so1 + x2V so2
For 50% R 290 and 50% R 600a mixture with sa1 = sa2 = 1 kJ/kg. K as the refer-
ence state entropics, it is found that
so = 2.6593 kJ/kg.K
at to = 0°C and po = 1.01 bar. Note that ideal gas state is taken, not at po = 0 but at po
= 1.01 bar for calculations of residual entropy in order to avoid the mathematical
anamoly of s ® ¥ as p ® 0 as explained in Chap. 1.
Note Tables in the Appendix give the properties of the mixture as calculated by the pro-
cedure described above.
4.21 AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES
As stated earlier, azeotropes are essentially a class of non-ideal mixtures having

bubble point temperature equal to dew point temperature. Hence, they boil and con-
dense at constant temperature like pure substances. Azeotropes are generally formed
when the difference in the boiling points of the two components is not very large and
when the deviations from ideal behaviour are large enough. Hence, there are
azeotropes with positive deviation from Raoult’s law as well as those with negative
deviation from it as described by Figs. 4.16 and 4.17. An example of an azeotrope
which has positive deviation from Raoult’s law is R 22/R 12 azeotrope. Such an
azeotrope has a bubble or dew point which is lower than the boiling point of either of
the components as shown in Fig. 4.16 and is, therefore, called a minimum-boiling
azeotrope. On the other hand, an azeotrope with negative deviation from Raoult’s
law has a bubble point which is higher than the boiling point of either of the compo-
nents as shown in Fig. 4.17, and is called a maximum boiling azeotrope.
It is to be noted from Figs. 4.16 and 4.17 that there is an azeotropic composition
xazeo for the mixture at the given pressure and temperature. This composition
changes with the variation in pressure and temperature. However, near the
azeotropic composition the bubble and dew point curves become flat. Thus in the
range of usual condensation and evaporation temperatures in refrigerating machines,
the azeotropic concentration more or less remains the same. Therefore, a system
charged with an azeotrope may be considered as working at all sections without any
change in composition.
It is also to be noted that a maximum boiling azeotrope, on account of the nega-
tive heat of mixing, will have a higher latent heat of vaporization compared to the
molal average latent heat. On the contrary, a minimum boiling azeotrope will have a
lower latent heat.
t1sat p = Constant
sat t 2sat
tB = tD = t sat< t2sat< t1 D
t
B
t
0 xazeo. 1
x
Fig. 4.16 t-x diagram of a minimum boiling azeotrope
p = Constant
sat
D tB = tD = t sat > t 1sat > t 2
t
B
t1sat
t
t2sat
0 xazeo. 1
x
Fig. 4.17 t-x diagram of a maximum boiling azeotrope

Refrigerants 193
4.22 USE OF MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM BOILING

AZEOTROPES
Eiseman21 has done a study of a large number of azeotropes. Most fluorocarbon

mixtures have positive deviations from Raoult’s law. Thus, they form minimum boil-
ing azeotropes.
The main property of a minimum boiling azeotrope is its boiling point which is
lower than the N.B.P. of even the lower boiling component. It enables the system
with an azeotrope to have a higher evaporator pressure as compared to the lower
boiling component. This, in general, results in an increased density of the suction
vapour and, therefore, higher capacity.
Further, due to the depression of the boiling point of the azeotrope, slope ‘b’ of
the vapour pressure line of the azeotrope is flatter than the slope of the line of the
lower boiling component. Thus, below a certain temperature, say point A, in
Fig. 4.18, the vapour pressure of the azeotrope is higher, and above this temperature,
it is lower than the vapour pressure of the lower boiling component. Accordingly,
for the azeotrope, the evaporator pressure p0 at T0 is higher, and the condenser pres-
sure pk at Tk is lower than the values for the lower boiling component. Thus the
compression ratio and discharge temperature are considerably reduced.
pk
Lower Boiling
Component pk, azeo.
A
ln p
Minimum Boiling
p 0, azeo. Azeotrope
p0
T0 Tk
1/T
Fig. 4.18 Comparison of ln p-1/T diagrams of a minimum boiling azeotrope
and lower boiling component
It is not intended here to describe all the known azeotropes. However, Table 4.24
gives examples of such common minimum boiling azeotropes.
Refrigerant 500 R 500 was discovered in 1950 as a special refrigerant of the
Carrier Corporation under the trade name of Carrene 7. This azeotrope consists of
73.8 per cent R 12 and 26.2 per cent R 152, difluoroethane.
The N.B.P. of R 500 is about 3.5°C lower than that of R 12. The azeotrope has a
refrigerating effect per unit of swept volume about 18 per cent more than that of pure
R 12. In the past this azeotrope was used to replace R 12 in 60-cycle units when they
were operated on a 50-cycle current. This, essentially, kept the capacity of the unit
same even with decreased speed.
Table 4.24 Data of minimum boiling azeotropes
Azeotrope Refrigerants Weight N.B.P. N.B.P. of Lower

% Boiling Compo-
nent, °C.
R 500 R 12/R 152 73.8/26.2 – 33.3 – 29.8 (R12)
R 501 R 22/R 12 75/25 < – 40.8 – 40.8 (R22)
R 502 R 22/R 115 48.8/51.2 – 45.6 – 40.8 (R22)
R 507A R 125/R 143a 50/50 – 46.74 – 48.09(R125)
R 404 A R 125/R143a/R134a 44/52/4 – 46.22 /– 45.47 – 48.09(R125)
R410 A R32 / R125 50/50 – 51.44 /– 51.36 – 51.65 (R32)
Refrigerant 501 Spauchus39 has published vapour pressure data of R 22 + R 12

mixtures. Using his values, pressure ratios are determined for tk = 50°C and t 0 = 0°C
and are given in Table 4.25.
Table 4.25 Pressure ratios at various compositions of R 22 in R 22 + R 12 mixtures
Mole 1 0.974 0.95 0.9 0.85 — 0

Fraction, x22
Pressure 3.906 3.897 3.897 3.841 3.85 — 3.947
ratio, pk/p0
Table 4.25 shows that for the azeotropic mixture the pressure ratio is lower than
that for pure R 22. It exhibits a minimum in the neighbourhood of 85 mole per cent
of R 22. Lower pressure ratios—coupled with a lower value of the compression
index for the mixture as compared to R 22—yield lower discharge temperatures
and hence lower winding temperatures in hermetically-sealed units. A higher
density of the suction vapour results in increased cooling and further lowering of the
temperature of windings.
Refrigerant 502 The behaviour of R 502 is similar to that of the R 22/R 12 azeo-
trope. It boils at a temperature of about 4.8°C lower than R 22. Thus, the higher
capacity and lower compression ratio of the azeotrope, in relation to R 22, result in
significantly lower discharge temperatures and lower winding temperatures. The use
of R 502 had, therefore, proven very advantageous in supermarket air-cooled and
low temperature frozen-food cabinets, and heat pump applications.
Note All the three R 500, R 501 and R 502 contain CFCs. Hence, these have been phased
out.
Refrigerant 507A Döring et al.19 have shown that a blend containing, 50–50% by
mass, R 143a with an N.B.P. of – 47.24°C and R 125 with an N.B.P. of – 48.09°C
shows azeotropic behaviour, making it an attractive alternative to replace R 502, and
even R 22, in certain cases, since both R 125 and R 143a are HFCs (no chlorine
atom/s in the molecules). In a test conducted with an open-type compressor, it was
found that R 507 has compressor discharge temperature approximately 8°C below
that of even R 502. It gives approximately 5-6% higher capacity than R 502.
Refrigerants 195
Refrigerant 404A This near-azeotrope refrigerant mixture (NARM) is a ternary

blend. It is also considered to be a zero-ODP replacement for R 502. Snelson et al.38
have conducted experiments on this mixture using an open-type compressor. The
lubricating oil used has to be polyol ester oil because of the presence of R 134a in
the mixture. The results show that the volumetric refrigerating capacity of R 404A
and R 502 are nearly the same. R 404A has about 2-4% higher pressure ratio than
R 502. Inspite of this, it has 5-6°C lower compressor discharge temperature which
would make it a suitable substitute for R 502 in high compression ratio applications.
However, its COP is lower.
Refrigerant 410A R 410A is another near azeotropic mixture of 50/50% R 32
and R125. It is already being used as a substitute for R 22.
Interesting possibilities exist for the use of the maximum boiling azeotropes
which are a result of negative deviations from Raoult’s law. They have a higher
latent heat of vaporization and hence a higher refrigerating effect. Thus, an increased
coefficient of performance can be obtained.
Unfortunately, maximum boiling azeotropes are rare in nature. A known example
is that of an azeotrope formed by R 22 and dimethyl ether, (CH3)2O, in about 50/50
per cent composition by weight. The azeotrope boils at – 20.3°C as compared to
– 40.8°C for R 22, and – 23.7°C for dimethyl ether.
4.23 NON-ISOTHERMAL REFRIGERATION
There are two kinds of duties a refrigerating machine may be required to perform:
(a) Isothermal refrigeration: Pumping of heat from a constant low tempera-
ture.
(b) Non-isothermal refrigeration: Removal of heat at varying temperature.
The former is generally termed as space refrigeration and the latter as process
refrigeration.
In space refrigeration, the cold body is at a constant low temperature, such as in
domestic refrigerators, cold storages, etc. The vapour compression cycle used for
the purpose suffers from the irreversibility of the heat transfer processes during
evaporation and condensation. This is due to the finite temperature difference
between the refrigerant, the cold body and the coolant. This finite temperature dif-
ference could, however, be made small or even made to approach zero by the use of
infinite heat transfer surfaces. This, therefore, does not present a thermodynamic
obstacle to remove this source of inefficiency.
In process refrigeration, a body is cooled through a range of temperature. This
also has numerous applications, such as in food freezing, beer chilling, most chemi-
cal processes and even cooling of air for air conditioning. Here again, the conven-
tional vapour compression system is used. The evaporation temperature to of the
refrigerant has to be lower than the lowest cold body temperature tc, and the conden-
sation temperature tk, similarly, higher than the highest coolant temperature th. This
is shown in Fig. 4.19. Thus, t0 < tc1 < tc2 and tk > th1 > th2. The system, as for space
refrigeration, suffers from the inherent irreversibility of the heat transfer processes
during evaporation and condensation, and in the case of process refrigeration, this
cannot be made to approach zero even with infinite surfaces. For even if it were
possible to make temperature differentials—(tc2 – to) and (tk – th2) at one end of the
evaporator and condenser respectively—approach zero by the use of infinitely large
heat transfer surfaces, there would still be existing finite temperature differentials—
(tc1 – to) and (tk – th1)—at the other ends.
The scope of using non-azeotropic mixtures is described in detail by Tchaikovski
and Arora.41 The most important property of a mixture is its ability to boil through a
range of temperature. If a non-azeotropic mixture of two or more refrigerants is
used, a definite boiling range can be obtained for the evaporation as well as conden-
sation processes. The actual range will depend upon the proportion of individual
components and the temperature and pressure of the mixture. Thus in Fig. 4.19, the
evaporation could be made to proceed along path to to t o¢ and condensation along tk
to tk¢. In this manner, the excessive temperature differences at the other two ends
could also be made small. The average refrigeration temperature could thus be in-
creased. And, the average heat rejection temperature could be decreased at the same
time. Since the Carnot COP of a refrigerating machine is given by
t – wk
Pure Refrigerant
Condensation
tk tk
n th 2
tk ondensatio
Mixture C
th1 eating
Coolant H
tc 1
ooling
Process C
tc 2 n t¢0
vaporatio
Mixture E – wo
t0 t0 + qo
Evaporation of Pure
Refrigerant
s
s
Fig. 4.19 Non-isothermal refrigeration with a mixed refrigerant
T0
-Carnot =
Tk - T0
we find that due to the increase in average temperature T0 and decrease in average
temperature Tk, the COP of the cycle will be increased. The thermodynamic obstacle
to the elimination of irreversibility of the heat transfer processes can thus be
removed by a judicious selection of a mixture of refrigerants and its composition.
It can be seen from Fig. 4.19 that the use of mixed refrigerant could decrease the
work by
area Dw0 due to non-isothermal evaporation and
area Dwk due to non-isothermal condensation.
Refrigerants 197
The area Dw0 = Dq0 also represents increase in refrigerating effect. It would,
therefore, result in increase in COP and hence power saving.
Consider for example a case in which air is cooled from t c1 = 25°C to tc2 = 15°C,
and temperature of cooling air in condenser rises from th1 = 45°C to th2 = 55°C.
These are typical values for a window-type air conditioner. Then if pure refrigerant
is used, the practical evaporator and condenser temperatures could be t0 = 0°C and tk
= 65°C. The corresponding value of Carnot COP would be 4.55.
Now, if a mixture of refrigerants is used for evaporating from t0 = 0°C to t0¢ =
10°C, and condensing from tk = 60°C to tk¢ = 50°C, then the Carnot COP would be
5.55. The saving in power would be 18%.
Note It is important to observe that this effect can be utilized only if there is counterflow
of the two fluids which is possible only if the mixture is boiling and condensing inside
tubes as in window-type air conditioner. Otherwise, if for example, the condensation is
outside tubes as in shell and tube condensers, the condensation temperature will rise
above the outlet temperature of the coolant (tk¢ ³ 55°C and tk > tk¢). This will cause increase
in average temperature of heat rejection, and hence in condenser pressure, work, and
power consumption.
Example 4.6 Vapour Compression Cycle of a Hydrocarbon Mixture

Refrigerator on p-h Diagram
A hydrocarbon refrigerator operating on equal proportions of propane and
isobutane by mass works on simple saturation cycle. The condenser and evapo-
rator pressures are 14 bar and 1.4 bar. Show the cycle on p-h diagram and
determine its discharge temperature and theoretical COP.
Solution The values of bubble and dew temperatures at these pressures have
already been determined in Example 4.4. Accordingly, the p-h diagram is drawn as
shown in Fig. 4.20.
From tables of properties for 50-50% R 290/R 600a mixture in Appendix
h1 = 545.0 kJ/kg, h3 = 341.15 kJ/kg = h4
s1 = 2.47 kJ/kg.K = s2
62.7°C
– 25°C 54.3°C
65 47
46 2. 49
– 16.3°C 62.7 2. = 56
°C
2¢ s¢ 2
=
s2 2.
=
3 s
14 bar
54.3 2
°C
– 16
.3°C
p
4
1.4 bar 1 63°C
– 25 70°C
°C
62.7°C
h
Fig. 4.20 Vapour compression cycle for a refrigerator with 50-50% propane/
isobutane mixture
From superheat table for the mixture, for known p2 and s2, we have:
Discharge temperature
t2 = 63°C
Þ h2 = 661.0 kJ/kg
q h - h4 545 - 34.15
Hence COP = 0 = 1 = = 4.7
w h2 - h1 . - 545
6610
Example 4.7 Using Binary Mixture R152a/R22 for Non-Isothermal

Refrigeration in Air Conditioners.
It is proposed to substitute R 22 by a mixture of 18% R 152a and 82% R 22 by
mass in an air conditioner operating on simple saturation cycle. The condenser
and evaporator pressures are 15 bar and 5 bar. Locate all the four state points of
the cycle on t-x, h-x and p-h diagrams.
Also, find the discharge temperature, temperature after throttling, and theoreti-
cal COP of the cycle.
Solution The cycle abcd with the mixture is shown on p-h diagram in Fig. 4.21.
The parameters of states as obtained from t-x and h-x diagrams in Figs. 4.13 and
4.14, and plotted in Figs. 4.22 (a) and (b) are as follows:
State a Saturated vapour
p = 5 bar, ta = 5.75°C, ha = 428 kJ/kg
State b Superheated vapour
p = 15 bar
Saturation Dome for 82%
R 22 + 18% R 152a Mixture
43°C
44.7
3.75°C 15 bar 5°C e
c b
43°C
p, bar
5.75
5 bar °C
f d
a
3.75
°C
258 428 440

h, k J / kg
Fig. 4.21 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for R 22/R 152a mixture for Example 4.7
To find its temperature from sb = sa

State c Saturated liquid
p = 15 bar, tc = 43°C, hc = 258 kJ/kg
Refrigerants 199
15 bar b
e
44.75°C
43°C
c
t, °C 5 bar
a
5.75°C
d
3.75°C
f
0 xR 22 0.82 1
(a) Temperature-composition diagram
b
15 bar
5 bar e
440
V 428
a
xv
4.1°C
h, kJ / kg
15 bar
c 258
5 bar d
L
xL
0 xR 22 xR 22 = 0.82 1
xR152a = 0.18
(b) Enthalpy composition diagram
State d Liquid-vapour mixture after throttling

p = 5 bar, hd = 258 kJ/kg = hc
Temperature at d lies between 3.75°C at f and 5.75°C at a.
State e Saturated vapour mixture at 15 bar is at 44.75°C, and its enthalpy is
440 kJ/kg
Entropy at a
sa = (x s)R152a + (x s)R 22 + Dsm
Values of specific entropies of R 152a and R 22 are found from their superheat
tables at 5 bar and 5.75°C. And Dsm is the entropy of mixing. Thus
sa = 0.18 (2.1183) + 0.82 (1.7518) + Dsm
= 1.8178 + Dsm kJ/kg.K
Entropy at e is similarly found at 15 bar and 44.75°C (317.75 K)

se = 0.18 (2.0838) + 0.82 (1.6996) + Dsm
= 1.7686 + Dsm kJ/kg.K
Discharge temperature at b
The equation to solve is
Tb Tb
sb = se + x 1Cp1 ln + x 1Cp2 ln = sa
317.75 317.75
Tb
1.7686 + (0.18 ´ 1.61 + 0.82 ´ 0.91) ln = 1.8178
317.75
Þ Tb = 324 K (tb = 51°C)
Enthalpy at b
hb = he + x 1Cp1 (tb – te) + x 1Cp2 (tb – te)
= 440 + (0.18 ´ 1.61 + 0.82 ´ 0.91)(51 – 44.75) = 455.8 kJ/kg
Temperature at d
Overall composition and enthalpy during throttling process remain same. Hence
Composition balance equation
(x1)d = x 1L (1 - z) + x V1 z = (x1)c = 0.18
d
Enthalpy Balance equation
hd = (hL)f (1– z) + (hV)a z = 202 (1 – z) + 428z = hc = 258
The two equations can be solved for td by iteration. The equilibrium L-V states at
5 bar from Tables 4.19 and 4.21 are plotted on t-x and h-x diagrams in Figs. 4.22 (a)
and 4.22(b). It is seen that state d is at a temperature slightly above 4°C. The method
of solution by iteration is as follows:
(i) Assume td.
(ii) Find x1L and x1V.
(iii) Find z from the composition-balance equation.
(iv) Verify if enthalpy-balance equation is satisfied.
(v) If not, assume another value of td.
The solution is
td = 4.1°C
Theoretical COP of the cycle
h - hd 428 - 258 170
e= a = = = 6.1
hb - ha . - 428
4558 27.8
Note Ghosh and Sarkar 22 obtained a saving of 2.7 to 4.3% in power consumption with
9.87% R152a in R 22/R 152a mixture.
Example 4.8 Estimating Power Saving in Air Conditioners with R 152a/

R 22 Mixture.
Find the theoretical COP of R 22 cycle equivalent to the mixture cycle in Exam-
ple 4.7. Estimate the power saving, and discuss the other effects.
Refrigerants 201
Solution In order to maintain the condenser and evaporator sizes same, we have
to design for same LMTD in the two heat exchangers. This means, we have to main-
tain mean condensation and evaporation temperatures as same. Hence, for the
equivalent R 22 cycle,
t e + tc 44.75 + 43
tk = = = 43.9°C
2 2
t + td 5.75 + 4.1
t0 = a = = 4.9°C
2 2
The corresponding R 22 cycle is shown in Fig. 4.23.
COP of equivalent R 22 cycle
h1 - h4 407.5 - 254.1
- R22 = = = 5.5
h2 - h1 . - 407.5
4355
Power saving by using mixture for same refrigerating capacity
WR 22 - Wmix 1/ - R 22 - 1/ - mix . - 1/ 61
1/ 55 .
= = = 0.1 (10%)
WR 22 1/ - R 22 1/ 55
.
16.88 bar 3 43.9°C

2
p
5.82 bar 4.9°C 62°C

1
4
254.1 407.5 435.5

h, kJ / kg
Fig. 4.23 R 22 cycle for Example 4.8
Other Effects:
(i) Discharge temperature is lowered from 62°C for R 22 to 51°C for mixture.
(ii) Compressor displacement volume will increase for mixture due to larger
volume of R 152a which is a higher boiling substance.
(iii) R 152a improves the miscibility of R 22 in mineral oil.
4.24 REFRIGERANT PIPING AND DESIGN
A well-designed refrigeration plant is one with a well-sized and well-laid refrigerant

piping. Some salient features of this are discussed below. The material used for
fluorocarbon refrigerant piping is either seamless copper tubing or iron, whereas for
ammonia only iron pipes are used. Their sizes are given in terms of the outside
diameter (OD) for copper tubing and normal iron pipe size (IPS) for iron pipes.
4.24.1 Location and Arrangement of Piping

The following factors are important:
(i) To minimize tubing and refrigerant charge requirement and pressure drops,
refrigerant lines should be as short and direct as possible.
(ii) Piping is to be planned for a minimum number of joints using as few elbows
and fittings as possible, although providing for sufficient flexibility to absorb
compressor vibrations.
(iii) It is to be so arranged that normal inspection and servicing of the compressor
and equipment is not hindered.
(iv) It should be so run that it does not interfere with the removal of compressor-
cylinder heads, access plates or any other internal part such as the stator in
hermetically-sealed units.
(v) Sufficient clearance is to be provided between the piping and wall or between
pipes for insulation.
(vi) Locations where copper tubing will be exposed to mechanical injury, should
be avoided.
(vii) In the case of iron pipes, hangers should be provided close to vertical risers
to and from compressors to keep the piping weight off the compressors.
(viii) Hangers should not be placed more than 2 to 3 m apart and should be within
0.6 m of the change in direction of piping.
(ix) Valves should be located in inlet and outlet lines to condensers, receivers,
evaporators and long lengths of pipes to permit isolation and to facilitate
pumping down and pumping out. Valve stems should be horizontal so that
there is less chance of dirt or scale accumulating on the valve seat.
4.24.2 Vibration and Noise in Piping

Vibration and noise can be eliminated by proper design and support of the piping.
The undesirable effects of vibration are:
(a) Breaking of brazed or soldered joint and consequent loss of charge.
(b) Transmission of noise through piping and building.
The vibration of piping is caused by the rigid connection of the refrigerant piping
to a reciprocating compressor. It is impossible to eliminate it completely. But steps
such as the following can be taken to mitigate its effects:
(i) Run the suction and discharge lines at least 15 pipe diameters in each of two
or three directions before securing the first hanger. In this manner, piping can
absorb vibrations without being overstressed.
(ii) A flexible metal hose is often used to absorb vibration transmitted along small
rises of pipes. For great effectiveness, it should be installed at right angle to
the direction of vibration. Most compressor vibrations have the greatest am-
plitude in the horizontal plane. Therefore, the flexible hose should be installed
in the vertical lines near the compressor. Two isolators, one vertical and one
horizontal, may be required to do an efficient job.
(iii) Vibration and noise are also caused by gas pulsations and turbulence in gas
which is increased at high velocities. It is usually more important in discharge
lines. Under some conditions, these pulsations may occur at such a frequency
as to cause resonance, sufficiently strong to break piping connections. In such a
Refrigerants 203
case, change the size or length of the resonating line or install a properly sized
hot gas muffler immediately after the compressor.
(iv) When the noise is due to turbulence, as in centrifugal systems, and isolating
the line is not effective enough, the installation of a larger line to reduce the
gas velocity is often effective.
4.24.3 Flow Rates

The volume flow rate in the suction line can be easily calculated from its capacity. The
volume flow rate in the discharge line, however, cannot be calculated accurately as the
discharge temperature is very much a function of the compressor design and effi-
ciency. The discharge volume can be approximated by the formula
ps
Vd = Vs ´ ´ 1.2
pd
where subscripts s and d refer to suction and discharge states respectively.
4.24.4 Pressure Drop in Refrigerant Piping

It is customary to evaluate the pressure drop in the refrigerant piping in terms of the
number of degrees change in the saturation temperature as a result of this loss. The
refrigerant piping is designed mainly on the basis of practical line sizes without
excessive pressure drops.
The pressure losses without a change of phase can be calculated using Darcy’s
formula
Dp f LC 2
=
H 2 gD
where Dp is the pressure drop, H the density, L the length, D the diameter, C the veloc-
ity and f the friction factor. For friction factor f in suction and discharge lines, a value
of 0.003 may be taken, whereas for liquid lines, it may be taken as 0.004.
4.24.5 Liquid Lines

The liquid line presents fewest problems. It is desirable to have a slightly subcooled
liquid reach the liquid-feed device to prevent the formation of flash gas. The flash
gas in the liquid line causes an increase in the pressure drop and further flashing,
reduction in the capacity of the expansion device, noise and erratic control of the
liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator. The pressure drop in turn is due to friction
as well as decrease in the static head due to the elevation of the evaporator above the
condenser.
Generally, liquid always leaves the condenser in a subcooled state. An additional
refrigerant charge will increase subcooling. Shell-and-tube condensers are designed
to maintain a liquid level in the shell which can provide for subcooling. The con-
struction of the aircooled condensers is also such that the liquid is in contact with the
cooling air surface until it gets subcooled and leaves. In the case of water-cooled
condensers, even liquid lines can be provided with insulation.
Where long vertical lines are used, it is almost impossible to prevent flashing
caused by static pressure drop. It is simple to determine the degree of subcooling
required to offset friction and static pressure drop. The static pressure drop associ-
ated with an increase in elevation is: 0.1275 bar for every 1.11 m lift for R 22.
When a system is equipped with a receiver to maintain a seal of the liquid refrig-
erant in the control devices, the liquid line entering the receiver is usually designed
generously. A velocity of 0.5 m/s is typical to ensure pressure equalization between
the condenser and receiver and to prevent vapour locking. With this velocity a
vapour-equalising line should be provided from the top of the condenser to the top
of the receiver. Otherwise, a lower velocity can be used.
For liquid line between the receiver and expansion device, it is recommended to
design it on the basis of pressure loss of 0.05 bar per 100 m of length.
In general, the pressure drop should not be greater than that corresponding to 0.9°C
change in the saturation temperature for ammonia, and 0.9 to 1.8°C for fluorocarbons.
A change of 0.9°C in the saturation temperature at 38°C condenser comes to a pressure
drop of approximately 0.227 bar for ammonia, and 0.2 bar for R 22.
4.24.6 Suction Lines

Suction lines are the most critical from the viewpoints of design and construction.
The considerations involved are the following:
(i) Correct size for practical pressure drop.
(ii) Capability to return oil to the compressor by entrainment by the suction
vapour under minimum loading conditions, especially in the case of
fluorocarbons.
(iii) If there are suction risers, gas velocities to ensure oil return have to be increased.
Thus a minimum tonnage is prescribed depending on the size of the suction line
for oil entrainment in suction risers as given in Table 4.26 for R 22.
Table 4.26 Tonnage of suction piping up suction risers
Pipe OD, cm
Refrigerant
t0, °C 1.27 1.59 1.905 2.86
– 40 0.09 0.16 0.27 0.79
R-22 –10 0.13 0.24 0.39 1.2
5 0.18 0.33 0.54 1.6
(iv) Double-suction risers may be used for full-load operation and single risers for
part-load operation as shown in Fig. 4.24. Thus, excessive pressure drop at
full load is avoided, and oil return at part load is ensured. When the load
reduces, the oil cannot be entrained in the beginning which collects in the
U-bend and forms a seal. Afterwards, the gas flows only through one riser.
(v) Prevention of drainage of oil from an active evaporator into an idle evapora-
tor. For this purpose, arrangements are made as shown in Figs 4.25 to 4.27.
The common-suction line should either be horizontal or pitched down
towards the compressor.
It is customary to design suction lines so that the total loss in pressure is equivalent
to drops of about 1.8 and 0.9°C in saturation temperatures for fluorocarbons and
ammonia respectively. It is also desirable to provide for less pressure drop in low-
Refrigerants 205
temperature installations because of increased penalties on the compressor size and

performance. Since the pressure loss is also a function of the length of the line and
number of fittings, it is obviously desirable to have the shortest possible runs of
suction lines.
To Compressor
Suction
Double Suction
Riser
Evaporator
Oil Seal at
Part Load
U-bend
Fig. 4.24 Double-suction riser
Evap. 1
To Compressor
Suction
(Pitched Down)
Evap. 2
Fig. 4.25 Multiple evaporators at different levels with

compressor above
To Compressor
Suction
Fig. 4.26 Multiple evaporators at same level with compressor below
Double Suction
Riser when
Necessary
Fig. 4.27 Multiple evaporators at same level with compressor above
4.24.7 Discharge Lines

Even though a low pressure drop is desired, the discharge lines should not be over-
sized to the extent that the gas velocities are reduced so much that the refrigerant will
not be able to carry along the entrained oil. They should be so designed and con-
structed as to prevent the refrigerant and oil in the line from condensing and draining
back to the compressor, especially during shutdown or operation at low ambient where
long outdoor discharge lines are required as in evaporative condensers.
Whenever the condenser is located above the compressor, the discharge line
should loop to the floor before rising to the compressor as shown in Fig. 4.28. It is
not desirable to exceed a pressure drop equivalent to 1 or 2°C in the saturation
temperature because of the penalty on volumetric efficiency and hence the capacity
of the compressor. Discharge lines should be selected on the basis of 0.45 to 0.67
bar per 100 m pressure drop.
Refrigerants 207
Condenser
Compressor
Discharge
Loop to Ground
Fig. 4.28 Hot-gas loop
4.24.8 Piping at Multiple Compressors

The piping of compressors operating in parallel must be carefully done to ensure
proper operation.
There should be a common suction header. This will ensure equal oil return to
each compressor and that all compressors run at the same suction pressure. The
suction header should be run above the level of the compressor suction inlet so that
all oil can drain into the compressor by gravity. If the header is below the com-
pressor-suction inlets, it can become an oil trap. Further, branch-suction lines should
be taken from the side of the header to ensure equal distribution of oil and to prevent
the accumulation of liquid refrigerant in an idle compressor in the case of slop over.
The horizontal takeoffs to the various compressors should be of the same size as the
suction header. No reduction is to be made in the branch suction lines until the
vertical drop is reached.
It is always desirable, even with two or more compressors, to use a single
condenser (parallel operation).
4.25 LUBRICANTS IN REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
In refrigeration systems, oil must perform certain functions other than minimizing
friction, such as sealing the gas between suction and discharge ports, acting as a cool-
ant to transfer heat from the crank-case to the compressor shell and to dampen the
noise generated by moving parts. For hermetic units, it must also have a high dielectric
strength. It must have adequate fluidity at low temperatures so that it may easily return
to the compressor from the evaporator. For good heat transfer in the evaporator, oil
should remain miscible with the refrigerant at evaporator temperatures. Further, it
should not contain any suspended matter, wax or moisture which might choke the
expansion device. In hermetic units, oil is charged only once for the life-time of the
unit (minimum five years). It should, therefore, be chemically stable in the presence of
the refrigerant, metals, winding insulation and extraneous contaminants.
The oils of mineral origin contain paraffins, napthenes, aromatics and non-hydro-
carbons. Paraffinic and napthemic oils are saturates. They have excellent chemical
stability but poor solubility for refrigerants, such as R 22, and are also poor lubri-
cants. Aromatics have good solubility and lubrication properties. Non-hydrocarbons
are the most reactive but are good for lubrication. The resultant properties depend
on the proportional composition of the four constituents.
Synthetic oils, such as alkylbenzenes and phosphate esters, have desirable prop-
erties for use with R 22. Polyalkylene glycols (PAGs), modified PAGs, and esters
are primary lubricants that are being tested for use with R 134a.
Normally, one should choose an oil with the lowest viscosity which will, at the
same time, give the necessary sealing properties with the refrigerant used. Thus, the
oil which gives the maximum volumetric efficiency is the best. The prescribed oil
kinematic viscosities for reciprocating compressors for use with ammonia and R 22
are 150-300 SSU (Saybolt Universal Units) at 38°C.
4.26 SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
In large refrigeration plants, secondary refrigerants or coolants such as water, brines,

glycols and sometimes even halocarbons are used for carrying refrigeration from the
plant room to the space where it is usefully applied, instead of directly obtaining it
by the evaporating refrigerant at the place of application. This is done in order to
reduce the quantity of the refrigerant charge in the system and to reduce pressure
losses in lines. The desirable properties of secondary coolants are low freezing point,
low viscosity, non-flammability, good stability and low vapour pressure. Chilled
water is used as a secondary refrigerant in air-conditioning applications. For low-
temperature applications, brines, glycols and hydrocarbons are used.
4.26.1 Brines
Brines are formed by dissolving salt in water. The phase diagram for a brine solution
is shown in Fig. 4.29.
The function of salt in water is to depress its freezing point. The temperature at
which the freezing point is lowest is called the eutectic temperature, and the compo-
sition at this temperature is called the eutective composition.
If a brine solution has less than eutectic composition, such as at A, its crystalliza-
tion temperature or freezing point will be lowered to tB. If this solution at A is cooled,
ice crystals will begin to form at B. As a result, the solution will become richer in salt
content. At any point C, the mixture will consist of ice at C2 and solution at C1. At
point D, the solution will have the composition corresponding to D1. On further
cooling, the solution will freeze as a whole without any separation of ice crystals.
Similarly, if a brine solution of more than eutectic composition such as at E is
cooled, it will first separate into salt and solution, until it reaches point D1 again,
whereafter the solution will freeze as a whole.
Refrigerants 209
A
0 °C
tB B Liquid
+
Liquid Salt
+
Ice
Temperature
C
C2 C1
Eutectic
Temperature
D2 D
D1
Solid Eutectic
Concentration
Solute in Mixture, %
Fig. 4.29 Phase diagram for brine
Brines are mainly used in industrial ice plants, cold storages, skating rinks,
etc. Common brines are water solutions of calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium
chloride (NaCl). Their relevant properties are given in Tables 4.27 and 4.28.
Table 4.27 Properties of CaCl2 brine
Pure Crystallization Specific Specific

CaCl2 Temperature Gravity Heat
% Weight °C at 15°C kJ/(kg. K)
0 0 1.0 4.1868
5 –1.8 1.044 3.869
10 –5.4 1.087 3.58
15 –10.3 1.133 3.32
20 –18.0 1.182 3.086
25 –28.3 1.233 2.88
29.87 –55.0 1.29 2.74
(Eutectic)
Table 4.28 Properties of NaCl brine

Pure Crystallization Specific Specific
NaCl Temperature Gravity Heat
% Weight °C at 15°C kJ/(kg. K)
0 0 1.0 4.1868
5 –2.9 1.035 3.93
10 –6.6 1.072 3.72
15 –10.9 1.111 3.55
20 –16.5 1.15 3.4
25 –8.8 1.191 3.29
25.2 0 1.2
(Eutectic)
As seen from the tables, CaCl2 brine has lower crystallization temperatures at
higher concentrations. It is, therefore, more widely used except when it may attack a
product by direct contact, such as fish, in which case NaCl brine is used. Corrosion
is, however, a serious problem in the use of CaCl2 brine. To reduce corrosion, exces-
sive contact of air with brine should be avoided. Corrosion inhibitors such as so-
dium dichromate are added to keep alkaline conditions, i.e., a pH value of 7 to 8.5.
The recommended dichromate concentration is 2 kg/m3 of brine. Caustic soda may
be added to correct for acidity, i.e., a pH below 7. Dichromate can be added to
correct for excessive alkalinity, i.e., a pH above 8.5.
4.26.2 Inhibited Glycols

Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are also used as freezing point depressants and
heat transfer media in solution with water. Freezing points of ethylene glycol solu-
tions are lower than those of propylene glycol. It is more commonly used except
when, because of its toxicity, it is found to attack a food product by direct contact, in
which case propylene glycol is used.
Glycol solutions have lower corrosivity when properly inhibited. The specific
gravities of ethylene glycol and propylene glycol are 1.1155 and 1.0381 respec-
tively. Their specific heats at 15°C are 9.82 and 10.38 kJ/(kg. K) respectively.
References
1. Adcock J L, et al., ‘Fluorinated ethers a new series of CFC substitutes’, Proc.
Int. CFC And Halon Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA, 1991.
2. Agarwal R S and C P Arora, ‘Calculation of thermodynamic properties of
binary mixtures of refrigerants’, J. Thermal Engineering, Vol.1, No.1, pp.
9–15, 1980.
3. Arora C P, Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1997.
4. Arora C P, ‘Power Savings and Low Temperatures in Refrigerating
Machines Using Mixed Refrigerants’, Ph D Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1968.
5. Arora C P, ‘Power savings in refrigerating machines using mixed refriger-
ants’, Proc. XIIth International Congress of Refrigeration, Madrid, 1967.
6. Arora C P, ‘Low temperatures in refrigerating machines using R12 and
R13 mixtures’, Proc, XIIIth International Congress of Refrigeration, Wash-
ington, 1971.
7. Arora C P, ‘An Investigation into the Use of a Mixture of R 12 and R 22 in
Window Type Air Conditioners’, Paper presented to Roorkee University for
Khosla Research Prize, 1974.
8. Arora C P, B K Bhalla and Addai Gassab, ‘A study on the performance of
window-type air conditioners using R 22/R 12 azeotrope’, Proc. XVth Inter-
national Congress of Refrigeration, Venice, 1979, Paper No. B2–24.
9. Ashok Babu T P, ‘A theoretical and experimental investigation of alterna-
tives to CFC 12 in refrigerators’, Ph D Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
11. ASHRAE, Handbook of Systems, 1973.
Refrigerants 211
12. Badylkes, I S, Working Substances and Processes in Refrigerating

Machines (Russian), Gostorgizdat, 1962.
13. Badylkes, I S, ‘Thermodynamic properties of azeotropic mixtures of Freon 22
and Freon 115,’ I.I.R. Bulletin, Annex 1965-4, pp.195–202.
14. Beyerlien A L, et al., Physical property data on fluorinated propanes and
butanes as CFC and HCFC substitutes’, Proc. Int. CFC And Halon Confer-
ence, Baltimore, MD, USA, 1991.
15. Bretsznajder S, Prediction of Transport And Other Physical Properties of
Fluids, Pergamon Press, 1971.
16. Chhaya K and A Tandon, ‘Propane as an alternative to Freon 12 in domestic
refrigerator,’ B.Tech. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1994.
17. Devotta S and S Gopichand, ‘Comparative assessment of HFC 134a and some
refrigerants as alternatives to CFC 12,’ Int. J. Refrigeration, Vol. 15, No. 2,
1992.
18. Devotta S, et al., Comparative assessment of some HCFCs, HFCs and HFEs
as alternatives to CFC 11", Int. J. Refrigeration, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1994.
19. Döring R, H Buchwald and J Hellmann, ‘Results of experimental theoretical
studies of the azeotropic refrigerant R 507’, Int. J. Refrigeration, Vol. 20,
No. 2, 1997.
20. Downing R C ‘Mixed refrigerants’, Service Manual RT-38, E.II. du Pont de
Nemours Co. Wilmington, Delaware, U.S.A.
21. Eiseman, B J, ‘The azeotrope of monochloro-difluoromethane and dichloro
difluoromethane’, J. American Chemical Society, Vol. 79, No. 4, 1957,
p. 6086.
22. Ghosh S and B Sarkar, ‘Using binary mixture of refrigerants in the window
type air conditioner’, B. Tech. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1995.
23. James R W, and J F Missenden, ‘The use of propane in domestic refrigera-
tors’, Int., J. Refrigeration, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1992.
24. Jung D S and R Radermacher, ‘Performance simulation of single evaporator
domestic refrigerators charged with pure and mixed refrigerants’, Int. J.
Refrigeration, Vol. 14, July 1991.
25. Kim K, et al., ‘R22/R152a mixtures and cyclopropane as substitutes for
R12 in single evaporator refrigerators,’ ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 99, Part 1,
pp. 1439–1446, 1993.
26. Kriebel M, ‘Phasenglechgewichte zwicshen Flussigkeit and Damf im binaren
system R 22-R 12’, Kaltetechnik Klimatisierung, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1967.
27. Latto B and Al Saloum, A.J.M. ‘Extensive viscosity correlations for refriger-
ants in liquid and vapour’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 76, Part I, 1970, pp. 64-80.
28. Löffler H J, Kaltetechnik, Vol. 9, No. 5, 1957, p. 135.
29. Mcharness R C and Chapman D D, ‘Refrigerating capacity and performance
data’, ASHRAE J., Jan. 1962, pp. 49-58.
30. McLinden M O, ‘Thermodynamic properties of CFC alternatives: A survey
of available data’, Int. J. Refrigeration, Vol. 13, May 1990.
31. Plank R, Handbuch der Kaltetechnik, Vol. IV, Springer Verlag, Berlin/
Gottingen, 1959.
32. ‘Properties and applications of freon fluorocarbons’, Technical Bulletin B-2,

Freon Products Division, E.I., du Pont de Nemours, Wilmington, Delaware,
U.S.A.
33. Reid R C, et al., The Properties Of Gases And Liquids, McGraw-Hill, 1988.
34. Sand J R, et al., ‘Experimental performance of ozone-safe alternative refrig-
erants’, ASHRAE Trans., part 2, Vol. 96, pp. 173–182, 1990.
35. Sand J R and S K Fischer, ‘Modelled performance of non-chlorinated substi-
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Vol. 17, No. 1, 1994.
36. Shankland I R, et al., ‘Thermal conductivity and viscosity of a new
stratospherically safe refrigerant tetrafluoroethane (R 134a)’, ASHRAE
Trans., Vol. 94, pp. 305-313, 1988.
37. Smith J M and H C Van Ness, Introduction to Chemical Engineering Ther-
modynamics, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, p. 493.
38. Snelson W K and J W Linton, ‘System drop-in tests of refrigerant blend
R 125/R 143/R134a (44%/52%/4%) compared to R 502, ASHRAE Trans.
Res., No. 3834, pp. 17–24.
39. Spauchus H O, ‘Vapour pressures of mixtures of refrigerants R 12 and R 22’,
ASHRAE J., Vol. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1962, pp. 49–51, 123.
40. Spauchus H O, ‘HFC 134a as a substitute refrigerant for CFC 12,’ Proc. 11R
Commissions B1, B2, Purdue University, USA, pp. 397–400, 1988.
41. Tchaikovski V F and C P Arora, ‘Using mixtures of refrigerants, J. Inst.
Engrs. (India), Vol. XLIV, No. 5, pp. 128–134, 1964.
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CH-95-14-2, pp. 1020–1026, 1995.
Revision Exercises
4.1 Explain in brief which refrigerant/s would you choose for each of the follow-
ing applications and why?
(i) A cold storage of 100 TR capacity using reciprocating compressor.
(ii) An 800 TR air conditioning plant using centrifugal compressor/s.
(iii) A small capacity frozen food cabinet to maintain –30°C temperature.
4.2 Refrigeration engineers usually presume that if a R 12 car air conditioner
compressor is operated with R 134a, its ‘cooling capacity’ would fall by
about 10%. Examine this assumption by a realistic vapour compression
cycle analysis.
4.3 Calculate the latent heat of vaporization of R 134a at – 25°C and + 50°C. The
psat versus T sat relationship of R 134a is
3980
ln psat = 24.8 – sat – 0.024 T sat
T
sat sat
where p is in kPa and T in K. Use the specific volumes data from the table
of properties of R 134a.
Refrigerants 213
Also, find the constants a and n if the hfg versus T sat relationship can be
expressed by the equation
F T sat I n
GH
h f g= a 1 -
Tc JK
Critical temperature for R 134a is Tc = 374.25 K
4.4 What are azeotropic and non-azeotropic mixtures? Explain, in brief, their
advantages giving examples.
4.5 Calculate and compare the specific volume of suction vapour, refrigerating
effect, mass flow rate, discharge pressure and temperature, piston displace-
ment, power consumption and COP for a 150 W refrigerating capacity
domestic refrigerator operating on simple saturation cycle with – 25°C evapo-
rator and 55°C condenser temperatures for R 290, R 134a, R 152a and
R 600a. Also compare their pressure drops across capillary.
4.6 If R 134a refrigerator in Prob. 4.5 is charged with propane without changing
the hermetic compressor, what would be the motor wattage, isentropic dis-
charge temperature, and heat required to be rejected in condenser? Assume
the same operating conditions, and ignore the effect on capillary. At what
refrigerating capacity, would the refrigerator be operating with propane?
What are the implications of charging R 134a refrigerator with propane?
4.7 (a) A propane refrigerator has to operate at tk = 55°C and t0 = – 25°C. For
maximum COP, find if the suction state should be in wet or superheat
region.
(b) Also find if it is advantageous to use liquid vapour regenerative heat
exchanger.
4.8 Draw t-N and h-N diagrams for R 134a/R 22 mixtures for 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20 bar
pressures. Do calculations for bubble and dew temperatures and enthalpies
assuming ideal mixtures for 10, 20, 30 and 50 per cent R 134a.
4.9 Find the bubble and dew pressures of R 134a/R 22 mixtures at 0, 5, 10, 45, 55
and 60°C temperatures and 10, 20, 30 and 50 per cent R 134a compositions.
4.10 (a) An R 22 window-type 1.5TR air conditioner operates on simple satura-
tion cycle. The operating conditions are:
Evaporation temperature 5°C
Temperatures of conditioned air 25°C In, 15°C Out
Cooling air temperatures 45°C In, 55°C Out
Find the piston displacement of compressor, motor watts and COP of the
cycle.
(b) Find the operating conditions of an equivalent R 134a/R 22 cycle which
will maintain the same LMTD in condenser and evaporator.
(c) Find the piston displacement of compressor required, motor watts and
COP of the cycle for the conditions in (b).
#
Multipressure Systems
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The simple vapour compression system is a two-pressure system. Systems with more
than two pressures may arise either due to multistage, viz., compound compression
to minimize work, or due to feeding of the refrigerant to a multi evaporator system.
Cascade systems which employ more than one refrigerant also have multipressures
although each refrigerant circuit operates on a two-pressure system only.
5.2 MULTISTAGE OR COMPOUND COMPRESSION
It has been shown in Sec. 3.5 that the slope of the constant entropy lines on the
p-h diagram decreases for the isentropics away from the saturated vapour line.
Multistage or compound compression with interstage cooling is one effective
method of reducing work of compression by working on isentropics closer to the
saturation curve.
It is, however, desirable to employ compound compression only when the pres-
sure ratio between the condenser and evaporator is greater than 4 or 5. This will
happen either as a result of a very high condensing temperature, and/or a very low
evaporator temperature.
As shown in Secs. 6.3 and 6.6, with increasing pressure ratio, the volumetric effi-
ciency and hence the refrigerating capacity of a reciprocating compressor tends to
zero. Thus multistaging is necessary to reduce the power consumption and also to
increase the refrigerating capacity in high condensing temperature and/or low evapo-
rator temperature applications.
The two methods employed for cooling between stages are water intercooling
and flash intercooling with flash gas removal.
5.2.1 Flash Gas Removal

In compound compression the throttling expansion of the liquid may also be done
in stages as shown in Figs. 5.1(a) and 5.1(b). Thus the liquid from the condenser at
Multipressure Systems 215
6 first expands into a flash chamber to 7 at the intermediate pressure pi, and then the
liquid from the flash chamber at 8 enters the evaporator through another expansion
valve and expands to 9.
5
C
6 3 4
Flash
Gas
II
Flash
Chamber
7
pi
2
1
8
I
9
E
Fig. 5.1(a) Schematic diagram of the system with flash gas removal
In a system without a flash chamber, the liquid from the condenser expands
straight to the evaporator pressure as shown by the process line 6–10 in Fig. 5.1(b).
This is wasteful of energy as the vapour flashed at the intermediate pressure at 3 is
also throttled to 11 at the evaporator pressure and is, therefore, required to be again
recompressed to the intermediate pressure. A system with a flash chamber, thus,
eliminates the undesirable throttling of the vapour generated at the intermediate
pressure.
6 5
3
8 2
7 4
p
9 10 1 11
h
Fig. 5.1(b) Thermodynamic cycle for the system of Fig. 5.1(a)
Flash gas removal with multistage compression, therefore, results in power

economy, and is always desirable whichever be the refrigerant used.
Another method of obtaining the same result as that of flash gas removal is to
employ the flash chamber as a liquid subcooler as shown in Fig. 5.2. The liquid
subcooler subcools the liquid by the evaporation of the liquid refrigerant in the flash
chamber. Figure 5.2 also gives the mass balance of the liquid subcooler. Herein, m1
is the mass flow rate through first-stage compressor, and m2 is the mass flow rate
through second-stage compressor. The thermodynamic states correspond to those of
Fig. 5.1 (b) except that the state of liquid entering the evaporator expansion valve
shifts to 8¢ from 8.
To High Pressure Stage
(m2 – m1) kg
3
6
m2 kg
(m2 – m1)
7
m1 kg
6
8¢
m1 kg
To Evaporator
Fig. 5.2 Flash chamber as a liquid subcooler
5.2.2 Flash Intercooling

For flash intercooling, the compressed vapours from the lower stage are led and
bubbled through the liquid in the flash chamber as shown in Fig. 5.3(a). The vapours
are thus cooled to the saturation temperature at the pressure of the flash chamber and
a part of the liquid evaporates which goes to the higher stage along with the vapours
from the lower stage. Flash intercooling thus enables the higher stage compression
to take place along the steeper isentropic, nearer the saturated vapour line.
Figures 5.3 (a) and (b) show that the discharge vapours from the lower stage at 2
are cooled to 3 by the evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant from the flash
chamber at 6. Thus, the vapours entering the high-stage compressor m2 comprise
these vapours in addition to the vapours m1 from the low-stage.
Thus, although the specific work is reduced in the high stage because of working
along the steeper isentropic 3-4 instead of the isentropic 2-2¢, the increase of the
actual mass flow through the higher stage may increase the work of the higher stage.
It is found that in the case of ammonia, the mass of the liquid evaporated for flash
intercooling is extremely small because of its high latent heat of vaporization and the
isentropics become very flat at higher temperatures. Hence flash intercooling will
decrease the power requirement. Flash intercoolers are, therefore, commonly used
in multistage ammonia plants.
C
4
5 3
m2
II
Flash
Chamber
m2 – m 1 6
pi
2
1
m1
I
E
7
Fig. 5.3(a) Schematic diagram of a two-stage compression system with flash
inter-cooling
5 4
pk
m2
pi 6 3
2
m1
p 7
p0
1
h
One must, therefore, notice the difference between flash gas removal and flash
intercooling. Whereas flash gas removal is always desirable, flash intercooling is
suitable in the case of some refrigerants only.
5.2.3 Choice of Intermediate Pressure

It is well known that for minimum total work, the intermediate pressures are decided
by the stage pressure ratio which should be
FG p IJ 1/ n
Hp K
k
r=
0
where n is the number of stages. In a two-stage system, this gives a geometric mean
value for the intermediate pressure as given in Eq. (5.1)
pi = pk p0 (5.1)
However, this condition is true for complete intercooling to the initial tempera-
ture. In refrigeration systems, complete intercooling is not possible as it is done by
ambient water or air. Also, it is seen that the discharge temperature of the low-stage
is much lower than the discharge temperature of the high-stage. To reduce the dis-
charge temperature of the higher stage, therefore, the pressure ratio of the lower
stage can be increased, with a corresponding reduction in the pressure ratio of the
higher stage. The expression in Eq. (5.2) is recommended for determining the inter-
mediate pressure in refrigeration systems
pi = pk p0 Tk / T0 (5.2)
It is, however, realized that the choice of intermediate pressure is not very criti-
cal. If it is different from the optimum, then the work of one stage will be increased
while that of another stage will be decreased. In the final analysis, the total work will
not be much different from the minimum.
5.2.4 Complete Multistage Compression System

A complete two-stage compression system with flash-gas removal and water
and flash intercooling is shown in Fig. 5.4(a) and its p-h diagram in Fig. 5.4(b).
Example 5.1 illustrates the calculation procedure for an equivalent system with a
liquid subcooler.
C
5
6
4
II
3
Water
Intercooler
7
pi
2
8
1 I
E
9
Fig. 5.4(a) Schematic diagram of a two-stage compression system with flash
gas removal, and water and flash intercooling
It may be noted that a part of the heat of low-stage compression can be removed
by water intercooling, in case the discharge temperature from the stage is substan-
tially higher than the cooler water temperature.
6 5
8 7 4 3 2
p
9 1
h
Example 5.1 A two-stage ammonia food-freezing plant—with a desired

capacity of 528,000 kJ/h at – 40°C evaporating temperature and 35°C con-
densing temperature—has a flash intercooling system with a liquid subcooler.
The vapour leaving the evaporator is at –30°C and entering the first-stage
compressor is at –15°C. The vapour leaving the flash chamber is superheated by
10°C in the suction line to the second-stage compressor. Water intercooling is
done to cool the vapour to 45°C. Adiabatic efficiencies of both compressors are
0.75. The volumetric efficiencies of first- and second-stage compressors are 0.65
and 0.77 respectively. Find the piston displacements, discharge temperatures
and power requirements of the two compressors.
Solution See Fig. 5.5. Reference state is –40°C at which hf = 0, sf = 0.

pk = 1.35 MN/m2 (at 35°C)
p0 = 0.0718 MN/m2 (at – 40°C)
FG 273 + 35IJ
pi = 1.35 ´ 0.0718 ´
H 273 - 40K = 0.355 MN/m2
The corresponding saturation temperature is

ti = – 5°C
First Stage
Enthalpy of vapour leaving the evaporator
FG 1499 - 1300IJ
h1¢ = 1390 + { – 30 – (– 40)}
H 50 K
= 1411.8 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of vapour entering the compressor
FG 1499 - 1390IJ
h1 = 1390 + {– 15 – (40)}
H 50 K
= 1444.5 kJ/kg
1439
ti = – 5°C
1463.2
347.5
1663
158.2
35°C
6 5
103.3 °C
1560 0.36 m3/kg
– 5°C 1681.2
0°C 4 2
3
1.718 m3/kg
p
– 40°C
97.7°C
9 1
45°C
– 15°C
– 30°C
h, kJ/kg 1411.8 1444.5
Enthalpy of the liquid

h9 = h8¢ = 158.2 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the first-stage compressor
528,000
m 1 = = 420 kg/h
. - 158.2
14118
FG 273 - 15IJ = 1.552 FG 258IJ
L1 = vg1
H 273 - 40K H 233K = 1.718 m3/kg
Piston displacement of the first-stage compressor

(420)(1.718)
V1 = = 1110 m3/h
0.65
Entropy of vapour during isentropic compression from 1 to 2
FG 6.387 - 5.693IJ
s1 = s2 = 5.963 + {– 15 – ( – 40)}
H 50 K
= 6.175 kJ/kg × K
Degree of superheat of vapour after isentropic compression
6.175 - 6.157
= 100 + (50) = 102.7°C
6.157 - 5.822
t2 = – 5 + 102.7 = 97.7°C
2.7
h2, isen = 1675 + (1675 – 1560) = 1681.2 kJ/kg
50
Isentropic work
wisen = 1681.2 – 1444.5 = 236.7 kJ/kg
236.7
Actual work w= = 316 kJ/kg
0.75
Power requirement of first-stage compressor
W1 =
(420) (316)
= 50 hp
2650
Second Stage
Enthalpy of vapour entering the flash chamber
h3 = 1560 kJ/kg
and h4 = 1439 kJ/kg
Liquid enthalpy h7 = h6 = 347.5 kJ/kg
Energy balance of the evaporator gives
1560 - 158.2
m 4 = (420) = 540 kg/h
1439 - 347.5
t4¢ = 5°C
Specific volume of vapour entering the second-stage compressor
(273 + 5)
L4¢ = 0.347 = 0.36 m3/kg
(273 - 5)
Piston displacement of the second-stage compressor
(540) (0.36)
V4 = = 252 m3/h
0.77
Entropy of vapour during isentropic compression from 4¢ to 5
10
s4¢ = s5 = 5.407 + (5.822 – 5.407) = 5.490 kJ/kg.K
50
Degree of superheat of vapour after isentropic compression
5.490 - 5.368
= 50 + (50) = 68.3°C
5.702 - 5.368
t5 = 35 + 68.3 = 103.3°C
18.3
h5, isen = 1616 + (1744 – 1616) = 1663 kJ/kg
50
Enthalpy of vapour at compressor suction
10
h4¢ = 1439 + (1560 – 1439) = 1463.2 kJ/kg
50
Isentropic work wisen = 1663 – 1463.2 = 199.8 kJ/kg
Actual work
199.8
w= = 266.5 kJ/kg
0.75
Power requirement of second-stage compressor
(540) (266.5)
W2 = = 54.3 hp
2650
5.3 MULTI-EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS
Very often, a situation arises when varied types of cooling loads are connected to the
same refrigeration system. Each load may require an evaporator working at a differ-
ent refrigeration temperature. The whole system may, therefore, be operated either
at a suction pressure equal to the lowest evaporator pressure leading to a single-
compressor system, or at various suction pressures with individual compressors for
each evaporator, leading to a multi-compressor system.
5.3.1 Single Compressor-Individual Expansion Valves

A two-evaporator single-compressor system with individual expansion valves for
each evaporator and one compressor is shown in Fig. 5.6(a). Operation under these
conditions means the dropping of pressure from high pressure evaporators through
back pressure valves as can be seen in Fig. 5.6(b). This necessitates the compression
of the vapour from the higher temperature evaporators through a pressure ratio
greater than necessary, and hence at the expense of operating economy.
C
3
2
E2
6 Back 8 1
4 Pressure
Value
E1
5 7
Fig. 5.6(a) System with two evaporators and single compressor, with
individual expansion valves
The mass flow rates through evaporators 1 and 2 are respectively

Q Q01
m1 = 01 =
q01 h7 - h5
Q02 Q0 2
m2 = =
q02 h6 - h4
The enthalpy of the vapour mixture entering the compressor is
m h + m2 h6
h1 = 1 7 (5.3)
m1 + m2
and the net work done is given by
W = (m1 + m2) (h2 – h1) (5.4)
pk 3 2
4 6
p
p0 2
p0 1 8
5 7 1
h
5.3.2 Single Compressor—Multiple Expansion Valves

The operation of a two-evaporator single-compressor system with multiple arrange-
ment of expansion valves is shown in Figs 5.7(a) and (b). The only advantage of the
arrangement is that the flashed vapour at the pressure of the high temperature evapo-
rator is not allowed to go to the lower temperature evaporator, thus improving its
efficiency. To gain thermodynamic advantage from this, it will be necessary to use
individual compressors for each evaporator, thus eliminating the throttle losses of
the back pressure valves.
The refrigerating effects for the evaporators are
q 01 = h 8 – h 6
q 02 = h 7 – h 4
C
3 2
7 9
4 E2
1
5 (Liquid)
6 8
E1
Fig. 5.7(a) System with two evaporators and single compressor with multiple
expansion valves
3 2
x4
5 7
p
4
6 8 1 9
x6
h
The mass flow rates of the refrigerant comprising the liquid and vapour fractions, are:
Q0 1
Evaporator 1 m1 =
q0 1
Q01 FG x IJ
H1 - x K
4
Evaporator 2 m2 = + m1
q01 4
where the second term on R.H.S. represents the mass of vapour flashed at 4
corresponding to the mass of liquid going to the second evaporator.
5.3.3 Individual Compressors—Multiple Expansion Valves

The total power requirement can be reduced by the use of an individual compressor
for each evaporator and by the multiple arrangement of expansion valves as shown
in Figs 5.8(a) and (b). This amounts to parallel operation of evaporators and is called
sectionalizing. There may be a separate condenser for each compressor or a com-
mon condenser for the whole plant.
The calculations for mass flow rates are similar to those of the preceding case.
5
C
6
2 4
1
7
E2
II
8
E1
9 3 I
Fig. 5.8(a) System with two evaporators, individual compressors and

multiple expansion valves
6 2 5 4
2
m
1
m
8 7 1
p
9 3
h
5.3.4 Individual Compressors with Compound Compression and Flash

Intercooling
When one or more evaporators are in operation at very low temperatures, and
individual compressors are installed, then compound compression can be used to
effect power saving as shown in Figs 5.9(a) and (b) with multiple arrangement of
expansion valves and flash intercooling. The flash chamber is maintained at the
pressure of the high temperature evaporator.
C
5
4
3b
6 3
E2
3a
II
6 2
7
1
E1 I
8
Fig. 5.9(a) System with two evaporators, compound compression and
flash intercooling
pk 5 4
2
m
p0 2 6 3
2
p
7
p01 m1
8 1

5.4 CASCADE SYSTEMS
The use of a single refrigerant in a simple vapour compression cycle for the produc-
tion of low temperatures is limited by the following reasons.
(i) Solidification temperature of the refrigerant.
(ii) Extremely low pressures in the evaporator and large suction volumes if a
high-boiling refrigerant is selected.
(iii) Extremely high pressures in the condenser if a low-boiling refrigerant is
selected.
(iv) Very high pressure ratio pk/p0 and, therefore, a low coefficient of performance.
(v) Difficulties encountered in the operation of any mechanical equipment at very
low temperatures.
We know that multistage compression is employed when low evaporator tempera-
tures are required and when the pressure ratio pk/p0 is high. Refrigerant 22 is used in a
two-stage system up to –50°C and in a three-stage system up to about –65°C.
If vapour compression systems are to be used for the production of low tempera-
tures, the common alternative to stage compression is the cascade system in which a
series of refrigerants, with progressively lower boiling points, are used in a series of
single-stage units. The system provides a solution to all the problems mentioned
above except the last one.
The cascade system combines two or more vapour compression units as shown in
Fig. 5.10. The high temperature cascade produces refrigeration at a certain low
temperature t02. The low temperature cascade produces refrigeration at a still further
low temperature t01, using the refrigerating effect of high temperature cascade at
temperature t02 for rejecting heat in its condenser at temperature tk1, which in the
limit is equal to t02. In practice, however, there is a certain overlap between these
temperatures, i.e. the temperature tk1 is about 5°C higher than the temperature t02.
Qk 2
Condenser tk2
m2
Qk1
II High Temperature
Cascade
t02 tk1
Evaporator m1
Condenser
Q02
Evaporator t01 Low Temperature

I Cascade
Q01
Fig. 5.10 Cascade system
It is also to be noted that each cascade works on a separate refrigerant. Each

refrigerant can be chosen in such a way that it operates best within the required
comparatively narrow temperature limits. The high temperature cascade uses a high-
boiling refrigerant such as NH3 or R 22, whereas the low temperature cascade uses a
low-boiling refrigerant such as CO2, ethylene, methane, etc., depending on the
requirements. The use of a low boiling and, therefore, a high pressure refrigerant
ensures a smaller compressor displacement in the low temperature cascade and a
higher coefficient of performance.
The cascade system was first used by Pictet in 1877 for the liquefaction of
oxygen employing SO2 and CO2 as intermediate refrigerants. Another set of
refrigerants commonly used for the liquefaction of gases in a three-stage cascade
system is ammonia, ethylene and methane. Ammonia is also used in the high
temperature cascade for the manufacture of solid carbon dioxide.
An additional advantage of the cascade system is that oil from one compressor
cannot wander to the other compressors as it generally happens in multistage systems.
In the system shown in Fig. 5.10, the high and low temperature systems have to be
balanced with each other. This means that the heat absorbed in the high temperature
cascade evaporator must be equal to the heat rejected in the low temperature cascade
condenser. Thus, the two systems are designed such that
Q02 = Qk1
In operation, however, the balancing problem creates difficulty since during the
pull-down period, the high temperature cascade system is inadequate. Hence, it has
to be slightly oversized.
5.4.1 Optimum Coupling Temperature between Cascade Circuits

The intermediate temperature between the two cascade circuits, such as t02 £ tk1, may
be called the coupling temperature. For optimum sizing of the two circuits, Schmidt5
has shown that the optimum coupling temperature can be approximately represented
by the square-root of the condensing temperature in warm, and evaporating
temperature in cold circuit. This is based on the assumption that the Carnot COP of
the two circuits is the same, as shown in Eq. (5.5)
T01 T02
= (5.5)
Tk1 - T01 Tk2 - T02
so that when T02 = Tk1, we have

T 02 = Tk2 × T01 = Tk1 (5.6)
Schmidt derives a more accurate relation in terms of the coefficients of the
vapour pressure curves of the two refrigerants. This derivation is based on the con-
dition that the pressure ratios of the compressors in each circuit are the same. Thus
pk1 pk
= 2 (5.7)
p01 p02
Then if the pressure-temperature relationships of the two substances are
governed by the relation.
b
log p = a –
T
we have
F1 I
log pk1 – log p01 = b1 GH T
k1
- JK1
T0 1
(5.8)
F1 1 I
log pk2 – log p02 = b2 GH T
k2
-
T JK 02
(5.9)
and from Eq. (5.7) we obtain

F1 I= 1
b1
b2 GH T
k1
-
1
T0 1 JK T k2
-
1
T0 2
(5.10)
which for T02 = Tk1 becomes

b1 + b2
T 02 = = Tk 1 (5.11)
b2 / Tk2 + b1 / T01
A more appropriate semi-empirical relation is suggested in Eq. (5.12)
b1 + 1.05 b2
T 02 = – 10 (5.12)
b2 / Tk2 + b1 / T01
5.5 SOLID CARBON DIOXIDE—DRY ICE
Figure 5.11 shows the relevant thermodynamic characteristics of carbon dioxide

which make it suitable to be used in the solid state at atmospheric pressure, com-
monly known as dry ice. The name is derived from the fact that solid carbon dioxide
sublimates into vapour at atmospheric pressure and temperature. The sublimation of
solid carbon dioxide into vapour at normal atmospheric pressure is made possible
because its triple point pressure is 5.18 bar, i.e., greater than one atmosphere. Also,
the triple point temperature is – 56.6°C, which is much below the normal ambient
temperature. Hence, heat can flow from the surroundings to solid carbon dioxide,
exposed to atmosphere, to sublimate it. Thus the heat of sublimation of carbon
dioxide in the solid state at atmospheric pressure can be conveniently utilized to
provide refrigeration specially for the preservation of foods in transport.
The triple point pressure for water is 0.00611 bar, viz., much below one
atmosphere. Thus, at atmospheric pressure water-ice first melts and then evaporates.
Also, the triple point temperature of water is only 0.01°C and its fusion temperature
is 0°C. Thus water-ice, even with melting, can be used for refrigeration only above
0°C. The normal boiling point of water is 100°C.
In the case of carbon dioxide, the fusion temperature and normal boiling point
have no meaning. We have, however, the normal sublimation temperature which is
– 78.52°C.
5.6 MANUFACTURE OF SOLID CARBON DIOXIDE1,6
The critical temperature of carbon dioxide is very low, viz., 31°C whereas its critical
pressure is quite high, viz., 73.8 bar. The use of carbon dioxide in a simple vapour
compression cycle is possible only if condensation is achieved at a temperature

below 31°C. Even then the condensing pressure will be very high. Such a cycle is
shown in Fig. 5.11. For manufacture of solid CO2, the gaseous carbon dioxide is
compressed from 1 to 2, condensed from 2 to 3 at 28°C and 69 bar and then
expanded to atmospheric pressure at 4 in a snow chamber. The solid carbon dioxide
or dry ice can be removed at 5; the vapour at 6, after mixing with the make-up gas at
7, is led to the compressor.
73.8 bar Critical Point
69 bar 3 2
31°C
28°C
5.18 bar
p, bar
Triple Point Line Make-up

gas
Sublimation Line
1.01325 bar
6 1
5 4
x4 = 0.76
– 56.6°C 35°C (say)
–78.5°C
h
Fig. 5.11 Simple vapour compression cycle for manufacture of dry ice
The power requirement for the above cycle is of the order of 400–500 hp-hr per
ton of solid carbon dioxide. One of the main reasons for such high power consump-
tion is the high pressure ratio that is nearly equal to 70. This suggests the use of
three-staged compression with the pressure ratio of each stage equal to (70)1/3 = 4.1.
Another problem in the process of manufacture is the blocking of the expansion
device by the formation of dry ice. This is eliminated by first producing liquid
carbon dioxide at a pressure slightly above the triple point pressure and then reduc-
ing its pressure to one atmosphere in a snow chamber. This makes it necessary to
have two snow chambers, one receiving liquid carbon dioxide at a pressure higher
than the triple point pressure, and the other reducing pressure to form solid carbon
dioxide and vapour, both working alternately. Such a method is known as the
pressure snow chamber method.
Thus if 6 bar is chosen as the pressure of liquid formation in the snow chamber,
then the various stage pressures would be nearly equal to 69, 20, 6 and 1.01325 bar
respectively.
Further, the condensing temperature of 28°C is impractical when the cooling
water temperature itself is 30°C or more in summer. Also, even with 28°C, the COP
of the system would be very low as it is close to the critical temperature. The high
pressure stage of the carbon-dioxide cycle is, therefore, replaced with a separate
ammonia circuit in cascade with the carbon dioxide circuit.
The schematic diagram of a system using the pressure snow chamber method and
ammonia in the cascade circuit is shown in Fig. 5.12. The condensing pressure of
carbon dioxide is generally kept at 15 to 20 bar. The p-h diagram of the carbon
dioxide circuit is shown in Fig. 5.13. In the position shown in Fig. 5.12, high pres-
sure liquid carbon dioxide is being prepared in snow chamber II at 6 bar, whereas
snow chamber I is shown to be reducing in pressure from 6 bar to 1.01325 bar. Dry
ice is formed at 12 and the vapour leaves at 13. During this cycle of operation,
expansion valve A is open and B is closed. Also, shut-off valves C and F are open
and D and E are closed.
b 5 3 2
a II I
10 1
6 14
NH3 Circuit
13
C
m10
Open
Open
C D E F
d Closed
II I 12
c
6 bar 1.01325 bar
7 8
Open A Pressure B Closed

Snow
7 Chambers
System
Fig. 5.12 Pressure snow chamber method with ammonia in the cascade
circuit for manufacture of dry ice
7 20 6 5
x8
8 6 10 3 2
p, bar
9
4
1
x1
1.01325 13 Make-up
12
CO2
Dry ice 11 1 14
h
Fig. 5.13 p-h diagram of CO2 circuit for pressure snow chamber method
For the analysis of the cycle, the section enclosed within the broken lines, shown
in Fig. 5.12, may be considered as a system. Then assuming steady-state conditions,
writing the mass balance for the system, we obtain
m7 = m8 = m9 + m10
and
m9 = m11 = m12 + m13
Thus, from the above two relations
m7 = m10 + m12 + m13 (5.13)
Also, by energy balance
m7 h7 = m10 h10 + m12 h12 + m13 h13 (5.14)
In Eqs. (5.13) and (5.14), m12 represents the yield of dry ice which can be consid-
ered as specified. The mass of make-up CO2, m14 is also equal to m12. The three
unknowns m7, m10 and m13 in the two equation can be found by solving these equa-
tions together with the relation for dryness at 11, viz.,
m13 x11
= (5.15)
m12 1 - x11
Example 5.2 Calculate the power required to produce 500 kg of dry ice
per hour using the pressure snow chamber method in conjunction with ammonia
in the cascade circuit. The pressures and temperatures may be assumed as
follows:
Temperature in snow chamber after liquid throttling = – 50°C
Condensing temperature of CO2 = – 5°C
Temperature of make-up gas = 30°C
Condensing temperature of NH3 = 35°C
Evaporating temperature of NH3 = – 10°C
Temperature after water-intercooling = 35°C
Temperature after second-stage cooling = 40°C
Solution The various enthalpies are as follows:

For CO2 Circuit
From chart
h13 = 312 kJ/kg h7 = 72 kJ/kg
h14 = 433 kJ/kg h9 = – 18 kJ/kg
h10 = 320 kJ/kg h12 = – 250 kJ/kg
Dryness fractions
h - h9 72 + 18
x8 = 7 = = 0.266
h10 - h9 320 + 18
h9 - h12 - 18 + 250
x11 = = = 0.413
h13 - h12 312 + 250
Consider yield = m12 = m14 = 1 kg. Then
x11 0.413
m13 = m12 = (1) = 0.704 kg
1 - x11 0.587
m9 = m12 + m13 = 1.704 kg

x8 0.266
m10 = m9 = (1.704) = 0.618 kg
1 - x8 0.734
m7 = m8 = m9 + m10 = 1.704 + 0.618 = 2.232 kg
m13 h13 + m14 h14 (0.704) (312) + (1) (433)
h1 = = = 383 kJ/kg
m13 + m14 1.704
From chart
h2 = 435 kJ/kg
t2 = 75°C
Water intercooling is, therefore, essential. Then
t3 = 35°C
h3 = 396 kJ/kg (From chart)
m10 h10 + m3 h3 (0.618) (320) + (1.604) (396)
h4 = = = 376 kJ/kg
m10 + m 3 2.322
From chart
t4 = 11°C
h5 = 471 kJ/kg
t5 = 120°C
After water inter-cooling
t6 = 40°C
h6 = 380 kJ/kg
Power requirement of the first-stage CO2 compressor
W1 = m 1 (h2 – h1)
500
= (1.704) (435 – 383)
3600
= 12.31 kW
Power requirement of the second-stage CO2 compressor
W2 = m
4 (h5 – h4 )
500
= (2.322) (471 – 376)
3600
= 30.6 kW
For NH3 Circuit
ha = 1450 kJ/kg
hb = 1680 kJ/kg
hc = 366 = hd
Energy balance of the CO2 condenser and NH3 evaporator gives
h6 - h7
mNH3 = m6
ha - hd
380 - 72
= (2.322) = 0.66 kg
1450 - 366
Power requirement of the NH3 compressor
WNH = m
3
NH (hb – ha)
3
500
= (0.66) (1680 – 1450)
3600
= 21.08 kW
Total power requirement = 12.31 + 30.6 + 21.08 = 64 kW
5.7 SYSTEM PRACTICES FOR MULTI-STAGE SYSTEMS
Rotary vane or centrifugal compressors are commonly used for the booster stage of
a multistage system where large gas volumes are handled. There are also some appli-
cations in which oil-free and dry-cylinder compressors are used where the effects of
oil in the refrigerant are of great consideration.
When LP stage temperatures are below –70°C, the pull-down load may be three
times the normal. Compressor motors are, therefore, selected for about 150 per cent
above the normal loading.
Some thought must also be given for sizing the condenser for the maximum
amount of heat rejection that is expected during the pull-down period.
One problem in low temperature evaporators is the return of oil to the compres-
sor. Another is the pressure drop through the evaporator. A D-X (direct-expansion)
type evaporator is the most common because of its improved ability to return oil to
the compressor, as well as the smaller charge of the refrigerant required with it.
Sometimes an oil separator is used in low-temperature applications such as freeze-
drying. The effect of pressure drop in evaporators at very low pressures is very
serious because of its large magnitude which is a result of the large increase in vol-
ume of the refrigerant during vaporization. Hence, pumped systems such as a flash-
cooler type evaporator can be used, in which the refrigerant is used like brine under
pressure by a pump from a flash chamber so that vaporization does not take place
inside the evaporator, but only on return to the flash cooler. Or a recirculation type
evaporator may be used.
Receivers should not be used as the temperature of the surroundings may make it
difficult for the liquid to enter into it.
It may be necessary to raise the temperature of the low-stage suction gas for main-
taining the lubricating ability of the oil in the compressor. In cascade systems, this
can be best done through a heat exchange between this gas and the high pressure
stage liquid.
It is desirable to charge the system with a fade-out charge such that on shut down,
all liquid in the system will evaporate into gas without excessively increasing the
system pressure. In practice, however, the system may not have enough volume to
permit this. In that case, an expansion tank may be provided and connected to the
evaporating side of the system.
References
1. Anon, ‘Cut costs in making dry ice’, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 63, No. 8,
Aug. 1956, p. 114.
2. Arora C P and P L Dhar, ‘Optimization of multistage refrigeran compres-
sors’, Proc. XIIIth International Congress of Refrigeration, Washington,
1971, Paper No. 326, pp 693–700.
3. Dhar P L and C P Arora, ‘Optimum interstate temperature for cascade
system’ Proc. Second National Symposium on Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning, University of Roorkee, March 1973, pp. 211–215.
4. Missimer D J, ‘Cascade refrigeration systems for ultra low temperatures’,
Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 64, No. 2, Feb. 1956, p. 37.
5. Schmidt H, ‘Die bemessung von kältekompressoren in kaskadenschaltung’,
Kältetechnik, Vol. 17, No. 5, May 1965, pp. 151–155.
6. Stickney A P, ‘The thermodynamics of CO2 cycles’, Refrigerating Engineer-
ing, Vol. 24, No. 6. Dec. 1932, p. 334.
Revision Exercises
5.1 An R 22 refrigerating plant with back pressure control has a capacity of
30,000 kJ/h at –30°C and 45,000 kJ/h at –25°C. The refrigerant flow is con-
trolled by thermostatic expansion valves with 8°C superheat. The condensing
temperature is 35°C. There is no heat exchanger. The vapours are superheated
by 15°C in the suction line. The compressor is single-acting and has four
cylinders. It runs at 930 rpm and its bore/stroke ratio is 1.25. Volumetric
efficiency may be assumed as 70 per cent. Calculate the dimensions of the
cylinders. Also calculate the power consumption and COP.
5.2 An ammonia refrigerating plant is working at an evaporating temperature
of – 30°C and a condensing temperature of 37°C. There is no subcooling of
the liquid refrigerant, and the vapour is in the dry-saturated condition at the
inlets to the compressors. The capacity is 150 kW refrigeration. Estimate the
power consumption
(i) when one-stage is used,
(ii) when two-stage compression with flash intercooling is used, and
(iii) when two-stage compression with flash chamber and liquid subcooler is
used. Assume suitable intermediate pressure.
Explain why it is not advisable to use multistage compression to produce
refrigeration temperatures of the order of, say, – 90°C.
5.3 A two-stage 10 tons NH3 refrigeration plant with shell and coil type flash
intercooler as shown in Fig. 5.14 is operating at the following conditions:
Condensation temperature 35°C
Evaporator temperature – 40°C
Interstage pressure 2.91 bar
Subcooling of liquid in flash intercooler by 30°C
Thermostatic expansion valve setting 5°C superheat
Assuming that the vapours leaving the LP compressor are intercooled to 40°C
by water before entering the flash chamber, determine:
(a) Refrigerant mass flow rate in evaporator.
(b) Refrigerant mass flow rate through HP compressor.
(c) Total power consumption.
(d) Total power consumed in a single-stage NH3 plant for the same duty.
State what are the advantages of using flash intercooler in comparison to
single stage system.
Water
Intercooler
To HP
Compressor From LP Compressor
40°C
Compressor
35°C
Liquid
Evaporator
To LP
from
Condenser –40°C –35°C
Flash Intercooler
Fig. 5.14 Figure for Prob. 5.3
5.4 A two-stage R 22 plant with flash intercooler for food freezing has two
45 mm bore and 40 mm stroke compressors as follows:
LP Compressor: No. of cylinders 6
Rpm 1000
Volumetric efficiency 75%
HP Compressor: No. of cylinder 4
Rpm 800
Volumetric efficiency 69%
Find the refrigerating capacity of the plant when operating at a condenser
temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of – 40°C.
Also, find the interstage pressure.
6
Refrigerant Compressors
6.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
The compression of the suction vapour from the evaporator to the condenser
pressure can be achieved by mechanical compression, ejector compression or by a
process combination of absorption of vapour, pumping and desorption. The latter
two come under the category of heat-operated refrigerating machines discussed in
Chaps. 12 and 13. For the mechanical compressor, fundamentally, there are two
types of machines:
(i) Positive displacement machines, viz., reciprocating, rotary, scroll and screw
compressors.
(ii) Non-positive displacement machines, viz., centrifugal compressors.
Positive displacement machines ensure positive admission and delivery
preventing undesired reversal of flow within the machine as achieved by the use of
valves in the case of reciprocating compressors. They have intermittent operation,
subjecting the fluid to non-flow processes, and work is transferred by virtue of a
hydrostatic force on the moving boundary.
Non-positive displacement machines, viz., centrifugal compressors have no
means to prevent the reversal of flow. The fluid is subject to flow processes and the
work is transferred by virtue of the change of momentum of a stream of fluid flowing
at a high speed over blades or vanes attached to a rotor.
However, positive displacement machines can also be regarded as open
systems being steadily supplied with the working fluid although the internal proc-
esses are intermittent as in a closed system. The net work of compression including
the work of discharge and suction strokes is the same as the work done in a flow
process in an open system shown as follows.
6.1.1 Work in Reciprocating Compressor1

The p-L diagram for the machine cycle of a reciprocating compressor is shown in
Fig. 6.1 along with the skeleton diagram of the cylinder and piston mechanism. When
the piston is in the extreme left position of the inner dead centre (IDC), the volume
occupied by the gas is Vc = V3 called the clearance volume, i.e., the volume between
Refrigerant Compressors 237
the IDC position of the piston and the cylinder head. As the piston moves outward, the
clearance gas expands to 4, where the pressure inside the cylinder is equal to the pres-
sure at the suction flange of the compressor. As the piston moves further, the suction
valve S opens and the vapour from the evaporator is sucked in till the extreme right
position of the outer dead centre (ODC) is reached. At this point the volume occupied
by the gas is V1. The stroke or swept volume or piston displacement is
p D2
Vp = (V1 – V3) = L
4
where D is the bore or diameter and L is the stroke, i.e., the distance travelled by the
piston between I.D.C. and O.D.C. of the cylinder. At 1, the suction valve closes as
the piston moves inwards and the compression begins. At 2, the pressure in the
cylinder is equal to the pressure at the discharge flange of the compressor. A further
inward movement of the piston results in the pressure in the cylinder exceeding the
condenser pressure. This opens the discharge valve D and the vapour from the cylin-
der flows into the condenser till the piston again reaches the IDC position. Gas equal
to the clearance volume Vc remains in the cylinder and the cycle is repeated.
3 2
p2
p
p1 1
4
Vp
Vs
Vc
V Connecting
Rod
2 Crank
D
1
D
L
I.D.C Piston Cylinder O.D.C
Fig. 6.1 Cylinder and piston mechanism and p-V diagram of a reciprocating
compressor
The work done for compression for the machine cycle is given by the cyclic
integral of pdV. Hence
W= z pdV = z
2
1
pdV + z
3
2
pdV + z
4
3
pdV + z
1
4
pdV
z z
2 4
= pdV + p2(V3 – V2) + pdV + p1(V1 – V4)
1 3
z
= Area 1-2-3-4
It will be seen that this area is also expressed by the term – Vdp. Hence
z z z z
2 2 2 2
W= pdV = – Vdp = m pd L = – m Ldp
1 1 1 1
where m is the mass of the suction vapour. Thus, the specific work in a reciprocating
compressor is given by
z z
2 2
w= pdL= – Ldp (6.1)
1 1
where 1 and 2 are the limits of integration from suction state 1 to the discharge
state 2 as indicated in Fig. 6.1.
6.1.2 Work in Centrifugal Compressor1

In a steady-flow process, the gas enters the centrifugal compressor, passes over the
blades in a centrifugal field and is subjected to momentum change, leaving finally,
through a diffuser at the discharge pressure. From the steady-flow energy equation
q = (h2 – h1) + w (6.2)
and from the combined First and Second Laws for reversible process,
z z z
2 2 2
q= Tds = (dh – Ldp) = (h2 – h1) – Ld p (6.3)
1 1 1
Comparing the two expressions, we have for work
z
2
w=– Ldp (6.4)
1
It is thus seen that the work of compression is the same for both reciprocating and
z
2
centrifugal compressors and is given by the expression – Ldp, integrated between
1
the suction and discharge states. Equation (6.3), therefore, represents the energy
equation for both compressors, viz.,
z
2
q = (h2 – h1) – Ldp
1
For an adiabatic compression process, in which q = 0, it gives
z
2
w=– Ldp = (h2 – h1) (6.5)
1
z
2
Note The expression for work done is the same, viz., w = – vdp whether it is a
1
reciprocating compressor or a centrifugal compressor.
6.2 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES DURING COMPRESSION
Here is a comparison of the theoretical and actual thermodynamic processes during

compression. Theoretical compression processes considered here are those of
constant entropy and constant temperature. The actual compression process is,
however, close to polytropic.
6.2.1 Isentropic Compression

For the isentropic compression process
pLg = p1L1g = p2L2g
so that
z z
2
w=– Ldp = – L1( p1/p)1/g dp
1
LMF p I g -1 OP
MMGH p JK
g
- 1P
g
=– p L 2
(6.6)
g -1 1 1
N 1
PQ
For a perfect gas, this becomes
w = – Cp (T2 – T1) (6.7)
since
FG p IJ
g –1
gR g T2
p1L1 = RT1, Cp =
Hp K =
2
and
g -1 1 T1
6.2.2 Isothermal Compression

The initial and final states are known to have pressure and temperature as p1, T and
p2, T. Hence h1, s1 and h2, s2 can be found from the table of properties and work can
be evaluated using the steady-flow energy equation, viz.,
q = T (s2 – s1) = (h2 – h1) + w (6.8)
For a perfect gas
h1 = h2, hence q = w.
Also, pL = p1L1 = p2L2 = const. Hence
z
2
p2 p
q=w=– Ldp = – p1L1 ln = – RT1 ln 2
1
p1 p1
= T (s2 – s1) (6.9)
Adiabatic and isothermal processes are shown as 1 – 2t and 1 – 2s respectively on
the p-L and T-s diagrams in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3. The shaded area on the p-L diagram
represents the difference in work. For the same pressure ratio, isothermal work is
seen to be less than the isentropic work. The shaded area on the T-s diagram in
Fig. 6.3 represents the heat transfer in the isothermal process.
2t 2c 2s 2f
p2
Polytropic with friction

Polytropic with cooling
Isothermal
Isentropic
p
1 p1
v
Fig. 6.2 Isothermal, isentropic and polytropic compression processes
on p-L diagram
2f p2
2s
2
2c p1
2t
T
s
Fig. 6.3 Isothermal, isentropic and polytropic compression processes
on T-s diagram
6.2.3 Polytropic Compression

Any general process can be expressed by the polytropic law
p1L1n = p2 L2n = pL n = const.
in which the polytropic index of compression n is such that 1 < n < g.
The work done in a polytropic compression process is thus
LMF p I OP
z z FG p IJ
n –1
1/ n
MMGH p JK - 1P
n n
Ld p = – L1
H pK pL
1 2
w=– dp = – (6.10)
n-1 1 1
N 1
PQ
For a perfect gas, since p1 L1 = RT1, this becomes
LMF p I n –1
OP
MMGH p JK
g -1
- 1P = –
n n
w = – n RT1 2
× C (T2 – T1) (6.11)
PQ
p
n-1 g
n -1
N 1
Equation (6.11) shows that work is a function of initial temperature, pressure

ratio and polytropic index n, viz.,
w = f (T1, p2 /p1, n)
For isentropic compression, n = g, and for isothermal compression, n = 1. Higher
the value of g for a substance, more the work required, and higher is the discharge
temperature. To reduce the work of compression and also to lower the discharge
temperature, it is necessary to resort to cooling during compression, specially, in the
case of substances with high value of g.
The term polytropic compression is used in different senses. It may mean either
(a) reversible but non-adiabatic compression, in which heat is removed during the
process or, (b) irreversible but adiabatic compression, in which there is friction but
no heat transfer, or (c) both.
Reciprocating compressors may approach case (a) with the cooling of the
cylinder, provided the velocities are small. Thus n will be less than g.
Centrifugal compressors approach case (b), i.e., friction effects are considerable
but the flow is nearly adiabatic and n will be greater than g.
We know that the isothermal compression process is the best but it would be
extremely slow and is not possible to achieve in practice. Actual compression
processes are nearly adiabatic. We can reduce the work of compression to some
extent by cooling the compressor cylinder and achieve a process of the type (a) viz.,
polytropic with cooling such as 1 – 2c in Figs 6.2 and 6.3. Such a process will have
work less than that of an adiabatic process and more than that of an isothermal proc-
ess. If the value of g for a gas is very high, such as 1.4 for air and 1.3 for ammonia,
and/or the pressure ratio is also high, the compressor cylinders are cooled by water-
jacketing. If the value of g is not so high as in the case of fluorocarbons, cooling by
air through natural convection is found satisfactory. To augment the heat transfer,
the cylinder bodies of these compressors are cast with fins on the external surface.
In centrifugal compressors, however, the process is nearly adiabatic. But an adi-
abatic compression process (no cooling) will normally be accompained with friction.
Such a process can also be represented by the polytropic law and will be of the type
(b), viz., polytropic with friction as represented by the line 1 – 2f in Figs 6.2 and 6.3.
An actual compression process in reciprocating compresors will be accompanied
with both cooling and friction. Such a process can also be represented by the poly-
tropic law with an appropriate value of the index of compression n. The discharge
state after compression may be either to the left or to the right of the point 2s,
depending on the degree of cooling and friction.
To compare the performance of a compressor, we define the following efficiencies
Isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency, h T =
Actual work
Isentropic work
Adiabatic efficiency, h a =
Actual work
Adiabatic efficiency is the most commonly used term.
The minimum work of compression, with cooling, is isothermal work. Often
isothermal efficiency is, therefore, used to express the performance of reciprocating
compressors which are invariably cooled.
The minimum work of compression, without cooling, is isentropic work.

Adiabatic efficiency is, therefore, used to express the performance of centrifugal
compressors in which it is not possible to arrange cooling during compression.
6.3 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSORS
Volumetric efficiency hL is the term defined in the case of positive displacement

compressors to account for the difference in the displacement or swept volume Vp
in-built in the compressor and volume Vs of the suction vapour sucked and pumped.
It is expressed by the ratio
V
hL = s
Vp
6.3.1 Clearance Volumetric Efficiency

The clearance or gap between the IDC position of the piston and cylinder head is
necessary in reciprocating compressors to provide for thermal expansion and
machining tolerances. A clearance of (0.005 L + 0.5) mm is normally provided. This
space, together with the volume of the dead space between the cylinder head and
valves, forms the clearance volume. The ratio of the clearance volume Vc to the
swept volume Vp is called the clearance factor C, i.e.,
Vc
C=
Vp
This factor is normally £ 5 per cent.
The effect of clearance in reciprocating compressors is to reduce the volume of
the sucked vapour, as can be seen from Fig. 6.1. The gas trapped in the clearance
space expands from the discharge pressure to the suction pressure and thus fills a
part of the cylinder space before suction begins. Considering only the effect of
clearance on volumetric efficiency, we have from Fig. 6.1, for clearance volumetric
efficiency
V1 - V4 (V p + Vc ) - V4
hCv = =
Vp Vp
The volume occupied by the expanded clearance gases before suction begins, is
FG p IJ 1/g
FG p IJ 1/g
HpK HpK
2 2
V4 = Vc = CVp
1 1
so that
V p + CV p - CV p ( p2 / p1 ) 1/ g
hCv =
Vp
FG p IJ 1/g
HpK
2
=1+C–C (6.12)
1
It is seen that lower the value of g, lower the hL, and higher the value of g, higher
the hL. The expression for volumetric efficiency can also be written in the form,
V V L
hL = 1 + C – 4 = 1 + C – C 4 = 1 + C – C L suction (6.12a)
Vp Vc discharge
6.3.2 Variation of Volumetric Efficiency with Suction Pressure

Figure 6.4 shows the nature of variation of the p-V diagram of a reciprocating
compressor with decrease in suction pressure for constant discharge pressure. It is
seen that with decreasing suction pressure, or increasing pressure ratio, the suction
volume Vs and hence volumetric efficiency hV decrease until both become zero at a
certain low pressure p1². Thus the refrigerating capacity of a reciprocating compres-
sor tends to zero with decreasing evaporator pressure.
It can be observed from Eq. (6.12) that the clearance volumetric efficiency will
be zero for a pressure ratio given by
p2 1 FG IJ g
p1min
=
C
+1
H K (6.13)
2¢ 2
p2
Vs
p
p1
4 1
p²1 = p1min
Vc
Vp
V
Fig. 6.4 Decrease in suction volume of a reciprocating compressor with
decreasing evaporator pressure
For a given discharge pressure p2, the above expression gives the value of p1min,
the lowest pressure possible for obtaining any capacity from a given compressor.
6.3.3 Exponent of the Re-expansion Curve

The clearance gases are expanded and compressed in every cycle. The curve 3-4 is,
therefore, called the re-expansion curve.
To reduce the discharge temperature and the work of compression, the compres-
sor cylinder is normally cooled either by water-jacketing as in the case of ammonia,
or simply by the surrounding air by natural convection as in the case of R 134a. The
small volume of the hot-clearance gas at 3, therefore, comes in contact with a larger
and cooler surface of the cylinder walls of the compressor, thus losing heat at the
beginning of expansion. Initially, the re-expansion curve is, therefore, steeper than
the adiabatic curve. During, the latter part of the expansion process, the gas is cooler
than the cylinder walls, receives heat in turn, and the curve becomes flatter. This
shows that the exponent of the re-expansion curve, m, is less than g for the greater
part of the process.
The effect of heat gain from the walls is to increase the volume V4 occupied by
the expanded clearance gases, and thus to decrease the suction volume. Replacing
the adiabatic exponent g by the polytropic exponent m, we have for clearance volu-
metric efficiency
Fp I
=1+C–C G J
1/ m
hCv
Hp K
2
(6.13a)
1
In the case of ammonia, the adiabatic exponent is high, i.e., g = 1.31. Its compres-
sion, therefore, results in high discharge and cylinder-wall temperatures resulting in
heat transfer to the gas during the re-expansion process. The effective value of m is,
therefore, less than g, giving a low value of volumetric efficiency. Cooling by water-
jacketing of ammonia compressors, therefore, results in lower discharge and cylin-
der-wall temperatures and hence, less heat transfer to the gas and higher volumetric
efficiency. The value of the exponent m with cooling approaches the value of the
adiabatic exponent.
The value of g for fluorocarbons is quite low. As a result, the volume V4 is quite
large and the volumetric efficiency is low. It is, therefore, necessary to provide mini-
mum possible clearance (less than 5%) in these compressors. Also, because of the
low value of g, the compressors need to be air cooled only.
A clearance of 6-7% is considered permissible with refrigerants with high value
of g such as ammonia. In addition, they are water-cooled.
In high speed compressors (1500 rpm or more), the value of re-expansion
coefficient m approaches the adiabatic exponent g.
6.3.4 Effect of Valve Pressure Drops3

For the flow of any fluid, the pressure must drop in the direction of flow. Both
suction and discharge valves will open only when there is a pressure drop across
them. The effect of these pressure drops on the indicator diagram of the compressor
is shown in Fig. 6.5. It is seen that as a result of throttling or pressure drop on the
suction side the pressure inside the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke is ps
while the pressure at the suction flange is p1. The pressure in the cylinder rises to the
suction flange pressure p1 only after the piston has travelled a certain distance
inward during which the volume of the fluid has decreased from (Vp + Vc ) to V1.
Assuming the compression index to be n instead of g, as the compression process is
also polytropic due to heat exchange with cylinder walls and friction, we have
Fp I
+V) G J
1/ n
Hp K
s
V1 = (Vp c
1
The expression for volumetric efficiency becomes

FG p IJ 1/ n
FG p IJ 1/ m
(V p + Vc )
HpK - Vc
HpK
s 2
V1 - V4
hv = = 1 1
Vp Vp
FG p IJ 1/ n
FG p IJ 1/ m
Hp K Hp K
s 2
= (1 + C) –C (6.14)
1 1
pd 2 p2
3
p
Vs
1
p1
4 ps
Vc
Vp
V
Fig. 6.5 Effect of valve pressure drops
Considering the effect of pressure drop at the discharge valve as well, it can be
shown that the expression for volumetric efficiency is
FG p IJ 1/ n
FG p IJ 1/ m
hv = (1 + C )
Hp K HpK
s d
–C (6.15)
1 1
6.3.5 Leakage Loss

The effect of leakage past piston rings and under the suction valve elements is
normally accounted for by allowing 1.5 per cent leakage per unit of the compression
ratio r, which is equal to p2/p1.
Old worn out compressors tend to have more leakage and hence they lose their
cooling capacity.
6.3.6 Overall Volumetric Efficiency

Considering the effect of wire-drawing at the valves, polytropic compression,
re-expansion, and leakage, we may write the expression for the overall or total
volumetric efficiency as follows
FG p IJ 1/ n
FG p IJ 1/ m
hv = (1 + C )
Hp K HpK
s d
–C – 0.015 r (6.16)
1 1
Some authors give slightly different expressions for the total volumetric efficiency.
The methods of improving the volumetric efficiency include the following:
(i) Providing clearance as small as possible.
(ii) Maintaining low pressure ratio.
(iii) Cooling during compression.
(iv) Reducing pressure drops at the valves by designing a light-weight valve
mechanism, minimizing valve overlaps and choosing suitable lubricating oils.
6.4 EFFECT OF CLEARANCE ON WORK
The effect of the clearance volume on the work of compression is mainly due to the
different values of the exponents of the compression and expansion processes. If the
exponents are different, the net work is given by
z z
2 3
W=– Vdp + Vdp
1 4
LMF p I n –1
OP
MMGH p JK PP
n n
=– p1 V 1 2
-1
n -1
N 1
Q
LMF p I m –1
OP
MMGH p JK - 1P
m m
+ p1 V 4 2
(6.17)
m-1
N 1
PQ
When the two exponents are equal, i.e., m = n
LMF p I n -1
OP
MMGH p JK PP
n
W = p1 V s 2
-1 (6.18)
N 1
Q
where Vs = V1 – V4 = volume of the vapour sucked. Thus the work is only propor-
tional to the suction volume. The clearance gas merely acts like a spring, alternately
expanding and contracting. In practice, however, a large clearance volume results in
a low volumetric efficiency and hence large cylinder dimensions, increased contact
area between the piston and cylinder and so, increased friction and work. Shaded
areas in Fig. 6.5 represent additional work due to valve pressure drops.
Example 6.1 1 m3 of a gas is compressed adiabatically (g = 1.4) from 1 bar

to 5 bar in a reciprocating compressor with 8 per cent clearance. If the exponent
of the re-expansion curve is 1.1 instead of 1.4, find the percentage increase in
the work of compression.
Solution Adiabatic compression and expansion

LMF p I g –1 OP
MMGH p JK
g
PP
1
W= p1 V s 2
-1
g -1
N 1
Q
F 1 - 4 IJ ´ 10
= G
1.4 - 1
H 1.4. - 1K - 1] = 204,050 Nm
1.4
5
´ 1 [(5)
Adiabatic compression and polytropic expansion (Fig. 6.1).

FG 5IJ 1/ 1.1
V4 = 0.08
H 1K = 0.3456 m3
V1 = 0.3456 + 1.0 = 1.3456 m3

LMF p I n -1
OP m
MMGH p JK - 1P -
n 2
n
W= p 1 V1 p V4
PQ m - 1
1
n -1
N 1
LMF p I m -1
OP
MMGH p JK - 1P
m
2
N 1
PQ
1.4 - 1
1.4 1.4
= ´ 105 ´ 1.3456 [(5) - 1]
1.4 - 1
1.1 - 1
11
.
– ´ 105 ´ 0.3456 [(5)
1.1
- 1] = 218,870 Nm
. -1
11
218,870 - 204,050
Increase in work = ´ 100 = 7.26%
204,050
6.5 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF A RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSOR
The principal dimensions of a reciprocating compressor are the bore D and stroke L.
These are to be decided in conjunction with the rpm N or mean piston speed Cm =
FG2 LN IJ
H 60 K
. Thus, there are three parameters, D, L and N or Cm to be selected. Stroke to
bore ratio q = L/D is a very important consideration in compressor design. Only one
equation is, however, available for design, i.e., the equation for the suction volume
Q
Vs = 0 × L1 = hv Vp
q0
where
p D2
Vp = × LN ´ 60 = 47.1 D2 LN m3/h
4
so that Vs = 47.1 D3 q N hv = 47.1 D2 (30 Cm) hv (6.19)

whence
Vs Vs
D = 0.277 3 = 0.0266 (6.20)
θ N ηv Cm η v
Assumptions are, therefore, necessary for two parameters. To minimize the
friction and wear, the mean piston speed is selected in the range of 1.5 to 5 m/s. At
the same time the stroke to bore ratio, viz., q = L/D, is chosen on the basis of the
delivery pressure pd. The piston force defined by
p D2
Fp = × pd
4
depends on the delivery pressure and cylinder diameter. To minimize the piston
force and hence the inertia force, a large value of q is chosen in high-pressure com-
pressors so that the diameter is smaller. The following values are normally adopted
in practice:
Vacuum pumps and high-speed air compressors q £ 0.5
Fluorocarbon compressors q » 0.8
Ammonia compressors q » 1.0
High-pressure compressors q = 4.6
6.6 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS5
Catalogue data of refrigerant compressors is normally in the form of tables and

charts giving the refrigerating capacity and brake horsepower as a function of
condenser and evaporator temperatures, which are the two principal design
parameters. The effects of these temperatures or corresponding pressures on the
capacity and power consumption of reciprocating compressors are analysed below.
The effect of suction pressure, keeping the discharge pressure constant, is shown
in Fig. 6.6. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant in a reciprocating compressor is
given by
Vp
m = h (6.21)
L1 v
As suction pressure drops, the specific volume of the suction vapour L1 increases
and the volumetric efficiency hv decreases. As a result the mass flow rate decreases.
The volumetric efficiency and hence the mass flow become zero at a certain low
value of suction pressure (Sec. 6.3.2).
The refrigerating capacity is now given by
Q 0 = m q 0
Vp
= hv (h1 – h4) (6.22)
L1
The refrigerating effect varies very little with the suction pressure. The capacity,
therefore, varies almost according to the mass flow rate of the refrigerant which in
turn is proportional to hv /L1. The capacity decreases as p0 decreases not only

because of increase in L1, but also because of decrease in hv. The capacity Q 0 ® 0
as p0 ® p0min. Thereafter it increases with p0 as shown in Fig. 6.6.
pk = const
Q0
Design Point
W Wmax
*
Power Peak
W
Pull
Down
pa = p0min, v =0 p 0 = pk
p0
m=0 W=0
W=0 W=0
Fig. 6.6 Performance characteristics of a reciprocating compressor as a
function of evaporator pressure
It is seen that the piston displacement per ton is given by

V* =
211 L1 m3/min (TR)
⋅
q0 η v
Hence
V F I
Q 0 = p* µ
V GH JK
1
V*
(6.23)
Thus, the capacity is inversely proportional to the piston displacement per ton. It
was shown in Sec. 3.5.1 that a drop of 5°C in the evaporator temperature increases
V * from 0.103 to 0.154 m3/min / TR in an R 134a system. The corresponding decrease
in capacity was found to be 33.3 per cent.
The power consumption of the compressor is given by
W = m w
Vp h 2 - h1 FG IJ
= hV
v1
×
hm h a H K (6.24)
The mechanical efficiency hm is generally of the order of 0.95. The adiabatic

efficiency ha depends on the compression ratio and many other factors, such as the
size and disposition of valves, cylinder dimensions, heat transfer, etc.
It may be noted that w is zero when the suction pressure is equal to the discharge
pressure usually at starting and m is zero at a certain low value of the suction
pressure. Hence W is zero at two values of the suction pressure, viz.,
W = 0 when m = 0 (At p0 = p0 )
min
W = 0 when w = 0 (At starting)
Therefore, the power consumption curve passes through the maximum, a peak, as
shown in Fig. 6.6.
Generally refrigeration systems operate on the left-hand side of this curve. But
just after starting, the compressor passes through the power peak. The compressor
motors are, therefore, oversized to enable them to take the peak load during pull-
down. The starting current is more than the running current.
It has been shown in Sec. 3.5 that the power per ton W * decreases with increasing
suction pressure.
The effect of the discharge pressure can similarly be analysed. At constant
suction pressure, an increase in the discharge pressure will cause a reduction in the
volumetric efficiency due to higher compression ratio. The mass of refrigerant
circulated will thus be reduced. At the same time the specific work will increase. But
there is a continuous increase in the power consumption and power per ton. The
capacity will be decreased due to decrease in the mass flow and slight decrease in
the refrigerating effect.
Example 6.2 (a) An R 22 hermetic (directly-coupled motor) reciprocating

compressor with 4 per cent clearance is to be designed for 7.5 TR capacity at
4°C evaporating and 40°C condensing temperatures. The compression index
may be taken as 1.15. The number of cylinders may be selected as two and the
mean piston speed Cm as 3 m/s approximately. The stroke to bore ratio for
fluorocarbons may be taken as 0.8. Pressure drops at suction and discharge
valves may be assumed as 0.2 and 0.4 bar respectively. Determine:
(i) Power consumption of the compressor and COP of the cycle.
(ii) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
(iii) Bore and stroke of the compressor. Choose motor with 1400 rpm.
(b) If the evaporator temperature drops to –2°C with the condenser temperature
and other conditions remaining same, what will be the capacity and power
consumption of this compressor and COP of the system?
Solution Refer to Figs 3.6 and 3.7.

(a) At 4°C evaporator temperature and 40 °C condensing temperature
p0 = 5.657 bar, pk = 15.335 bar
Suction and discharge pressures are
ps = 5.657 – 0.2 = 5.457 bar
pd = 15.335 + 0.4 = 15.735 bar
(i) Enthalpy of the suction vapour
h1 = 406.8 (At 4°C. Saturated vapour)
Specific volume of suction vapour
L1 = 0.0431 m3/kg
Enthalpy of the liquid from the condenser
h3 = h4 = 249.1 (At 40°C. Saturated liquid)
Refrigerating effect
q0 = 406.8 – 249.1 = 157.7 kJ/kg
Specific work
LMF 157.735I 1.15 - 1 OP 1
MMGH 5.437 JK - 1P
115
. 1.15
w= (5.457 ´ 105 ´ 0.0431)
. -1
N PQ 10
3
115
= 26.6 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate
7.5 ´ 3.5167
m = = 0.1673 kg/s
157.7
Power consumption
W = 0.1673 ´ 26.6 = 4.45 kW
157.7
COP = = 5.9
26.6
(ii) Volumetric efficiency
FG p IJ - C FG p IJ – 0.015 r
1/ n 1/ n
hv = (1 + C)
Hp K HpK
s d
1 1
= (1 + 0.04) G
F 5.457 IJ – 0.04 FG 15.735IJ
1/ 1.15 1/ 1.15
FG 15.735IJ
H 5.657 K H 5.657 K – 0.015
H 5.457 K
= 1.0065 – 0.0474 – 0.029 = 0.8585
(iii) Piston displacement per cylinder
1 m L1 0.1673 × 0.0431 × 60
Vp = = = 0.252 m3/min
2 ηv 2 × 0.8585
p D2 p D2 30Cm FG IJ
=
4
LN =
4
L
L H K
4Vp 4 ´ 0.252
whence D= = = 0.06 m or 60 mm
p 30 Cm p ( 30) ( 3)
L = 0.8 ´ 0.06 = 0.048 m or 48 mm
30Cm 30 ´ 3
N= = = 1875 rpm
L 0.048
As the motor is of 1400 rpm, L, D and Cm will have to be altered for same Vp .
Keeping Cm and D the same, one gets
30Cm 30 ´ 3
L= = = 0.064 m or 64 mm
N 1400
L 64
q= = = 1.07
D 60
which is very high. It will result in increased frictional losses. So, we have to reduce
L. The compromise solution is:
L = 56 mm, D = 64 mm, q = 0.875, Cm = 2.61 m/s
(b) At – 2°C evaporator temperature
p0¢ = 4.659 bar
Also ps¢ = 4.659 – 0.2 = 4.459 bar
h1¢ = 404.6 kJ/kg
L1¢ = 0.0525 m3/kg
q0¢ = 404.6 – 249.1 = 155.5 kJ/kg
LMF 15.735I 1.15 - 1 OP 1
MMGH 4.459 JK PP 10
115
. 1
w¢ = (4.459 ´ 105 ´ 0.0525) -1
. -1
N Q
3
115
= 32.0 kJ/kg
FG 4.459 IJ 1/ 1.15
FG 15.735IJ 1/ 1.15
FG 15.735IJ
hv = (1 + 0.04)
H 4.659 K – 0.04
H 4.459 K – 0.015
H 4.459 K
= 0.82
2 ´ 0.252 ´ 0.82
m ¢ = = 0.1312 kg/s
60 ´ 0.0525
Capacity
Q 0 = 0.1312 ´ 155.5 = 20.4 kW
Power consumption
W ¢ = 0.1312 ´ 32 = 4.2 kW
155.5
COP¢ = = 4.86
32
Note With a decrease in the evaporator temperature and pressure, although the specific
work increases, the total power consumption of compressor does not increase since the
mass flow rate decreases. The power consumption at 4°C evaporator temperature is
4.45 kW (Capacity 7.5 TR). The power consumption at – 2°C evaporator temperature is
4.2 kW only (Capacity 5.8 TR).
6.6.1 Calorimetric Method of Measuring Refrigerating Capacity

of Small Compressors
Figure 6.7 illustrates the construction and schematic arrangement of a calorimeter
used to measure the refrigerating capacity of small compressors.
The calorimeter encloses the evaporator in the form of a coil, and a set of electric
heaters dipped below the level of the liquid column of a secondary refrigerant. When
the heaters are on, vapours of secondary refrigerant rise above. They get condensed
by coming in contact with the cold surface of the evaporator coil. The condensate
returns back to the sump of liquid below.
Liquid Line from Suction Line to

Condenser Compressor
t3 pcal t1
Expansion
Valve
t0 = t4
Evaporator
Q0 Coil
Condensate
Calorimeter
Vapours
Secondary QE Insulation
Refrigerant
Electric
Heaters
I V
Voltage Regulator
Mains
Fig. 6.7 Calorimeter for measuring refrigerating capacity of small compressors
If heat added by electric heaters Q E is more than the refrigerating capacity Q 0 ,

then more vapours are produced, and less condensate returns. As a result, the
calorimeter pressure pcal rises. On the contrary, when Q E < Q 0 , the calorimeter
pressure drops. If Q E = Q 0 , pcal and t1 become constant.
Now, the procedure is different depending on the type of expansion valve used.
(a) If an automatic expansion valve is used which maintains constant tempera-
ture t0 = t4 and pressure p0 = p4, then electric load Q E is adjusted with the
help of voltage regulator until we get constant pcal and t1. This value of Q E =
Q 0 for the adjusted t0.
(b) If a thermostatic expansion valve is used which maintains a constant degree
of superheat (t1 – t4), then different electric loads Q E are given. On reaching
steady state (equilibrium), we note down the temperature t0 = t4 for each Q E
which is equal to Q 0 .
Thus, we get a plot between Q 0 and t0.
6.7 CAPACITY CONTROL OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Refrigerating capacity control with reciprocating compressors running at constant

speed consists in controlling the quantity of the gas delivered to match the fluctuating
load. In an efficient control system, the power consumption of the compressor

should be proportional to the amount of gas delivered. Various control methods
have been discussed below.
6.7.1 On and Off Control

Simple on-off or start-stop control in conjunction with a thermostat is used to advan-
tage in small unitary equipment, such as refrigerators, air conditioners, water cool-
ers, etc. It is particularly suited where there is a sudden large demand followed by
periods of small or no demand on capacity. Switching off is preferable to running
at partial load because of the low part-load efficiency of squirrel-cage induction
motors employed in refrigerant compressors.
6.7.2 Holding the Valves Open

This is the most commonly used method of unloading in multi-cylinder V/W com-
pressors. It is accomplished by the lifting of suction valves, usually of two cylinders
together, by means of depressors or fingers. The gas drawn in the cylinder during
the suction stroke is displaced back into the suction line during the discharge stroke.
No work is involved except the frictional work during such idling. The depressor
roads are operated by a cam which is turned either manually or by means of a ther-
mostat or a pressure-stat (for suction pressure). This is the best method of capacity
control when the condition is of intermittent unloading that requires idling for short
periods only.
More and more cylinders are unloaded, as the suction pressure or evaporator
temperature continues to drop, by means of stepped control.
6.7.3 Hot Gas Bypass

In this method, a part of the hot compressed gas is bypassed back to the suction line,
through a constant-pressure throttle valve. The valve admits hot gas in the suction line
as the evaporator pressure tends to drop, thus maintaining constant suction pressure.
This method is not efficient as the suction temperature tends to increase as more and
more hot gas is bypassed. The compressor work also tends to increase, thus resulting
in the loading of the compressor instead of unloading.
6.7.4 Using Multiple Units

The use of multiple units in reciprocating compressors is very common. This is
resorted to when unloading is required for long periods. Some units may serve the
purpose of stand-by equipment as well, thus allowing partial load operation in the
case of breakdown/routine maintenance of other units.
Example 6.3
(a) A 1 12 -ton Freon 22 air conditioner operates on a simple-saturation cycle
between an evaporator temperature of 4°C and a condenser temperature of
54.5°C. Find the theoretical COP for cooling, piston displacement and
horsepower of the compressor motor.
(b) If the same air conditioner is used as a heat pump for winter heating with
evaporator and condenser temperatures of –5°C and 60.4°C respectively,
find the theoretical COP for heating and the capacity of the compressor for
heating in kW.
(c) What should be the horsepower of the motor so that it is adequate for both
summer and winter air conditioning?
Solution (a) Refrigeration Cycle (Fig. 3.7)

h1 = 406.8 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.746 kJ/kg.K = s2,
h2 = 439.3 kJ/kg, t2 = 74°C
h3 = h4 = 268.3 kJ/kg
q0 = 406.8 – 268.3 = 138.5 kJ/kg
w = 439.8 – 406.8 = 33 kJ/kg
138.5
COP, -c = = 4.2
33
. ´ 211
15
m = = 2.2852 kg/min
138.5
V = 2.2852 ´ 0.0416 = 0.095 m3/min
2.2852 ´ 33
W = = 1.27 kW
60
1.27 ´ 103
HP = = 1.7
746
(b) Heat pump cycle
h1 = 403.5 kJ/kg h2 = 448.0 kJ/kg t2 = 82°C
h3 = h4 = 276.6 kJ/kg L1 = 0.0554 m3/kg
q0 = 403.5 – 276.6 = 126.9 kJ/kg
w = 448.0 – 403.5 = 44.5 kJ/kg
qk = 448.0 – 276.6 = 171.4 kJ/kg
171.4
COP, -h = = 3.85
44.5
Mass flow in the compressor (piston displacement = 0.095 m3/min)
V 0.095
m = = = 1.715 kg/min
L1 0.0554
Capacity for heating of the compressor
1.715 (171.4)
Q k = m qk = = 4.9 kW
60
(c) Horsepower requirement
1.715 (44.5) 103
HP = ´ = 1.71
60 746
Thus the power requirement for the heat pump is nearly the same as for the
refrigerating machine. It would, however, be necessary to use a larger size motor
if the air conditioner is also to be used for winter heating in case the ambient
temperature drops further such that the evaporator temperature falls below – 5°C.
6.8 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSORS
The reciprocating compressors are classified according to their enclosing pattern

as hermetically sealed, semi-sealed and open-type. The hermetically sealed and
semi-hermetic compressors have their motor enclosed along with the cylinder and
crank-case inside a dome. The motor windings are cooled by incoming suction
vapours. These have the advantage of no leakage, less noise and compactness.
The crankcase is usually of cast iron. Aluminium is also used in small, open and
welded hermetic compressors. The crankcase encloses the shaft and oil sump. The
cylinder can be integral with the crankcase or can be in a separate cylinder block.
The valves are located in the cylinder head.
Crank-shafts are of forged steel with hardened bearing surfaces, and dynamically
balanced. Pistons are usually made of cast iron or aluminium. Cast iron pistons with
a clearance of 0.0004 cm/cm of the cylinder diameter would provide for adequate
sealing without piston rings. Piston rings are essential with aluminium pistons.
The most crucial parts in reciprocating compressors are suction and discharge
valves. Their design should provide for long life and low pressure drops. To mini-
mize the pressure drop, their weight should be small. Reed valves with varying
clamping arrangements are commonly employed in refrigeration.
The lubrication systems in refrigerant compressors vary. Both splash and forced
feed systems are employed.
Shaft seals are used in open-type compressors. Normally stationary seals with
bellows are employed. Recently, rotary synthetic seals, tightly fitted to the shaft in a
carbon nose, have gained popularity. They are much less expensive.
6.9 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
Rotary compressors are positive displacement, direct-drive machines. There are

essentially two designs of this compressor:
(i) Rolling piston type. (ii) Rotating vane type.
In the rolling piston type, shown in Fig. 6.8(a) the roller is mounted on an eccentric
shaft with a single blade, which is always in contact with the roller by means of a
spring. The theoretical piston displacement is
p H ( A2 - B2 )
Vp = (6.25)
4
where A and B are respectively the diameters of the cylinder and rolling piston and H
is the height of the cylinder.
Out In Out Vanes

Blade
Cylinder
A Roller In
B
(a) Rolling Piston Type (b) Rotating Vane Type

Fig. 6.8 Rotary compressors
In the rotating vane type, as shown in Fig. 6.8 (b) with four vanes, the rotor is
concentric with the shaft. The vanes slide within the rotor but keep contact with the
cylinder. The assembly of rotor and the vanes is off-centre with respect to the cylinder.
In both designs, the whole assembly is enclosed in a housing (not shown in the
figures), filled with oil and remains submerged in oil. An oil film forms the seal
between the high-pressure and the low-pressure sides. When the compressor stops,
this seal is lost and the pressure equalizes.
Rotary compressors have high volumetric efficiencies due to negligible clear-
ance. They are normally used in a single stage up to a capacity of 5 TR.
6.10 SCREW COMPRESSORS
Rotary screw compressors also belong to the category of positive displacement

compressors. The machine essentially consists of two helically-grooved rotors as
illustrated in Fig. 6.9 which rotate in a housing.
Suction
Housing
Driven Driver
Discharge
Fig. 6.9 Sectional and side views of a screw compressor
The male rotor consists of lobes and is normally the driving rotor. The female
rotor has gullies and is normally the driven rotor. A four-lobe male rotor will
drive a six-gully female rotor at two-thirds of its speed. At 3600 rpm, the number
of compressed gas discharges of a four-lobe rotor will be 4 ´ 3600 = 14,400
per minute.
As in the case of other positive displacement machines, there are three basic
continuous phases of the working cycle, viz., suction, compression and discharge.
When the male rotor turns clockwise, an interlobe space between a pair and housing,
nearest to the suction end, opens and is filled with the gas. There are four such pairs
to be filled during one revolution in a four-lobe rotor and the suction periods overlap
one another.
When remeshing starts, the volume decreases and the pressure rises. The charge
is moved helically and compressed until the trapped volume reaches the discharge
end. The compression ratio is thus fixed.
Further rotation simply empties the rotors of the high pressure gas until the last
traces of the gas are squeezed out, irrespective of the pressure in the condenser.
On completion of the discharge phase, there is no residual gas remaining in the
rotors. As a result, there is no expansion of clearance gases. The compressor has no
suction and discharge valves.
There are leakage paths in a screw compressor mainly across the line of mesh
between the rotors and across the clearance between the rotors and the housing. To
eliminate leakage, oil is injected in a number of small jets directed towards the mesh.
Oil injection also serves the purpose of cooling and lubricating along with that of
sealing the leakage paths.
The rotor profile is patented, the patent rights being held by Svenska Rotor
Maskiner AB, Sweden.
A slide valve, closely following the shape of the rotors is used for capacity con-
trol. At full load the valve is closed. At part load, the valve opens enabling a return
flow passage to be formed so that a part of the gas drawn into the interlobe spaces
can flow back to the suction side.
The screw compressor combines many advantageous features of both centrifugal
and reciprocating compressors, along with some of its own. As it is a positive dis-
placement machine, high pressure refrigerants as in reciprocating compressors, such
as R 22 and ammonia are used in it. As it is a high speed rotary machine, a large
volume, as in centrifugal compressors, can be handled by it. It is, therefore, found
extremely suitable for large capacity low temperature applications such as in food
refrigeration, and also in large capacity central air conditioning plants, with R 134a
and R 22, as alternative to R 11 (CFC 11) centrifugal compressors.
Unlike centrifugal compressors, it has no surging problems. Like reciprocating
compressors, it has small pipe dimensions and positive pressures due to the use of high
pressure refrigerants. Like centrifugal compressors, it has high compression efficiency,
continuous capacity control, unloaded starting and no balancing problems. Also, the
compressor is suitable for large capacity installations.
6.11 SCROLL COMPRESSORS
Scroll compressors are valve-less positive displacement machines like rotary and
screw compressors. Because of their simplicity, they have become very popular with
the industry in recent years.
In scroll compressors, compression is achieved by two interfitting, spiral-shaped
‘scroll members’ one of which is a ‘fixed scroll’ and the other an ‘orbiting scroll’ as
indicated in the cross-sectional views in Fig. 6.10.
Scroll compressors are currently preferred in residential and commercial refrig-
eration air-conditioning, heat pump, and automotive air-conditioning applications.
Capacities of a single compressor range from 1 to 14 TR only. For larger capacity,
multiple units can be used.
The compressor requires machining of scroll members which have close
tolerances. Such machining has become possible only recently with the develop-
ments in precision manufacturing processes. Gas sealing is an important mechanical
feature of scroll compressors.
The compressor gives high efficiency, and has low noise level. As such, it has
come to replace reciprocating and even rotary machines in these capacities.
6.11.1 Scroll Compression Process

The fixed and orbiting scrolls have geometrically matching surfaces. The two scrolls
are fitted to form pocktes of gas.
Suction gas is sealed in pockets of a given volume at the outer periphery of the
scrolls. Compression is achived by progressively reducing the size of these pockets,
as the motion of the orbiting scroll, relative to the fixed scroll, moves the pockets
‘inwards’ towards the discharge port.
As is the case with screw compressors, the scroll compressor has a built-in
volume ratio, defined by the geometry of the scrolls, and the location of the
discharge port.
Fixed
Suction scroll
port
Orbiting
scroll
(a) (b)
Discharge
port
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.10 Scroll compression process
Figure 6.10 shows the scroll compression process in a sequence of suction,

compression and discharge.
Fig. 6.10(a)
The outermost pockets are sealed off. Suction gas is trapped just before compres-
sion begins.
Fig. 6.10(b)
At stage (b), orbiting motion moves the gas to the centre. Pocket volume progres-
sively reduces, and pressure rises, as shown in (c).
Fig. 6.10(d)
At (d), the gas reaches the discharge port in the centre, and discharge takes place.
Simultaneously, suction begins at the outer periphery.
6.11.2 Capacity Control of Scroll Compressors

There are two methods
(i) Variable Speed Control Variable speed scroll compressor uses an inverter
drive to convert a fixed frequency AC current into one with adjustable voltage and
frequency which permits varying the speed of the induction motor.
(ii) Variable Displacement Scroll Compressor The control mechanism connects
or disconnects the compression chamber to suction side by closing and opening the
porting holes.
When all porting holes are closed, the compressor runs at full capcity.
When all porting holes are open to suction side, we get the smallest capacity.
6.12 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
A single-stage centrifugal compressor mainly consists of the following four

components as shown in Fig. 6.11.
(i) An inlet casing to accelerate the fluid to the impeller inlet.
(ii) An impeller to transfer energy to the fluid in the form of increased static
pressure (enthalpy) and kinetic energy.
(iii) A diffuser to convert the kinetic energy at the impeller outlet into enthalpy
resulting in pressure rise.
(iv) A volute casing to collect the fluid and to further convert the remaining
kinetic energy into enthalpy resulting in further pressure rise.
Outlet
Volute Casing
Vaneless
Diffuser
Impeller
Inlet Casing
Fig. 6.11 Elements of a centrifugal compressor
Besides these, there are intercoolers in a multistage compressor that are generally
integrated with the casing. The casing is usually made of cast iron and the impeller,
of high speed (chrome-nickel) steels. The maximum stress is developed at the root
of the blades.
The diffuser is normally of the vaneless type as it permits more efficient part load
operation which is quite usual in any air-conditioning plant. A vaned diffuser will
certainly cause shock losses if the compressor has to run at reduced capacity and
flow (part-load).
6.12.1 Application of Steady-Flow Energy Equation to a Centrifugal Stage

Compression in a centrifugal compressor is achieved by the self-compression of
the refrigerant by centrifugal force as well as by the conversion of kinetic energy of
the high-velocity vapours into static enthalpy. Applying the steady-flow energy
equation to processes from the entrance to the discharge for one stage of compres-
sion as shown on the h-s diagram in Fig. 6.12, we obtain the following relations:
h20 = h30 = h40
p4
C 42/2
h4
C 32/2 4
p3
4is
h3 C 22 /2 p2
3
h2
2
h
Isentropic
pi
p1
h10 = hi 0
hi i C 12/2
h1
1
s
Fig. 6.12 Mollier diagram of centrifugal stage
Flow through Inlet Casing (Process i-1) In this process the fluid is accelerated,
but there is no energy transfer. Hence, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant but
there is a drop in the static pressure and enthalpy.
Ci2 C2
hio = hi + = h1 + 1 = h10 (6.26)
2 2
(Subscript 0 refers to stagnation state.)
Flow through Impeller (Process 1-2) In this, work is done by the impeller.
Energy is transferred to the fluid and the velocity, pressure and enthalpy are
increased. The energy equation for the process is
C22 - C12
w = (h2 – h1) + = h20 – h10 (6.27)
2
Flow through Diffuser and Volute Casing (Processes 2-3 and 3-4) There is no
energy transfer, but kinetic energy is converted into static enthalpy in both processes.
C22 C2
Diffuser: h20 = h2 + = h3 + 3 = h30 (6.28)
2 2
C32 C2
Volute casing: h30 = h3 + = h4 + 4 = h40 (6.29)
2 2
Combining the two equations for the process from 2 to 4
C22 C2
h20 = h2 + = h4 + 4 = h40 (6.30)
2 2
and further combining with Eq. (6.27), we obtain
C42 - C12
w = h20 – h10 = h40 – h10 = Dh0 = (h4 – h1) + (6.31)
2
which represents the overall energy balance for a centrifugal compressor stage.
6.12.2 Application of Momentum Equation to a Centrifugal Stage

Figure 6.13 represents the impeller of a stage of a centrifugal compressor and
Fig. 6.14 shows the velocity triangles at the impeller inlet and outlet. In Fig. 6.13, C
is the fluid velocity, Crel is the relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the
impeller and u is the impeller tip speed. Cu and Cr are the tangential and radial
components of the fluid velocity as shown in Fig. 6.14.
Now the torque I is given by the rate of change of angular momentum of the fluid.
Thus, per unit mass of the fluid, we have
I = Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1 (6.32)
where r2 and r1 are the radii of the impeller at the outlet and inlet respectively.
The work done by the impeller rotating at an angular velocity w is then given by
w = Iw = w (Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1)
= Cu2 u2 – Cu1 u1 (6.33)
C2 Crel2
Crel2
u2
Fl
ui
Impeller d
Fl
ow
C1
Crel1
u1
Fig. 6.13 Flow through the impeller of a centrifugal stage

C2 Crel2 C
r2 C1 Crel1
a2 b2 C r1
a1 b1
C u2 C u1
u2 u1
(a) Outlet Triangle (b) Inlet Triangle
Fig. 6.14 Velocity triangles
Using the law of triangles, we have

C 2rel1 = u12 + C12 – 2Cu1 u1 (6.34)
C 2rel2 = u22 + C22 – 2Cu2 u2 (6.35)
Substituting for Cu2u2 and Cu1u1 from these equations in Eq. (6.33), we obtain
u22 - u12
2
Crel - Crel
2
C 2 - C12
w = Cu2u2 – Cu1u1 = + 1 2
+ 2 (6.36)
2 2 2
Equations (6.33) and (6.36) are the two forms of the fundamental equation of
turbomachinery.
6.12.3 Combined Energy and Momentum Equations

Combining Eqs (6.27) and (6.36) we obtain
C22 - C12
w = h40 – h10 = h20 – h10 = (h2 – h1) +
2
u22 - u12
2
Crel - Crel
2
C 2 - C12
= + 1 2
+ 2 (6.37)
2 2 2
It is seen that the first two terms together represent the static head, corresponding
to the pressure rise in the impeller, viz., the static enthalpy increase given by
C22 - C12 u 2 - u12
2
Crel - Crel
2
h2 – h1 = w – = 2 + 1 2
(6.38)
2 2 2
FC - C12 I
GH JK
2
2
and the term represents the dynamic head denoting the kinetic energy
2
increase in the impeller. The two parts of the static head are respectively the
FG
u22 - u12 IJ
centrifugal head,
H2 K
developed due to the application of the centrifugal
R| C 2 2
- Crel U|
S| rel1 2
V| developed due to the change in cross-
T W
force, and relative head,
2
sectioned area of flow. The relative head is generally very small and is normally
made zero by making the flow areas at inlet and outlet the same by reducing the
width of the shrouds from b1 at inlet to b2 at outlet such that
p D1b1 = p D2b2
Equation (6.33) shows that the head

developed in the impeller is reduced because
Crel1
of the tangential prewhirl component of the
C1
velocity Cu1 in the direction of rotation of the
impeller at the inlet. With the selection of an
appropriate inlet blade angle b1 at the design
point, the velocity Cu1 can be reduced to zero u1
as shown in Fig. 6.15 so that the head Fig. 6.15 Inlet velocity triangle
developed with no prewhirl becomes for no prewhirl
w = D h0 = h40 – h10 = Cu2 u2 (6.39)

In such a case a1 = 90°, and the absolute velocity C1 becomes radial.
6.12.4 Polytropic Efficiency

Figure 6.16 shows the performance characteristics at various percentages of the rated
speed. It also shows a family of curves for polytropic efficiencies superimposed on
the curves for various speeds.
%
110 Sp
ee
d
55
100 60
65 60 55
50
90
70
% Efficiency
80
h0
75
70
Lin ge
r
Su
e
Q0
Fig. 6.16 Efficiency curves of a centrifugal compressor at different
percentages of rated speed and capacity
An overall polytropic efficiency hP is defined as the ratio of the isentropic work

D h0is to the actual work D h0
D h 0 is
hP = (6.40)
D h0
From Fig. 6.17, the actual work done is

Dh0 = h40 – h10 = (h4 + C42/2) – h10 (6.41)
h 40 p4
C 24 /2
h4
4
C 24 /2
h4is
4is
opic
Polytr
Isentropic
h
p1
h10
h1
1
C 21/2
s
Fig. 6.17 Comparison of isentropic and polytropic compression processes
on a Mollier diagram
Also, 4is is the point after isentorpic compression to the same pressure p4 .
Considering same kinetic energies at 4is and 4, we have for work after isentropic
compression
Dh0is = (h4is + C42/2) – h10 (6.42)
Enthalpy h4is can be found from the isentropic relationslip.
6.12.5 Pressure Ratio Developed in a Centrifugal Stage

Combining steady-flow energy Eq. (6.31) and momentum Eq. (6.33) we have
C42 - C12
w = Dh0 = Cu2 u2 – Cu1 u1 = (h4 – h1) + (6.43)
2
whence
C42 - C12
h4 – h1 = w –
2
C42 - C12
= (Cu2u2 – Cu1u1) – (6.44a)
2
For the isentropic process, since dh = Ldp, we can write for the enthalpy change
in terms of the pressure ratio p4/p1 developed in the compressor stage
LMNb p / p g OPQ
z g –1
4
g -1
h4 – h1 = Ldp = p1L1 4 1 g (6.44b)
1
g -1
Combining Eqs (6.44a) and (6.44b), we have

LMF p I g –1 OP
MMGH p JK
g
PP
g
h4 – h1 = p1 L1 4
-1
g -1
N 1
Q
C42 - C12
= (Cu2 u2 – Cu1 u1) – (6.45)
2
whence we get for the pressure ratio developed
|RSg - 1 LM OP + 1U|V
g
p4 1 C 2 - C12 g -1
r=
p1
=
|T g p1 L1
( Cu2 u2 - Cu1 u1 ) - 4
N 2 Q |W (6.46)
The pressure ratios developed separately in the impeller and diffuser (including
volute casing) respectively are similarly given by,
LMF p I g -1 OP
MMGH p JK
g
PP
g
h2 – h1 = p1 L1 2
-1
g -1
N 1
Q
u22 - u12
2
Crel - Crel
2
= + 1 2
(6.47)
2 2
LMF p I g -1 OP C
MMGH p JK
g 2
- C42
- 1P =
g
h4 – h2 = p2 L2 4 2
(6.48)
g -1
N 2
PQ 2
6.12.6 Compressor with Radial Blades

A radial blade compressor is simple in construction. In this, the outlet blade angle b2
is 90°. It can be seen from the outlet velocity triangle in Fig. 6.18 that Cu2 = u2 for a
radial blade compressor. Then, from Eqs. (6.43) and (6.44a),
C42 - C12
w = Dh0 = u22 – Cu1 u1 = (h4 – h1) + (6.49)
2
Under assumptions of no prewhirl and negligible kinetic energies at the inlet and
outlet, we obtain
LMF p I g -1 OP
MMGH p JK - 1P = C
g g
4
w = D h 0 = h4 – h1 = p1 L1 u2 = u22 (6.50)
g -1
N 1
PQ u2
C2
Crel2 = Cr2
b2 = 90°
Cu2 = u2
Fig. 6.18 Outlet velocity triangle for radial blade compressor

and for the pressure ratio developed
LM OP
g
p g -1 1 g -1
r= 4 = u22 + 1
N Q
(6.51)
p1 g p1 L1
6.12.7 Class of Service of Centrifugal Compressors

In refrigeration, a compressor has to develop the required pressure ratio correspond-
ing to the condenser and evaporator pressures. Whether a compressor would
develop the required ratio in a single stage or would require more stages can be
verified from Eq. (6.46). However, to analyse the results, a few approximate
assumptions can be made.
(i) No prewhirl, i.e., radial inlet, so that
Cu 1 = 0
(ii) No significant kinetic energy at inlet and outlet, i.e.,
C1 = 0 and C4 = 0
(iii) Relative velocity extremely small compared to the tip speed of the impeller, i.e.,
Crel2 << u2
so that
C2 = Cu2 = u2
Thus we may write for the pressure ratio from Eq. (6.46)
LM OP
g
p g -1 1 g -1
u22 + 1
N Q
r= 4 = (6.52)
p1 g p1 L1
Comparing Eqs (6.51) and (6.52), it is seen that the governing relations for a
compressor with radial blades and for backward-curved blades with the assumption
that Cu2 » u2, are the same.
Equation (6.52) shows that the pressure ratio developed in a centrifugal stage
depends on:
1
(i) Density r1 = and pressure p1 or the acoustic velocity
L1
a = g RT1 = g p1 L1
(ii) Adiabatic exponent g
(iii) Tip speed u2.
Thus the pressure ratio increases with the density of the suction vapour. It
also increases as g decreases. Therefore, high molecular weight substances with a
simultaneously low value of g such as R 11 and R 113 are more suitable for centrifu-
gal compressors. However, now, both R 11 and R 113 have been phased out.
Also, at lower suction pressure p1, the pressure ratio required to be developed
is more, although the actual pressure rise in a single stage will be still less. The
effect of both the suction pressure p1 and density r1 is accounted in the suction
temperature T1 or acoustic velocity a. The acoustic velocity of most fluorocarbons
is of the order of 100 m/s only. Some refrigerants which are normally not used in
centrifugal machines become quite suitable for them at low evaporator tempera-
tures because of a lower value of acoustic velocity and also a larger specific
volume of vapour at the suction condition. Their use may require multistaging of
the compressor.
With the further assumption of u1 » 0, it is seen from Eq. (6.47) that
u22
h2 – h1 =
2
and from Eq. (6.48)
u22
h4 – h2 =
2
Thus, under the assumptions made, half of the head is developed in the impeller and
half in the diffuser.
Also, the net work done is, by addition
w = D h0 = u22
Or, directly from Eq. (6.45), with no prewhirl (Cu1 = 0), negligible C4 and C1 and
b2 = 90° (Cu2 = u2), we get the same expression.
6.13 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR5
The principal performance curve of a centrifugal machine is the head-flow charac-

teristic. We may write for the tangential velocity at the exit
Cu2 = u2 – Cr2 cot b2 (6.53)
and substituting this expression in Eq. (6.39), we have for the head developed
w = D h0 = u2 (u2 – Cr2 cot b2)
= u22 – u2 Cr2 cot b2
= (w r2)2 – (wr2) Cr2 cot b2 (6.54)
Thus we find that for a given compressor, with r2 and b2 fixed, and running at a
certain speed w, the head developed is a straight line function of the radial velocity
Cr2. The flow rate, in turn, is proportional to Cr2. The limiting head is, of course, u22
which is developed at Cr2 = 0, i.e., at zero flow rate. This occurs when the impeller is
simply rotating in a mass of the fluid with the delivery valve closed.
It is seen that the nature of the characteristic depends on the outlet blade angle b2
as follows:
For backward-curved blades, b2 < 90°, head decreases with Cr2 (flow) and hence
with Q L .
For radial blades, b2 = 90°, head = u22 = const.
For forward-curved blades, b2 > 90°, head increases with Cr2 (flow) and hence
with Q L .
From the point of view of optimal design, an outlet blade angle of 32° is normally
preferred.2 A simple design will, however, have radial blades.
Figure 6.19 shows the theoretical head-flow characteristic for the three cases of
angle b2. For the case of backward-curved blades, it is a drooping characteristic.
The actual characteristic can, however, be obtained by considering the following
losses as shown in Fig. 6.19.
(i) Leakage loss L1 proportional to the head.

(ii) Friction loss L2 proportional to C 2rel/2 and hence QL .
2
(iii) Entrance loss L3 due to turning of the fluid to enter the impeller, being zero at
the design point, which also corresponds to maximum efficiency.
L1
B
b2 < 90°
A L2
Design
Point
L3
e
Lin
p4 / p1
U 22
Net Head-flow
rge
Characteristic
Su
L3
L2
L1
Qv, m3/min or Q0, TR

Fig. 6.19 Performance characteristic and losses of a centrifugal compressor
Expressing the radial velocity and head developed in dimensionless form we have
Cr
Flow coefficient, f=
u
Dh0 Cu
Head coefficient, m= 2
= 2
u2 u2
and from Eq. (6.54)
m = 1 – f2 cot b2 (6.55)
This relation also shows that, for radial blades and with no pre-whirl, m is equal to
unity, i.e., the head developed is equal to u22.
6.13.1 Surging
Consider A in Fig. 6.19 as the point of operation at full load. When the refrigeration
load decreases, the point of operation shifts to the left until point B of maximum
head is reached. If the load continues to decrease to the left of B, say to C, the
pressure ratio developed by the compressor becomes less than the ratio required
between the condenser and evaporator pressure, viz.,
p4 p
< k
p1 p0
Hence some gas flows back from the condenser to the evaporator, thus increasing
the evaporator pressure and decreasing pk/p0. The point of operation suddenly shifts
to A. As the refrigeration load is still less, the cycle will repeat itself. This phenom-
enon of reversal of flow in centrifugal compressors is called surging. It occurs when
the load decreases to below 35 per cent of the rated capacity and causes severe stress
conditions in the compressor as a result of hunting. Figures 6.16 and 6.19 show the
surge line drawn through the points of maximum head at different speeds.
6.13.2 Capacity Control of Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal compressors require high tip speeds u2 to develop the necessary pressure
ratio. The high tip speed is achieved by employing either a large diameter impeller or
high rpm or both. Because of large u2, the velocities in general including the flow
velocity Cr are high. Also, there must be a reasonable width of the shrouds to minimize
friction and achieve high efficiency. Thus, because of the sufficiently large flow area
(diameter D and width of shrouds b) required and large flow velocity, the satisfactory
volume that can be handled by a centrifugal compressor is about 30–60 cubic metres
per minute. A single centrifugal compressor, therefore, can be designed for a minimum
capacity approximately of the order of 250 TR with R 11 and 150 TR with R 113 for
the purpose of air conditioning. These were the two common refrigerants which were
being used with centrifugal compressors in the past.
The centrifugal compressors are, therefore, used in large capacity installations in
which the load varies through a wide range and hence, capacity control in them,
although simple, is very important.
One of the common methods is by varying the compressor speed through a speed-
reduction gear. The decrease in speed results in an operation on a lower head-flow
characteristic giving a lower volume flow rate corresponding to the same pressure ratio.
The use of variable inlet whirl vanes is another method of capacity control fre-
quently employed with a constant-speed drive. The capacity is varied by changing
the angle at which the gas enters the impeller. The gas then enters with prerotation
and this results in a decrease in flow.
Both methods are efficient and the work done remains proportional to the volume
handled.
6.13.3 Relations for a Perfect Gas

For a centrifugal compressor with no prewhirl and negligible kinetic energies at inlet
and outlet, we have
LM OP
g
p4 g -1 1 g -1
u22 + 1
N Q
=
p1 g p1 L1
This equation is valid for both radial blade compressors and backward-curved
blade compressors, but with extremely small relative velocities so that Cu2 » u2.
g R
Now for a perfect gas, p1L1 = RT1 and = Cp, so that for isentropic com-
g -1
pression, we have
LM OP
g
p4 u22 g -1
+1
p1
=
MN
C p T1 PQ (6.56)
LMF p I g OP
MMGH p JK - 1P
g -1
and wis = D h0is = Cp T1 4
(6.57)
N 1
PQ
For the case of actual compression
w = Dh0 = u22
Hence, we have for the adiabatic efficiency, also referred to as polytropic efficiency,
LMF p I g OP
MMGH p JK
g -1
C p T1 4
- 1P
hP =
D h0is
= N 1
PQ
D h0 u22
whence the required tip speed of the impeller is obtained as
LMF p I ( g - 1) OP
MMGH p JK
g
C p T1 4
-1 PP
u2 =
N 1
Q
hP
Example 6.4
(a) A centrifugal compressor with an impeller diameter of 45 cm is running at
4200 rpm. Refrigerant 12 is used and the suction condition is dry saturated
at 5°C and 3.6255 bar. Determine the maximum pressure ratio developed
by the compressor. Is it adequate if condensing temperature is 40°C?
(b) If the outlet blade angle b2 is 32° and the pressure ratio is 1.5, what will be
the flow velocity? Assume no prewhirl and negligible kinetic energies at
inlet and outlet.
Solution
(a) Maximum pressure ratio is developed when flow is nil, i.e., at zero flow-
coefficient. Then
Cr
f2 = 2 = 0 or Cr2 = 0 and Cu2 = u2
u2
The tip speed of the impeller is
p D2 N p (0.45) (4200)
u2 = = = 98.96 m/s
60 60
Then from Eq. (6.52), assuming no prewhirl and zero kinetic energy at inlet
and outlet, we have for the maximum pressure ratio
LM OP
g
p4 g -1 1 g -1
u22 + 1
N Q
=
p1 g p1 L1
L115 O
1.15
= M + 1P
. -1 1 1.15 - 1
( 98.96) 2
N 115 Q
5 = 1.56
. 3.6255 ´ 10 ´ 0.0475
At 0°C, p0 = 3.626 bar
At 40°C, pk = 9.607 bar
pk 9.607
Required pressure ratio = = 2.65
p0 3.266
Note It is obvious that the pressure ratio developed is grossly inadequate. So what
should be done? Increase the tip speed (diameter or rpm).
(b) Again from Eq. (6.46)
LM OP
g
p4 g -1 1 g -1
Cu u2 + 1
N Q
=
p1 g p1 L1 2
L115 O
1.15
1.5 = M ( 98.96) + 1P
. -1 1 1.15 - 1
N Q
C
5 u2
115
. 3.6255 ´ 10 ´ 0.0475
Cu2 = 72.5 m/s
Now Cu2 = u2 – Cr2 cot b2
u2 - Cu2 98.96 - 72.5
Hence Cr 2 = = = 42.5 m/s
cot b 2 cot 32 °
Example 6.5 R 11 Compressor

(a) R 11 saturated vapour at 7°C is to be compressed to a saturated discharge
temperature of 36°C. The adiabatic efficiency may be taken as 77.3 per cent.
The outlet blade angle b2 is 32° and the flow coefficient f2, for maximum
efficiency, is given by the expression
f2 = (1 – sin b2) tan b2
If the compression is to be achieved in a single stage, what will be the
diameter of the impeller running at 3600 rpm?
(b) If the blades are radial, what will be the required diameter of the impeller?
The outlet and inlet velocities may be considered as negligible. The ratio of
the specific heats for R 11 is 1.13.
(c) Determine the ideal COP, and capacity of one compressor if volume flow
rate is 100 m3/min.
Solution From tables of properties for R 11, the pressures are

pk
p1 = p0 = 0.5373 bar pk = 1.529 bar = 2.85
p0
The specific volume and enthalpy at suction are

L1 = 0.308 m3/kg
h1 = 391.4 kJ/kg
From the p-h diagram for R 11, the enthalpy after isentropic compression is
h4 = 410.9 kJ/kg
Isentropic work
wis = h4 – h1 = 411.9 – 392.5 = 19.4 kJ/kg
Also, approximately, based on g value
LMF p I g -1 OP
MMGH p JK
g
- 1P
g
wis = Dh0is = p1 L1 4
g -1
N 1
PQ
113
. 1
= (0.5373 ´ 105) ´ 0.308 ( 2.85) 0 .13 / 1.13 − 1 3 = 18.4 kJ/kg
0.13 10
For actual compression
Dh0isen 18.4
w = Dh0 = = = 24.1 kJ/kg
hP 0.773
(a) For backward curved blades
f2 = (1 – sin b2) tan b2 = (1 – sin 32°) tan 32° = 0.294
Dh0
m = (1 – f 2 cot b2) = = (1 – 0.294 ´ cot 32°) = 0.528
u22
Hence
Dh0 24.1 ´ 103
u22 = = = 4.564 ´ 104 m2/s2
m 0.528
u2 = 213.2 m/s
The required diameter of the impeller is
60 u2 (60)(213.2)
D2 = = = 1.131 m
pN (3600)
(b) For radial blades
b2 = 90°, Cu2 = u2, Dh0 = Cu2 u2 = u22, m = 1
Hence
u2 = D h0 = 24.1 ´ 103 = 155.2 m/s

60 (155.2)
D2 = = 0.824 m
3600 p
(c) Enthalpy of liquid from condenser at 36°C
hf = 231.4 kJ/kg
q0 = 391.4 – 234.9 = 156.5 kJ/kg
Minimum mass flow rate

100 / 60
m = = 5.41 kg/s
0.308
q 156.5
COPc = 0 = = 7.9
wis 19.4
Minimum capacity
Q 0 = m q0 = 5.41 (156.5) = 871.8 kJ/s = 248 TR
6.14 ALTERNATIVES TO R 11 (CFC 11)

Table 6.1 below shows that R 123 (HCFC
Table 6.1 N.B.P.s of alternatives
123), presently being used in place of R 11,
to CFC 11
having normal boiling point closest to the
N.B.P. of R 11, is the best substitute for Refrigerant N.B.P. °C
CFC 11 in centrifugal chillers. It is non- CFC 11 23.71°C
flammable. However, it has not been cleared HCFC 123 27.82°C
as far as toxicity is concerned. More-over, HFC 245fa 14.9
it is an HCFC. Hence, the search for better
alternative/s continues.
A future alternative is HFC 245fa. It is a comparatively lower boiling, higher
pressure refrigerant. It can be considered for use after HCFC 123 is also phased out.
R 134a is another possibility.
6.14.1 Comparison of Performance Parameters of CFC R 11

and Alternatives R 123, R 245fa and R 134a in
Centrifugal Chillers
Consider centrifugal chillers operating on air conditioning simple saturation cycle
with 40°C condenser and 6°C evaporator/chiller temperatures. The performance pa-
rameters for historically most commonly used refrigerant in centrifugal plants, viz.,
R 11, and the refrigerant being used presently R 123 with those of the other alterna-
tives R 134a and R 245fa are given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Comparison of performance parameters of centrifugal compressors for

air conditioning simple saturation cycle tk = 40°C, t0 = 6°C
Qv
Refrigerant N.B.P L1 q0 w s = , h0 Vs* ´ 103
r
u2 Q 0
isen (QL )R 11
r
COP
°C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg m3/s(TR) m/s TR
R 11 23.7 0.33186 156.5 22.0 7.9 7.457 1 213.2 248

R 123 27.8 0.3624 143.9 20.8 7.5 8.462 0.88 218.0 197
R 245fa 14.9 0.2394 156.2 22.1 7.1 5.39 1.38 232.6 309
R 134a –26.1 0.05644 145.7 21.44 6.8 1.362 5.5 216.5 1224
Calculations have been done for COP assuming adiabatic efficiency of the
compressor as hC = 0.773. Thus
q q0 q0
COP = 0 = =
wa ws / 0.773 D h0iscn / 0.773
Similarly, calculations have been done for tip speed u2 by assuming hC = 0.773,
and head coefficient m = 0.528 or 0.59 as used by Atwood and Murphy2. Thus
Δ h0 Δ h0 iscn / 0.85
u2 = =
μ μ
Suction vapour volume calculations have been done for one TR. Table 6.2 also
gives ratios of volumetric refrigerating capacities Q Lr with respect to the same for
d i
R 11, viz., Q Lr . We see that
cV h
R 11
Q Lr s R 11
dQ i
Lr R 11
=
Vs
Values in Table 6.2 are taken from Examples 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9 that follow.
It can be noticed from Table 6.2 that as far as COP is concerned R 134a has
the lowest value. Carnot COP is 8.2. These is not much difference between R 11 and
R 123.
R 11 centrifugal compressors can be substituted by R 134a compressors with
about 3.4% increase in tip speed. However, the compressors would give 5.5 times
the refrigerating capacity of R 11. Thus, a 248 TR R 11 centrifugal compressor
would give 1224 TR with R 134a otherwise suction vapour volume will be so small
that the width of impeller shrouds will be less than 1 mm.
Example 6.6 R 22 Centrifugal Compressor

Find the tip speed, diameter and width of shrouds at impeller outlet for a 600 TR
R 22 centrifugal compressor for air conditioning simple saturation cycle.
Condenser and evaporator temperatures are 40°C and 5°C. Design speed is
2950 rpm. Assume adiabatic efficiency of compressor as 0.85, and head
coefficient as 0.59. Check mach number at outlet.
Solution For the cycle (Fig. 3.7), for isentropic compression

h1 = 407.1 kJ/kg, L1 = 0.040356 m3/kg
h2s = 430.4 kJ/kg, t2s = 57.5°C
h3 = 249.7 kJ/kg = h4
From calculations in Table 6.2
Refrigerating effect, q0 = h1 – h4 = 157.5 kJ/kg
Isentropic work, ws = h2s – h1 = 23.3 kJ/kg = (Dh0)isen
w 23.3
Actual work, wa = s = = 27.4 kJ/kg = Dh0
ha 0.85
Actual discharge condition
h2 = h1 + wa = 434.5 kJ/kg
t2 = 73°C, L2 = 0.0168 m3/kg
Tip speed of impeller

27.4 ´ 103
u2 = Dh0 / m = = 215.6 m/s
0.59
Taking outlet blade angle b2 = 32°, we have for flow coefficient
f 2 = (1 – sin b2) tan b2 = 0.294
Radial flow velocity
Cr2 = f2 u2 = 0.294 (215.6) = 63.39 m/s
Impeller diameter
60 u2 60 (215.6)
D2 = = = 1.4 m
p N p (2950)
Width of shrouds at outlet
m L2 Q v2 600 ´ 3.5167 ( 0.0168)
b2 = = 0 =
p D2 Cr2 q0 p D2 Cr2 (157.5) p (1.4) ( 63.39 )
= 0.81 ´ 10–3 m (0.81 mm)
From outlet velocity triangle, absolute velocity C2 = 141.8 m/s
Accoustic velocity and Mach number at outlet
a2 = g RT2 = . (96.13) (273 + 73) = 184.7 m/s
116
C2 1418
.
M2 = = = 0.77
a2 184.7
Note Width of shrouds of 0.81 mm is extremely small. The efficiency of compressor will
be very poor. It will be interesting to see what the dimensions will be with R 134a.
R 134a compressor, though is already being used for much larger capacities.
Example 6.7 R 123 Comprressor

(a) R 123 saturated vapour at 6°C is compressed to saturated discharge
Outlet blade angle is 32°. Compressor efficiency is 0.773. Use expression
for flow coefficient for maximum efficiency. Dertermine the tip speed and
diameter of the impeller if it runs at 3600 rpm, and compression is achieved
in a single stage.
(b) Determine the COP of the system, suction vapour volume rate per ton of
refrigeration, and volumetric refrigerating capacity relative to R 11.
(c) Determine the capcity if minimum volume flow rate has to be 100 m3/min
for best efficiency
(d) Compare R 123 with R 11.
Solution From the table of properties of R 123

At t0 = 6°C
p1 = p0 = 0.04264 MPa L1 = 0.34759 m3/kg
h1 = 385.05 kJ/kg s1 = 1.6631 kJ/kg
At tk = 40°C
pk = 0.15447 MPa
(hf )40°C = 240.59 kJ/kg (sf )40°C = 1.1383 kJ/kg K

(hg)40°C = 405.54 kJ/kg (sg)40°C = 1.6651 kJ/kg K
Required pressure ratio
pk 015447
.
= = 3.62
p0 0.04264
Since (sg)40°C > s1, the state after compression is wet. For dryness fraction after
compression, we have
s1 = s2 = sf + x (sg – sf)
1.6631 = 1.1383 + x (1.6651 – 1.1383)
Þ x = 0.9934
Enthalpy after compression
h2 = hf + x (hg – hf)
= 240.59 + 0.9934 (405.54 – 240.59) = 404.45 kJ/kg
Isentropic work
wis = (Dh0)is = h2 – h1 = 404.45 – 385.05 = 19.4 kJ/kg
Actual work
19.4
w = Dh0 = wis = = 25.1 kJ/kg
hp 0 .773
For maximum efficiency
Dh
f2 = 0.294 m = 0.528 = 20
u2
Tip speed
. ´ 103
251
u22 = = 47.54 ´ 103
0.528
u2 = 218 m/s
60u2 60(218)
D2 = = = 1.157 m
3600 π 3600π
q0 = 385.05 – 240.59 = 144.46 kJ/kg
Ideal COP of system
q 144.46
-c = 0 = = 7.5
wis 19.4
Mass flow rate of refrigerant per ton
Q 35167
.
m = 0 = = 0.02434 kg/s
q0 144.46
Suction vapour volume rate per ton
Vs* = m v 1 = 0.02434 (0.34759) = 8.462 ´ 10–3 m3/s
Volumetric refrigerating capacity relative to R 11
( Q v ) R11 7.457 ´ 10 -3
Q vr = = = 0.881
( Q v ) R123 8.462 ´ 10- 3
Suction vapour volume for R 11 is 7.457 ´ 10–3 m3/s/TR.
100 3
(c) Suction vapour volume rate in given compressor Vs = m /s
60
Refrigerating capacity
V 100 / 60
Q 0 = s = = 197 TR
Vs* 8.462 ´ 10 –3
(d) Comparison of R 123 with R 11
We note the following
(i) COPs of R123 and R 11 are nearly the same.
(ii) Suction vapour volume is more for R 123. Hence, a smaller capacity centrifu-
gal compressor design in possible, e.g., 197 TR for R 123 against 248 TR for
R 11 for the same operating conditions, and nearly same dimensions.
(iii) The tip speeds required for both R 123 and R 11 are the same.
Thus R 123 is an ideal replacement for R 11. Though on HCFC, its characteristics
are so favourable that its use might continue well beyond 2030.
Example 6.8 R 245 fa Compressor

For the design and operating conditions of Example 6.7, dertermine the
performance parameters for R 245fa.Compare the result with R 123.
Solution Form the table of properties of R 245fa

pk
p1 = p0 = 0.06995 MPa p4 = pk = 0.25179 MPa = 3.6
p0
h1 = 409.44 kJ/kg s1 = 1.7505 kJ/kg K
(hf )40°C = 253.24 kJ/kg (sf )40°C = 1.1813 kJ/kg K
(hg)40°C = 434.97 kJ/kg (sg)40°C = 1.7616 kJ/kg K
sg > s1, hence state after compession is wet. Dryness fraction after cmpression
s2 = sf + x (sg – hf) = s1
1.1813 + x (1.7616 – 1.1813) = 1.7505 kJ/kg K
Þ x = 0.981
Enthalpy after isentropic compression
h2 = hf + x (hg – hf)
= 253.24 + 0.981(434.97 – 253.24)
= 431.52 kJ/kg
Isentropic work
wis = (Dh0)is = h2 – h1 = 431.52 – 409.44 = 22.08 kJ/kg
Actual work
w 22.08
w = is = = 28.56 KJ/kg
hp 0.773
Tip speed
28.56 ´ 103
u2 = = 232.6 m/s
0.528
60u2 60(232.6)
Impeller dismeter = D2 = = = 1.235 m
3600π 3600π
q0 = h1 – (hf)40°C = 409.44 – 253.24 = 156.2 kJ/Kg
156.2
Ideal COP = = 7.1
22.08
Mass flow rate per TR
35167
.
m = = 0.0225 kg/s
156.2
Suction vapour volume per TR
Vs* = m v1 = 0.0225 (0.23939) = 5.39 ´ 10– 3 m3/s
-3
Q Lr = 7.457 ´ 10 = 1.38
-3
5.39 ´ 10
Refrigerating capacity for the given volume flow rate
100 / 60
Q 0 = 5.39 ´ 10 -3 = 309 TR
Comparison of Results with R 123
(i) Pressure ratios for both R 245fa and R 123 are nearly the same.
(ii) As the critical temperature for R 245fa (154.1°C) is lower, its condensation
temperature is closer to critical temperature. Hence, its COP is lower than
R 123 COP. Critical temperature for R 123 is 183.7°C.
(iii) As R 245fa is a lower N. B. P, and higher pressure refrigerant, it gives higher
refrigerating capacity for the same volume flow rate as compared to both
R 123 and R11.
Example 6.9 R 134a Compressor

For the design and operating conditions of Example 6.7, determine the perform-
ance parameters for R 134a. Compare result with R 11.
Solution From the table of properties of R 134 a,

p0 = 0.36198 MPa pk = 1.0166 MPa
v1 = 0.05644 m3/kg
h1 = 402.06 kJ/kg s1 = 1.724 kJ/kg K
(hf )40°C = 256.41 kJ/kg (hg )40° C = 419.43 kJ/kg K
(Cb)40°C = 1.145 kJ/kgK (sg)40°C = 1.711 kJ/kgK
Since (sg)40°C < s1, state after compression is superheated. For discharge tempera-
ture after isentropic compression.
T
s2 = ( sg ) 40° C + Cp ln 2 = s1
T1
T2
1.711 + 1.145 ln = 1.724
( 273 + 6)
Þ T2 = 316.5 K (43.5°C)
Enteralpy after isentropic compression

h2 = ( sg ) 40° C + Cp (T2 – Tg)
= 419.43 + 1.145 (3.5) = 423.5 kJ/kg

Isentropic and actual work
wis = 423.5 – 402.06 = 21.44 kJ/kg
wis 2144
.
wa = = = 27.7 KJ/kg
hp 0.773
Taking m = 0.59, we have for tip speed
27.7 ´ 10-3
u2 = = 216.5 m/s
0.59
60u2 60( 216.7)
Impeller diameter D2 = = = 1.15 m
3600p 3600p
q0 = 402.06 – 256.41= 145.7 kJ/kg
q0 145.7
Ideal COP = = = 6.8
wis 2144
.
Mass flow rate per ton
35167
.
m = = 0.0241 kg/s
145.7
Suction vapour volume per ton
Vs* m v1 = 0.0241(0.05644) = 1.362 ´ 10–3m3/3

7.457 ´ 10 -3
Q v r = = 5.5
1.362 ´ 10 -3
Refrigerating capacity for the given volume flow rate
100 / 60
Q 0 = 1224 TR
1362
. ´ 10 –3
Comparison of results with R 11
(i) The COP of R 134a is the lowest.
(ii) Its relative volumetric refrigerating capacity is 5.5. That means, for nearly
same dimension, R 134a centrifugal compressor will have 1224 TR capacity
as agasinst 248 TR of R 11.
A smaller capacity R 134a compressor is not possible. If it is intended that a
smaller capaciyty is needed, width of shrouds will become very small. And
the compressor will have poor efficiency.
6.15 COMPARISON OF PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING

AND CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
The advantages of the centrifugal compressor over the reciprocating compressor are
high efficiency over a large range of load and a large volume of the suction vapour
and hence a larger capacity for its size.
The centrifugal compressor has also many other advantageous features. The most
important is the flat head-capacity characteristic as compared to that of a
reciprocating compressor as shown in Fig. 6.20(a) for typical compressors at a
constant condensing temperature of 38°C and constant rpm. It is seen that the varia-
tion in the evaporator temperature is only 2 to 7.5°C for a load variation of 100 to
240 TR for a centrifugal compressor, whereas it is – 11 to 6°C for the same load
variation for a reciprocating compressor.
Another advantageous feature is the non-overloading characteristic as shown in
Fig. 6.20(b). It is seen that for a centrifugal machine, there is a decrease in the power
requirement with an increase in the condensing temperature. This is due to the fact
that the flow rate (refrigerating capacity) decreases as the head required increases
(Fig. 6.19), while the power consumption represents the product of the two
quantities. Thus there is no overloading of the motor with increasing condenser
temperature. This feature is accompanied by a rapid fall in the flow rate and hence
capacity as shown in Fig. 6.20(c). The power requirement decreases although the
horsepower per ton increases. For reciprocating compressors, there is a small
increase in the power requirement with an increase in the condensing temperature
with consequent overloading of the motor. This is accompanied with a very small
decrease in the refrigerating capacity. This latter aspect of a reciprocating
compressor is, however, an advantage so that the capacity of a reciprocating machine
is not affected much by an increase in the condensing temperature followed by
adverse ambient conditions.
+10
+ 7.5
+5 gal
t rifu
Cen
+2.5
t0, °C
g
a tin
r oc
–2.5 ip
ec tk = 38°C
R
–5 N = Const
–7.5
–10
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Q0, TR
Fig. 6.20(a) Nature of capacity variation with evaporator temperature
t0 forcentrifugal and reciprocating compressors
42
Ce
nt
40
ri
fu
ga
l
38
g
tk , °C
36
atin
roc
t0 = 5°C
ip
34
Rec
N = Const.
32
140 120 160 180
BHP
Fig. 6.20(b) Non-overloading characteristic of centrifugal compressor as
compared to that of reciprocating compressor
42
Recip
40
ro
Ce
nt cating
r if
ug
al
38
tk , °C
36
34
32
100 140 180 220

Q0, TR
Fig. 6.20(c) Nature of capacity variation with condenser temperature
for centrifugal and reciprocating compressors
References
1. Arora C P, Thermodynamics, Tata McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., New Delhi, 1998.
2. Atwood T and K P Murphy, ‘An investigation of refrigerants for single stage
centrifugal water chillers’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 76, pp. 81–95, 1970.
3. Chlumsky V, Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors, E & FN Spon,
London, 1965.
4. Ferguson T B, The Centrifugal Compressor Stage, Butterworths, London,

1963.
5. Stoecker W F, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1958, p. 174.
6. Vincent, E T, The Theory and Design of Gas Turbines and Jet Engines,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950, p. 306.
Revision Exercises
6.1 (a) Calculate the clearance volumetric efficiency of an ammonia compressor
(g = 1.31) operating between a condenser temperature of 35°C and an
evaporator temperature of – 15°C. The clearance factor is 0.07.
(b) If the throttling losses are 0.15 bar in the suction manifold and valve and
0.25 bar in the discharge valve, calculate the volumetric efficiency.
(c) The measurement of the output of compressor showed an overall volu-
metric efficiency of 65.2 per cent. The temperature at the suction flange
is 10°C but that in the beginning of compression is 30°C. What were the
leakage losses in the compressor?
6.2 Catalogue data of 4.8% clearance R 134a compressor with piston displace-
ment of 2 m3/min shows the capacity to be 12.7 TR with a bhp of 13.5 when
the suction conditions are 18°C and 3.19 bar and the condensing temperature
is 35°C. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as saturated liquid. Calculate
the actual and clearance volumetric and adiabatic compression efficiencies of
the compressor at these conditions.
6.3 An R 22 compressor is working at –18°C evaporating and 40°C condensing
temperatures. The superheat at the bulb of the thermostatic expansion valve is
7°C and the temperature of the suction vapour is increased by 22°C in a heat
exchanger by simultaneous cooling of the liquid refrigerant. The efficiency of
the heat exchanger is 0.75. The temperature of the suction vapour is 20°C at
the compressor inlet. The liquid refrigerant is subcooled by water to 35°C.
Estimate the dimensions of the cylinders of the compressor.
Given: Bore/stroke ratio 1
Compressor speed 1420 rpm
Compressor capacity 15 TR
Number of cylinders 4
Assume a pressure drop of 5 per cent of the value of the pressure at the
compressor valves. Also assume for the compression process, n = 1.13 and
for the expansion process, m = g = 1.148.
6.4 A single-stage centrifugal compressor, operating at 5000 rpm, receives
saturated R 134a at 6°C and discharges it at a pressure of 1.0166 MPa. If the
conditions of the suction gas remain unchanged, to what pressure can the
compressor discharge if the speed is increased to 5500 rpm?
6.5 A single-wheel centrifugal compressor has an impeller with a diameter of
60 cm. The speed of the impeller is 5000 rpm. The working substances are
R 11, R 123, R 245fa and R 134a. If the suction vapour is at 5°C saturation,
determine the saturated discharge temperatures in each case.
6.6 A single-stage R 123 centrifugal compressor is running at 5000 rpm. The

suction condition is 5°C dry saturated. The condenser temperature is 35°C.
The outlet blade angle is 32°. The flow coefficient may be selected as 0.3
at which the polytropic efficiency is 0.8. Determine the diameter of the
impeller. Assume no prewhirl and negligible velocities at inlet and outlet.
6.7 The variation of volumetric efficiency with pressure ratio for a R 134a
compressor of an automotive air conditioner is as follows:
p k / p0 2 3 4 5 6 7
hV 80 79.5 72.5 66.5 61 56.7
Somehow, the air flow over the condenser of the air conditioner gets
completely blocked. Estimate the maximum pressure at discharge if the
evaporation temperature is 5°C.
6.8 (a) Given for an R 134a centrifugal compressor:
Suction state 8°C saturated vapour
Estimate the minimum tip-speed required for a single stage compressor,
and the impeller diameter and width of shrouds at discharge for a refrig-
erating capacity of 500 TR. Take rpm as 2800.
(b) If instead a 2-stage compressor is used running at 2800 rpm, and if both
wheels are to be of the same diameter, estimate the new impeller diam-
eter and the widths of shrouds at discharge for the two stages for 500 TR
capacity.
6.9 (a) Determine the evaporator temperature at which a single-stage R 22 plant
will cease to produce any refrigerating effect in Delhi where the con-
denser temperature is 42°C. The compressor has 5% clearance, and the
index of compression is 1.15.
(b) For a particular condenser pressure, how does the power requirement of
a reciprocating compressor vary with change in evaporator pressure?
Explain giving reasons.
6.10 The particulars of a 20 TR R 22 food freezer are as follows:
Condenser temperature 40°C
Temperature of vapour
leaving evaporator – 25°C
Subcooling of liquid with
vapour in heat exchanger 5°C
Polytropic index of compressor 1.15
Superheating of suction vapour
after passing through suction valve 15°C
Compressor clearance factor 0.05
Pressure drop in valves 0.2 bar suction
0.5 bar discharge
The compressor has 6 cylinders with bore equal to stroke. Its rpm is 1500, and
mechanical efficiency is 0.75. Determine
(i) Mass flow rate of refrigerant.

(ii) Piston displacement of compressor.
(iii) Cylinder diameter.
(iv) Motor horse power.
(v) Cooling requirement of compressor in kW.
6.11 Typical operating conditions of a 1/8 TR domestic refrigerator are as follows:
Temperature of vapour at evaporator exit – 15°C
Heat gained by suction vapour in cooling
motor windings 15% of motor power input
The compressor bore/stroke ratio is 0.8. It runs at 2800 rpm. Pressure drops
in suction and discharge reeds are 10% of absolute pressure. Isentropic
efficiency of compressor is 85%, and clearance is 5%. Making appropriate
assumptions, if necessary, estimate if the refrigerant is (a) R 134a, (b) R 600a;
(i) Power drawn from mains.
(ii) Bore, stroke and piston speed of the compressor.
6.12 Catalogue data of a compressor is as follows:
No. of cylinders 2 Bore 45 mm Rpm 4000
Displacement 121 cc Stroke 38 mm Refrigerant R 134a
Evaporation Condensing Temperature

Temperature 40°C 60°C
Capacity Power Capacity Power
TR kW TR kW
+ 10°C 4.68 3.68 (a) (b)
– 20°C (c) (d) (e) (f )
Fill in the blanks in the above table. Make appropriate assumptions. Compare
calculated values with those cited in the catalogue, viz., (a) 3.68 (b) 6.0
(c) 1.33 (d) 2.4 (e) 0.78 (f ) 3.6.
%
Condensers
7.1 HEAT REJECTION RATIO
It is ultimately in the condenser that heat is rejected in a vapour-compression refrig-

eration machine. The vapour at discharge from the compressor is superheated.
Desuperheating of the vapour takes place in the discharge line and in the first few
coils of the condenser. It is followed by the condensation of the vapour at the satu-
rated discharge temperature or condensing temperature t k. In some condensers,
subcooling may also take place near the bottom where there is only liquid. However,
the sensible heat of the desuperheating and subcooling processes is very small as
compared to the latent heat of the condensation process.
The loading on the condenser per unit of refrigeration is called the heat
rejection ratio.
Since
Qk = Q0 + W
we have for the heat rejection ratio
Qk 1
=1+ (7.1)
Q0 -c
Thus the ratio depends on the COP which in turn depends on the condenser and
evaporator temperatures. In actual air-conditioning equipment for R 22, operating at
tk = 40°C and t0 = 5°C, the heat rejection ratio is approximately 1.25 to 1.35.
7.2 TYPES OF CONDENSERS
The type of a condenser is generally characterized by the cooling medium used.

Thus there are three types of condensers:
(i) Air-cooled condensers.
(ii) Water-cooled condensers.
(iii) Evaporative condensers.
There is also a fourth type dependent on ground-cooling which is not used
commonly.
Condensers 287
7.2.1 Air-cooled Condensers

In air-cooled condensers, heat is removed by air using either natural or forced
circulation. The condensers are made of steel, copper or aluminium tubing provided
with fins to improve air-side heat transfer coefficient. The refrigerant flows inside
the tubes and the air flows outside.
Air-cooled condensers are used only in small capacity machines, such as
refrigerators and small water coolers which use vertical wire and tube or plate and
tube construction with natural circulation, and window-type and package air
conditioners which have tubes with 5–7 fins per cm and use forced circulation of air.
The current practice in the forced-convection type is to use 10-15 m2 of the total
surface area per ton of refrigeration based on 2–5 m/s face velocity of air over the coil.
Air-cooled condensers are seldom made in sizes over 5 TR because of high head
pressure, excessive power consumption and objectionable fan noise.
7.2.2 Water-cooled Condensers

Water-cooled condensers can be of three types, viz., shell and tube, shell and coil
and double tube. The shell-and-tube type, with water flowing through passes inside
tubes and the refrigerant condensing in the shell is the most commonly used con-
denser. Figure 7.1 shows the arrangement for a two-pass condenser. A shell-and-
tube condenser also serves the purpose of a receiver, specially for pumping down
the refrigerant, because there is sufficient space in the shell. The bottom portion of
the condenser also serves the purpose of a sub-cooler as the condensed liquid comes
in contact with the entering water at a lower temperature. Thus, we see that shell
and tube condensers, and, for that matter, all types of condensers are usually
overdesigned. This also keeps the head pressure low, and saves power. Further, the
outside surface of the shell is made available for heat transfer. The shell is made of
steel. Copper tubes are used for fluorocarbons and steel tubes for ammonia.
The shell-and-coil condenser consists of an electrically-welded closed shell con-
taining a water coil sometimes of finned tubing.
In the double-tube arrangement, the refrigerant condenses in the outer tube and
water flows through the inner tube in the opposite direction.
Water-cooled condensers are invariably used in conjunction with cooling towers,
spray ponds, etc. Heated water from the condenser is led to the cooling tower where
it is cooled by self-evaporation into a stream of air. After cooling, the water is
pumped back to the condenser.
Refrigerant Gas
Water Out
Water In
Refrigerant Liquid
Fig. 7.1 Schematic representation of a two-pass water-cooled shell
and tube condenser
Cooling towers are of two types, natural draft with natural convection of air, and
either induced or forced draft with forced convection of air by a fan.
7.2.3 Evaporative Condensers

Figure 7.2 shows the schematic diagram of an evaporative condenser. The refriger-
ant first rejects its heat to water and then water rejects its heat to air, mainly in the
form of evaporated water. Air leaves with high humidity as in a cooling tower. Thus
an evaporative condenser combines the functions of condenser and cooling tower.
Air Out
Fan Compartment
Eliminator
Plates
Refrigerant
Air In
Pump Make-up-Water
Fig. 7.2 Evaporative condenser
Evaporative condensers are commonly used on large ammonia plants as they are
found to be cheaper. Such condensers require a larger amount of the refrigerant
charge due to the longer length of the refrigerant piping. But in the case of ammonia
systems this is immaterial since the refrigerant is quite cheap.
7.3 HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSERS
The heat transfer in a water-cooled condenser is given by Eq. (7.2)

Dt
Q k = UA D t = (7.2)
R
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the surface area A of the
condenser and Dt is the overall temperature difference. Figure 7.3 shows the com-
ponents of the heat-transfer resistance in a water-cooled condenser, viz., the out-
side refrigerant film, metal wall, scaling on water-side surface and inside-water
film. The overall resistance is obtained by adding all the resistances which are in
series. Thus,
Condensers 289
1
Condensing
Film h0 A 0
Tube Wall
k Am
Scale 1
h f Ai
Water Film 1
hi A i
Fig. 7.3 Thermal resistance in a water-cooled condenser
1 1 Dx 1 1
R= = + + + (7.3)
U 0 A0 h0 A0 k Am h f Ai hi Ai
where
U0 = Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area
h0 = Condensing film coefficient of heat transfer
A0 = Outside or refrigerant-side area
D x = Thickness of the metal-tube wall
k = Thermal conductivity of the tube material
Am = Mean tube surface area
hf = Coefficient of heat transfer through the scale
Ai = Inside or water-side area
hi = Water-side coefficient of heat transfer.
The overall heat-transfer coefficient can be determined from Eq. (7.3) after
estimating the individual resistances.
7.3.1 Desuperheating
In condenser design, normally no separate calculations are made for the
desuperheating section. Though the heat transfer coefficient is lower for this
section, the temperature differential is greater as compared to that of the condensing
section. The two factors tend to cancel the effects of each other. Thus, the practice is
to take the refrigerant-side temperature equal to the condensing temperature and the
heat-transfer coefficient equal to the condensing coefficient for the whole length of
the condenser.
7.3.2 Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient

Refrigerants are usually good wetting agents. In condensation, therefore, they
follow a film-wise pattern. Nusselt, using his laminar liquid film theory, derived the
following expression for the overall coefficient of heat transfer for condensation on
a vertical surface of height x
Lk
h = 0.943 M
3
f r f ( r f - r g ) gh fg OP1/ 4
MN m f x Dt PQ (7.4)
where kf, rf and mf are the thermal conductivity, density and viscosity of the conden-
sate film. These are evaluated at the average film temperature tf = 12 (tk + tw). And D t
is the temperature differential (tk – tw) where tw is the tube-wall temperature. Density
rg of the vapour is very small compared to rf and can be neglected.
Note that the condensate film acts as a resistance to heat transfer.
Condensation Outside Horizontal Tubes A similar expression for the average
coefficient of heat transfer for vapour condensing on the outside of horizontal tubes
of diameter D0, as in shell and tube condensers, is
L k r gh OP 1/ 4
= 0.725 M
3 2
f f fg
h0
MN N D m Dt PQ
0 f
(7.5)
where D0 is the outside diameter of tubes and N is the number of tubes in a vertical row.
Equations (7.4) and (7.5) show that the heat-transfer coefficient increases with
thermal conductivity. A large density results in a thinner growth of the condensate
film. The heat-transfer coefficient, therefore, increases with the density. Similarly, a
high latent heat implies a lower condensation rate and hence a thinner film and higher
heat-transfer coefficient. On the other hand, a higher viscosity results in a thicker film
and hence a lower heat transfer coefficient. Similarly, a higher temperature differential
results in higher condensation rate, a thicker film and a lower heat-transfer coefficient.
Further, a large vertical tube length x or a horizontal tube diameter D0 cause a
thicker growth of film before it drains of from the tube and hence a lower average
heat-transfer coefficient. Finally, the condensate film formed on the lower tubes in a
vertical bank is thicker, giving a lower average value of the coefficient.
Equation (7.5) of Nusselt has been arranged by Kirkbride7 in the following form
Co = 1.514 (Ref)–1/3 for Ref < 1800 (7.6)
where Co is the condensation number expressed by
LM m 2f OP
1/ 3 2
h nf F I 1/ 3
Co = h0
MN k 3
f r f (r f - r g ) g PQ
~
– 0
k
GH g JK since rg << rf (7.7)
µf
and Ref is the film Reynolds number and vf = is the kinematic viscosity of the
ρf
liquid. If De is equivalent dia, and Af is flow area
De = 4Af /P
D ur 4 A f ur f 4m 4G 4h AD t
Ref = e f = × = = = 0 (7.8)
mf P mf Pm f mf Pm f h fg
m
where G = = Loading per tube per unit depth
P
h AD T
m = Mass flow rate per tube or condensation rate = rf u A f = 0
h fg
P = Shear perimeter of tube = p D0
A = Heat transfer area of one tube.
These expressions are applicable to laminar films only considered to be at film
Reynolds numbers below 1800. Figure 7.4 shows the nature of variation of Co with
Ref in the case of vertical tubes.
Condensers 291
1.0
0.8
0.6
Co 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.0
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 100000
Ref = m
f
Fig. 7.4 Semi-empirical condensation curve for vertical tubes
For laminar flow Co decreases with Ref . After transition to turbulent flow, Co
increases with Ref . Similarly, corresponding to Eq. (7.6) for laminar film, correlation
by Kirkbride for the turbulent condensing film outside horizontal tubes is
Co = 0.0077 Ref0.4 for Ref > 1800 (7.9)
Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes The phenomenon of condensation

inside horizontal tubes is quite complicated and not amenable to analytical treat-
ment. The flow rate of the vapour greatly influences the heat-transfer coefficient in
this forced convection-condensation situation. The rate of liquid accumulation also
influences the coefficient. Akers, Deans and Crossef1 give the following relation for
the condensing heat-transfer coefficient inside tubes when the condensation rate or
the length of tube is large,
Di
= 0.026 Prf1/3 Rem0.8 (7.10)
kf
where Prf is the Prandtl number of the liquid equal to (Cp m/k)f and Rem is the
mixture Reynolds number defined by
D
Rem = i [rf uf + rg ug (rf /rg)1/2] (7.11)
mf
in which uf and ug are the liquid and vapour velocities.
Most refrigeration condensers such as in refrigerators and air conditioners oper-
ate in this manner with condensation inside long horizontal tubes. Correlation in
Eq. (7.10) is valid for Reg > 20,000 and Ref > 5000. However, in this turbulent flow
regime (flow is annular), the calculations using Eq. (7.10) show that heat transfer
coefficient increases with liquid flow rate, and it is independent of temperature
difference. The experimental data does not agree with both these facts. The equation
presented below is, therefore, recommended
RS1 + x LM r f OU
- 1P V
1/ 2
T Nr QW
hi = hf i (7.12)
g
where hfi is the sensible heat transfer coefficient calculated from Dittus-Bolter equa-
tion assuming that total fluid is flowing as liquid with condensate properties.
Eq. (7.12) enables one to calculate local heat transfer coefficient at any section
where the quality of vapour is x. A detailed method of calculation of hi for high

velocity annular flow condensation is, however, given by Rohsenow9.
At low condensation rates or in short tubes, as in evaporative condensers, when
the vapour velocity is low, the condensate flow becomes stratified. The vapour con-
densed in the upper part of the tube flows down around the periphery to the bottom.
The layer of liquid thus formed at the bottom runs off in an open-channel type
of flow.
At these low vapour velocities (Ref < 35,000), the experimental results agree very
well with Chato’s2 correlation
Lg r
h = 0.555 M
f ( r f - r g ) k 3f h¢fg OP1/ 4
i
MN m f DTi Di PQ (7.13)
where the modified latent heat is calculated from

3
h¢fg = hfg + Cf DTi (7.14)
8
Chato also established the effect of inclining the tubes to the horizontal. He found
that the heat transfer coefficient increases by 10 to 20 per cent at inclination angles
of 10 to 20° as a result of faster drainage of the condensate.
7.3.3 Water-side Coefficient

The water-side coefficient is expressed by the well-known Dittus-Boelter equation2
which relates the Nusselt number with Reynolds and Prandtl numbers for forced
convection for turbulent flow inside tubes, viz.,
hi D FG D ur IJ FG C m IJ
0 .8 0. 4
H m K H k K
p
= 0.023 (7.15)
k
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the bulk mean temperature of the fluid.
7.3.4 Fouling Factor

Condensers should always be designed considering the formation of scales, i.e.,
fouling inside the tube. The following fouling factors10 are recommended.
1
= 0.00009 J – 1 sm2 K for copper tubes and R 22 condensers
hf
= 0.0009 J –1sm2 K for steel tubes and ammonia condensers.
For hard water conditions as in Delhi, the recommended value is 0.001 to
0.0025 m2 K / W.
7.3.5 Air-side Coefficient

In refrigerant condensers with forced convection, air flows outside the tubes in cross-
flow to the refrigerant. Average heat-transfer coefficients for the forced convection
of air across a tube may be calculated from the Grimson’s5 equation
hD FG
D u¥ r IJ n
k
=C
mH Pr 1/ 3
K (7.16)
where constants C and n are tabulated as functions of Reynolds number in Table 7.1
Condensers 293
Table 7.1 Constants for Grimson’s equation
Re C n
0.4–4 0.989 .33
4–40 0.911 .385
40–4000 0.683 .466
4000–40,000 0.193 .618
40,000–400,000 0.266 .805
Many heat-exchanger arrangements involve multiple rows of tubes. The tubes

may be staggered or in-line as shown in Fig. 7.5.
Sp Sp
Sn
umax
Sn
Air
(a) Staggered Tube Rows (b) In-Line Tube Rows

Fig. 7.5 Tube arrangements
In the case of tube banks, u¥ is the face velocity (FV) measured at a distance from
the tube
Volume flow rate QL
u ¥ = = = (FV)
Face area ( FA)
The Reynolds number is, however, based on the maximum velocity occurring in
the tube bank which is
Sn
umax = u ¥
Sn - D
For the case of forced convection of air over finned tubes, Table 20.1 gives the
values of hair or fg as a function of (FV). These values can be correlated by the
relation
hair = 38 (F V )0.5 (7.17)
For the case of natural convection of air on horizontal tubes, the following
simplified relations may be used.
For laminar flow, 104 < Grf Prf < 109
FG DT IJ 1/ 4
hair = 1.32
HD K 0
(7.18)
For turbulent flow, Grf Prf > 109

hair = 1.24 (DT )1/3 (7.19)
In these equations Grf is the Grashoff’s number, a characteristic of natural

convection, expressed by
g b D T D3
Grf = (7.20)
n2
1
where b = . Tf is the mean temperature of the film and n is the kinematic viscosity.
Tf
7.3.6 Augmentation of Condensing Heat-Transfer Coefficient
It is well understood that the overall heat-transfer coefficient such as U0, always, has
a value lower than the lower of the two film coefficients, viz., h0 and hi, howsoever
large the other film coefficient may be. Thus, it is advantageous to decrease the
major heat-transfer resistance. A familiar way to decrease this resistance is to pro-
vide an extended surface or fins on the side of the lower heat-transfer coefficient.
In shell-and-tube condensers the water-side coefficient is of the order of
6000 Wm–2 K–1. Whereas a typical value of the condensing coefficient for ammonia
is 8000 Wm–2 K–1, the same for R 22 is of the order of 1500 Wm–2 K–1 only.
Thus in R 22 condensers, it is desirable to use fins on the refrigerant side.
Of late, the use of integrally-finned tubes, such as the one shown in Fig. 7.6,
has become quite popular in R 22 condensers. These fins are a part of the tube itself
and are not mounted separately. Acme
Industries, USA8 have perfected a
configuration with one fin per mm
having a height of approximately 1.5 mm,
obtained by cold compression of the tube.
In air-cooled condensers, the air-
side coefficient is much lower than the
refrigerant side coefficient. Hence, fins Fig. 7.6 Integral fin tube
must be provided on the air-side.
7.3.7 Influence of Air Inside Condensers

Air, which has extremely low normal boiling and critical points, remains as a non-
condensable gas, if present in refrigerant condensers. The presence of even one per
cent of air by volume can reduce the condensing coefficient by as much as 50 per
cent. This is because air tends to cling to the surface and because of its very low
thermal conductivity, it introduces a large thermal resistance. Another detrimental
effect of air is the increase of head pressure. Firstly, it is because of a decrease in the
condensing coefficient and consequent operation at a higher temperature differen-
tial Dt and hence a higher pressure pk in the condenser. Secondly, the head pressure
is further increased over and above the saturation pressure pk of the refrigerant by an
amount equal to the partial pressure exerted by air or non-condensables present.
If any part of a refrigeration system, such as in R 123, operates under vacuum,
there is a possibility of air leakage into the system. This requires a provision for its
removal by purging from the top of the condenser where it will normally collect. A
purge valve is also provided in the condensers of the ammonia system because these
Condensers 295
systems suffer from leakage. Pressure vessels of lithium bromide-water vapour

absorption refrigeration systems which operate under high vacuum are provided with
regular purge units with a vacuum pump.
Example 7.1 Design of Shell and Tube Condenser

(a) Determine the length of tubes in a 3-pass, shell-and-tube R 22 condenser
with 108 tubes for 40 TR chiller. The condensing temperature is 43°C. The
heat rejection ratio is 1.25. Water is cooled to 30°C in the cooling tower.
The temperature rise of water may be taken as 4.8°C. Use integral fin
copper tubes with an O.D. of 1.59 cm, an I.D. of 1.37 cm with 748 fins/m
length of tube. Fins are 1 mm thick and 1 mm high over tubes.
(b) Determine the length for plain tube as well. Allow for 10 bottom tubes for
subcooling.
Solution Let the tube arrangement be as shown in Fig. 7.7 with nine vertical rows
so that the average number of tubes per row is
108
N= =9
12
Zone (98 Tubes)
Condensation
Af Ab
= 1.79 cm
Dt
D0
Di
Subcooling Zone C/L

10 Tubes
Fig. 7.7a Tube arrangement for Example 7.1 Fig. 7.7b Fin construction
(a) Integral fin tubes Assume a temperature drop of 5°C through the condensing
film. The mean temperature of the film is
5
tf = 43 – = 40.5°C
2
At this temperature, the properties of liquid R 22 are
kf = 0.0315 Wm–1 K–1
rf = 1129 kg. m–3
mf = 0.221 cP = 2.21 ´ 10–4 kg. m–1 s–1
Also hfg = 163.3 ´ 103 J.kg–1 at 43°C
Condensing coefficient
L k ρ gh OP
= 0.725 M
3
f
2
f fg
1/ 4
MN ND µ ∆t PQ
h0
f
LM (0.815) (1129) (9.81) (163.3 ´ 10 ) OP

3 2 3 1/ 4
= 1180 Wm–2 K–1

N 9 (0.0159) (2.21 ´ 10 ) (5) Q
= 0.725 -4
Heat rejected in the condenser

Q k = 40 ´ 3.5167 ´ 1.25 = 175.83 kW
Water flow rate
Q k 175.83
m w = = = 8.74 kg. s–1
CD t (4.187) (4.8)
Velocity of water in tubes
m w / r w 8.74 ´ 10-3
uw =
Fp D I =
36 (p / 4 ) ( 0.0137) 2
= 1.644 ms–1
GH 4 JK
2
i
(108 / 3)
Bulk mean temperature of water

4.8
tw = 30 + = 32.4°C
2
For water at 32.4°C
k = 0.623 Wm–1 K–1
m = 7.65 ´ 10–4 kg.m–1 s–1
Cm (4.1868 ´ 103 ) (7.65 ´ 10-4 )
Pr = = = 5.14
k 0.623
Duw r (0.0137) (1.644) (1000)
Re = = = 24,070
m 7.65 ´ 10-4
Water-side coefficient
hi D
Nu = = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4 = 141.4
k
0.623
hi = 141.4 ´ = 6432 Wm–2 K–1
0.01
Area Calculations Consider 1 m length of tube.
Fin surface area
Af = 748 p
LM 2 (0.0179 - 0.0159 ) + (0.0179) 0.001OP = 0.12144 m
2 2
2
N 4 Q
Bare tube surface area
Ab = p (0.0159) (1 – 0.748) = 0.01258 m2
Total tube surface area
At = Af + Ab = 0.0134 m2
Outside and inside tube surface areas
A0 = p D0 = 0.04993 m2
Ai = p Di = 0.04302 m2
Condensers 297
Outside to inside surface area ratio of the tube

A0 D 1.59
= 0 = = 1.1607
Ai Di 1.37
Extended surface to outside and inside tube surface area ratios
0.0134
At /A0 = = 2.684
0.04993
0.0134
At /Ai = = 3.046
0.04302
Fin efficiency as calculated (circular fins)
hf = 0.992
Overall heat transfer coefficient based on total extended surface side area At
1 1 At 1 At 1 At
= + +
Ut h0 (h f A f + Ab ) h f Ai hi Ai
1 1
= + 0.00009 (3.046) + (3.046),'
1180 (0.993) 6432
h f A f + Ab
since = 0.993
At
Þ Ut = 624 Wm–2 K–1
Note It can be seen that the condensing coefficient is very small compared to the water-
side coefficient and hence the use of integral fins is beneficial.
Log-mean temperature difference
R 22 temperatures: In 43°C; Out 43°C
Water temperatures: In 30°C; Out 34.8°C.
(43 - 30) - (43 - 34.8)
D tm = = 10.43°C
ln (13/ 8.2)
Extended surface area
Q k 175.83 ´ 103
At = = = 27.02 m2
U t D tm 624 ´ 10.43
Outside or bare tube surface area
27.02
A0 = = 10.07 m2
2.684
Tube length (Number of tubes for condensation = 108 – 10 = 98)
A0 10.07
L= = = 2.06 m
98 p D0 98 p (0.0159)
Check for condensing film temperature drop
Q k Q k 175.83 ´ 103
Dt = = = = 5.55°C
h0 (h f A f + Ab ) h0 (0.993 At ) 1180(0.993 ´ 27.02)
It is close to the assumed value of 5°C. Calculations may be repeated with

Dt value of 5.55°C. The solution converges in the second iteration giving.
h0 = 1150 W/m2.K, Ut = 617 W/m2. K, At = 27.32 m2, A0 = 10.2 m2, L = 2.08 m,
D t = 5.6°C,
(b) Plain tubes The procedure is the same as for integral fin tubes. However, the
lower condensing coefficient becomes the controlling coefficient. The thermal resis-
tance on the condensing-side will increase. Hence, (i) the total heat transfer surface
area will have to be increased (ii) or, alternatively, condensing temperature will have
to be raised. Assuming the same condensing temperature, we have:
Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on bare tube surface area
1 1 1 A0 1 FG A IJ
+ +
HAK
0
=
U0 h0 h f Ai hi i
1 1
= + 0.00009 (1.1607) + (1.1607)
1150 6432
= 11.54 ´ 10–4
U0 = 866 Wm–2 K–1
Bare tube surface area
175.83 ´ 103
A0 = = 19.47 m2
866 ´ 10.43
Note The bare tube surface area is increased from 10.07 to 19.47 m2 in the absence of
integral fins.
19.47
Tube length L= = 3.98 m
98P(0.0159)
Note Since the tube length is very large, it will be necessary to increase the number of
passes. Check for the assumption of refrigerant-side temperature drop.
175.83 ´ 103
Dt= = 7.85°C
1150 ´ 19.47
It is more than the assumed value of 5.6°C. Further approximation is necessary.
To reduce the size of the condenser, a higher condensing temperature of 45–46°C
may be considered. But, it will increase the running cost.
Example 7.2 Design of Forced Convection Air-cooled Condenser

An air-cooled condenser for a package air conditioning unit is to be designed to
transfer 22.2 kW of heat from R 22 condensing inside 1.27 cm OD and 1.12 cm
ID tubes at 55°C. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.162 kg/s. The refrig-
erant-side heat-transfer coefficient is given by
Nu = 0.026 (Pr)1/3(Rem)0.8
Air circulated is 120 cmm (cubic metres per minute) entering at 40°C. The
air-side heat-transfer coefficient is approximated by
Nu = 0.193 (Pr)1/3(Re)0.618
Condensers 299
The Prandtl number of air can be taken as 0.71. The face velocity of air may be
taken as 6 m/s. The air side has 6 fins/cm so that finned surface to outside bare
tube surface area ratio is 20. Determine the finned surface area of the condenser.
Neglect the resistance of the metal wall. Assume efficiency of finned surface
hf = 0.9.
Solution Refrigerant side heat-transfer coefficient

p Di2 p (0.0112) 2
Inside area of the tube, =
Ai = = 9.852 ´ 10–5 m2
4 4
m
Mass velocity of refrigerant, ru =
Ai
Assume a refrigerant-side temperature drop of 5°C. So the mean film temperature is
(55 – 5/2) = 52.5°C. At this temperature, R 22 liquid film properties are
kf = 0.08 Wm–1 K–1
rf = 1072 kg.m–3
mf = 2.12 ´ 10–4 kg. m–1 s–1
Cp = 1.52 kJ. kg–1 K–1
D m 0.0112 (0.162)
Hence Rem = i = = 86,870
m f Ai 2.12 ´ 10-4 (9.852 ´ 10-5 )
FG C m IJ . ´ 103 ) (2.12 ´ 10-4 )
(152
HkK
p
Prf = = = 4.03
f
0.08
hi Di
Nu = = 0.026 (4.03)1/3 (86,870)0.8 = 370
kf
0.08 ´ 370
hi = = 2643 Wm–2 K –1
0.0112
Air side heat transfer coefficient
Q 120/ 60 1 2
Face area, FA = L = = m
u 6 3
4 4 1
Equivalent diameter, DE = ( FA) = = 0.65 m
p p 3
Note See Kern for more accurate calculations.
Dt a
Mean temperature of air, ta = 40 + = 40 + 4.63 = 44.63°C
2
Note See calculations for Dta below.

At this temperature for air
m = 2 ´ 10–5 kg. m–1 s–1
k = 0.03 Wm–1 K–1
DE r u 0.65 ´ 1.2 ´ 6
Re = = = 234,000
m 2 ´ 10-5
Nu = 0.193 (0.71)1/3 (234,000)0.618 = 358
k 0.03
h0 = Nu = (358) = 16.4 Wm–2 K–1
DE 0.65
Overall heat transfer coefficient Neglecting the metal-wall resistance, the overall
heat-transfer coefficient based on the total fin-side surface area is given by
1 1 1
= +
U t At hi Ai h0 At h f
1 1 At A0 1 1
= +
Ut hi A0 Ai h0 h f
1 FG IJ
1.27 1
=
2643
(20)
H K
112
.
+
16.4 (0.9)
Þ Ut = 13.1 Wm–2 K–1
Finned surface area Temperature rise of air
Q 22.2 ´ 60
D ta = k = = 9.25°C
QL r C p 120 ´ 1.2 ´ 1.005
Air leaving temperature
ta2 = 40 + 9.25 = 49.25°C
Log mean temperature difference
(55 - 40) - (55 - 49.25)
D tm = = 9.62°C
55 - 40
ln
55 - 49.25
Finned surface area
Q k 22.2 ´ 103
At = = = 176 m2
U t D tm (131
. ) (9.62)
Note Temperature drop through films may be checked.
7.4 WILSON’S PLOT
Wilson’s plot7 for condensers, as shown in Fig. 7.8, is obtained by plotting a number
F I
of experimental values of
1
U0
against 0
A
AGH
i h
1
i
+ JK
h
1
f
which varies with the flow
rate of water. It is seen that the plot, if extended to the abscissa equal to zero, gives
the intercept on the ordinate, corresponding to zero water-side resistance (very high
water velocity) so that
1 1 D x A0
= +
U0 h0 k Am
Condensers 301
U0
1
1 + A0
h0 k Am
A0 1 + 1
Ai hi hf
Fig. 7.8 Wilson’s plot
This result may be used to determine the condensing coefficient ho under actual
operating conditions for any condenser.
References
1. Akers W W, O K Crosser and H A Deans, Proc. 2nd Nat. Heat Transfer
Conf., ASME/AIChE, Aug. 1958.
2. Chato J C, ASHRAE J. Feb. 1962, p. 52.
3. Colburn A P, Trans. A.I. Ch. E., Vol. 30, 1934, pp. 187–193.
4. Dittus F W and Boelter, LMK, Univ. Calif. (Berkeley) Pub. Eng., Vol. 2,
1930, p. 443.
5. Grimson E D, Correlation and utilisation of new data on flow resistance and
heat transfer for cross-flow of gases over tube banks’, Trans. ASME, Vol. 59,
1937, pp. 583–594.
6. Kern, D Q, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950, p. 556.
7. Kirkbride C G, ‘Heat transfer by condensing vapours on vertical tubes’,
Trans. A.I. Ch. E., Vol. 30, 1934, pp. 170–186.
8. Kratz, A P, H J Macintire and R E Gould, Heat Transfer in Ammonia
Condensers, Pt. III, Univ. Illinois Exp. Stn. Bull. 209, June 17, 1930.
9. Rohsenow W M and J P Hartnett, Handbook of Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1973, pp. 12–20 to 26.
1958.
11. Young E H and D J Ward, Refining Engineer, Vol. 29, No. 11, Oct. 1957,
pp. C7-11 and No. 12, Nov. 1957, pp. C32–36.
Revision Exercises
7.1 A 10 TR ammonia ice plant has a two-pass shell-and-tube water-cooled con-
denser. The water enters at 30°C. The temperature rise of water may be taken
as 2.5°C. The refrigerant condensing temperature is 35°C. The heat rejection
ratio of the plant is 1.35. The condenser has 24 steel tubes of 21 mm OD and
13.65 mm ID. Determine the length of the tubes.
7.2 A 1 12 ton R 22 air conditioner, operating at 58°C condensing and 5°C evapo-
rating temperatures, has an air-cooled condenser with 12.7 mm OD and
11.2 mm ID copper tubes. The air-side surface has fins with the finned
surface to bare tube surface area ratio of 12. A fan blows 30 cmm of air at
44°C with a face velocity of 4.5 m/s. The air-side heat-transfer coefficient is
approximated by
Nu = 0.24 (Re)0.6
The refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient is given by
Nu = 0.026 (Pr)1/3 (Re)0.8
Determine the finned-surface area of the condenser and the length of the tubing.
7.3 In an experiment8 on condensation of ammonia, the following values were
measured for the overall heat-transfer coefficient U0 and water velocity
U0 (Wm–2 K–1) 2300 2070 1930 1760 1360 1130 865
u (ms–1) 1.22 0.975 0.853 0.731 0.488 0.366 0.244
The condenser tubes were 51 mm OD and 46 mm ID. The thermal conductiv-
ity of the material of the tubes is 60 Wm–1 K–1. Using the method of Wilson’s
plot, determine the condensing heat-transfer coefficient. The water-side
coefficient can be expressed as
hi = 3967.3 u0.8
7.4 Do the reverse calculations in Example 7.1. Assume all data is known as
given, and calculate. Estimate the capacity of the condenser. Show that it is
176 kW (Simulation).
7.5 Catalogue data of a water-cooled condenser of a manufacturer gives the
following details:
Condensing temperature 48.9°C
Water inlet temperature 37.8°C
Water flow rate 20.694 kg/s
Capacity 145 tons
Estimate the capacity of this condenser with the same water flow rate but with
an inlet temperature of 30°C and a condensation temperature of 42°C. The
evaporation temperature may be assumed to be constant at 2.2°C.
&
Expansion Devices
8.1 TYPES OF EXPANSION DEVICES
An expansion device in a refrigeration system normally serves two purposes. One is

the thermodynamic function of expanding the liquid refrigerant from the condenser
pressure to the evaporator pressure. The other is the control function which may
involve the supply of the liquid to the evaporator at the rate at which it is evaporated.
The latter has an important role and determines the efficiency with which the evapo-
rator surface is utilized.
An expansion device is essentially a restriction offering resistance to flow so that
the pressure drops, resulting in a throttling process. Basically there are two types of
expansion devices. These are:
(i) Variable-restriction type.
(ii) Constant-restriction type.
In the variable-restriction type, the extent of opening or area of flow keeps on
changing depending on the type of control. There are two common types of such
control devices, viz., the automatic expansion valve and the thermostatic expansion
valve.
In addition, there are the float-valves which are also variable restriction type
devices. The float valves again are of two types: The high-side float and the low-
side float.
The high-side float maintains the liquid at a constant level in the condenser and
the low-side float maintains the liquid at a constant level in the evaporator.
The constant-restriction type device is the capillary tube which is merely a long
tube with a narrow diameter bore.
8.2 AUTOMATIC OR CONSTANT-PRESSURE

EXPANSION VALVE1
The basic function of an automatic expansion valve is to maintain constant pressure

in the evaporator.
A typical design of an automatic-expansion valve is shown in Fig. 8.1. The liquid

refrigerant enters the inlet (1) and flows through the strainer (2) to the orifice (3),
expanding into the outlet (10). The needle (9) carried by the element (13) fits into
the orifice in a position determined by the forces acting. The position of the needle
(9) and the assembly (13) with respect to the orifice (3) determines the extent of
opening or closing of the orifice.
4
F5
5
6
F7 7
11
8
F0
1
3
F14
In 9
12 13
10
Out
Fig. 8.1 Automatic-expansion valve
The forces acting on the bellows (8) are transferred to the needle through the push
pins (11). The forces that tend to move the needle down and hence to open the
orifice are:
(i) Force F7 on the bellows (8) corresponding to the atmospheric pressure in the
chamber (7).
(ii) Force F5 of the regulating spring (5) adjusted by means of the knob (4).
The forces acting on the bellows and element (13) that tend to move the needle up
and hence to close the orifice are:
(i) Force F0 on the bellows corresponding to the evaporator pressure p0.
(ii) Force F14 of the follow-up spring (12).
During off-cycle, the valve is closed so that
F0 + F14 > F7 + F5
When the compressor starts, F0 drops as the evaporator pressure decreases. The
valve starts opening and the liquid refrigerant begins to enter the evaporator. Force
F14 is increased due to the compression of the follow-up spring whereas force F5
is decreased due to the elongation of the regulating spring. When the equilibrium
position is reached, we have
F0 + F14 = F7 + F5
Expansion Devices 305
in which F0 corresponds to a constant-evaporator pressure p0. The adjustment of

the tension in the regulating spring controls the force F5 and hence the equilibrium
pressure p0 maintained in the evaporator.
Consider the effect of variation in the cooling load on the working of this valve.
When the load decreases, vapour formation diminishes, and p0 tends to drop as the
compressor continues to suck vapour. As a result, the valve opens more and allows
more refrigerant to enter the evaporator, thereby maintaining constant pressure. The
evaporator becomes flooded and a decreased superheat results.
On the contrary, when the load increases, evaporation increases, and p0 tends to
rise, the valve tends to close, allowing less refrigerant to enter the evaporator and an
increased superheat results.
Thus we see that an automatic-expansion valve is not suitable for a varying-load
requirement. It increases the flow of the liquid refrigerant into the evaporator when the
load decreases, and decreases the flow when an increase in load occurs. It is, however,
used in applications such as milk coolers where precise control of the evaporator
temperature is needed and where the cooling load is more or less constant.
8.3 THERMOSTATIC-EXPANSION VALVE1
A thermostatic-expansion or T-X valve maintains a constant degree of superheat in

the evaporator.
A typical design of a thermostatic-expansion valve is shown in Fig. 8.2. It is only
slightly different in construction from the automatic-expansion valve. In this case,
the downward force on the bellows (F7 + F5) which tends to open the valve is
replaced by a force F0¢ exerted on the bellows through the capillary tube (1) which is
connected to the bulb (2). The bulb in turn is fixed at the outlet end of the evaporator
2
1
F0
In F14
Out
Fig. 8.2 Thermostatic-expansion valve
Compressor
Bulb
To
Liquid Line T-X
Valve
In
Out
Evaporator
Fig. 8.3 Arrangement showing installation of thermostatic
expansion valve and its thermal bulb
The forces acting upwards on the bellows which tend to close the valve are F14 of
the follow-up spring and F0 corresponding to the evaporator pressure p0 as in the
case of the automatic-expansion valve.
The capillary and bulb are generally
filled with the same liquid refrigerant
(power fluid) as in the refrigeration sys-
tem. Force F0¢ corresponds to the satura-
tion pressure p0¢ of the refrigerant at t0, po
temperature t0¢ at the exit end of the
p
evaporator as shown in Fig. 8.4.

During off-cycle, the temperatures at
the evaporator inlet and outlet are the
same so that (F0¢ – F0) is zero. Since the h
follow-up spring is adjusted with some Fig. 8.4 Degree of superheat with
initial compression, the valve remains thermostatic-expansion valve
closed as
F0 + F14 > F0¢
or, F14 > (F0¢ – F0) = f (t0¢ – t0)
When the compressor starts, F0 drops. A temperature difference (t0¢ – t 0) is
created between the outlet and inlet of the evaporator, i.e., a degree of superheat
results. The corresponding pressure difference (p0¢ – p0) between the outside and
inside of the bellow causes a downward force (F0¢ – F0) on the bellow and the valve
opens. Due to compression, F14 also increases. The opening of the valve is deter-
mined by the equilibrium position at which
(F0¢ – F0) = F14
By adjusting the initial compression of the follow-up spring and hence the
force F14, the force (F0¢ – F0) and hence the degree of superheat can be controlled.
Normally, the setting of the spring is done in the factory to allow the valve to start
opening at a superheat of 5°C.
8.3.1 Application of Thermostatic-Expansion Valves

The performance characteristic of the thermostatic-expansion valves is most suitable
for application in air conditioning and refrigerant plants.
When the cooling load increases, the refrigerant evaporates at a faster rate in the
evaporator than the compressor can suck. As a result, the pressure p0 and the degree
of superheat in the evaporator increase. The increase in superheat causes the valve to
open more and to allow more refrigerant to enter the evaporator. At the same time,
the increase in suction pressure p0 also enables the compressor to deliver increased
refrigerating capacity.
When the cooling load decreases, the refrigerant evaporates at a slower rate than
the compressor is able to suck. As a result, the evaporator pressure drops and the
degree of superheat decreases. The valve tends to close and the compressor delivers
less refrigerating capacity at a decreased suction pressure.
Thus the thermostatic-expansion valve, as opposed to the automatic-expansion
valve, is capable of meeting varying load requirements. The evaporator pressure and
hence the evaporator temperature, however, do not remain constant. Another
advantageous feature of the T-X valve is that by maintaining a constant degree of
superheat of the suction vapour, it keeps the evaporator always full of the refriger-
ant, regardless of the changes in the cooling load. This ensures the efficient utiliza-
tion of the evaporator surface even under extreme loading conditions and the safety
of the compressor (by not allowing the liquid to enter it) under part-load conditions.
These characteristics have enabled T-X valves to have universal application in air
conditioning and many refrigeration systems.
8.3.2 External Equilizer

It has so far been assumed that pressure p0 in the evaporator is throughout constant.
In actual practice, however, there is always a significant pressure drop in the long
evaporator tubing.
The pressure at the evaporator outlet is,
therefore, very much less than the pressure at the
evaporator inlet. If the pressure at the evapora-
F14 F01, t01
tor inlet itself is exerted on the inside of the bel- p 01
p
lows of the thermostatic-expansion valve, then p 02 F02, t02

for a given compression F14 of the follow-up
spring, the resulting superheat of the vapour will
be higher than the adjusted superheat. Assum-
ing that the pressure in the evaporator drops
from p01 at the inlet to p02 at the outlet, the corre-
t
sponding saturation temperatures being t01 and
Fig. 8.5 Effect of evaporator
t02 respectively, it is seen from Fig. 8.5, that the
pressure drop on
compression F14 of the spring adjusted for a degree of superheat
superheat of D t1 = (t0¢ – t01) results in an actual
superheat of D t2 = (t0¢ – t02).
Further, it may be noted that under partial-load conditions, the superheat tends to
increase in a normal-expansion valve. And if the pressure drop in the evaporator is
large, it will result in a large amount of superheat of the vapour.
The remedy is to use an external-equalizer connection. An external-equalizer

connection, as shown in Fig. 8.6, transmits the pressure at the outlet of the evapora-
tor to the inside of the bellows of the expansion valve. At the same time, there is no
connection between the evaporator inlet and inside of the bellows. Thus the pressure
acting inside the bellows is always equal to the pressure at the evaporator outlet,
irrespective of the extent of pressure drop in the evaporator tubing.
External Equalizer
Liquid
In
T - X Valve
Bulb
Evaporator Sunction Line

Fig. 8.6 External-equalizer connection
Example 8.1 An R 134a Thermostatic-expansion valve, not equipped with an

external equalizer, has a superheat setting of 7°C while supplying the refriger-
ant to the evaporator at 0°C. The power fluid is the same as the refrigerant.
(a) Determine the difference in pressure on opposite sides of the diaphragm or
bellows required to open the valve.
(b) If the temperature at the evaporator inlet is –5°C and the pressure drop
through the coil is 0.3 bar, what is the degree of superheat of the suction
gas leaving the evaporator?
Solution (a) Referring to Fig. 8.5, for the evaporator at 0°C

p01 (at 0°C) = 2.928 bar
p0¢ (at 7°C) = 3.748 bar
The required pressure difference or initial compression of the follow-up
spring per unit area of diaphragm is
f14 = p0 – p01 = 3.748 – 2.928 = 0.82 bar
(b) If the temperature at the evaporator inlet is – 5°C, then the pressure at the
evaporator inlet is
p01 (at – 5°C) = 2.435 bar
For the same adjustment of the follow-up spring compression, the equilib-
rium pressure of the power fluid is
p0¢ = p01 + f14 = 2.435 + 0.82 = 3.255 bar
The corresponding saturation temperature of the power fluid in the bulb is

t0¢ (at 3.255 bar) = 2.47°C
Pressure at evaporator outlet
p02 = p01 – D p = 2.435 – 0.3 = 2.135 bar
Saturation temperature at the evaporator outlet
t02 (at 2.135 bar) = – 7.9°C
Effective superheat of the suction gas
D t2 = t0¢ – t02 = 2.47 – (– 7.9) = 10.37°C
8.3.3 Cross-Charged Expansion Valves

It can be observed from the nature of the vapour-pressure curve of a refrigerant, as
shown in Fig. 8.7, that the degree of superheat once adjusted by the tension F14 of
the follow-up spring at a certain evaporator temperature, increases at lower evapora-
tor temperatures. In a similar manner, it can be shown that a decreased superheat
will result at a higher evaporator temperature.
The method by which the superheat may remain more or less unaffected by a
change in the evaporator temperature employs a power fluid in the bulb as different
from the refrigerant. The power fluid has a flatter p-T curve. Figure 8.8 shows curve
R for the refrigerant and a flatter curve P for the power fluid. The power fluid is a
slightly higher boiling substance. It has lower pressures. It is seen that the degree of
superheat D t almost remains constant at different evaporator temperatures. Such a
thermostatic expansion valve is called cross-charged.
R
P
F14 F0 F14 F0
p
p
F14 F14
F0
T
T
Fig. 8.7 Increase in superheat at lower Fig. 8.8 Maintaining uniform superheat
evaporator temperature by the use of cross-charged
expansion valve
8.3.4 Thermostatic Charge and Fade-Out Point

The charge of the power fluid contained inside the bulb and the capillary tube of a
thermostatic-expansion valve limits the maximum suction pressure up to which the
expansion valve modulates.
Consider the thermodynamic change of state of the power fluid as its tem-
perature varies. The process take place along a constant-volume line as shown in
Figs 8.9 and 8.10. Initially, at some stage, the fluid may exist at state A with the
liquid and vapour in equilibrium at temperature tA. With increase in temperature, the
pressure increases according to the p-T relationship of the fluid until point B is
reached. After B, at which all the liquid has turned into vapour, any further increase
in temperature results in an insignificant increase in the pressure (according to the
constant-volume process for a gas) inside the bulb and capillary of the expansion
valve. As shown in Fig. 8.9, the increase in temperature equal to tC – tB increases the
pressure only by pD – pB. Thus at B, the pressure of the power fluid almost reaches a
limiting value. The valve, therefore, does not open any wider with increase in the
temperature, and the suction pressure stays constant at its value at B. The point B is
called the fade-out point.
Constant Specific
Volume Line
Isothermals
p
v
Fig. 8.9 Fade out point on p-L diagram
Vapour
Superheated
B
D
uid
Liq
d
te r
ura ou
at p
S Va
d
an
p
t
Fig. 8.10 Fade-out point on p-t diagram
It can be seen that the fade-out point depends on the specific volume of the power
fluid, i.e., the mass of the refrigerant charged in the power element, as the total
volume of the element is fixed. Thus, the limiting value of the suction pressure can
be increased by decreasing the specific volume, i.e., increasing the charge of the
power fluid. Similarly, the limiting suction pressure can be lowered by decreasing
the charge. It can thus provide a built-in motor overload protection such that
the refrigerating machine always operates on the left-hand side of the peak of the
compressor power versus suction pressure characteristic (see Fig. 6.6).
Such an expansion valve with a limited liquid charge of the refrigerant is nor-
mally referred to as gas-charged. Gas-charged valves must be carefully applied in
order to avoid a loss of control from the bulb. If the diaphragm or the bellow cham-
ber becomes colder than the bulb, the small amount of charge in the element may
condense and the bulb may contain only gas. Thus the valve will throttle or close.
A large mass of the refrigerant charged in the element will make it liquid-charged.
In this case, the bulb contains liquid under all temperature conditions. Thus the bulb
always controls the valve operation even with a colder diaphragm or bellow.
The charging of the refrigerant itself in the power element results in an increase
in operating superheat as the evaporator temperature decreases. This limits its use
for moderately high evaporator temperatures. For evaporator temperatures which
are substantially below 0°C, liquid cross-charged expansion valves may be used.
They have superheat characteristics which remain fairly constant throughout the
evaporator temperature range.
8.4 CAPILLARY TUBE AND ITS SIZING
The capillary tube is a fixed restriction-type device. It is a long and narrow tube
connecting the condenser directly to the evaporator. The pressure drop through the
capillary tube is due to the following two factors:
(i) Friction, due to fluid viscosity, resulting in frictional pressure drop.
(ii) Acceleration, due to the flashing of the liquid refrigerant into vapour, resulting
in momentum pressure drop.
The cumulative pressure drop must be equal to the difference in pressure at the
two ends of the tube. The mass flow through the capillary tube will, therefore, adjust
so that the pressure drop through the tube just equals the difference in pressure be-
tween the condenser and the evaporator. For a given state of the refrigerant, the
pressure drop is directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to the
bore diameter of the tube.
A number of combinations of length and bore are possible for a capillary tube to
obtain the desired flow and pressure drop. However, once a capillary tube has been
selected, it will be suitable only for the design pressure drop and flow. It cannot
satisfy the flow requirements with changing condenser and evaporator pressures.
Even then, the capillary tube is the most commonly used expansion device in
small refrigeration units, such as domestic refrigerators, window-type and split air
conditioners, water coolers, etc. The advantages of a capillary tube are its simplicity,
low cost and the absence of any moving parts. Also, it is found most advantageous
with on-off control because of its unloading characteristics. Thus, when the
compressor stops, it allows high and low pressures to equalize, thereby enabling the
compressor motor to re-start on no load. Accordingly, smaller low-starting torque
motors can be used.
The sizing of a capillary tube implies the selection of bore and length to provide
the desired flow for the design condenser and evaporator pressures. The method
employed by manufacturers is usually that of cut and try. The principle of

design based on methods proposed by Stocker,6 and Hopkins4 and Cooper et al.2 is
presented here.
A capillary of a particular bore dia D and cross-sectional flow area A is first
selected. Step decrements in pressure are then assumed and the corresponding
required increments of length calculated. These increments can be totalled to give
the complete length of the tubing for a given pressure drop.
Consider that the state of the entering refrigerant is saturated liquid. The mass
flow rate m& is known. The condenser and evaporator temperatures are tk and t0, and
corresponding pressures are pk and p0 respectively. Divide this temperature drop
into a number of parts. Let the corresponding pressure drops be D p1, D p2 and D p3,
L, etc., as shown in Fig. 8.11. Now there are two approaches to design.
(i) Isenthalpic expansion, as shown by line k-a.
(ii) Adiabatic or Fanno-line expansion, as shown by line k-b.
k
pk
f 1
g
2
3
4
p
p0 Isenthalpic
b a
Fanno Line
h
Fig. 8.11 Incremental pressure drops in a capillary tube
Isenthalpic expansion is the common thermodynamic assumption. In actual prac-

tice, however, expansion takes place adiabatically, viz., according to Fanno-line
flow. Thus enthalpy does not remain constant since, with pressure drop, the volume
increases and an increase in kinetic energy is obtained from a decrease in enthalpy.
Nevertheless, it may be noted from Fig. 8.11 that in the first few steps of pressure
drop, there is not much difference between isenthalpic and Fanno-line flow.
The steps of calculations to be followed in both cases are the same and are as
follows for the first element.
(i) Determine the quality at the end of the decrement assuming isenthalpic flow.
Then at point 1 at pressure p1
hk - h f1
x1 = (8.1)
h fg
1
(ii) Determine the specific volume

L1 = Lf1 + x1(Lg1 – Lf1) (8.2)
(iii) Calculate the velocities from the continuity equation at both the ends of the
element
m& Lk m& L1
uk = and u1 =
A A
u m&
or = = G = Constant (8.3)
L A
where G is mass velocity.
(iv) For Fanno-line flow, an iteration procedure is necessary. This is done by
applying the correction to enthalpy since h1 ¹ hk. Thus
u12
h 1 = hk – (8.4)
2
The calculations for quality, specific volume, velocity and enthalpy may be
repeated until the final value of h1 is equal to its value in the preceding iteration.
Note The procedure appears time-consuming but, fortunately, it converges very fast.
(v) Determine the pressure drop due to the acceleration, D pA, from the momen-
tum equation
Adp = – m& d u
whence
m&
D pA = (uk – u1) = G(uk – u1) (8.5)
A
(vi) Determine the pressure drop due to the friction, DpF, from
D pF = D p – D pA (8.6)
(vii) Equate the required frictional pressure drop to
r f D Lu 2
D pF = (8.7)
2D
1
where r=
L
DL = length of the element
m&
Substituting m& = r u A, ru = = G, we have (8.8)
A
G
DpF = f u DL = Y fu DL (say) (8.9)
2D
G
where Y = (8.10)
2D
from which the length D L may be calculated. For this purpose, the mean
values of u and f for the liquid and vapour phases present may be taken for the
section. The friction factor is a function of Reynolds number which in turn is
expressed as
Dur DG Z
Re = = = (say) (8.11)
m m m
where Z = DG (8.12)
Niaz and Davis5 have proposed the following correlation for evaluating the friction
factor:
0.324
f=
Re 0.25
They mention that the length obtained by using this correlation is about 10%
greater than the experimental length. Based on available analytical and experimental
data, the expression for friction factor in terms of a straight capillary given by
Gorasia et al3 is:
17.24 17.24
ff = 0.62
and f g =
Re Re 0.62
where
GD GD
Ref = and Reg =
mf mg
where subscripts f and g refer to liquid and gas phases respectively. The friction
factor for the liquid-vapour mixture flowing in the capillary is found by taking into
account the percentage weightage of each phase. Thus
f = ff (1 – x) + fg x
The examples that follow illustrate the method of calculation as it can be applied
for the design of capillaries for air conditioners and refrigerators.
Example 8.2 Design of 1 TR R 22 Air Conditioner Capillary

A capillary tube in a one-ton R 22 air conditioner has a bore of 2.3 mm.
Saturated liquid from the condenser enters at a temperature of 48°C and flows
adiabatically through the tube until its temperature is 5°C. Determine its length.
The friction factor is given by
0.32
f=
Re 0.25
Assume intermediate sections at 40, 30, 20 and 10°C.
Solution From the simple saturation cycle, the mass flow rate is
m& = 0.02417 kg/s
The cross-sectional area of the capillary tube is
p
A= (0.0023)2 = 4.15 ´ 10–6 m2
4
m& 0.02417
Let G= = -6
= 5.83 ´ 103 kgs–1 m–2
A 4.15 ´ 10
u
=
L
G 5.83 ´ 103
Y= = = 1.2674 ´ 106 kgs–1 m–3
2D 2(0.0023)
Z = DG = (0.0023) (5.83 ´ 103) = 13.41 kgs–1 m–1
In actual practice, the enthalpy does not remain constant in flow through a capillary.
Assuming isenthalpic flow, however, the properties and velocities at various sec-
tions are found and are given in Table 8.1. The last column in the table gives the
actual decrease in enthalpy due to increase in kinetic energy, e.g., at the first point
10.492 - 5.322
Dh = hk – h1 = – D(KE) = = 41 J/kg = 0.041 kJ/kg
2
Table 8.1 Calculations for Example 8.2—Isenthalpic flow but Dh = – D (K E)
t p x 103L u = GL Dh
Section 3
°C bar m /kg m/s kJ/kg
k 48 18.548 0 0.9137 5.32 0
1 40 15.335 0.07 1.804 10.49 0.041
2 30 11.819 0.144 3.375 19.63 0.179
3 20 9.099 0.209 5.704 33.18 0.536
4 10 6.807 0.267 9.167 53.33 1.408
5 5 5.84 0.292 11.572 67.03 2.232
Calculations can now be done for actual Fanno-line flow, starting from
hk = 260.314 kJ/kg.
Point 1 At 40°C, from the table of properties for R 22
hf = 2497 kJ/kg Lf = 0.0884 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
hfg = 166.9 kJ/kg Lg = 15.1 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
Then, h1 = hk – Dh
= 260.314 – 0.041 = 260.273 kJ/kg
260.273 - 249.7
Hence, x1 = = 0.0633
166.9
L1 = 0.884 ´ 10–3 + 0.0633 (15.1 – 0.884)10–3
= 1.78 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
u1 = GL1 = 5.83 ´ 103 ´ 1.78 ´ 10–3 = 10.38 m/s
10.382 - 5.32 2
Recheck, Dh1 = = 40 J/kg = 0.04 kJ/kg
2
Note Further iteration can be done for greater accuracy. Proceeding in this manner,
iterated values are obtained at various points which are given in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Calculations for Example 8.2-Fanno-line flow
x (h)iterated 103 ´ (L) iterated (u)iterated (D h) iterated

Section kJ/kg m3/kg m/s kJ/kg
k 0.0 260.5 0.91 5.317 0.0
1 0.064 260.46 1.8 10.474 0.04
2 0.133 260.324 3.356 19.525 0.18
3 0.191 259.977 5.634 32.773 0.52
4 0.240 259.163 8.937 51.99 1.34
5 0.261 258.424 11.114 64.655 2.08
Friction Factor Calculations: Point 1 (40°C)

Viscosities, mf = 0.221 cP
mg = 0.0134 cP
m1 = (1 – x1) mf + x1 mg
= (1 – 0.064)0.221 + (0.064) (0.0134) = 0.2071 cP
Z 13.41
Re1 = = = 64,780
m1 0.2071 ´ 10-3
0.32
f1 = = 0.02
(64,780) 0.25
The calculations for various points are given in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Friction factor calculations for Example 8.2
t mf mg m
Point x Re f
°C cP cP cP
k 48 0 0.215 0.01368 0.215 62,400 0.020
1 40 0.064 0.221 0.0134 0.2071 64,780 0.02
2 30 0.133 0.229 0.0131 0.1979 66,800 0.02
3 20 0.191 0.239 0.0127 0.1917 68,400 0.0197
4 10 0.240 0.25 0.0124 0.1934 68,400 0.0197
5 5 0.261 0.257 0.0123 0.1973 69.300 0.0198
Length Calculations: Consider section k–1.

Total pressure drop
kD p 1 = 18.543 – 15.331 = 3.212 bar
Acceleration pressure drop
D pA = G Du = (5.83 ´ 103) (10.474 – 5.317) = 32.8 ´ 103 N/m2
Friction pressure drop
D pF = D p – D pA = 3.212 ´ 105 – 0.328 ´ 105 = 2.884 ´ 105 N/m2
Mean friction factor
0.0202 + 0.02
f= = 0.0201
2
Mean velocity
5.317 + 10.474
u= = 7.82 m/s
2
D pF 2.884 ´ 105
Incremental length k DL1 = = = 1.389 m
Yf u (1.2674 ´ 106 )(0.0201)( 7.82)
The calculations for various sections are given in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Capillary tube length calculations for Example 8.2
,p , pA , pF ,L
Sections
bar bar bar m
k-1 3.212 0.328 2.884 1.389
1-2 3.416 0.574 2.842 0.706
2-3 2.818 0.857 1.961 0.276
3-4 2.292 1.283 1.009 0.087
4-5 0.969 0.844 0.125 0.008
Total length required = SDL = 2.466 m
References
1. Andersen, S A, Automatic Refrigeration, Maclaren and Sons Ltd. for Danfoss,
Nordborg, Denmark, 1959.
2. Cooper L, C K Chu and W R Brisken, “Simple selection method for capillaries
derived from physical flow conditions” Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 65.
3. Gorasia, J N, N Dubey and K K, Jain, “Computer-aided design of capillaries
of different configurations, ASHRAE Transaction 1991, pp. 132–138.
4. Hopkins N E, ‘Rating the restrictor tube’, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 58,
No. 11, Nov. 1950, p. 1087.
5. Niaz, R H, and G, Davis, ‘Adiabatic two-phase flow in a capillary tube’,
Symp. Ser. of Can. Soc. for Chem. Eng., Vol. 1, 1969, pp. 259–269.
6. Stoecker, W F, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, McGraw-Hill, New York
1958, pp. 111–129.
Revision Exercises
8.1 (a) Calculate the pressure of R 134a as it expands through a capillary tube
having a bore of 1.05 mm if 4.028 ´ 10–2 kg/s of saturated liquid enters
the capillary tube at a temperature of 45°C. Neglect heat transfer.
(b) Determine the temperature at which the condition of choked flow occurs
as the expansion proceeds.
8.2 An R 134a thermostatic expansion valve uses R 12 itself as the power fluid
set to fade out at a pressure of 0.35 MN/m2. The internal volume of the power
element is 15 cm3. Calculate the mass of R12 contained in the element.
8.3 (a) An R22 expansion valve is factory set for a superheat of 7°C when sup-
plying refrigerant to an evaporator at 5°C. If the evaporator is operating
at – 15°C, what will be the effective superheat of the suction vapour?
(b) If the valve is cross-charged with R 134a as the power fluid, what will be
the effective superheat?
8.4 An R 22 thermostatic expansion valve with R 22 itself as the power fluid is
not equipped with an external equalizer. It supplies a coil in which there is
pressure drop due to friction. The superheat setting made on the valve at the
factory is 5°C with 0°C evaporator.
(i) What is the difference in pressure on opposite sides of the valve
required to open the valve?
(ii) When the pressure at evaporator inlet is 4.22 bar, how many degrees is
the suction gas superheated at 11.5°C evaporator exit temperature if the
pressure drop through the coil is 0.53 bar?
8.5 How much would have been the superheat in Prob. 8.4 (ii) if the valve had
been equipped with an external equalizer?
b g
8.6 Design a capillary for a 165 L Q&0 = 89W refrigerator working on
(a) R 12 (b) R 134a
The R 12 compressor is 4.33 CC.
The R 134a compressor is 5.48 CC.
Use Fig. 3.21 for cycle analysis.
'
Evaporators
9.1 TYPES OF EVAPORATORS
The evaporator is the component of a refrigeration system in which heat is removed

from air, water or any other body required to be cooled by the evaporating refrigerant.
Evaporators are mainly classified as f looded or direct-expansion, viz., dry. In
flooded evaporators, the liquid refrigerant covers the entire heat-transfer surface. In
or dry evaporators, a part of the heat-transfer surface is used for superheating the
vapour. A float valve is used for the expansion of the refrigerant in the case of a
flooded evaporator, whereas a thermostatic-expansion valve (in the case of large
units) or a capillary tube (in the case of small units) is used in conjunction with a dry
evaporator.
A distinction can also be made on the basis of the flow of refrigerant inside tubes
in dry evaporators and outside tubes in flooded evaporators.
An illustration of a flooded evaporator used as a water chiller with the refrigerant
in the shell is shown in Fig. 9.1.
As far as direct-expansion (D-X) evaporators are concerned, there are a number
of types of the same such as the following:
(i) Direct-expansion chiller.
(ii) Direct-expansion cooling coil for air with forced convection.
(iii) Direct-expansion coil for air-blast freezer.
(iv) Natural convection evaporator for freezers of domestic refrigerators.
(v) Evaporator coils submerged in brine tanks for ice plants.
In contrast to flooded chiller, Fig. 9.2 shows a D-X chiller in which water flows in
the shell across a number of baffles, and refrigerant, from the liquid line, directly
expands inside tubes and flows through a number of passes simultaneously evapo-
rating and absorbing heat from recirculated water.
Another common type of dry evaporator is the direct-expansion (D-X) coil as
shown in Fig. 9.3 with fins on the air side used in air-conditioning equipment. The
coil shown in the figure has 4 rows of tubing, and only one tube-circuit. Large D-X
evaporators have more than one refrigerant circuit otherwise the refrigerant pressure
drop will become too large.
Refrigerant Vapour
320
to Compressor
4
Float Valve 10 1 9
Recirculated
5 Water In
Refrigerant
Liquid Line
8
7
Chilled
6 Water Out
11 Drain 2
1. Shell 6. Water Outlet

2. Tubes 7. Header
3. Refrigerant Inlet 8. Partition
4. Refrigerant Outlet 9. Liquid Refrigerant Level
5. Water Inlet 10. Vapour Space
11. Drain
Fig. 9.1 Flooded chiller

Evaporators 321
Water Out
10
Refrigerant
Liquid In
5
2
4
Refrigerant
Vapour Out
5 6 1 3 5
Water
In
1 Shell 6 Baffles
2 Headers 7 Refrigerant Inlet (from Expansion Valve)
3 Tubes 8 Refrigerant Outlet
4 Tube Sheet 9 Water Inlet
5 Partitions 10 Water Outlet
Fig. 9.2 Direct-expansion chiller
Thermostatic
Expansion Valve Air Out in Cross-flow
Liquid Line Row 4

Finned
D-X
Row 3 Coil
Suction Line Row 2
Row 1
Air In
Fig. 9.3 Illustration of a dry evaporator, direct-expansion cooling coil
with thermostatic-expansion valve
The name direct-expansion is derived from the fact that the refrigerant expands
directly inside the tubing, and evaporates, thus cooling the medium outside. To
facilitate the return of oil to the compressor, D-X evaporators are fed from the top by
a thermostatic-expansion valve as shown in Figs 9.2 and 9.3.
The D-X coil for air-blast freezers is similar in construction except that the
refrigerant temperature is much lower, viz., – 35 to – 40°C. As a result there is frost
formation in between the fins. The flow of air could, therefore, get blocked. The
frosting is more at the inlet end. Accordingly, larger fin-spacing is provided at the
inlet end. The spacing progressively decreases as the air gets dehumidified.
Present-day frost-free refrigerators also have similar freezer coils. These are
placed outside the freezer/refrigerator cabinet. Air flows by forced convection
between the coil and the freezer compartment.
The conventional refrigerators use bonded evaporators. The refrigerant flows
and evaporates inside channels formed by binding engrooved plates. Heat is ab-
sorbed from air on the surface of plates by natural convection.
The ice plants use ammonia evaporator coils submerged in agitated brine tanks.
The amount of refrigerant charge in such coils is, no doubt, large. But, it does not
matter since ammonia is not expensive.
9.2 HEAT TRANSFER IN EVAPORATORS
The three heat-transfer resistances in evaporators are:

(i) Refrigerant side for the transfer of heat from solid surface to the liquid
refrigerant.
(ii) Metal wall.
(iii) Cooled-medium side which could be due to air, water, brine or any other fluid
or a wetted surface on a cooling and dehumidifying coil.
The heat transfer from solid surface to the evaporating refrigerant is of primary
interest here. However, the mechanism of boiling is so complex because of the
influence of such factors as surface tension, saturation temperature, latent heat and
nature of the solid surface, in addition to the usual transport properties, that it is very
difficult to predict the heat-transfer coefficient analytically. Nevertheless, an attempt
is made here to present correlations applicable to evaporating refrigerants screened
through the large amount of published information available on the subject.
In commercial equipment, the boiling process occurs in two types of situations:
one, of pool boiling as in flooded evaporators with refrigerant boiling on the shell-
side, and the other, of flow or forced convection boiling as in direct-expansion
evaporators with refrigerant on the tube-side.
9.2.1 Pool Boiling

Pool boiling occurs in flooded evaporators. Experiments on pool boiling show three
distinct regimes as illustrated in Fig. 9.4.
Ordinarily, during the boiling of a liquid at its saturation temperature, such as in a
pool, simple evaporation or natural convection evaporation occurs at the free surface
without the formation of bubbles when the solid wall temperature tw is only a few
degrees above the saturation temperature of the evaporating substance ts. It is shown
by Regime 1 in Fig. 9.4. But if Dt = (tw – ts) is increased, vapour bubbles form and
agitate the liquid in the vicinity of the heating surface, that is, in Regime 2 in
Fig. 9.4. With increasing Dt the bubbles rise and break through the free surface. In this
Regime 3 heat transfer coefficients are higher. This kind of boiling with bubble growth
(Regimes 2 and 3) is called nucleate boiling. Eventually, as (tw – ts) is increased
further, the heating surface gets blanketed with vapour bubbles resulting in a process
called film boiling. Thus, there are three distinct regimes of pool boiling.
Evaporators 323
Nucleate Film
Boiling Boiling
Regime
1 2 3 4 5
A
105
Q /A, W/m2
104
Evaporation
103
102
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Fig. 9.4 Heat flux vs. temperature difference in pool boiling
Heat transfer in refrigerant evaporators corresponds to Regime 2 of the nucleate

boiling in which the bubbles formed condense in the liquid before reaching the
surface.
9.2.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Nucleate Pool Boiling

A method, based on a logical explanation of the mechanism of heat transfer associ-
ated with the boiling process, was presented by Rohsenow14 for correlating
heat-transfer data for nucleate boiling of liquids for the case of pool boiling. The
suggested relation was
R| Q / A L s O U| F Cm I 1 r
S| m h MM g(r - r ) PP V| GH k JK
s
C f Dt
2
T N QW
= Csf (9.1)
h fg f fg f g f
where s is the vapour-liquid surface tension of the fluid, and the various fluid proper-
ties are evaluated at the saturation temperature corresponding to the evaporation pres-
sure. The constant Csf is a function of the particular fluid-heating surface combination.
By plotting the experimental data of a known fluid (i.e., Pr = constant) for the
first term on the RHS versus the LHS, Rohsenow obtained the value of the exponent
r as 0.33. Similarly, a cross-plot of Cf D t/hfg vs. Pr for constant values of the first
term on the RHS gives s equal to 1.0 for water and 1.7 for Freons. Then, a minimum
of one test point, i.e., a value of Q /A and its corresponding value of D t, is all that is
needed to evaluate Cs f . Piret and Isbin12 have found its value for the CCl4-copper
combination as 0.013. The same value can also be used for copper and R 22 and
other fluorocarbons.
Ratiani and Avaliani13 recommended the following simple correlation for pool
boiling of Freon refrigerants
1.3
h = 1.35 q0.7 p665/Ts (9.2)
where h is in W/m2 K, q is the heat flux in W/m2, p is the pressure in bar and Ts is the
normal boiling point in K. Combining this relation with q = h DT, we obtain
1.3
h = 2.72 D T 2.33 p2214/Ts (9.3)
For the case of R 22, this reduces to
h = 2.72 D T 2.33 p1.86 (9.3a)
9.2.3 Flow or Forced-Convection Boiling

Boiling will take place when a liquid flows by forced convection over a surface
maintained at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the fluid. Boil-
ing under these conditions is called flow or forced-convection boiling. Flow boiling
occurs in D-X evaporators. Heat-transfer rates in forced-convection boiling are
substantially higher than those of pool boiling.
For forced-convection boiling, Rohsenow and Griffith suggested that the total
heat flux be separated into two parts: One, a boiling flux Q b /A, and the other, a
convective flux Q c /A. Thus the total flux can be expressed as
q = qb + q c
For computing qb, the normal pool boiling correlation may be used. For comput-
ing qc, e.g., forced-convection inside tubes, the Dittus-Boelter equation can be used.
In this equation, however, it is recommended that the constant 0.023 be replaced
by 0.019.
The forced-convection boiling processes taking place in dry evaporators are very
complex. At the inlet end, the flow is of a low quality. As the evaporation proceeds,
the quality increases, a critical condition (tube wall dry-out) appears and then the
remainder of the tube may have superheated vapour with liquid droplets.
Hoogendooren discovered seven distinct possibilities for two-phase flow, five of
which are given below.
(i) Laminar or stratified flow in which both phases flowing beside each other are
separated by a plane surface.
(ii) Wavy flow in which the two phases are separated by a wavy surface.
(iii) Slug flow in which slugs of the liquid are enclosed in the gas stream.
(iv) Annular flow with the liquid flowing in an annular form and the gas flowing in
the central core. The occurrence of this phase of boiling can be expected
when the mixture velocity exceeds 2 m/s.
(v) Foam or mist flow with the flow patterns corresponding to definite mass flow
rates or liquid velocities.
The transitions occur as the flow proceeds from the inlet end to the outlet end of
the evaporator.
The major portion of the heat transfer occurs in the horizontal tube through the
wetted part of the tube wall. The heat-transfer coefficient increases when the flow
becomes annular, but when most of the liquid is evaporated and the dry-out point is
reached, the coefficient falls off rapidly to a low value.
To a large degree, the complete length of a single evaporator tube can be divided
into three convenient parts, viz., stratified flow at the inlet, first slug, and then annu-
lar flow in the middle, and mist flow at the outlet.
A significant feature of boiling heat transfer is the dependence of the heat-trans-
fer coefficient on quality. The nature of variation is shown in Fig. 9.5. For water h is
maximum at x = 0.4. For fluorocarbons the peak occurs at 0.4 < x < 0.8. If this is
true, a substantial improvement in the evaporator capacity is achieved with wet
operation, represented by line CD in Fig. 9.5 as against dry operation with superheat
as from A to B. The average value of h-when the quality changes from C to D—is
much higher than the same when it changes from A to B as in normal evaporators
without recirculation. This is achieved by recirculation (see Sec. 9.4.3).
Evaporators 325
A B
h
Superheating
Region
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

x
Fig. 9.5 Variation of flow-boiling heat transfer coefficient with dryness
fraction of refrigerant
9.2.4 Forced Convection Boiling Correlations

Boiling of liquids has been of considerable interest to nuclear, chemical and
mechanical engineers and, consequently, a lot of work has been done to obtain gen-
eral correlations for predicting heat-transfer coefficients and pressure drops for
flows with boiling. However, as verified by Andersen et al., most of these do not
satisfactorily predict the heat-transfer coefficients and pressure drops for evaporat-
ing refrigerants. Only Bo Pierre’s2 correlation predicts somewhat satisfactory values
for the average heat-transfer coefficient but this does not give the local heat-transfer
coefficient. His correlations are given below.
Nuf = 0.0009 (Ref2 Kf )0.5 (9.4)
for incomplete evaporation, viz., dryness fraction at exit, x0 £ 0.9, and
Nuf = 0.0082 (Ref2 Kf )0.5 (9.5)
for complete evaporation, viz., exit condition 6°C superheated.
Here Nuf and Ref are the liquid Nusselt and Reynold numbers respectively, and Kf
is the load factor defined by
D x h fg
Kf =
L
where L is the length of the tube, and Dx is the change in dryness fraction.
The expression for incomplete evaporation has been found to conform to
experimental data more precisely.
There are some expressions which involve the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter
0 relating the two-phase heat-transfer coefficient hTP with the single liquid phase
coefficient hf.
LM F 1 I OP 0.67 0.6
Bo ´ 10 + G
MN H 0 JK PQ
4
Chaddock hTP = 1.85 hf (9.6)
tt
Q / A q hDT
where Bo = Boiling number = = =
( m / A ) h fg Gh fg Gh fg
0tt is the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter for turbulent flow given by
F 1 - x IJ FG r IJ FG m IJ
= G
0 .9 0.5 0.1
H x K Hr K Hm K
g f
0tt
f g
and hf is the liquid phase forced-convection heat-transfer coefficient for turbulent flow.
Bogdanov3
Bogdanov gives a very simple correlation for refrigerants boiling inside tubes, viz.,
G 0. 4 D T
h = z2 (9.7)
Di
where G is mass velocity in kg/m2. s and h is in W/m2.K. z is a factor depending on
the refrigerant and temperature as given in Table 9.1 for R 22 and R 142.
Table 9.1 Values of z in Equation (9.7)
Temp., °C R22 R142

– 30 0.99 0.61
– 10 1.22 0.76
+ 10 1.54 0.94
+ 30 1.82 1.17
F1I n
Lavin and Young 10

hTP = C hf GH 0 JK tt
(9.8)
where C = 3.5 and n = 0.75 for R 12 as found by Murty11.

All the above expressions are applicable to horizontal-tube evaporators.
There are other correlations which have also been proposed for the nucleate
range. They yield a varying exponent of Q /A vs. Dt increasing with Dt, in the range
of 2 to 4. Thus
q = Q /A = C (Dt)2 to 4 (9.9)
Dividing both sides by D t, we get the boiling heat-transfer coefficient
Q
h= = C (D t)n
ADt
where n lies between 1 and 3. All boiling correlations can be reduced to this form.
This form of equation is very suitable for computer work as precise values of the
constants C and n at different x can be given for different parts of the nucleate boiling
range which can simultaneously occur in the case of refrigerant boiling inside a tube.
Of late, Chawla4 and Dembi, Dhar and Arora6 have obtained generalized semi-
empirical correlations to satisfactorily predict the pressure drop and heat transfer
of the refrigerants evaporating inside horizontal tubes. Dembi, Dhar and Arora’s
correlations have minimum RMS error and are as follows:
For forced convection vaporization (annular flow region)
hD G 2 hfg LM OP 0.44
MN PQ
4 2 0.11
= 0.115 [x (1 – x )] [Prf ] 0.7 (9.10)
kf gs rf
Evaporators 327
For nucleate flow boiling (stratified flow region)
hD LM q gD OP LM OP LM
0.64
G2 D
0.27
OP 0.14
MN PQ MN PQ NM PQ
= 23388.5 (9.11)
kf r g h fg w¢¢ h fg s rf
where w² is the vapour bubble growth rate parameter correlated as follows:
FG p IJ 1.4
w² = 0.36 ´ 10–3
H pK
c (9.12)
Equation (9.10) applies to very low Dt values while Eq. (9.11) applies to high Dt
values, corresponding to similar regimes in pool boiling. In case of doubt, the one
giving a higher numerical value of h may be used.
9.2.5 Horizontal vs. Vertical Tube

The boiling in vertical tube evaporators is characterised by the separation of
the liquid from the vapour emerging from its surface. It, therefore, represents a case of
pool boiling. Also, the hydrostatic pressure exerted by a column of liquid flooding the
evaporator causes an increase in the saturation temperature. The heat-transfer coeffi-
cient as well as tw – ts within vertical tube evaporator are, therefore, very small.
On the contrary, in horizontal tube coil evaporators, it is only at small velocities
of flow inside the tube that the separation of phases occurs. As the length of a single
coil is considerable and the vapour content of the refrigerant increases steadily, a
vapour-liquid emulsion appears with an ever increasing volume flowing correspond-
ingly faster resulting in a high value of the heat-transfer coefficient as in the case of
forced-convection boiling. High refrigerant vapour velocities also ensure the return
of oil to the compressor.
9.2.6 Effect of Oil in Refrigerant on Heat Transfer

It is generally assumed that the effect of oil is to decrease the boiling heat transfer
coefficient because of its high viscosity. A 5 per cent solution of oil may have about
45 per cent greater viscosity than pure refrigerant. The corresponding effect on the
heat-transfer coefficient would be to diminish it by 60 per cent. In this calculation
the effect of slightly increased thermal conductivity and decreased specific heat due
to oil has not been considered.
The experiments, however, show that the average heat-transfer coefficient first
increases reaching a peak at about 4 per cent oil content and then decreases. The
higher coefficient is attributed to the onset of annular flow with oil at low volume
flow rates, i.e., in the inlet region of the tube. Also, the oil may act as a wetting
agent for refrigerant so that the bubbles are swept away from the surface in the
low-velocity region.
Notwithstanding this improvement in h at small oil concentrations, the value of h
at 9 to 10 per cent oil would be about the same as that for an oil-free refrigerant.
Example 9.1 Basic Design of Direct-Expansion Chiller

Some of the design details of a Refrigerant 22, 20 TR, D-X chiller are as follows:
Effective tube length 221.5 cm
Diameter of tubes 1.905 cm OD, 1.704 cm ID
Number of refrigerant passes 8

Entering water temperature 11.1°C
Leaving water temperature 7.2°C
Refrigerant temperature at inlet 2.2°C
Condensing temperature 43.3°C
The water-side heat-transfer coefficient h0 may be taken as 4,650 W.m–2 °C–1.
The refrigerant-side coefficient may be approximated by
hi = 230 D t W.m–2 °C–1
Find the number of tubes in the last pass. Assume equal enthalpy change in
all passes. Neglect the thickness and thermal resistance of the tube wall.
Solution Heat transfer in each pass

(20)(3.5167)
Q = = 8.792 kW
8
Temperature drop of water in each pass
111. - 7.2 3.9
D tw = = = 0.49°C
8 8
Mass flow rate of water
(20)(2.5167)
m w = = 4.307 kg/s
(4.1868)( 3.9)
For Eighth Pass
Entering water temperature, tw1 = 11.1°C
Leaving water temperature, tw2 = 11.1 – 0.49 = 10.61°C
Mean temperature difference
0.49
D tm = = 8.85°C
ln (111. - 2.2)/(10.61 - 2.2)
Assume mean tube wall temperature tm = 8.8°C. Then the refrigerant-side film
coefficient is
hi = 230 (8.8 – 2.2) = 1518 W. m–2 K–1
Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside tube surface area
1 1 1 A0 1 1 1.905 FG IJ
U0
= +
h0 hi Ai
= +
4650 1518 1.704 H K
Þ U0 = 1051 W.m–2 K–1
Heat transfer area of the pass
Q 8.792 ´ 103
A0 = = = 0.945 m2
U 0 D tm (1051)(8.85)
1.704
Ai = 0.945 ´ = 0.845 m2
1.905
Check for the assumed valve of tm
Q 8.792 ´ 103
tm = 2.2 + = 2.2 + = 9.05°C
hi Ai (1518)( 0.845)
Evaporators 329
Further iteration converges at

tm = 9°C, hi = 1564 W.m–2 K–1.
U0 = 1076 Wm–2 K–1, A0 = 0.924 m2
Number of tubes in the pass
A 0.924
n= =– = 6.974
p D0 L p (0.01905) (2.215)
Take 7 tubes. Then the heat transfer in the pass is
Q = 7 (8.792) = 8.82 kW
6.974
Water temperature drop in the pass remains same as assumed, viz.,
7
Dt w = (0.49) = 0.49°C
6.974
Note In the above calculations, a large number of simplifications have been made which
include the following:
(i) The water-side coefficient is constant.
(ii) The refrigerant-side coefficient is not dependent upon the dryness fraction and an
extremely simplified expression is used.
(iii) Tube wall and fouling resistances (0.0005 m2 k/W) have been neglected. Recom-
mended fouling resistance for Chillers is 0.0005 m2 k/W.
(iv) The refrigerant-side pressure drop is neglected. If considered, this will reduce the
temperature potential in the chiller and hence increase the surface area and
number of tubes.
(v) The effect of tube spacing, baffle pitch, etc., on the water-side coefficient is ignored.
(vi) LMTD will also be affected by baffle pitch, baffle cut, etc.
9.3 EXTENDED SURFACE EVAPORATORS
Extended surfaces are used in the evaporators both on the refrigerant-side as well as
on the cooled medium side depending on which heat-transfer coefficient is lower.
Flooded evaporators are used in chillers for water or brine. The pool-boiling
refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient in flooded evaporators is very low. The
order of magnitude is 396 W/m2.K as against 4170 W/m2.K for water flowing inside
tubes. Accordingly, integral fins on the outside of tubes as illustrated in Figs 7.6
and 9.6(a) are used on the refrigerant side.
A1
A3
A2 b
rfin
r0
ri
C / L of Tube
Fig. 9.6 (a) Integral fin tube construction showing tip areas A1,
base areas A2 and fin surface areas A3
Direct-expansion evaporators are used both for

(i) chilling water or brine, and
(ii) cooling air.
In direct-expansion chillers, the refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient with
refrigerant boiling inside tubes is lower than water-side coefficient. Hence, either
inner fins to increase the area, or enhanced surfaces to improve the heat-transfer
coefficient, or both are used.
In direct-expansion cooling coils for air, there may be natural or forced convection
on the air-side. In both cases, the heat-transfer coefficients on the air-side are very low.
In natural convection evaporators as used in domestic refrigerators, the air-side
coefficient is very-very low. With the use of bonded evaporators that provide extended
surface on the air-side, the heat transfer conductance is somewhat improved. Still the
air-side coefficient remains the controlling coefficient in such evaporators. The overall
coefficient is lower than the effective natural convection air-side coefficient.
The present frost-free refrigerators, however, use forced convection of air by a
fan between freezer compartment of the refrigerator and the evaporator coil which is
located outside the cabinet.
In forced convection evaporators also as used in
air conditioners, the air-side coefficient is quite low.
Extended surface evaporators, as shown in
Fig. 9.6(b) are extensively used for cooling of air l
since the air-side heat-transfer coefficient is much b
lower than the boiling coefficient. Coupled with
forced convection, high overall heat-transfer coef-
ficients can be achieved in D-X coil evaporators. Tip of
Generally, fins for cooling coils are made of the Fin
thin aluminium (material with high thermal con- Root of the
Fin
ductivity) sheets mounted on the copper tubes by
applying oil pressure of the order of 150 bar inside
X
the tubes so that perfect contact between the roots
Fig. 9.6 (b) Configuration of
of the fins and the tubes is achieved. In all, fins are rectangular fins
provided with a spacing corresponding to about 5
fins per cm. The thickness b and the height l of the fins [Fig. 9.6(b)] are of the order
of 1 mm and 1.5 cm respectively. Air velocities of the order of 2.5 to 3 m/s are used.
If we assume the entire fin at the same temperature as the root of the fin and the
outside total/finned surface to the inside surface area ratio as At /Ai, then the reduced
air-side heat transfer resistance can be written as
Ai
Rair =
At f g
where fg is the film coefficient on the air-side. The symbol f is used here instead of h
for the heat-transfer coefficient so that it is not confused with enthalpy in the later
chapters.
However, the temperature over the fin varies from the metal wall temperature at
the root to approximately the air temperature at the tip. This will result in decreased
heat flux. The ratio of the heat actually transferred to the heat which would be
Evaporators 331
transferred if the entire fin were at the root temperature, is defined as the fin
efficiency hf and is given by the expression (See Chapter 1)
tanh (ml )
hf =
ml
2 fg
where m=
kb
in which k is the thermal conductivity of the fin material.
Accordingly, the air-side resistance can be modified to
Ai
Rair =
( Aunfinned + h f Afinned ) f g
where Aunfinned and Afinned are the unfinned and finned areas of the surface.
9.3.1 Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils

Extended surface cooling and dehumidifying coils used in air conditioning can
now be designed. Taking into account the extended surface, the equations for heat
transfer now dQI through the air film only, and dQII through the remaining combined
thermal resistance of the refrigerant, metal wall and condensed water layer are
respectively (See Sec. 20.3 and Fig. 20.4)
h Af
d Q I = f t g (h – hs) d Ai (9.13)
Ai C p
d Q II = Ui (ts – tr) dAi (9.14)

Combining Eqs (9.13) and (9.14), since d QI = d Q II, we have
t s - tr h f A
= f g t = const. (9.15)
h - hs Ui C p Ai
where tr = Refrigerant temperature
ts = Temperature of the wetted surface
h = Enthalpy of air
hs = Enthalpy of saturated air at the temperature of the wetted surface
Ui = Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on inside tube surface area
accounting for the thermal resistance of refrigerant side film, metal
wall and outside condensate layer
Cp = Specific heat of air.
A detailed discussion on cooling and dehumidifying coils is given in Chapter 20.
Example 9.2 Simulation of Flooded Chiller

The word ‘simulation’ means recreation and validation of design and performance.
In an R 22 flooded chiller, the design conditions are as follows:
Evaporation temperature, t0 = 2°C
Chilled water inlet temperature, tw1 = 11.1°C
Chilled water circulation rate, m w = 24.332 kg/s
Construction details of the chiller are as follows:

Tube OD, D0 = 0.01704 m Tube 1D, Di = 0.01379 m
Tube length, L = 3.69 m
Number of passes, n = 2
Number of tubes per pass = 114
As the refrigerant-side heat transfer coefficient in pool boiling is very much
lower than water-side coefficient, integral fin tubes with the following specifica-
tions are used:
Number of fins = 748 per metre
Diameter over fins, Dfin = 0.01905 m
Fin thickness, b = 0.8 mm
Estimate the capacity of the chiller in kW, accurate to the first approximation.
Solution First Approximation Let the temperature drop across the outside
refrigerant film be DT0 = 5°C, and let the water leaving temperature be tw2 = 7°C.
Surface tension of R 22 at 2°C from Eq. (4.24) and constants given is
s = 0.0115 N/m
Thermodynamic and thermophysical properties of R 22 at 2°C are:
hfg = 203.7 kJ/kg Cf = 1.177 kJ/kg.K
rf = 1279 kg/m3 rg = 22.573 kg/m3
mf = 0.231 ´ 10 kg/ms
–3
mg = 1.2 ´ 10–5 kg/m.s
kf = 0.1 W/m.K Prf = 3.07
Refrigerant-side pool-boiling heat-transfer coefficient from Rohsenow correla-
tion Eq. (9.1) written as below:
LM g (r - r ) OP LM C D T
f g
1/ 2
f
OP 3
h0 DT = m f hfg
N s Q MN 0.013h Pr fg
1.7
f PQ
h0 (5) = (0.231 ´ 10–3) (203.7 ´ 103)
LM 9.81(1279 - 22.573) OP LM 1177 .

1/ 2
´ 10 (5) OP 3 3
N 0.0115 Q N 0.013(203.7 ´ 10 )(3.07) Q 3 1.7
Þ h0 = 396 W/m2.K
Mean temperature of water
t w1 + t w2
. +7
111
tw = =
= 9.05°C
2 2
Thermophysical properties of water at 9.05°C
k = 0.579 W/m.K m = 1.346 ´ 10–3 kg/m.s
r = 1001.1 kg/m3 C = 4.1988 kJ/kg.K
Pr = 9.663
Area of flow of water (114 tubes)
p
A = 114 (0.01379)2 = 0.0175 m2
4
Evaporators 333
Mass velocity of water

m w 24.332
G= = = 1430 kg/s.m2
A 0.0175
Reynolds number of water
GDi 1430(0.01379)
Re = = = 14,651
m 1.346 ´ 10-3
Water-side forced-convection heat-transfer coefficient inside tubes using
Dittus-Boelter equation
hi Di
= Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.3
k
hi (0.01379)
= 0.023 (14,651)0.8 (9.663)0.3
0.579
Þ hi = 4170 W/m2.K
Area Calculations Figure 9.6(a) shows the construction of an integral fin tube.
Now, per metre length of tube, we have:
Ai = p Di L = p (0.01379) = 0.0433 m2
A0 = p D0 L = p (0.01704) = 0.0548 m2
A1 = 748 p Dfin b = 748 p (0.01905) (0.8 ´ 10–3) = 0.0358 m2
A2 = A0 – A1 = 0.0548 – 0.0358 – 0.019 m2
2p p
2 A3 = (D2fin – D20) 748 = (0.019052 – 0.017042) 748
4 2
= 0.0852 m2
Fin area Afin = A1 + 2A3 = 0.0358 + 0.0852 = 0.121 m2
Base area Abase = A2 = 0.019 m2
Total effective heat transfer area
At = Abase + hf Afin = 0.019 + (1) (0.121) = 0.14 m2
Fin efficiency for these circular short fins is found to be hf = 1 from Eq. (1.64).
Heat Transfer Calculations Neglecting metal wall resistance and fouling factor,
we have for overall heat-transfer coefficient based on total effective heat transfer
area At
1 1 1
= + = Ri + R0
U t At hi Ai h0 At
1 1
= + = 5.58 ´ 10–3 + 0.01804
4170 (0.0433) 396 (0.14)
Þ Ut At = 42.42 W/K per metre tube length
Temperature differentials at inlet and outlet
DT1 = 11.1 – 2 = 9.1°C, D T2 = 7 – 2 = 5°C
9.1 − 2
LMTD, DTm = = 6.85°C
ln (9.1/ 5)
Heat transfer rate Q = (Ut At) DTm = (42.42) (6.85) = 290 W/m length
Total heat transfer rate: Estimated capacity of chiller
Q = 290 (2 ´ 114 ´ 3.69) = 244,000 W = 244 kW
Checking tw2 Assumption
Q 244
tw2 = tw1 – = 11.1 – = 8.706°C
m w Cw (24.332)( 4.1988)
Successive iterations give
tw2 = 8.43°C, DTm = 7.69°C, Q = 274 kW (Stop)
Second Approximation It is seen that refrigerant-side film resistance is
R0 = 0.01804 K/W per metre length of tube.
Checking assumption and updating value of DT0
DT0 = R0 Q = (0.01804) (290) = 5.23°C
So, our assumption of DT0 = 5°C was quite good (only 4.4% away from 5.23°C).
However, calculations may be repeated with the new value.
9.4 AUGMENTATION OF BOILING HEAT TRANSFER
As stated earlier, the overall resistance to heat transfer is greatly dependent upon the
largest of the component resistances constituting it. In evaporators for conditioning
air with bare tubes, the value of the heat-transfer coefficient on the refrigerant-side is
several times higher than that of the air-side and the intensification of the boiling
process has no practical influence on heat-transfer conditions. On the other hand, the
necessity of intensification of the boiling process becomes fully evident in evapora-
tors with finned tubes, viz., cooling coils for air, where the air-side effective coeffi-
cient reaches very high values. The same applies all the more to evaporators for
cooling liquids, such as brine chillers for ammonia ice-plants and water chillers for
air conditioning, in which the water/brine side coefficient reaches values of the
order of 5000 W/m2.K, or even higher.
As a typical example, we consider the case of a 1 TR evaporator, working with
a nominal heat flux of 23.3 kW/m2 and having a refrigerant flow rate of 62.0, and
11.5 kg/hr for R 22 and ammonia respectively, for t0 = – 15°C and tk = 30°C. Assum-
ing a single tube of 1 cm dia as the evaporator tube, we obtain the refrigerant side
heat transfer coefficients as below:
R 22 R 717
4036 3559 W m–2 °C–1
On the other hand, the water side coefficient can be as high as 6000 W m–2 °C–1.
Thus, there is a large scope for the improvement of the boiling heat-transfer coefficient.
The modern trend towards compact, high heat-flux chillers, using small hydraulic
dia tubes, thus necessitates the use of suitable augmentation techniques.
9.4.1 Influence of Refrigerant Vapour Pressure Characteristic

The effect of using an augmentation method is to increase the heat transfer rate. But,
it increases the pressure drop as well. The effect of increased pressure drop is either
Evaporators 335
(i) to cause a lowering of the compressor suction pressure and thus to decrease
the capacity and performance of the whole system, or
(ii) to cause a decrease in the temperature potential (at the same suction pressure)
for heat transfer and thus nullify, to some extent, the increase in the heat
transfer obtained. Figures 9.8 and 10.7 illustrate this case. Augmentation of
heat-transfer coefficient decreases the size of the evaporator, whereas
decrease in DT increases its size.
A proper optimal balance between the two is, therefore, necessary. It is obvious
that a refrigerant which causes a small change in the saturation temperature for a
given change in the saturation pressure, will have a smaller fall in the temperature
potential due to increased pressure drop in the evaporator. A qualitative estimate
of the suitability of various refrigerants for use with augmentation techniques is
thus provided by Table 9.2, which gives the temperature change corresponding to
a saturation pressure change of 0.01 bar. It can be clearly seen that R 22 is the
most suitable refrigerant for augmentation since it has the least saturation tempera-
ture change.
Table 9.2 Temperature change of refrigerants for 0.01 bar pressure drop
Temperature R 134a R 21 R 22 R 717

Range, °C
0 to 5 0.0876 0.312 0.0569 0.0585
– 10 to – 20 0.1475 5.65 0.0893 0.098
– 35 to – 40 0.335 14.9 1.792 2.26
It can be anticipated that with R 21, no substantial improvement in net heat trans-
fer unit pressure drop may be possible while with R 134a, R 717 and R 22, signifi-
cant improvements (in that order) may be obtained.
9.4.2 Augmentation Techniques

A large number of methods for the augmentation of heat transfer exist. These meth-
ods either increase the coefficient or increase the effective surface area, or do both.
The most common of them are as follows:
(i) Turbulence promoters. (ii) Swirl flow generators.
(iii) Extended surfaces. (iv) Inner fins.
(v) Recirculation. (vi) Roughening of surfaces.
9.4.3 Recirculation
This is one method of augmentation of boiling heat transfer. Evaporators with
pumped circulation of the refrigerant are widely used in ammonia systems and are
becoming popular in large refrigeration systems using R 22 as well. With recircu-
lation the heat-transfer coefficient increases not only with an increased rate of
circulation of the refrigerant (i.e. increased Reynolds number), but also due to a
decrease in the average dryness fraction over the length of the evaporator tube and
consequent flooded operation as explained in Fig. 9.5. Simultaneously, the pressure
drop in the evaporator is also increased.
A recirculation number n is defined for such an evaporator as

Refrigerant circulation rate
n=
Refrigerant evaporation rate
Where the inlet quality is zero, the change of vapour quality D x is related to recircu-
lation number n, according to the relation
1
Dx =
n
An illustration of a coil evaporator with forced recirculation of the refrigerant is
given in Fig. 9.7. The system requires an accumulator on the low-pressure side fed
by a float valve. A disadvantage of this system is the necessity of a pump to circulate
the refrigerant requiring pump, piping, and additional power consumption and
liquid-line insulation.
Suction
Line
Accumulator
Liquid Line
Evaporator
Recirculating Pump
Fig. 9.7 Recirculation type evaporators
Overfeeding of the evaporator by recirculation assures full-flooded operation and

in this regard an optimum heat-transfer rate is possible. For example, a certain
amount of evaporator surface is required to superheat gas to actuate a thermostatic-
expansion valve. This length of tubing is saved by obtaining flooded operation by
the use of recirculation as in flooded evaporators. At the same time, a high heat
transfer coefficient is attained corresponding to forced convection boiling at high
Reynolds number instead of pool boiling.
In ammonia systems a recirculation number of n = 4 is generally employed. It
means that only one-fourth of the feed is vaporized, i.e., the quality x0 = 0.25 at the
exit of the evaporator so that D x = 0.25 = 1/n.
However, the pressure drop in the evaporator also increases with quality and
reaches a maximum. With the increasing rate of recirculation, the pressure drop is
increased. And as usual, a high pressure drop in the evaporator will offset the advan-
tage of the increased heat-transfer coefficient by the decrease in the available tem-
perature potential at the same suction pressure. An optimum recirculation number,
therefore, depends on a number of factors, such as the cost of the tubing, pump, and
insulation of the liquid line, pump work, etc. Due to the complexity of the problem,
a simplified choice of an optimum recirculation number can be made on thermody-
namic considerations alone. At a given evaporator duty, it is the one resulting in the
highest possible overall heat-transfer coefficient. An even better choice is the
recirculation number resulting in the minimum heat transfer surface of the evapora-
tor corresponding to the design pressure in the suction line.
Evaporators 337
An added advantage of recirculation-type evaporators is the convenience of

separation and drainage of excess oil from the accumulator. Also, both in ammonia
and R 22 systems, a higher COP is obtained with flooded operation as the suction
state is not superheated (See Chap. 3). Another advantage of liquid recirculation for
refrigeration is the ease of control of the refrigerant, specially in multi evaporator
system, i.e., the elimination of such problems as precise setting of an expansion
valve, hunting or flooding over.
The main disadvantage in recirculation by the use of a pump is the cavitation
problem encountered, speciality since it works at low pressures and temperatures.
9.4.4 Use of Wire Screens in D-X Evaporators4

An appreciable increase in the heat-transfer coefficient of boiling R 22 is possible
by fitting wire screens to the inside wall of the tube. The largest increase is obtained
at low-quality values where they act as turbulence promoters. Also, a considerable
decrease in the fluctuation of the wall temperature is achieved by using them in the
dry-out region of high-quality vapour. The increase in pressure drop in the annular
flow region may not justify their use throughout the evaporator.
9.4.5 Using Roughened Surfaces: Slipcevic Correlations16,17,18

As seen in Example 9.2, pool-boiling refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient in
flooded evaporators is less than 1/10th the value of water-side coefficient. Two
remedies are adopted to decrease the resistance and increase the conductance on
refrigerant side:
(i) Increasing area by providing integral fins as in Example 9.2.
(ii) Improving heat-transfer coefficient by introducing roughness by any of the
following methods:
(a) One stage chemical etching with HNO3.
(b) Two stage chemical etching with HNO3 and (NH4) S2O3.
(c) Rubbing with coarse grain emery.
Slipsevic gives the following correlations for evaluating refrigerant-side heat-
transfer coefficient for flooded chillers with roughened integral fin tubes. The
roughness parameter R p is specified as the height of grains on roughened surface.
F Ph I n2
Nu =
hL
kf
= 230 fa0.1 Rern1 GH P JK
rf
e 0.133 (9.16)
n1 = 0.75 fa– 0.144 φ 0p.088φ a

–0. 25
where (9.17)
n2 = 0.75 fa– 0.13 f p– 0.28 (9.18)
A
Area ratio, fa = t (9.19)
A0
p
Pressure ratio, fp = (9.20)
pc
Rp
Roughness factor, e= (9.21)
L
L
L= M
s OP 0.5
MN g( r PQ
Laplace constant, (9.22)
f - rg)
CT
Capacity ratio, Ph = (9.23)
h fg
qt L
Refrigerant Reynolds No., Rer = (9.24)
h fg m f
where qt is the heat flux based on outside total finned tube surface area. Pr is the
f
liquid Prandtl number.
Note Subscripts i, 0 and t refer to inside tube, outside tube and total outside finned tube
surface areas respectively.
Example 9.3 Design of Flooded Chiller with Roughened Surface15

An R 22 flooded chiller is to be designed with the following specifications:
Refrigerating capacity 422 kW
Evaporator temperature 2°C
Chilled water temperatures 11.1°C Inlet: 7°C Outlet
Number of passes 2
ID, OD and length of tubes, diameter over integral fins, fin thickness and spac-
ing, thermodynamic and thermophysical properties of R 22 and water are the
same as in Example 9.2. Take into account the inside and outside fouling and
metal tube wall resistances.
Given fouling resistances and thermal conductivity of tubes as:
(Rfouling)i = 0.00007 m2K/W
(Rfouling)0 = 0.00009 m2K/W
ktubes = 0.386 kW/m.K
Tubes are roughened with roughness parameter
Rp = 0.5 m m
Determine the number of tubes required. Assume equal number of tubes in each
pass. Use Slipcevic correlations. Assume fin efficiency hf = 1.
Solution Evaporator pressure, p0 = 5.283 bar (at 2°C)

Critical pressure of R 22, pc = 49.36 bar
p0 5.283
fp = = = 0.107
pc 49.36
From Example 9.2, per metre length of tube, we have
At 0.13998
fa = = = 2.5544
A0 0.0548
Evaporators 339
Hence,
–0.25
n1 = 0.75 (2.5544)–0.144 (0.107)0.088 (2.5544) = 0.54
–0.13 –0.28
n2 = 0.75 (2.5544) (0.107) = 1.235
LM σ OP 0 .5
=
LM 0.0115 OP 0.5
= 9.656 ´ 10–4 m
L=
MN g(ρ − ρ ) PQ
f g N 9.81(1279 − 22.573) Q
Rp 0.5 ´ 10-6
e= = = 5.178 ´ 10–4
L 9.656 ´ 10-4
First Approximation
Assume number of tubes, n = 228
Length of tubes, l = 3.69 m
Area/m length of tube = 0.14 m2
Q 422 ´ 103
qt = = = 3583 W/m2
At nl 0.14 ´ 228(3.69)
qt L (3583)(9.656 ´ 10-4 )
Rer = = = 0.0735
h fg m f (203.7 ´ 10-3 )( 0.231 ´ 10-3 )
Cf T 1.77(273 + 2)
Ph = = = 1.589
hf g 203.7
Prf = 2.798
F Ph I e n2
Nu =
h0 L
kf
= 230 (fa)0.1 Rern1 GH P JK rf
0.133
FG 1.589 IJ 1.235
(5.178 ´ 10–4)0.133 = 11.2
= 230 (2.5544)0.1
H 2.798 K
0.54
(0.0735)
11.2 (0.1)
h0 = = 1127 W/m2.K
9.656 ´ 10-4
At 0.14
Area ratio = = 3.231
Ai 0.0433
Overall heat transfer coefficient
1 At A ln ( D0 / Di ) 1
= + (Rfouling)i t + (Rfouling)0 + At +
Ut hi A i Ai 2p k ln h0 h fin
3.231
= + 0.00007 (3.231) + 0.00009
4170
ln (0.01704 / 0.01379) 1
+ +
2p (386)(3.69)( 228) 1127(1)
Þ Ut = 495.5 W/m2.K

(11.2 - 2) - (7 - 2)
DTm = = 6.89°C
ln (9.2 / 5)
Total finned tube surface area required
Q 0 422 ´ 103
At = = = 123.6 m2
U t D Tm 495.5(6.89)
Inside tube surface area required
At 123.6
Ai = = = 38.254 m2
3.231 3.231
Number of tubes required
Ai 38.254
n= = = 240
p Di l p (0.01379)( 3.69)
Second Approximation Assume number of tubes now, n = 240, and repeat calcula-
tions. We find that there is no change in n. The solution has thus converged after the
first approximation itself.
9.5 PRESSURE DROP IN EVAPORATORS
Pressure drop in evaporators is quite significant particularly in direct-expansion

evaporators. Pressure drops in evaporator tubes not only due to friction but also due to
increase in momentum as a result of increase in volume and hence velocity consequent
upon vaporization of liquid into vapour. The effect of pressure drop is detrimental to
the performance of the refrigerating machine as discussed in Sec. 10.5. It essentially
decreases the suction pressure and hence refrigerating capacity.
The total pressure drop D pT in the evaporator has the following three components
(i) Friction pressure drop D pF.
(ii) Acceleration or momentum pressure drop D pM.
(iii) Pressure drop/gain due to change in level.
The static pressure drop gradient due to change in level is usually small. The
other two pressure drops can be calculated using Chawla’s5 correlations as follows:
FG d p IJ FG d p IJ FG d p IJ
H dyK T
=
H dyK F
+
H dyK M
(9.25)
FG d p IJ 0.3164 G2 x 7/4 1- x LM OP 19 / 8
H d yK F
=
(GDi / m g ) 0.25
2 Di r g
1+
x e RrMN PQ
(9.26)
FG d p IJ LMF1 - 1 I F1 + 1 - x e I + F1 + 1 - x I (1 - e )OP
MNGH e R JK GH x JK GH x e R JK PQ
4 Gq x
H dyK M
=
Di h fg r f r r
(9.27)
where the two-phase flow parameter e is defined as

F 1 - x I [Re
e = 62 GH x R JK
m
f Frf ]–1/6 [Rr]–0.9 (9.28)
Evaporators 341
G (1 - x ) 2
and Ref = (9.29)
mf
Frf = G2 (1 – x)2/(rf2 g Di )
G 2 (1 - x ) 2 G 2 (1 - x ) 2
= = (9.30)
(1279) 2 (9.81)(0.0158) 253550
Rr = rf /rg = 56.93 (9.31)
Rm = mf /mg = 18.92 (9.32)
Calculated values in Eqs (9.30) to (9.32) are for R 22 in Example 9.5.
Example 9.4 Estimation of D-X Chiller Capacity (Simulation)

The following specifications are given for an R 22 D-X Chiller.
Condensing temperature, tk 43°C
Saturated suction temperature 2°C
Number of passes, n 8
Tubes in each pass 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 32, 32, 34
Evaporator superheat 5°C
Inlet water temperature, tw1 11.1°C
Outlet water temperature, tw2 7.2°C
Refrigerant pressure drop in
evaporator 0.14 bar (assumed)
Shell diameter, Ds 0.406 m
Tube length between tube sheets, l 2.213 m
Tube ID, Di 0.0158 m
Tube OD, D0 0.0191 m
Tube pitch (triangular), PT 0.0222 m
Number of baffles 21
Baffle pitch, PB 0.0762 m
Baffle cut 0.094 m
Estimate the refrigerating capacity of the chiller. Take thermodynamic and
thermophysical properties of R 22 at 2°C from Example 9.2. Use flow boiling
correlation for first and second passes, forced convection boiling correlation for
middle passes, and Dittus-Boelter equation for x ³ 0.975 for finding refrigerant-
side heat-transfer coefficients.
Solution Figure 9.8 shows the p-h diagram. Suction temperature is 7°C with
5°C superheat. The temperature at evaporator inlet is 2.86°C because of 0.14 bar
pressure drop. The quality at evaporator inlet is x4 = 0.2517.
Q 0
Refrigerant mass flow rate m r =
h1 - h4
First Approximation Assume a refrigerating capacity of 140.7 kW. Then
140.7
m r = = 0.9 kg/s
409.7 - 253.7
h 3 = h 4 = 253.7 kJ/kg
3 2
p
2.86°C
4
0.14 bar
5.308 bar 1
2°C 7°C
h h1 = 409.7 kJ/kg
Fig. 9.8 p-h diagram for Example 9.4
Refrigerant flow area in a pass with n number of tubes

p D 2i p
A=n =n (0.0158)2 = 1.96 ´ 10–4 n m2
4 4
m 0.9 4590
Refrigerant mass velocity G = r = -4
= kg/s.m2
A 1.96 ´ 10 n n
Shell-side heat-transfer coefficient (Kern’s correlation9)
hD0 DGs FG IJ 0 .55
FG µ IJ 0 .14
= 0.36
H K Hµ K
1/ 3
Nu = (Pr) (9.33)
k µ wall
Neglecting viscosity variation between bulk and wall fluid, we have
hD0 FG
De Gs IJ 0 . 55
Nu =
k
= 0.36
H µ K (Pr)1 / 3
Now, tube pitch, PT = 0.0222

Tube OD, D0 = 0.0191 m
Equivalent diameter for triangular pitch
4 LM
0.86 PT2 -
p D02 OP
N Q
De = (9.34)
p D0 4
= 9.15 ´ 10 m
–3
Calculation of mass flow rate of water

Q0 = m C (t – t )
w p w1 w2
Assuming a net refrigerating capacity of 140.7 kW, we get
140.7 = m w (4.1868) (11.1 – 7.2)
Þ m w = 8.617 kg/s
Cross-flow area Ss is defined as
P
Ss = Ds (PT – D0) × B (9.35)
PT
We have shell dia, Ds = 0.406 m
Tube length 2 .213
Baffle pitch, PB = = = 0.1 m
No. of baffles 22
Evaporators 343
0.1
Ss = 0.406 (0.0222 – 0.0191) = 5.67 ´ 10–3 m2
0.0222
Shell-side mass velocity of water
m 8.617
Gs = w = = 1601 kg/s.m2
Ss 5.67 ´ 10-3
Bulk mean temperature of water
tw 1 + tw2 . + 7.2
111
tw = = = 9.15°C
2 2
Thermophysical properties of water at 9.15°C
r = 1001.5 kg/m3, m = 1.304 ´ 10–3 kg/m.s
k = 0.586 W/m.K, Pr = 9.39
Substituting values in Eq. (9.33), we get for the shell-side (water-side) heat-
transfer coefficient
h0 = 3939 W/m2.K
Heat Transfer Calculations for Passes I and II (nucleate Flow Boiling Regime)
First Pass (Number of tubes, nI = 12)
Refrigerant mass velocity in Pass I
4590 4590
GI = = = 382.5 kg/s.m2
nI 12
Heat transfer area of Pass I
AI = nI p Di l = 12 p (0.0158) (2.213) = 1.3175 m2
Assume equal heat transfer in all passes. Then, for heat transfer in Pass I
Q 140.7
Q I = = = 17.6 kW = m r D h = qI AI
n 8
Þ D hI = Enthalpy rise of refrigerant in Pass I = 19.55 kJ/kg
Þ qI = Heat flux in Pass I = 13.34 kW/m2
Mean temperature of refrigerant
2.86 + 2
tr = = 2.43°C
2
Vapour bubble growth rate parameter for calculation of inside (refrigerant-side)
heat-transfer coefficient using nucleate flow boiling correlation
FG p IJ 1.4
FG 49.78IJ 1.4
w² = 0.36 ´ 10–3
H pK = 0.36 ´ 10–3
H 5.308 K
c
= 0.008
Substituting values in nucleate flow boiling correlation Eq. (9.11), we get

hi (0.0158) LM
q OP 0.64
N Q
= 23388.5
0.0971 ( 22.57)( 203.7 )( 0.0008)
L 9.81(0.0158) OP LM 382.5 (0.0158) OP

´ M
0.27 2 0 .14
N 203.7 ´ 10 Q N 0.0115(1279) Q
3
Þ hi = 689 q0.64
First Approximation Assume q = 13.34 kW/m2 as before. Then

hi = 689 (13.34)0.64 = 3617 W/m2.K
1 1LM+
1 D ln( D0 / Di )
+ i +
1 Di OP
Ui
=
hiMN hfouling 2 k Cu h0 D0 PQ
L1
= M + 0.00009 +
1 F 0.0158 I O
Nh
i
0.0158 ln (0.0191/ 0.0158)
2(387)
+ G JP
3939 H 0.0191K Q
L1 O
= M + 0.00031P
Nh
i Q
Þ Ui = 1730 W/m2.K = 1.73 kW/m2.K
q I = Ui (Twater – Trefrigerant) = 1.73 (9.15 – 2.43) = 11.63 kW/m2
which is less than assumed value of 13.34 kW/m2. After a number of iterations, the
solution converges at
hi = 3144 W/m2 K, Ui = 1592 W/m2K, qI = 10.7 kW/m2
Heat transfer in Pass I
Q I = q I AI = 10.7 (12) p (0.0158) (2.213) = 14.1 kW
Second Pass (Number of tubes n = 16, G = 286.9 kg/s.m2)
Similar calculations using nucleate flow boiling correlation give
hi = 2858 W/m2K, Ui = 1503 W/m2K, q II = 10.1 kW/m2
Q II = qII AII = 10.1 (16)P (0.0158) (2.213) = 17.75 kW
Heat Transfer Calculations for Pass III Onwards until x £ 0.975 (Forced Convection
Vaporization Regime)
Third Pass (n = 20, G = 229.51 kg/s.m2)
Change in quality of refrigerant in Passes I and II
Q 14.1 + 17.75 3185
.
Dx = = = = 0.1737
m r h fg 0.9(203.7) 183.3
Quality of refrigerant entering pass III
xin = 0.2517 + 0.1737 = 0.425
Take mean value of x in Pass III as 0.46.
Substituting values in forced convection vaporization correlation Eq. (9.10), we get
hi (0.0158)
= 0.115 [0.464 (1 – 0.462)]0.11
0.0971
LM 229.51 (203.7 ´ 10 ) OP
2 3 0.44
[3.07]0.7
N 9.81(0.0115)(1279) Q
Þ hi = 2908 W/m2.K
Ui = 1517 W/m2.K
Evaporators 345
Q III = Ui Ai (twater – trefrigerant)

= 1.517 (20) p (0.0158) (2.213) (9.15 – 2.43) = 22.4 kW
22.4
D hIII = = 24.9 kJ/kg
0.9
24.9
D xIII = = 0.122
203.7
0.122
xmean = 0.425 + = 0.48
2
Further iteration gives
hi = 2920 W/m2.K, Ui = 1520 W/m2.K, Q III = 21.3 kW,
qIII = 9.7 kW/m2, xout = 0.52
Fourth Pass (n = 24, G = 191.3 kg/s.m2), similarly
hi = 2712 W/m2. K, Ui = 1461 W/m2.K, Q IV = 25.9 kW
qIV = 9.833 kW/m2, xout = 0.664
Fifth Pass (n = 30, G = 153 kg/s.m2), similarly
hi = 2363 W/m2.K, Ui = 1353 W/m2.K, Q V = 29.9 kW
qV = 9.08 kW/m2, xout = 0.827
Sixth Pass (n = 32, G = 143.4 kg/s.m2), similarly
hi = 2195 W/m2.K, Ui = 1297 W/m2.K, Q VI = 29.8 kW
xout = 0.99
Since, xout > 0.975, calculations have to be modified for sixth pass. We see that
sixth pass has two sections.
Section A Forced convection boiling section for which
0.827 + 0.975
(x)mean = = 0.901
2
hi = 2210 W/m2.K, Ui = 1302 W/m2.K
( Q VI )A = m r Dh = 0.9 (0.975 – 0.827) (203.7) = 27.1 kW
Length of forced convection boiling section
LA =
c hQ VI A
=
27.1 ´ 10 3
= 1.948 m
U i n p Di D T 1302( 32)p ( 0.0158)( 9.15 - 2.43)
Section B Forced convection Dittus-Boelter equation section
LB = 2.213 – 1.948 = 0.265 m
0.975 + 1
(xB)mean = = 0.9875
2
assuming xout @ 1.
Properties of liquid-vapour mixture in B
m = x mg + (1 – x) mf
= 0.9875 (1.2 ´ 10–5) + 0.0125 (2.31 ´ 10–4)
= 1.473 ´ 10–5 kg/m.s
Similarly, Cp = 0.606 kJ/kg.K

k = 0.01035 W/m.K
Heat transfer calculations using Dittus-Boelter equation for LB
GDi 143.4 ( 0.0158)
Re = = = 154,000
m 1.473 ´ 10 -5
Cp m (0.606 ´ 103 )(1.473 ´ 10 -5 )
Pr = = = 0.862
k 0.01035
FG 0.01035IJ = 200.6 W/m .K
hi = 0.023 (154,000)0.8 (0.862)0.4
H 0.0158 K
2
Ui = 188.6 W/m2.K
( Q VI )B = 0.53 kW
Total heat transfer in Pass VI
Q VI = ( Q VI )A + ( Q VI )B = 27.1 + 0.53 = 27.63 kW
27.63
xout = 0.827 + = 0.978 < 1 (assumed)
(0.9)( 203.7)
Repeat calculations do not change the value of ( Q VI )B.
Seventh Pass (n = 32, G = 143.4 kg/s.m2), similarly
Q VII = 4.5 kW, x = 1.002 (superheated vapour)
out
Eighth Pass (n = 34, G = 135 kg/s.m2)
Taking properties of R 22 vapour at mean temperature of 4.5°C, we have
Cpg = 0.609 kJ/kg.K, mg = 1.22 ´ 10–5 kg/m.s, kg = 9.378 ´ 10–3 W/m.K
Pr = 0.792
135(0.0158)
Re = = 174,800
1.22 ´ 10-5
F 9.378 ´ 10 I
-3
hi = 0.023 (174,800)0.8 (0.792)0.4 GH 0.0158 JK = 194.4 W/m2.K
Ui = 183.2 W/m2.K
Q VIII = 3.2 kW
Total capacity of D-X chiller Q = S Q pass = 144.3 kW
Note Calculated capacity of 144.3 kW is greater than assumed value of 140.7 kW.
Repeat calculations till convergence is reached.
Example 9.5 Pressure Drop Calculations in D-X Evaporator

In Example 9.4, verify if the pressure drop in the evaporator is 0.14 bar as assumed.
Solution The results of calculations using Chawla’s correlations are given in

Table 9.3.
Evaporators 347
Table 9.3 Pressure drop calculations for Example 9.5
Pass x G q , pF , pM , pT
Ref A
kg/s.m2 W/m2 Pa Pa Pa
I 0.28 382.5 550,616 0.0255 10,700 2901 1.7 2903
II 0.378 286.9 308,619 0.0227 10,100 1893 2.3 1895
III 0.48 229.5 172,322 0.01697 9,700 1568 2.3 1570
IV 0.63 191.3 72,723 0.01229 9,833 1250 2.1 1252
V 0.75 153.0 26,554 0.0086 9,080 754 2.0 756
Total 8376
The pressure drops in passes VI, VII and VIII are essentially due to friction of
vapour flow only. These are 1053, 1023 and 929 Pa respectively. The total pressure
drop is, therefore, 11381 Pa (0.114 bar), a little lower than assumed.
Note The number of tubes in passes are increased from pass I to pass VIII as more and
more vapour is formed. The calculations show that DpM is kept small in this manner.
References
1. Andersen S W, D G Rich and D F Geary, ‘Evaporation of Refrigerant 22 in a
Horizontal 3/4” OD Tube’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 72, Part I, 1966, pp. 28–42.
2. Bo Pierre, ‘Flow Resistance with Boiling Refrigerants’, ASHRAE J, Vol. 6,
Nos. 9 and 10, 1964.
3. Bodganov S M, ASHRAE J, pp. 59-60, 1967.
4. Chawla J M, ‘Correlations of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for
Two-phase Liquid-Vapour Flow’. Paper B 5.7, Heat Transfer, Vol. V, 1970,
Proceedings of the IV International Conference on Heat Transfer, Paris.
5. Chawla J M, ‘Wärmeübergang and Drukabfall in Waagerchten Rohren beider
Strömung Von Verdampfenden Kältemitteln,’ Kältetechnik-Klimatisierung,
Vol. 19, pp. 246–252, 1967.
6. Dembi N J, Dhar P L and C P Arora, ‘An investigation into the use of wire
screens in D-X-evaporators’, Paper No. B 1 25, XV International Congress of
Refrigeration, Venice, 1979.
7. Dhar P L, Optimization of Refrigeration System, Ph. D. Thesis, Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi, 1974.
8. Dembi N J, P L Dhar and C P Arora, ‘Heat Transfer and Pressure Gradient
for R 22 Boiling in a Horizontal Tube’, Paper No. B 1/26, XV International
Congress of Refrigeration, Venice. 1979.
9. Kern D Q, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, pp. 136–139, 1950.
10. Lavin J G and E H, Young ‘Heat transfer of evaporating refrigerants in
two-phase flow’, A.I.Ch.E.J., Vol. 11, Nov. 1965, pp. 1124–32.
11. Murty S V R, Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Characteristics of R 12
Boiling Inside a Horizontal Tube, M. Tech. Thesis, Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi, 1969.
12. Piret E L and H S Isbin, ‘Two-phase heat transfer in natural circulation
evaporators’, A.I.Ch.E. Heat Transfer Symposium, St. Louis, Dec. 1953.
13. Ratiani C V and D I Avaliani, Kholod. Tekh., Vol. 3, pp. 23–28, 1965.
14. Rohsenow W M, ‘A method of correlating heat transfer data for surface
boiling of liquids’, Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, 1952.
15. Samuel C R, Simulation and Optimization of Heat Transfer Equipment Used
in Refrigeration Systems, Ph. D. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, 1983.
16. Slipsevic B, ‘Ein Beitrag zum Wärmeübergang beim Blasensieden von Kälte-
mitteln an einzelnen Rippenrohren, Klima + Kälte Ingenieur, pp. 69–76, 1974.
17. Slipsevic B, Über den Wärmeübergang beim Blasensieden von Kältemitteln an
Rippenrohrbündeln, Klima + Kälte Ingenieur, pp. 127–134, 1975.
18. Slipsevic B, ‘Wärmebergang bei der Blasenverdampfung von Kältemitteln an
Glatten und Berippten Rohrbündeln, Klima + Kälte Ingenieur, pp. 279–286,
1978.
Revision Exercises
9.1 A direct-expansion cooling and dehumidifying coil for air has 1.27 cm OD
and 1.12 cm ID serpentine copper tubing in each row. The fins are made of
aluminium and are 1 mm thick. The spacing between the tubes is 1.27 cm and
that between the fins corresponds to 5 fins per cm. The tube arrangement is
staggered and the spacing between the rows is 1.27 cm. Determine.
(i) The ratio of the total finned surface area to the inside tube surface area.
(ii) The total finned surface area per unit face area of the cooling coil.
(iii) Fin efficiency.
(iv) Overall heat-transfer coefficient accounting for the thermal resistance of
the condensate layer, tube wall and the refrigerant film. The refrigerant
side heat-transfer coefficient is 1100 Wm–2 K–1.
9.2 In a 112 TR R 22 flooded chiller, the water inlet temperature is 11.67°C. The
mass flow rate of water to be chilled is 18.93 kg/s. The evaporating tempera-
ture of the refrigerant is 2.8°C. The copper tubes used are 1.27 cm OD and
1.12 cm ID. There are two parallel circuits and eight passes for water. The
refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient is given by Rohsenow’s correlation.
Calculate the overall heat-transfer surface area of the chiller.
9.3 A direct-expansion chiller provides 20 tons of refrigeration for water entering
at 20°C and flowing at the rate of 250 kg/min. The evaporator is fed through
an automatic expansion valve. The evaporator temperature is 2°C.
It is now required to use the same chiller for cooling 100 kg/min of water at
30°C. Estimate the water outlet temperature.
Assume that the overall heat-transfer coefficient U in the evaporator is given by
U=C m w
where m w is the mass flow rate of water, and C is a constant.
9.4 In Example 9.2, investigate the effect of roughening of tubes on the size of
flooded evaporator.
9.5 In Example 9.4, investigate the effect of keeping the number of tubes same as
24 in Passes VI to VIII.

Complete Vapour
Compression System
10.1 THE COMPLETE SYSTEM
The four components of the vapour-compression system, viz., the compressor,

condenser, expansion device and evaporator, each have their individual characteristics
which are the functions of evaporator and condenser temperatures. These have been
discussed earlier in Chapters 6 to 9. Then, the performance of the complete system can
be obtained by superimposition or simultaneous solution of the characteristics of the
individual components. This can be done either graphically or analytically.
Often, the system may also include ancillary components as well, such as cooling
tower, a boiler, ducting, etc. As the number of components increases, an analytical
approach provides the only feasible answer. However, the graphical solution gives
a better visual appreciation and comprehension about the behaviour of various
components and the system.
Note The performance of the complete system also depends upon the mass of total
refrigerant charge in the system.
10.2 GRAPHICAL METHOD4
The graphical method involves the use of tables and charts from the catalogue data
of individual components and successive graphical analysis, taking two components
at a time as illustrated by the following examples.
10.2.1 Performance Characteristics of the Condensing Unit

The performance characteristics of a condensing unit (combination of compressor
and condenser) are obtained by superimposing the characteristics of the two as
shown in Fig. 10.1.
The figure shows the characteristics of a typical reciprocating compressor
running at a given speed superimposed on those of a typical shell- and tube-
condenser with the inlet temperature and flow rate of cooling water fixed.
Co
mpre
sso
°C
r
°C
35
40
°C
45
Condensing Unit
Condenser
45°C
C 40°C
35°C
B
Q0
t0
Fig. 10.1 Performance characteristic of a condensing unit by
graphical method
It is seen that the compressor capacity increases with evaporator pressure, and
decreases with condenser pressure. On the other hand, condenser capacity increases
with condenser pressure (temperature) for the same water inlet temperature because
of larger DT available for heat transfer. The increase in condenser capacity with
evaporator pressure is small. This increase is due to the increase in mass flow rate of
the refrigerant through the compressor, and consequent increase in heat-transfer
coefficient in the condenser.
The characteristic of the condensing unit ABC is obtained by joining the points of
intersection of the characteristics corresponding to the same condensing tempera-
tures for the two components.
In this case it may be noted that the condensing temperature is not constant along
this characteristic. It also decreases as the evaporator temperature decreases since a
lower evaporator temperature results in a reduced refrigerating capacity and hence a
decreased loading on the condenser. Simultaneously, the condensing temperature
(and hence pressure) drops. The performance of the condensing unit will, however,
change if the flow and/or inlet temperature of the cooling water are changed.
10.2.2 Performance Characteristics of Compressor-Capillary Tube

The mass flow rate through a capillary of a given bore and length depends on the
pressure difference between the inlet and outlet. Thus, the flow rate increases with
increasing condensing pressure and decreases with increasing evaporator pressure,
Superimposed on the same figure are the compressor characteristics. Intersection
points 1, 2 and 3 indicate the balance points between the compressor and the capil-
lary tube. At the balance points, the compressor pumps out as much refrigerant from
the evaporator as the expansion device feeds into it. Any unbalanced condition can
only be temporary.
Complete Vapour Compression System 351
°C
35 C
= °
t k 40 C
= °
tk =
tk 45
=
tk 4 tk
= 4 5°C
tk 0 °
=3 C
5°
C
Q0 or m
3
2
1
C
Ch om Capillary Tube
ar pre Characteristics
ac ss
te or
ris
tic
s
p0
Fig. 10.2 Compressor-capillary tube balance points by graphical method
However, the compressor and the capillary tube cannot fix the balance point
independently. The evaporator heat-transfer characteristics must also be satisfied. If
they are not satisfied at the compressor-capillary tube balance point, an unbalanced
condition can result which may cause either starving or flooding of the evaporator.
Figure 10.3 shows a balance point between the compressor and the capillary tube.
Consider that the load on the evaporator coil increases to more than the refrigeration
capacity at the balance point so that the evaporator temperature and hence the pres-
sure rises from A to B. At B, the compressor pumps more refrigerant than the expan-
sion device can feed, i.e., m& C > m& E . As a result, the evaporator will soon be starved
of the refrigerant.
The corrective process should then start to work. As a result of the above, the
liquid refrigerant will back-up into the condenser, thereby reducing the effective
heat-transfer surface. The temperature and hence the condensing pressure will,
therefore, rise. An increased pressure difference across the capillary will in turn
increase the feeding rate of the capillary. At the same time, the compressor will give
decreased refrigerating capacity, and thus a new balance point will emerge.
r
s so
Ca re
pill p mC
ary
Tub om
e C
mE
mE
Q0 or m
mC
Flooding
Starving
Balance
C A B
p0
Fig. 10.3 Unbalanced conditions in compressor-capillary tube system
Consider now that the load on the cooling coil decreases. Consequently, the
evaporator pressure will drop to point C. Now the compressor will be pumping out
less refrigerant than the capillary can feed. It will, therefore, result in the flooding
of the evaporator. Eventually, the liquid refrigerant may even enter the compres-
sor and cause damage. In capillary-tube systems, therefore, the refrigerant charge
is carefully measured, and only that much refrigerant is charged as would just fill
the evaporator.
The corrective situation in this case occurs when some gas from the condenser
starts flowing through the capillary tube, reducing its mass flow rate because of a
high specific volume of the vapour. At the same time, due to decreased condenser
pressure, compressor will start pumping more refrigerant from the evaporator, and
again a new balance point will emerge.
10.3 ANALYTICAL METHOD
The performance of the complete system can also be obtained by a solution of the
four simultaneous equations representing the individual characteristics. The method,
though slightly difficult because of the nonlinearity of equations, is more general
and amenable to computer analysis and optimization, thus providing economic
designs for refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
The essential requirements of the method are the necessary governing equations
representing the performance of the individual components. These can be estab-
lished either by fitting an equation to the available experimental data, or by
modelling a mathematical equation derived from the fundamental analysis of the
performance of the equipment.
10.3.1 Equation Fitting

When catalogue data is available, an equation can be fitted to represent the perform-
ance characteristics of a component. The most common form of representation is a
polynomial. For example, the enthalpy of saturated vapour can be expressed as a
function of temperature by a relation of the type
FG T IJ + a FG T IJ 2
FG T IJ 6
h = a0 + a1
H 100K H 100K
2 + L + a6
H 100K (10.1)
Likewise, property correlations can be established for specific heat, pressure-

temperature relationship, etc. Another form of representation is the exponential form
y – b = axm (10.2)
Yet another equation is like the ln psat versus 1/Tsat relationship.
When a variable is a function of two variables, e.g., the pressure ratio developed
by a centrifugal compressor is a function of speed N and refrigerating capacity Q& 0
(see Fig. 6.18), then we may express as follows:
pk
= a + bQ& 0 + c Q& 20 (10.3)
p0
where
a = A0 + A1N + A2N 2
b = B0 + B1N + B2N 2
c = C0 + C1 N + C2 N 2
This representation requires nine data points to find the constants. The least
square method may be used to find the constants if a large number of data points are
available.
10.3.2 Mathematical Modelling mh , th1

In mathematical modelling no catalogue data
are necessary. An example of mathematical mc
tc1 tc2
modelling is provided by analytical expres-
sions/equations which are derived to represent
the performance of heat exchangers. Thus for th2
a counter flow heat exchanger, as shown in
Fig. 10.4 Schematic representa-
Fig. 10.4 in which subscripts c and h refer to tion of a simple heat
cold and hot fluids respectively, we have for the exchanger
rate of heat transfer by LMTD method,
Q& = m& h Ch (th – th )
2 1
(10.4)
= m& c Cc (tc1 – tc2) (10.5)
(t c 1 - t h 2 ) - (t c 2 - t h 1 )
= UA (10.6)
ln(t c 1 - t h 2 )/(t c 2 - t h 1 )
The three Eqs (10.4), (10.5) and (10.6) contain three unknowns, Q& , th2 and tc2.
Eliminating Q& and th2 and solving, we get
LM 1 - e D OP
MM FG m& C IJ - e
tc2 = tc1 – (tc1 – th1) (10.7)
PP
N H m& C K
c c D
h h Q
LM 1 -
1 O
P
where D = UA
N m& C
c c m& C Q
h h
(10.8)
By substituting tc2 in Eqs (10.5) and (10.4) we can obtain Q& and th2 respectively.
Applying this to a condenser (Fig. 10.5), the heat-transfer equation becomes
(t k - t w 1 ) - (t k - t w 2 )
Q& k = (UA)k & w Cw (tw2 – tw1)
=m (10.9)
t k - tw1
ln
tk - t w 2
Equation (10.9) can be written as
t k - tw1F I Ft - tw 2 I
(UA) k
GH JK GH t JK
k
= 1n = – ln
m& w Cw tk - tw 2 k - tw 1
or tk - tw2 t k - t w 2 + t w 1 - t w1 t w 2 - t w1
e -(UA)k / m& wCw = = = 1-
t k - tw 1 tk - t w1 t k - t w1
whence
&
tw2 = tw1 + (tk – tw1) 1 − e (U A ) k / mw Cw (10.10)
Vapour, tk
tw1
Cooling
Water
tw2
Condensate, tk
Fig. 10.5 Schematic representation of a 4 tube-pass, 1 shell-pass condenser
Applying this to an evaporator (Fig. 10.6) we similarly have

( t b 1 - t 0 ) - (t b 2 - t 0 )
Q& 0 = (UA)0
Ft
lnG
I
- t0
= m& b Cb (tb1 – tb2)
Ht b2
b1
J
-t K 0
&
and tb2 = tb1 – (tb1 – t0) 1 − e − (UA)0 / mb Cb (10.11)
where tb is the brine or chilled water temperature.
Vapour, t0
tb1
Brine or
Chilled Water
tb2
Liquid, t0
Fig. 10.6 Schematic representation of a 4-tube pass, 1 shell-pass flooded
evaporator (Chiller)
10.3.3 System Simulation

The equation representing performance characteristics, energy and flow equations,
properties, etc., can be used to simulate the system. The arrangement of the system
at times permits a sequential calculation and at other times may need a simultaneous
calculation. If the equations are linear, the well-known method of triangularization
may be used. The calculations become difficult when the equations are non-linear. A
common method used then is that of starting with trial values and following the
method of successive iterations. Quite often it results in divergence and the method
fails. A method which is devoid of this difficulty is the Newton-Raphson method.
10.4 NEWTON–RAPHSON METHOD
Let us consider that the following three non-linear equations are to be solved for the
three unknown variables x, y, z
f1 (x, y, z) = 0 (10.12)
f2 (x, y, z) = 0 (10.13)
f3 (x, y, z) = 0 (10.14)
Then the procedure for their solution involves the following steps:
Step 1 Assume trial values of the unknown variables, say xt, yt and zt.
Step 2 Substituting the trial values in Eqs (10.12), (10.13) and (10.14), deter-
mine the values of f1, f2 and f3. If the trial values are correct, then
the three functions will be zero. If not, then the numerical values will
represent some errors.
Step 3 Determine the partial differentials of the functions with respect to the
unknown variables and equate the aggregate errors as follows:
¶ f1 ¶ f1 ¶ f1
× Dx + × Dy + × D2 = Df1 (10.15)
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶ f2 ¶ f2 ¶ f2
× Dx + × Dy + . D z = D f2 (10.16)
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶ f3 ¶ f3 ¶ f3
× Dx + × Dy + × D z = Df3 (10.17)
¶x ¶y ¶z
where Dx, Dy and Dz represent the errors in the trial values of the unknown variables, e.g.,
Dx = xt – xc
where xc represents the correct value of x.
Step 4 Equations (10.15), (10.16) and (10.17) can be solved simultaneously
for the error values Dx, Dy and Dz and the new correct values are found
as follows:
xc = xt – Dx
yc = yt – D y and zc = zt – Dz
The calculations are repeated with the new values until functions f1, f2, f3, etc.,
and errors Df1, Df2, Df 3, etc., are close to zero.
The following example is based on this approach of system simulation as made
by Stoecker5 and is applied here to a vapour compression refrigeration system. The
equations used are extremely simplified versions of the actual performance equa-
tions. The aim here is to illustrate the procedure in applying the method which is
normally done on a computer.
Example 10.1 The performance data of a chilled water central air-condi-

tioning plant in the range of operation is given below:
Condenser (UA)k = 20,700 W °C –1
Cooling water flow rate, m& w = 8.05 kg/s
Evaporator (UA)0 = 23,840 W°C –1
Chilled water flow rate, m& b = 7.2 kg/s
Compressor
Refrigerating capacity, Q& 0 = 116,300 + 2910 (t0 – 5) – 1165 (tk – 43) W
Power consumption, W& = 13,490 + 1165 t0 + 350 t k W
If the cooling water enters the condenser at 30°C and chilled water enters
the evaporator at 11°C, find the temperatures of the cooling water leaving the
condenser and the chilled water leaving the evaporator, and the refrigerating
capacity and power consumption of the plant.
Solution The mathematical expression for power, cooling and chilled water tem-
peratures, tw and tb and refrigerating capacity are:
W& = Q& k – Q& 0 = (8.05) (4187) (tw – 30) – 7.2 (4187) (11 – tb)
tw = 30 + (tk – 30) [1 – e–20,700/(8.05) (4187)]
tb = 11 – (11 – t0) [1 – e–23,840/(7.2) (4187)]
Q& 0 = (7.2) (4187) (11 – t )b
The simplified expressions are
W& = 33,705 tw + 30,146 tb – 1,342,756
tw = 0.459 tk + 16.23
tb = 0.547 t0 + 4.99
Q& 0 = 331,610 – 30,146 tb
The functions can be written as
f1 = 33,705 tw + 30,146 tb – 1,342,756 – W& = 0
f2 = 0.459 tk + 16.23 – t w = 0
f3 = 0.547 t0 + 4.99 – tb = 0
f4 = 331,610 – 30,146 tb – Q& 0 = 0
& &
where W and Q0 are separately defined in terms of tk and t0. The independent
unknown variables are tk, t0, tw and tb
Assume trial values of variables as follows:
tk = 40°C t0 = 3°C
tw = 33°C tb = 6°C
Then &
W = 13,490 + 1165(3) + 350(40) = 30,985 W
Q& 0 = 116,300 + 2910(3 – 5) – 1165 (40 – 43) = 113,975 W
Substituting these values, we obtain calculated values of functions and their
aggregate errors:
f1 = – 80,600 Df1 = f1 – 0 = – 80,600

f2 = 1.59 Df2 = f2 – 0 = 1.59
f3 = 0.631 Df3 = f3 – 0 = 0.631
f4 = 36,759 Df4 = f4 – 0 = 36,759
Differentiating the functions, we get
¶ W& ¶ W&
= 350; = 1165
¶ tk ¶ t0
¶ Q& 0 ¶ Q&0
= – 1165; = 2910
¶ tk ¶ t0
and
¶ f1 ¶ f1 ¶ f1 ¶ f1
= 33,705; = 30,146; = – 350; = – 1165
¶ tw ¶ tb ¶ tk ¶ t0
¶ f2 ¶ f2 ¶ f2 ¶ f2
= – 1; = 0; = 0.459; =0
¶ tw ¶ tb ¶ tk ¶ t0
¶ f3 ¶ f3 ¶ f3 ¶ f3
= 0; = – 1; = 0; = 0.547
¶ tw ¶ tb ¶ tk ¶ t0
¶ f4 ¶ f4 ¶ f4 ¶ f4
= 0; = – 30,146; = + 1165; = – 2910
¶ tw ¶ tb ¶ tk ¶ t0
Setting up expressions for aggregate errors, we have
Df1 = – 33,705 D tw + 30,146 Dtb – 350 D tk – 1165 D t0 = – 80,600
Df2 = – D tw + 0.459 Dtk = 1.59
Df3 = – D tb + 0.547 D t 0 = 0.631
Df4 = – 30,146 D tb – 1165 Dtk – 2910 Dt0 = 36,759
Solving these four equations simultaneously, we obtain for errors in trial values,
and correct values of variables as follows:
D t0 = – 0.89°C; t0 = 3 + 0.89 = 3.89°C
D tk = + 0.41°C; tk = 40 – 0.41 = 39.59°C
D tw = – 1.4°C; tw = 33 + 1.4 = 34.4°C
Dtb = – 1.12°C tb = 6 + 1.12 = 7.12°C
Also,
W& = 13,490 + 1165 (3.89) + 350(39.59) = 27,794 W
Q& 0 = 116,300 – 2910 (3.89 – 5) – 1165(39.59 – 43) = 117,043 W
The revised values of the functions become
f1 = 3541, f2 = 0, f3 = 0, f4 = – 72
Subsequent iterations do not appreciably alter the values of the variables calcu-
lated above. Hence, these values of t0, tk, tw and tb represent the actual operating
conditions. The refrigerating capacity obtained is 117 kW, and the power consump-
tion of the compressor is 27.8 kW, giving a COP of 4.2. Thus, we see that conver-
gence is very fast in Newton-Raphson method.
Note Operating conditions for central A/C plants in Delhi:

Evaporator Temperature 3 to 6°C
Condenser Temperature 43°C
Cooling Water Temperature 32.3°C In, 36.3°C Out (In Condenser)
Chiled Water Temperature 12°C In, 6.5°C Out (In Chiller)
10.5 OPTIMAL DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR
The basic objective of system simulation as discussed in this chapter and a very
simple illustration of which is provided in Example 10.1, is to predict the perform-
ance of the system with varying operating parameters. Another objective is optimi-
zation of design by varying the design parameters and seeing their effect on
performance.
Complete simulation and optimization of the four-component vapour compres-
sion system is extremely difficult. However, an attempt can be made to optimize the
design of one component by keeping the specifications of the other components
unaltered in the existing design. Here too, the problem becomes complicated as the
change in the design of one affects the performance of the others.
The ultimate aim of every industrial optimisation problem is invariably to reduce
costs—the fixed cost as well as the running cost. In the present case, the main
components of the variable capital cost are the condenser and the evaporator due to
the enormous amount of copper-tubing used. The capital cost of the compressor is
not affected very much with slight variations in condenser and evaporator pressures.
Further, the condenser design is not very sensitive to the refrigerant pressure drop
(or rise) as the frictional and decelerational components are of opposite nature. The
evaporator is extremely sensitive to design as the frictional and accelerational
pressure drop components add to each other. Pressure drop causes a decrease in the
temperature potential and hence an increase in heat-transfer surface area. On the
other hand, a tubing design with a larger pressure drop may give a higher heat-
transfer coefficient and hence a decreased heat-transfer surface area.
Dhar and Arora1, 2, 3 have carried out the optimization of the design of a chiller
subject to the constraints that the capacity of the system and operating conditions
remain unaltered. In order to do so, the evaporator exit conditions have been con-
strained to be the same as that in the original design. This ensures that there are no
changes in the performance of the compressor and condenser, the only change being
in the expansion valve design which has to be suitably modified to take care of the
different pressure drop in the optimized chiller design. Thus, as shown in Fig. 10.7,
if the pressure drop in a chiller is more than that in the original design, the existing
expansion valve has to be replaced by one having a slightly bigger orifice diameter.
This is because this valve has to supply the same amount of refrigerant flow at a
lesser pressure drop across the orifice, viz., p3 – p4¢ instead of p3 – p4. Obviously, this
will not affect the performance of the refrigeration system and will also not alter
the cost of the other components, including the expansion valve and running cost.
But it will decrease the temperature difference between the cooled medium and the
evaporating referigerant thus increasing the size and cost of the evaporator.
3 2
p 4
1
h
Fig. 10.7 Pressure drop in evaporator with constant suction state
10.6 INSTALLATION, SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE OF

VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS
Utmost precaution should be taken so that no component gets contaminated with

foreign matter, dirt moisture etc. Refrigerant system is a closed one. Hence this care
is essential.
While installing, it must be ensured that each component, viz., compressor, con-
denser, evaporator and expansion device, and even other items in the lines can be
isolated from the rest of the system for repair and replacement. This can be done by
making provision for valves at inlet and outlet of the component.
Further, each component should be made accesible for the same purpose.
Before proceeding to start the plant, it is first necessary to test it so that there are
no leaks.
Pressure Test After the plant has been installed, all joints, fittings, etc., must be
tested for leakage by a ‘Pressure Test’.
For pressure testing, all valves should be wide open with exception of the charging
line, drain, and purge valves.
The test is performed either with CO2 or N2 gas. If N2 is used, then one must
connect the nitrogen gas cylinder to the plant through a ‘needle valve’ and not the
ordinary hand shut-off valve as the pressuree in the N2-cylinder is very high, of the
order of 2000 psi (150 atm.). If a needle valve is not used for slow opeining, there is
a danger of serious accident happening.
Even with CO2, better use a regular stop valve. After connecting the N2 or CO2
cylinder, the gas valve should be ‘slightly’ cracked open. The gas is thus allowed to
enter the system slowly until the pressure is raised to 1.5 to 2 times the highest
expected pressure in the system. This is usually 12–14 atmospheres in R 134 a and
R 22 systems. If at any time it is intended to open or shut off the gas supply, this
should be done by means of the valve on the gas cylinder, and not by means of the
regulatory stop valve in the lime. If the regulatony stop valve is shut and the gas
cylinder valve is left open, the full pressure of the gas, say N2 about 150 atm, could
be applied to the charging line. THIS WOULD BE VERY DANGEROUS.
After applying pressure, all joints, glands, welds, etc., should be thoroughly tested
for leaks by means of a soap and water solution.
After leakages are removed, the plant should be left ‘standing’ at the test pressure
of 12 to 14 atm for 24 hours. After 24 hours, it should be checked whether the
pressure has dropped or not. If the pressure has dropped, apply pressure, and test the
leakages again. Leave the plant standing at test pressure for 24 hours once again
until satisfied that there are no leaks.
Note that minor changes in gas pressure could also be due to room temperature
variation also.
Note Never use O2 for pressure testing. It may cause an explosion when mixed with oil in
the compressor.
Evacuating and Dehydrating the Plant After pressure testing, the whole system
must be completely evacuated so as to make sure that no air or moisture is trapped
inside before charging the refrigerant.
Air in the system raises the pressure in the system and increases load on the
compressor.
Moisture in the system can cause moisture-choking in expansion device, if tem-
perature goes below 0°C, and certain other problems like dilution of lubricating oil,
oil separation, etc.
The evacuation must be continued until reaching a vacuum of 29 inches or
758-mm Hg. In order to do this, a vacuum pump (often a 2-stage one) and gauges
are necessary. Sometimes, the compressor itself is used to evacuate the plant.
The process of evacuation not only removes air from the system but it also simulta-
neously causes moisture inside to be evaporated, and to be removed along with the air.
The underlying principle, in moisture evaporation, is the fact that water, like any
other substance, has an exact p versus T relationship. For example, at normal atmos-
pheric pressure water boils at 100°C, but at 1-mm Hg pressure or 759-mm Hg
vacuum it boils at –17°C. Hence, by reducing the pressure in the system, moisture in
the system can be made to evaporate, and the resultant vapour is drawn off by the
vacuum pump along with air leaving the system quite dry.
We often heat the system also simultaneously to help in evaporation of any
moisture trapped in the system while evacuating.
For evacuating the system, all line valves should necessarily be kept wide open as
for pressure testing. Evacuation has to proceed until a pressure no more than 2 mm
or better still, 1-mm Hg is obtained.
The pump should then be islolated by shutting off the stop valve connecting it to
the system. The pump can then be stopped.
Note The vacuum pump should never be switched off before isolating it from the system,
otherwise oil from the pump will be drawn into the system, and vacuum will be lost.
Air can also be removed by using the condensing unit compressor itself as a
vacuum pump. The Compressor pumps the suction line first. Then the liquid line
valve is opened allowing vactum to be produced in the liquid line also. Be careful
that no oil is pumped.
Do not put a ‘drier’ in the liquid line until most of the air has been removed.
During vacuumising, a short length of tubing may be used in place of the drier.
Using Compressor as Vacuum Pump To use compressor itself as vacuum
pump, take steps as follows:
(i) Put a compound gauge on compressor suction service valve.
(ii) Remove the air by running compressor until a vacuum of 20 inch /500-mm Hg
or more is reached.
(iii) Then instal a purge line, equipped with hand shut-off valve in to the gauge
opening of discharge service valve.
(iv) Turn the discharge service valve stem shutting off condenser opening.
(v) Now turn the suction service valve fully, and pump a vacuum. The air being
removed now will be discharged out of the purge line.
(vi) After creating as high a vacuum as possible with the compressor, 70–75% of
air is removed.
The refrigerant cylinder valve on the suction side may be cracked slighty
open, permitting very small quantity of refrigerant to enter the suction line.
(vii) When this has also been pumped out of the system, the amount of air left will
be negligilble, say les than 5%.
(viii) A second refrigerant flush followed by evacuating will reduce air to, say 1%.
(ix) After the system has been purged of air, quickly instal a drier in the liquid
line, purge and seal the connection.
(x) Proceed to test for leaks.
Charging the Refrigerant Charging of refrigerant in the system is done in two
ways:
(i) Charging from suction line.
(ii) Charging from liquid line.
Suction line charging is done in the case of small units in which the amount of
charge required is small.
For the purpose, the refrigerant cylinder is made to stand vertically on the ground
so as to ensure that only vapour enters the compressor. The refrigerant cylinder is
connected to the suction-side of the compressor either through the suction service
valve or through a separate ‘charging line’ in hermetically sealed units.
After charging, the suction service valve is closed, and the gas cylinder is
disconnected.
In the case of hermetically sealed units, the charging line is ‘pinched’ with a
‘pinch-off tool’, and then the pinch brazen or soldered.
To make sure that the correct weight of charge is made, many methods are used.
In unitary equipment, manufacturers charge a measured amount of refrigerant
from experience.
In the field it is ensured that the required head pressure is reached.
In refrigerators, it is seen that frosting appears over the capillary tube. Then the
refrigerator is tested for pull-down period, or ice-making time, and so on.
Charing from the liquid line is done in large plants where the amount of charge
required is large. Charging refrigerant as vapour from suction line will take inordi-
nately long time. For the purpose, the gas cylinder is often kept at a height in a tilted
position so that the liquid enters the system. The pressure in the system in water-
cooled units will be below pressure in gas cylinder to enable liquid to flow in.
Adequate charge is usually ensured by getting required operating pressures in the
sysyem.
Liquid refrigrant level can also be checked in the condenser or receiver through a
sight-glass.
Starting a System Before starting the system, first check the electrical system.
Make sure that the phase is correct, voltage is correct, etc. Recording type volt and
ammeters should be connected.
Make sure water or air circuit is turned on. Check the electrical meters, pressure
guages, water flow, etc.
Shut down the unit at first sign of trouble. To start the compressor at full load, it
can get overloaded. Hence, liquid line valve should be closed. Slowly open evapora-
tor line, and then liquid line. After starting, check high and low side pressures.
Checking Oil-Level in Compressor When the plant starts running, a certain
amount of oil will pass round the system, and then return to the compressor. A cer-
tain amount may remain in the system. Hence it may become necessary to add more
oil.
Frequent inspection of oil level in the compressor has to be made when the plant
is newly installed. When it is required to add oil, proceed as follows:
(i) Stop the machine.
(ii) Isolate the compressor by closing delivery and suction valves.
(iii) Slacken the oil-filling plug, and let the gas disperse gradually.
(iv) Remove the plug when pressure reaches atmospheric level.
(v) Charge the oil to reach the correct level which is when the oil is filled to the
top of the oil-filling plug hole.
(vi) Replace the plug. Open the valves. And start the machine.
Note It should not be necessary constantly to add oil as the oil does not deteriorate, and
it is not lost.
Off-design Gauge Pressures For gauge readings showing off-design pressures,

any of the following reasons could be seen.
(i) High Condenser Pressure Shortage of condenser water, or water temperature
from cooling tower high.
Overcharge of gas in the system.
Air in the system.
(ii) Low Evaporator Pressure Undercharge of gas.
Dirty liquid strainer.
Moisture or dirt in expansion device.
(iii) Low Condenser Pressure Shortage of gas/Under charge.

It may be seen that chocked strainers can cause most of these symptoms. Hence they
should be checked first including those on the cooling tower.
In unitary equipment with hermetically sealed units, there are no gauges. The
problems are diagnosed as follows:
(i) Inadequate Cooling—Comperssor Continuously Running This could be due
to undercharge. Condenser pressure will be low. It will be indicated by condenser
running cool. The refrigerator body temperature housing condenser will not be
warm.
(ii) No Cooling—Compressor Continuously Running It means the gas has leaked
out. The unit requires complete servicing including repair for leak, and recharging.
(iii) In A/C Units, Ice Formation on Cooling Coil but no Cooling in Room While
the Compressor is Running The reason is simple. Air filters are choked. It
requires cleaning of filters. By far, this is the primary cause of complaints of
inadequate cooling in all A/C units. Filters need to be regularly cleaned.
Undercharge of Refrigerant Indications for undercharg are the following:
(i) Low condenser pressure.
(ii) Low condenser temperature. Condenser running cool in refrigerator and air
conditioners.
(iii) Large gas bubbles appearing in liquid line sight-glass.
(iv) Inadequate cooling as there is no liquid to evaporate in evaporator while the
compressor is sucking vapour.
(v) Body of expansion device without frost. The remedy is to charge more refrig-
erant till condenser and evaporater pressure gauges record set readings, or
condenser runs warm enough, or till requird cooling and temperatures
are obtained.
Adding Refrigerant with Compressor Running While the compressor is running,
the refrigerant is added as vapour from suction side. For the purpose:
Connect gas cylinder to charging/suction line. Keep cylinder vertical. Make sure
no liquid enters the compressor. Open the gas cylinder valve slightly, and purge the
air out of charging line.
Tighten Charging Pipe Connection Open the compressor suction services valve/
charging line valve slightly.
Open fully the gas cylinder valve. Allow refrigerant to pass into the system until
required pressures are obtained, or all bubbles disappear in the liquid sight-glass, or
condenser runs warm enough, or evaporator side is seen to give adequate cooling .
After charging, first close the valve on gas cylinder, and then close the suction
service valve, etc.
Finally remove the gas cylinder, and seal it.
Note that operating unit with undercharge is very detrimental. It will result in
continuous motor operation, and overloding of compressor and motor.
Lack of refrigerant is also indicated by an increase in liquid line and drier
temperature.
Overcharge of Refrigerant Overcharge is indicated by high condenser pressure.

And liquid sight-glass runs full of liquid. In unitary equipment, it will be indicated
by high temperature of condenser as the condenser pressure rises, and there is no
adequate surface area for vapour to condense.
For decresing charge, in small units, the refrigerant can be allowed to escape
from the discharge line.
In large units, the refrigerant can be taken out from liquid line into a cylinder,
which may be cooled with ice to maintain its pressure lower than condenser pres-
sure. Otherwise, use an evacuated cylinder.
The operation should be performed very slowly in order to minimise the possibil-
ity of system becoming undercharged.
Pumping Down The process of pumping the whole of the refrigerant in the
system into the condenser is referred to as ‘pumping down’.
After pumping down, and closing the ‘in’ and ‘out’ valves of the condenser, the
condenser gets isolated. Thus any system component can be removed for repair or
replacement without loss of charge.
Pumping down is done in the following steps:
(i) Close liquid line valve/condenser ‘out’ valve.
(ii) Keep the cooling water running in condenser.
(iii) Run the machine until evaporater pressure drops to 1 psig. DO NOT PUMP
IN VACUUM.
(iv) Stop the machine.
(v) Close the delivery valve, and condenser ‘in’ valve.
At the time of restarting, refrigerant should be allowed to enter evaporater slowly
in order to prevent damage from too rapid cooling of the components.
Air in the System Air in the system is indicated by high condenser pressure. This
usually occurs in small units in case no proper care is taken during evacuation and
charging. In large plants, it could be due to various reasons, and also because of
negative evaporator pressure in the case of some refrigerants.
To expel the air, the following procedure is adopted.
(i) Shut the liquid line valve. Pump down the refrigerant in the condenser.
(ii) Stop the machine, shut the condenser ‘in’ valve.
(iii) Allow the liquid in the condenser to be cooled by allowing the cooling water
to continue to flow.
(iv) If no air is present, the condenser gauge reading should be corresponding to
temperature of cooling water. If the condenser gauge reading is above that, it
is definite that air is in the system.
Expel the air by slackening the ‘purge valve’ on the condenser until the con-
denser gauge reading is reduced corresponding to that of the cooling water
temperature.
(v) Retighten the purge valve. Open the liquid line slowly.
(vi) Retighten the joints, and test for leaks so that no air again enters the system.
(vii) Open the delivery line. Start the machine.
(viii) Add refrigerant if necssary. Some refrigerant will have escaped with air
during purging.
Moisture in the System Moisture in the system primarily creates problem in
applications such as refrigerator, freezers, etc., in which the evaporator temperature
is below 0°C. It will then cause ‘moistrue choking’ of expansion device due to freez-
ing of moisture. The evaporator gauge, in such cases, will register a high vacuum.
If the evaporater operates above 0°C, ice formation does not occur. But there may
be other problems such as dilution of oil.
In capillary systems, moisture choking will be indicated by a point on the capil-
lary which will show large difference in temperature of upstream and downstream
side. There may be frosting on the downstream side at the point of choking, while the
rest of the capillary will be warm.
Again the cause of moisture in the system is the lack of care during evacuation
and charging.To remove moisture, thaw any ice formed by warming the expansion
device.
The procedure for evacuation, drying, and charging has to be repeated in
small units.
In both small and large units, the solution is to instal a ‘drier’ in the liquid line.
Servicing Condenser Air-cooled condenser need 6-monthly cleaning and paint-
ing. Water-cooled condensers require regular/routine cleaning of tubes inside which
water is flowing. Water in Delhi is particularly hard. Further, there may be muck
coming from cooling tower. So the water-side of tubes will get corroded. This will
reduce the water-side of heat transfer coefficient. Consequently, the plant will run at
high head pressure.
Cleaning of tubes is done by circulating a 5% solution of HCl to dissolve the
scales that are formed.
Note Routine servicing of open-type compressor is also required for replacing bearings,
grinding valve reeds, to repair compressor valve-plate, and compressor crankshaft seal,
etc.
References
1. Dhar P L, Optimization in Refrigeration Systems, Ph. D. Thesis. Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi, 1974.
2. Dhar P L and C P Arora, ‘Design of direct expansion chillers’, Proc. Fourth
National Symposium on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Delhi, Sept.
11–12, 1975, pp. 230–239.
3. Dhar P L and C P Arora, ‘Optimizing the use of fins in D-X chillers’, Proc.
Fourth National Symposium on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Delhi,
Sept. 11-12, 1975, pp. 1–5.
4. Stoecker W F, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, McGraw Hill, New York,
1968, pp. 158–171.
5. Stoecker W F, Design of Thermal Systems, McGraw Hill, Kogakusha, 1971.
Revision Exercises
10.1 For a R 134a compressor, the following performance data at a condensing
temperature of 35°C are given:
Evaporator Refrigerating Power

Temperature Capacity Consumption
t0(°C) Q& 0 (W) P(W)
–20 2560 1800
–15 3325 2000
–10 4190 2200
Fit suitable equations for the refrigerating capacity and power consumption
as a function of the evaporator temperature and constant condensing tempera-
ture of 35°C and find their numerical values at an evaporator temperature of
0°C.
10.2 A refrigeration plant serves as a water chiller. Data on the individual compo-
nents are as follows:
Evaporator: UA = 30595 W° C–1
Chilled water flow rate, m& c = 6.795 kg/s
Condenser: UA = 26375 W°C –1
Cooling water flow rate, m& w = 7.55 kg/s
Compressor: The refrigerating capacity and power consumption as functions
of evaporating and condensing temperatures are given by the equations
Q& 0 (kW) = – 768 + 5.1 T – 2T
0 k
P(kW) = – 0.732 T0 + 0.001746T 20 + 0.31 Tk
Determine the condensing and evaporating temperatures, refrigerating capacity
and power consumption for inlet-chilled water temperature of 2°C and inlet
cooling water temperature of 30°C.

Gas Cycle Refrigeration
11.1 LIMITATIONS OF CARNOT CYCLE WITH GAS

AS A REFRIGERANT
Although the Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle between fixed temperature
limits and is useful as a criterion of perfection, it has its inherent drawbacks when a
gas is used as a refrigerant, as can be seen from its p-v diagram shown in Fig. 2.1b.
These are:
(i) Extreme pressures and large volumes are developed since the pressure rise
takes place both during isentropic compression as well as isothermal heat-
rejection processes.
(ii) Isothermal heat-transfer processes with a gas, viz., a medium with a finite
specific heat, are impossible to achieve in practice.
(iii) The p-L diagram of the cycle working with a gas is so narrow that even small
irreversibilities of the individual processes cause a significant increase in the
work done. This increase in work forms a large proportion of the net work of
the cycle.
11.2 REVERSED BRAYTON OR JOULE OR BELL

COLEMAN CYCLE
In the reversed Brayton or Joule or Bell Coleman cycle, as it is variously called, the
two isothermal processes 2¢-3 and 4¢-1 of the reversed Carnot cycle are replaced by
the more practical isobaric processes 2-3 and 4-1 respectively, as shown on the T-s
diagram in Fig. 11.1. This involves, however, a loss in the refrigerating effect Dq0
equivalent to the area 1-4-4¢, and increases in the net work of the cycle, Dw0 and
Dwk, corresponding to the areas 1-4-4¢ and 3-2-2¢ respectively.
A schematic diagram of an air-refrigeration machine working on a simple gas
cycle is shown in Fig. 11.2. In this arrangement, the compressor and expander are
shown coupled together since the expander work is utilised to provide a part of the
compressor work. Point 4 in Fig. 11.1 represents the state of the refrigerated air
which would absorb heat at a constant pressure p0 until it attains the temperature
corresponding to point 1. At 1, the air is isentropically compressed to 2, from p0 to pk
pressure, after which it is cooled at constant pressure pk to 3. The cooling medium is
invariably the surrounding atmospheric air as the cycle is presently employed only
in aircraft refrigeration. The air is finally expanded isentropically to 4 whereby it
gets cooled to T4.
Note It may be noted that if ever the cycle is used for cooling on ground, water can be
used as a cooling medium.
pk
2
3
p0
1
T
s
Fig. 11.1 Comparison of Joule or reversed Brayton cycle with reversed Carnot cycle
2 1 Compressor
Air Cooler Refrigerator

m
3 4
Expander
High Pressure Low Pressure
Side Side
Fig. 11.2 Schematic diagram of simple gas cycle
11.2.1 Analysis of Gas Cycle

The relationship between the various temperatures of the cycle is given by the
isentropic relation applied to both compression and expansion processes, viz.,
FG IJ
g -1
T2 T pk g
T1
= 3 =
T4 p0H K (11.1)
Also, assuming air to be a perfect gas, we have per unit mass of air circulated:
Refrigerating effect, q0 = Cp (T1 – T4) (11.2)
Gas Cycle Refrigeration 369
Heat rejected, |qk| = Cp(T2 – T3) (11.3)

g
Compressor work, |wC | = ( p2 L2 – p1 L1)
g -1
= Cp(T2 – T1) (11.4)
g
Expander work, wE = (p3 L3 – p4 L4)
g -1
= Cp (T3 – T4) (11.5)
Net work of the cycle, |w| = |wC| – wE = |qk | – q0
= Cp [(T2 – T3) – (T1 – T4)] (11.6)
The coefficient of performance is, therefore,
q 1
-= 0 =
|w| FG
T2 - T3 IJ (11.7)
H
T1 - T4
-1
K
which on substitution from Eq. (11.1) can be expressed as
1 1
-= = g -1 (11.8)
FG p IJ
g -1
g g
-1
Hp K
k
-1 r
0
The COP of the gas cycle is, therefore, a function of the pressure ratio r = pk/p0
only. The lower the value of the pressure ratio, the higher is the COP. The variation
of COP with pressure ratio is given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Variation of COP of air cycle with pressure ratio
pk /p0 1 2 3 4 5 6
- ¥ 4.56 2.71 2.05 1.72 1.5
It may be noted that the pressures pk and p0, and hence the pressure ratio r, have
limitations on account of the operating temperatures, viz.,
(i) T1 as the highest refrigeration temperature, and
(ii) T3 as the lowest ambient temperature.
Point 1 on the diagram is fixed by the temperature T1 and also the pressure p0
which is generally equal to the surrounding atmospheric air pressure. Point 3 is fixed
because of the limitations of the ambient temperature T3 to which the gas can be
cooled. Pressure pk can, however, be varied within wide limits, starting from pk, min
onwards as shown in Fig. 11.3. With the compressor discharge pressure equal to
pk, min, the refrigerating capacity of the machine is zero. The air is alternately com-
pressed and expanded between points 2min and 1. The net work is also zero and
hence the COP is indeterminate.
However, as the pressure pk is increased, although the refrigerating effect (area
under the curve 4-1) and hence the capacity of the refrigerating machine increases,
the work of the cycle also increases. For example, when the discharge pressure is pk,
the refrigerating effect is 1-4-5-6 and the net work is 1-2-3-4. When the discharge
pressure is increased to pk¢, the increase in the refrigerating effect is 4-4¢-5¢-5 and
that in the net work is 2-2¢-3¢-4¢-4-3-2. If is evident that the increase in work is much
more than the increase in the refrigerating effect. As a result, the COP decreases
with increasing pk. Looking at Table 11.1, we find that a compression ratio of 3 to
4 in a single stage is reasonable.
3 3 3
T3
2 min
pk,
w
T1
1
T
pk , min
4 q0
p0
5 6
s
Fig. 11.3 Effect of discharge pressure pk on the performance of the gas cycle
11.2.2 Polytropic and Multistage Compression

As discussed in Sec. 6.2.3, polytropic compression with cooling would reduce the
net work of the cycle by reducing the average temperature of the compression proc-
ess and the value of the compression index from g to n. Then, the expression for
compressor work becomes
n
|wC | = (p2L2 – p1L1)
n -1
n g -1
= Cp (T2 – T1) (11.9)
n -1 g
The net work is |w| = |wC| – wE
LM n × g - 1 (T - T1 ) - (T3 - T4 )
OP
= Cp
Nn - 1 g 2
Q (11.10)
T1 - T4
and the COP is -= (11.11)
n g -1
(T2 - T1 ) - (T3 - T4 )
n-1 g
When the compression ratio becomes too high, it becomes necessary to use
multistage compression with intercooling.
11.2.3 Actual Gas Cycle

The actual gas cycle will have significant pressure drops, D pk and D p0, in heat
exchangers and irreversibilities of the compressor and expander as shown in
Fig. 11.4. There are also other losses associated with heat gain from the surround-
ings and pressure drops at the compressor and expander.
p2
T
p3
1
4
4
p4
p1
s
Fig. 11.4 Actual gas cycle
11.3 APPLICATION TO AIRCRAFT REFRIGERATION
The gas cycle, presently, is exclusively used in air-conditioning systems of military

and commercial aircrafts, though refrigerated cargo aircrafts generally use dry ice. It
is more appropriate to call it air cycle refrigeration since only air has found applica-
tion as a working substance in this cycle. The coefficient of performance of this
cycle is lower than that of the vapour compression cycle. Nevertheless, the air cycle
continues to be favoured for aircraft refrigeration because of its many advantages.
The present day jet aircrafts have very high cooling loads because of their large
occupancy, electronic equipment and high velocity and consequent heat generation
due to skin friction.
The air cycle can work as an open cycle or as a closed cycle system. A closed air
cycle system or a dense air machine has many thermodynamic advantages. It can
work at a suction pressure p0 higher than the atmospheric. This reduces the volumes
handled by the compressor and the expander. Also, the operating pressure ratio
pk/p0 can be reduced, resulting in a higher coefficient of performance.
In an open air-cycle system the air after expansion is directly led to the condi-
tioned space. It is, therefore, necessary to expand air to one atmosphere pressure.
This requires larger volumes to be handled. Notwithstanding this, the sizes of the
compressor and expander, nowadays, are not affected significantly since both of
them are of the turbo-type. The rotational speed of the assembly is of the order of
100,000 rpm. The open cycle system, has another advantage over the closed cycle
system, in respect that it does not require a heat exchanger for the refrigeration proc-
ess. This saves the weight and cost of the equipment. It, however, has one disadvan-
tage, viz., when the air drawn from the refrigerated space is humid, it might produce
fog and ice at the end of the expansion process and clog the line. A drier in the circuit
is required in such a case.
The main considerations involved in an aircraft application in order of impor-

tance are weight, space and operating power. These have been discussed in detail by
Scofield9. Though the power per ton of refrigeration is considerably more for
air-cycle refrigeration than for a vapour-compression system, the bulk and weight
advantages of the air-cycle system, due to no heat exchanger at the cold end and a
common turbo-compressor for both the engine and refrigeration unit, result in a
greater overall power saving in the aircraft. The advantages of air cycle with regard
to its application in aircraft refrigeration can be listed as follows:
(i) Small amounts of leakages are tolerable with air as the refrigerant.
(ii) Air cycle in its simplest form as an open system requires only one heat exchanger.
(iii) Availability of the refrigerant in mid air is also an important consideration.
(iv) Cabin pressurization and airconditioning can be combined into one operation.
(v) Initial compression of the air is obtained by the ram effect, viz., conversion of
the high kinetic energy of the ambient air relative to the aircraft into enthalpy
and hence pressure rise. The power for this, however, is derived from the
engine of the aircraft since the process in the ram causes a drag on the engine.
Refrigeration units for aircrafts have been built in various sizes weighing from
3 to 100 kg, and ranging in refrigerated air capacity from 3 to 70 kg per min.
11.3.1 Simple Aircraft Refrigeration Cycle with Ram Compression

The initial compression of the ambient air due to ram effect and a simple aircraft
refrigeration cycle are shown in Fig. 11.5. The ram effect is shown by the line 1-2.
Point 2¢ denotes the state after isentropic diffusion to pressure p¢2 and temperature T2¢.
3
3
)
re
ssu
Pre
m
p 2 (Ra
p2
4 T4
p3 Ti i 2
p1
p4
T
re 5 T1
s su 1 Ambient Air
P re
re Temperature
bin ss
u
Ca Pr
e
ir
n tA
bie
Am
s
Fig. 11.5 Simple aircraft refrigeration cycle
The energy equation for the process of diffusion is

C2
h2 = h2¢ = h1 +
2
where C is the velocity of the aircraft. We have from the above
C2
Cp T2 = Cp T2¢ = Cp T1 +
2
C2
T2 = T2¢ = T1 + (11.13)
2C p
The above relation can be simplified to
T2¢ C2 C2 g - 1 C2
=1+ =1+ =1+
T1 2C p T1 2g R 2 a2
T1
(g - 1)
g -1 2
=1+ M (11.14)
2
where a = g R T1 is the acoustic velocity and M is the Mach number of the flight.
The temperature T2 = T2¢ is the stagnation temperature of the ambient air. The
stagnation pressure after isentropic diffusion, p2¢, is given by the relation
FG IJ
g
p2¢ T¢ g -1
p1
= 2
T1 H K (11.15)
The irreversible compression in the ram, however, results in air reaching point 2
instead of point 2¢, i.e., at the same stagnation temperature but at a reduced stagna-
tion pressure p2 which is obtained from the knowledge of the ram efficiency hR
defined by
Actual pressure recovery
hR =
Ideal pressure recovery
p2 - p1
= (11.16)
p2¢ - p1
The rest of the cycle is also shown in Fig. 11.5. The temperature after the cooler
(process 3-4), T4 is shown to be higher than the stagnation temperature T2 of the
ambient air. It implies that the air cannot be cooled to a temperature below T2 unless
some method is devised to extract the kinetic energy of the ambient air. Another
point to note is that the pressure after expansion p5 is slightly above the cabin pres-
sure. It is also higher than the ambient air static pressure existing at the altitude at
which the aircraft is flying. The refrigerating effect produced is
q0 = Cp (Ti – T5) (11.17)
where Ti is the room temperature maintained inside the cabin. The net work of the
cycle is the difference of work for process 2-3 of the compressor and process 4-5 of the
expander plus the ram air work, Cp (T2 – T1), which is derived directly from the engine.
The ambient air temperature varies with the altitude of the flight of the aircraft.
Generally, the temperature drops by 0.64°C per 100 m of height from the sea level
temperature.
Example 11.1 An air-cooling system for a jet plane cockpit operates on the
simple cycle. The cockpit is to be maintained at 25°C. The ambient air pressure
and temperature are 0.35 bar and – 15°C respectively. The pressure ratio of the
jet compressor is 3. The plane speed is 1000 kilometres per hour. The pressure
drop through the cooler coil is 0.1 bar. The pressure of the air leaving the cool-
ing turbine is 1.06 bar and that in the cockpit is 1.01325 bar. The cockpit cooling
load is 58.05 kW. Calculate:
(a) Stagnation temperature and pressure of the air entering the compressor.
(b) Mass flow rate of the air circulated.
(c) Volume handled by the compressor and expander.
(d) Net power delivered by the engine to the refrigeration unit.
(e) COP of the system.

1000 ´ 1000
(a) Speed of aircraft C= = 277.8 m/s
3600
C2
Stagnation temperature T2 = T1 +
2Cp
(277.8) 2
= 258 + = 258 + 38.5 = 296.5 K
2(1.005)103
F 296.5IJ
1.4
= 0.35 G
1.4 - 1
Stagnation pressure p2
H 258 K = 0.57 bar
(b) Discharge pressure from the jet compressor p3 = 3(0.57) = 1.71 bar
Discharge temperature from the jet compressor
FG p IJ
g -1
g
Hp K = 296.5 (3)0.286 = 406 K

3
T3 = T2
2
t3 = 133°C
Other conditions are: T4 = T2 = 296.5 K
p4 = 1.71 – 0.1 = 1.61 bar
p5 = 1.06 bar
FG p IJ
g -1
g 296.5
Hp K =
5
T5 = T4 = 263 K
4 (1.71 /.106) 0 .286
t5 = – 10°C
Refrigerating effect and mass flow rate of air
q0 = 1.005 (25 + 10) = 35.18 kJ/kg
58.05 ´ 3600
m = = 5950 kg/h
3518
.
(c) Volume handled by the compressor
mRT2 5950( 0.286 ´ 103 )( 296.5)
VC = = = 9050 m3/h
p2 0.57 ´ 105
Volume handled by the expander

mRT5 5950( 0.286 ´ 103 )( 263)
VE = = = 430 m3/h
p5 1.06 ´ 105
(d) Ram work (done by the engine in overcoming the drag of ram diffusion)
|wR | = Cp (T2 – T1) = 1.005 (38.5) = 38.7 kJ/kg
Compressor work |wC | = Cp (T3 – T2) = 1.005 (406 – 296.5) = 111.0 kJ/kg
Expander work wE = Cp (T4 – T5) = 1.005 (296.5 – 263) = 33.7 kJ/kg
Net work w = |(wR + wC)| – wE = 38.7 + 111.0 – 33.7 = 116.0 kJ/kg
5950(116)
Net horsepower HP = = 260
2650
35.18
(e) COP = = 0.3
116
Example 11.2 (a) An aircraft flying at an altitude of 8000 m, where the ambi-
ent air is at 0.341 bar pressure and 263 K temperature, has a speed of 900 km/h.
The pressure ratio of the air compressor is 5. The cabin pressure is 1.01325 bar
and the temperature is 27°C. Determine the power requirement of the aircraft for
pressurization (excluding the ram work), additional power required for refrigera-
tion and refrigerating capacity on the basis of 1 kg/s flow of air.
(b) Determine the same if the following are to be accounted
Compressor efficiency, hC = 0.82
Expander/turbine efficiency, hT = 0.77
Heat exchanger effectiveness, e = 0.8
Ram efficiency hR = 0.84
Solution Refer to Fig. 11.5

(900)(1000)
(a) Speed of aircraft C= = 250 m/s
3600
C2
Stagnation temperature T2 = T1 +
2C p
(250) 2
= 263 + = 263 + 31.1 = 294.1 K
2(1.005)103
FG T IJ F 294.1IJ
g 1.4
= 0.341 G
g -1 1.4 - 1
Stagnation pressure p2¢ = p1
HT K
2
1
H 253 K = 0.504 bar
Power requirement for pressurization (excluding ram work)

R|F p I g -1 U|
W1 = m Cp T2 S|GH p¢ JK
cabin
g
- 1V
|W
T 2
R|F 1.01325I 1.4 - 1 U|

= (1) (1.005) (294.1) SG - 1V = 65.34 kW
|TH 0.504 JK
1.4
|W
FG p IJ
g -1
g
H p¢ K = 294.1 (5)0.286 = 466.0 K

3
Compressor discharge temperature T3 = T2
2
FG p IJ
g -1
g
Hp K
4
Expander exit temperature T5 = T4
5
294.1
FG 5 ´ 0.504IJ
= 0.286
= 226.6 K
H 1.01325 K
Power required for refrigeration (excluding ram work)
W2 = | WC | – W E = m Cp (T3 – T2 – T4 + T5)
= 1 (1.005) (466 – 294.1 – 294.1 + 226.6) = 104.4 kW
Additional power for refrigeration W1 = W2 – W1 = 104.4 – 65.34 = 39.06 kW
Refrigerating capacity Q 0 = m q0 = m Cp (Tcabin – T5)
= (1) (1.005) (300 – 226.6) = 73.77 kW
(b) Ram pressure p2 = p1 + hR (p2 – p1)
= 0.341 + 0.84 (0.504 – 0.341) = 0.478 bar
Power requirement for pressurization (excluding ram work)
R|F IJ U|
S|GH V|
0.286
(1)(1.005)( 294.1) 1.01325
W1 =
0.82 0.478T K
- 1 = 86.4 kW
W
Temperature after isentropic compression T3¢ = 466.0 K
T ¢ - T2
Temperature after actual compression T3 = T2 + 3
hC
466 - 294.1
= 294.1 + = 503.7 K
0.82
Temperature after heat exchanger T4 = T3 – e (T3 – T2)
= 503.7 – 0.8 (503.7 – 294.1) = 336.0 K
Temperature after isentropic expansion
336
T5¢ =
FG IJ
0.286
= 258.9 K
5 ´ 0.504
H
1.01325 K
Actual temperature after expansion T5 = T4 – hT (T4 – T5¢)
= 336 – 0.77 (336 – 258.9) = 276.7 K
Power required for refrigeration (excluding ram work)
W2 = m Cp (T3 – T2 – T4 + T5)
= (1) (1.005) (503.7 – 294.1 – 336 + 276.7) = 151.1 kW
Additional power for refrigeration W = 151.1 – 86.4 = 64.7 kW
Note (i) The difference between the power requirement for refrigeration and that for
pressurization is not very large.
(ii) The effect of irreversibilities is very large on the power requirement and
refrigerating capacity.
11.3.2 Dry Air Rated Temperature

A comparison of the different types of air-refrigeration systems is made in terms of
dry air rated temperature (DART). This is the temperature of the discharge air from
the expander if there is no condensed moisture present and is calculated by the usual
procedure, assuming the constant pressure specific heat of 1.005 kJ/kg for air. Thus
the dry air rated discharge temperature will be essentially that resulting from a calcu-
lation which assumes that air, at a humidity so low that the expanded discharge is
unsaturated, enters the system. The rating of the aircraft units is given in terms of kg
of air per unit time at the design DART. Thus the capacity of the machine giving
m kg/s of air at a DART of t0 to maintain a cabin at temperature ti is
Q 0 = m Cp (ti – t0)
Note The refrigerating capacity of the air cycle unit in kW has no particular relevance. It
is usually expressed in terms of the mass flow rate of air at DART. In a modern jet aircraft,
typical values are 1.8 kg/s of air at 10°C DART just after take-off, and 1.4 kg/s of air at
12.8°C when the aircraft is cruising.
11.3.3 Air-cycle Systems for Aircraft Refrigeration

In air-cycle systems for aircraft refrigeration, the air is bled from the compressor of
the jet or gas turbine engine or is supplied from an auxiliary compressor source and
cooled in an air to air heat exchanger having an effectiveness of approximately 90
per cent. Messinger6 has described a few systems commonly employed for further
processing of this compressed and cooled air before being supplied to the room. The
common systems are: simple, Bootstrap, regenerative and reduced ambient types.
These are discussed below. There are many other types which are variations or
combinations of these.
Simple System In the simple system, shown in Fig. 11.6, the compressed air after
cooling in air-cooler is passed through a cooling turbine. The work of this turbine is
to drive a fan which draws cooling air through the heat exchanger. Air is discharged
from the turbine at a pressure slightly above the cabin pressure. The fan is put on the
downstream side thus avoiding the additional temperature rise of the cooling air.
The thermodynamic cycle is shown in Fig. 11.5. This system is good for ground
cooling since the fan driven by the turbine is a source of providing cooling air for the
heat exchanger. The fan power overcomes the drag of the air-cooler. However, the
turbine work is not available for the compressor.
Cooling Air Exit
To Combustion
Chamber Compressed Cooling Air
Air Fan
Jet
Compressor Air
Cooler
Cooling
Ram Air Turbine
Cooling Air
To Cabin
Fig. 11.6 Simple system
Bootstrap System The Bootstrap system, shown in Fig. 11.7, has two heat
exchangers instead of one and the expansion turbine drives a compressor rather than
a fan. Thus, it cannot be used for ground cooling. The thermodynamic cycle is shown
in Fig. 11.8. The primary purpose of the Bootstrap system is to provide an additional
cooling capacity when the primary source of air does not have a sufficiently high
pressure to provide the amount of cooling required. The turbine drives the second-
ary compressor to raise the pressure of primary air before it enters the turbine. This
is accomplished at the expense of drag in the cooling circuit since both the heat
exchangers depend on the ram for the flow of cooling air.
Exit Jet Exit Jet

Compressed
Primary Air
5
3 After
Cooler
Jet
Compressor Air Cooler 6 Cooling Turbine
4
2 7
Ram Air
Cooling To Cabin
2 Air Secondary
Compressor
Fig. 11.7 Bootstrap system
5
3
6 Stagnation
4 Temperature
T
in 2
Cab ssure
Pre
7
1
s
Fig. 11.8 Thermodynamic cycle for Bootstrap System
Regenerative System The regenerative system, shown in Fig. 11.9 also has two
heat exchangers but does not require ram air for cooling the air in the second heat
exchanger. It is a modification of the simple system (and is good for ground cooling)
with the addition of a secondary heat exchanger in which the air from the primary heat
exchanger is further cooled with a portion of the refrigerated air bled after expansion
in the turbine as shown in Fig. 11.10. It provides lower turbine discharge tempera-
tures but at the expense of some weight and complications.
Cooling Air
Exit
Cooling Air
Compressed Fan
Air
3
Jet
Compressor
Air
Cooler
Ram Air 4
2 Cooling Air 2
Secondary Heat
Exchanger
Cooling
5 Turbine
6
7 To Cabin
To Cabin or
Spilled
Overboard
Fig. 11.9 Regenerative system
4 Stagnation
ure 2 Temperature
ess
T
5
Pr
bin
Ca
1
6
s
Fig. 11.10 Thermodynamic cycle for regenerative system
Reduced Ambient System In the reduced ambient system (Fig. 11.11) there are
two expansion turbines—one in the cabin air stream and the other in the cooling air
stream. Both turbines are connected to the shaft driving the fan which absorbs all the
power. The turbine for the ram air operates from the pressure ratio made available
by the ram air pressure. The thermodynamic cycle is shown in Fig. 11.12. The sys-
tem shows promise for applications in an exceptionally high speed aircraft when the
ram air temperature is too high. The cooling turbine reduces the temperature of cool-
ing air to the level of static temperature of ambient air. Thus, primary compressed
air can be cooled to, say, T4 below the stagnation temperature T2 and a little above
the static temperature T1.
Cooling
Compressed Air Fan
Air
3
Jet
Compressor
Air
Cooler
4 Cooling
Turbine
Ram Air
To Cabin
Cooling Air 1 5
Reduction
2 Cooling Turbine Gear
for Ram Air
Fig. 11.11 Reduced ambient system
2
4
Static
T
5 1 Temperature
s
Fig. 11.12 Thermodynamic cycle for reduced ambient system
It is interesting to compare these systems with respect to the aircraft speed. From
the results shown in Fig. 11.13, the following brief conclusions may be drawn:
100 Bootstrap
e
pl
m
Si
Regenerative
60
20
DART
Reduced
Ambient
– 20
– 60
– 100
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
Mach Number
Fig. 11.13 Comparison of DART vs. Mach number variation for common
aircraft refrigeration systems
(i) The simple system is preferable at low speeds.

(ii) Above a speed of 1000 kmph, the regenerative system is necessary. The
Bootstrap system is also used.
(iii) Reduced ambient system may be useful for supersonic aircrafts and rockets.
Note In actual aircraft air conditioning, the turbine may either drive the fan as in the
simple cycle, or it may drive the secondary compressor as in the Bootstrap cycle, or it may
do both in a cycle called compound cycle. The ground cooling in an aircraft is provided by
an external A/C unit. It is not desirable to run the jet engine to provide power for ground
cooling.
Example 11.3 The following performance is expected in a certain Bootstrap

system:
Turbine efficiency, hT = 85%
Secondary compressor efficiency, hC = 77%
Secondary heat exchanger effectiveness, e = 0.9
The cabin pressure is maintained at one standard atmosphere. The cooling air
temperature entering the secondary heat exchanger is 32°C. The compressed air
leaves the primary heat exchanger at 64°C. The refrigerated air is required to
enter the cabin at 4.5°C. Calculate:
(i) The temperature of air entering the cooling turbine.
(ii) The pressures of air at discharge from primary and secondary compressors.

Point 3 represents the state after the primary heat exchanger. It is given that
T4 = 337 K
T7 = 277.5 K
p7 = 1.01325 bar
The following equations can be written.
T5 - T6
Secondary heat exchanger effectiveness e = = 0.9
T5 - (273 + 32)
Þ T6 = 274.5 + 0.1 T5 (I)
T5¢ - T4
Secondary compressor efficiency hC = = 0.77
T5 - T4
Þ T5¢ – 337 = 0.77 (T5 – 337) (II)
T - T7
Cooling turbine efficiency hT = 6 = 0.85
T6 - T7¢
Þ 0.85 (T6 – T7¢) = T6 – 277.5 (III)
FG p IJ 0.286
T5¢
Hp K
5
Compression process = (IV)
4 337
FG p IJ 0.286
T6
H 1.01325K
Expansion process 5 = (V)
T7¢
An additional equation is obtained by equating the turbine work to secondary

compressor work,
0.85 (T6 – T7¢) = T5 – 337 (VI)
We have six unknowns, p5, p4, T4, T5, T7¢ and T5¢ and six equations. The solutions are:
T5 = 371.1 K (From I, II, III and VI) T7¢ = 271.6 K (From III)
T5¢ = 363.3 K (From II) p5 = 1.64 bar (From V)
T6 = 311.6 K (From III and VI) p4 = 1.26 bar (From IV)
Example 11.4 The air-conditioning unit of a pressurized jet aircraft receives

its air from the compressor driven by the engine at a pressure of 1.22 bar. The
pressure and temperature of the surrounding air at the height of the aircraft are
0.227 bar and 217 K respectively.
The air-conditioning unit consists of a secondary compressor and a turbine
mounted on the same shaft. The pressure and temperature of air leaving the
turbine are 1 bar and 280 K. Calculate the pressure after the secondary com-
pressor and temperature of air at exit from the cooler. Assume that all processes
are reversible.

1
To Combustion 3
p
Chamber
4
2 Air Bleed 2 1.22 bar

1 bar
T
280 K
0.227 bar
5
217 K
1
3 4 5
s
Cold Air
Fig. 11.14 System for Example 11.4 Fig. 11.15 Thermodynamic cycle
for Example 11.4
Temperature of the air bled from the jet engine compressor
FG p IJ FG 1.22 IJ
g -1
0 . 286
g
HpK H 0.227 K
2
T2 = T1 = 217 = 351 K
1
Work of the secondary compressor
LMFG p IJ 0 .286
OP
NH 1.22 K
-1
Q
w2-3 = Cp (T3 – T2) = Cp T2
LMF p I 0. 286
OP
Work of the turbine w4 – 5 = Cp (T4 – T5) = Cp T5
NH 1 K -1
Q
LMFG p IJ 0 .286
OP
NH 1.22 K
- 1 = 280 (p0.286 – 1)
Q
Equating the two, we have 351
Solving, we get p = 3.06 bar
Temperature of air at the exit from the cooler T4 = T5 FH p IK 0 . 286
1
= 280 (3.06)0.286 = 385 K
11.4 RANQUE–HILSCH TUBE
This device, called the vortex tube or Ranque-Hilsch1, 5, 7 tube, consists of a straight
length of a tube with a concentric orifice located in a diaphragm near one end and
a nozzle located tangentially near the outer radius adjacent to the orifice plate
(Fig. 11.16). Compressed gas enters the tube tangentially through a nozzle forming
a vortex kind of motion. The diaphragm prevents leftward motion of the vortex
which, therefore, travels towards the righthand side of the tube called the hot end. A
hot stream at temperature Th which is above the temperature of supply, say, T3 ejects
from the hot end through the throttle valve, while the cold stream at temperature Tc
below the temperature of supply is received at the cold end through the orifice. The
throttle-valve opening controls the temperature and proportion of the cold stream
with respect to the hot stream; the larger the throttle valve opening, the lower
the temperature of the cold stream and the smaller its fraction and vice versa. The
throttle valve is placed sufficiently distant from the nozzle and the diaphragm
immediately close to it.
Compressed
Gas
Tangential
Nozzle Hot Gas
Cold
Gas d D
Throttle
Orifice Valve
Diaphragm L
Fig. 11.16 Vortex tube
The geometry of the vortex tube can be described by the diameter of the vortex
tube D, diameter of the orifice d, length of the vortex tube L, geometry and number
of nozzles and design of the valve. The setting of the valve determines the ratio of
the hot and cold mass flow fractions mh and mc respectively. The optimum diameter
of the orifice is found to be half the tube diameter.
It may be seen from Fig. 11.16 that the vortex tube system is a modification of the
open-type air-refrigeration system with the expander having been replaced by a vor-
tex tube. In the Joule cycle, a temperature drop is obtained equal to the isentropic
temperature drop, DTs = T3 – T4 (Fig. 11.17). The work of expansion is utilized to
either run a cooling fan or a secondary compressor. The temperature drop obtained
with the vortex tube, T3 – Tc, is smaller than the isentropic drop. The air first expands
to a state n in the nozzle reaching a temperature T4 and velocity C given by
C2
= Cp (T3 – T4)
2
If all this kinetic energy could be removed, we would obtain cold air at tempera-
ture T4. But without the separation of kinetic energy, it is as good as air at tempera-
ture T3 which is the stagnation temperature of the gas.
2
h
Th
3
T3
T
1
c TC
T4
4
s
Fig. 11.17 Temperatures in vortex tube
From the nozzle, the high-velocity gas travels from the periphery of the tube to
the axis during which the separation of kinetic energy occurs. The kinetic energy is
retained by the outer layers due to which they are heated and emerge from the hot
end of the tube at state h. The central core after having lost some kinetic energy
emerges from the cold end at state c, i.e., at a temperature slightly above the static
temperature of the expanded gas. The pressure of the cold-gas stream is usually
lowered further due to expansion in the vortex chamber.
It can be seen that the temperature drop is less than the isentropic-temperature
drop. Also, the quantity of cold air is only a fraction of the air supplied. Thus the
COP of the system is much lower than that of the Joule cycle. The energy balance of
the vortex tube gives
T3 = mc Tc + mh Th (11.18)
where mc + mh = 1 and Tc and Th are the stagnation temperatures of the two streams.
The energy efficiency he of the vortex tube can now be defined as the ratio of the
coefficient of performance of the vortex tube to that of an ideal refrigerating ma-
chine in which the work done by the expander is not recovered, viz.,
m c (T3 - Tc )
he = (11.19)
T3 - T4
It is seen that if all the air goes through the throttle valve, there will be no energy
separation. Also, if all the air leaves through the orifice, there will again be no
energy separation. Thus, there will be optimum values of fractions mc and mh for the
maximum temperature drop, refrigerating effect and COP.
11.5 THE JOULE–THOMSON COEFFICIENT AND

INVERSION CURVE
The Joule–Thomson coefficient defined in Sec. 1.10.3 by the expression

FG ¶ T IJ
mJ =
H ¶ pK h
is a thermodynamic property. It may be readily obtained for a gas by making it
undergo a throttling process through an insulated expansion valve. The pressure p1
and temperature T1 upstream are maintained constant and the pressure p2 down-
stream is varied by operating the valve manually. For each setting of the valve, both
p2 and T2 are measured. These states 1, 2, 2¢, 2¢¢, 2¢¢¢, etc., are then plotted on a T
versus p diagram as shown in Fig. 11.18.
Inversion Points
Maximum
Inversion
Temperature
n p1
gio p2
g Re p2
olin
Enthalpy Lines
Co State Before
Throftling
T
T2 2
Constant
2
2
1 T1
Heating
2 Region h
1 =
Co
ns
(m t.
J Ne
ga
tiv
e)
Throftling Process
Line
p
Fig. 11.18 Family of isenthalpic lines, and inversion curve
All these states have the same enthalpy. Hence, it represents an isenthalpic line.
By changing the initial state p1, T1 and hence h1, a family of such isenthalpic lines
can be drawn as shown in Fig. 11.18. The locus of the maxima of these isenthalpics
is called the inversion curve. The point at which this maximum occurs, i.e., the point
at which the slope of T-p curve changes from positive to negative, is called the
inversion point. The slope of these isenthalpics (¶ T/¶ p)h is equal to the Joule-
Thomson coefficient.
It is seen that mJ is positive for the region inside the inversion curve. Hence, it
represents the cooling region. On the other hand mJ is negative for the region outside
the inversion curve. Hence, it represents the heating region. At the points of maxima,
viz., at the inversion points, mJ = 0. Accordingly, the inversion curve represents the
locus of initial states of a gas corresponding to which there is neither cooling nor
heating on Joule–Thomson expansion.
Thus, if the gas at 1 in Fig. 11.18 is throttled, its temperature will increase or de-
crease depending upon the final pressure after throttling. The temperature will con-
tinue to increase upto a final pressure equal to p2¢. Thereafter, the decreasing trend will
start. When the final pressure is p2², the change in temperature is zero. If the final
pressure is less than p2², say, equal to p2²¢, then only cooling will be obtained. It is
evident that, to obtain cooling, the initial state should be below the inversion pressure
p2¢ and inversion temperature T2¢ corresponding to a given enthalpy h1.
It is evident that the throttling of the gas at 1 at pressure p1 will result, initially, in
rise in temperature. Hence, to obtain cooling, this gas must be precooled to a tem-
perature below the inversion temperature T2¢ at this pressure, say, to 2² at tempera-
ture T2², before being throttled to 2²¢ at pressure p2¢¢¢. It is, thus, seen that for every
pressure there is an inversion temperature. The inversion curve, precisely, repre-
sents this combination of inversion temperatures and pressures. The point of inter-
section of the inversion curve with the temperature axis ( p = 0) gives the maximum
inversion temperature.
11.5.1 Linde–Hampson Process

Figure 11.19 shows the Linde–Hampson process for the liquefaction of gases
utilizing the Joule–Thomson expansion.
The gas at 1 is compressed, say, isothermally usually in two stages to 2. It may
even be cooled by external refrigeration before and after 2. The lower the tempera-
ture before throttling, the greater the Joule–Thomson coefficient, and hence greater
the yield. The yield y is the ratio of the mass of the liquid produced to the mass of the
gas compressed. The compressed gas is, then, cooled to 3 in a counterflow regenera-
tive heat exchanger with the help of cold vapour returning from the separator. At 3,
the gas is throttled to 4. In the separator, the liquid is removed at f. The saturated
cold vapour at g is heated to 5 in the heat exchanger. Make-up gas is added at 6, and
the mixture of 5 and 6 enters the compressor at 1.
The energy balance of the combined heat exchanger and separator gives
m h2 = m f hf + ( m – m f )h5
whence we obtain for the yield
m
y= f = 5
h − h2 (11.20)
m h5 − h f
Note No yield is possible unless h2 < h5.
Aftercooler Intercooler
External Compressor
Refrigeration HP LP
2 5
1
6 6
Regenerative Make up 2
Heat 1
Gas 5
Exchanger h5
ar
3
0b
h2 < h5
20
4 g
ar
1b
Separator 3
f 78.7 K
81.7 K
4 g
f
Liquid Removed s
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.19 Linde–Hampson process
Applying SSSF energy equation, we get for the work of compression per unit
mass of the gas compressed
W
= q + (h1 – h2) (11.21)
m
For reversible isothermal compression, this becomes
W
= T (s2 – s1) – (h1 – h2) (11.22)
m
This expression represents the minimum work of compression. The work per unit
mass of the yield is given by
W W h5 - h f
W= = = [T (s2 – s1) + (h1 – h2)] (11.23)
m f
my h5 - h2
In Eq. (11.20), the value of hf is set by the pressure p1 which is 1 bar. Note that at
1 bar, Tf = 78.7 K while Tg = 81.7 K. As air is a mixture of O2 and N2, Tf ¹ Tg. The
value of h5 is set by the ambient condition/design of regenerative heat exchanger.
Consequently, the compressor delivery pressure p2 is the main variable in the cycle
controlling h2 and the yield. The lower the value of h2, the greater the yield.
A number of modifications are introduced in the basic Linde-Hampson cycle to
improve the yield and COP. One of these is to employ external refrigeration as
shown in Fig. 11.19 to precool, the gas. This auxiliary vapour compression
refrigeration system is inherently more efficient in cooling the gas than the throttling
process. The refrigeration system is less irreversible than a throttling process.
Another modification is to precool the gas by reversible adiabatic expansion
through an expander/turbine. In the Claude process of gas liquefaction, the Linde-
Hampson process is modified so that about 10% of the compressed gas is diverted
from the main stream, expanded reversibly and adiabatically in an expander, and
reunited with the cold vapour returning from the separator before entering the heat
exchanger. This diverted stream provides additional cooling and further lowering
of temperature before throttling of the main stream. In addition, some work is
recovered in the expander.
Note (i) Linde-Hampson process is similar to the supercritical vapour compression

cycle with the difference that the liquid from the mixture after throttling is
separated instead of being sent to the evaporator.
(ii) Tables 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3 give the properties of air.
Table 11.1 Saturation properties of air at 1 bar*
Pressure Temp. Specific Specific Specific

bar K volume enthalpy entropy
m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg.K
p Bubble Dew Lf Lg hf hg sf sg
1 78.7 81.7 0.00114 0.224 zero 205.3 zero 2.559
Table 11.2 Enthalpy of air*
p h
bar kJ/kg
Temp., K ® 120 130 140 150 160 200 250 300
100 70.1 98.1 128.0 159.5 190.3 276.7 347.6 408.5
150 70.4 95.8 121.5 147.5 172.8 257.5 335.1 400.5
200 72.1 95.8 119.4 142.7 165.5 246.0 325.9 394.3
250 75.5 98.2 120.6 142.3 163.4 239.8 319.7 389.8
300 80.0 102.2 123.6 144.3 164.1 236.8 315.9 386.8
350 166.8 236.2 314.1 385.2
400 170.5 237.1 313.7 384.9
Table 11.3 Entropy of air*
p s
bar kJ/kg.K
Temp., K ® 120 130 140 150 160 200 250 300
100 0.625 0.849 1.070 1.288 1.486 1.972 2.291 2.513
150 0.572 0.775 0.966 1.145 1.308 1.782 2.130 2.369
200 0.532 0.723 0.898 1.059 1.206 1.657 2.015 2.265
250 0.507 0.689 0.855 1.005 1.142 1.569 1.926 2.182
300 0.489 0.667 0.826 0.968 1.095 1.502 1.856 2.115
350 1.064 1.451 1.800 2.060
400 1.040 1.412 1.754 2.013
* Extracted from Haywood R.W., Thermodynamic Tables in S.I. Units, Cambridge

University Press, 1968.
Example 11.5 Minimum Work of Compression for Liquefaction of Air.

Determine the yield and minimum work of compression per unit mass of liquid air
as a function of compressor discharge pressure. Given T1 = 300 K.
Solution From Tables 11.1 to 11.3, at p1 = 1 bar

hf = 0, hg = 205.3 kJ/kg
h1 = 427.8 kJ/kg, s1 = 2.559
At p2 = 150 bar, T2 = 300 K, we have
h2 = 400.5 kJ/kg, s2 = 2.369 kJ/kg.K
Assuming that state 5 coincides with state 1, we have:
h - h2 h - h2 h 400.5
Yield y= 5 = 1 =1– 2 =1– = 0.0638 kg/kg
h5 - h f h1 h1 427.8
1
Minimum work W= [T (s2 – s1) + (h1 – h2)]
y
1
= [300 (2.369 – 2.559) + 427.8 – 400.5]
0.0638
= – 465.5 kJ/kg yield
Similarly, we have for p2 = 200 bar
h2 = 394.3 kJ/kg, s2 = 2.265 kJ/kg.K
y = 0.0783 kg/kg, W = – 689.6 kJ/kg
And, for p2 = 300 bar
h2 = 386.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 2.115 kJ/kg.K
y = 0.0968 kg/kg, W = – 962.4 kJ/kg
Note We, thus, see that by increasing compressor discharge pressure, the yield in-
creases, and the work per unit yield also increases. Thus, the COP decreases.
11.6 REVERSED STIRLING CYCLE
Figure 11.20 shows the ideal reversed Stirling cycle on T-s and p-L diagrams.
It comprises of two isothermal and two constant-volume procesess. Process 1-2
is isothermal compression with heat rejection QC to the surroundings at temperature
TC = Tk, and process 3-4 is isothermal expansion with absorption QE from the cold
body at temperature TE = T0. Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant volume heat-
transfer processes. It is seen that
2Q3 = 4Q1
So, if a perfect regenerator is employed between processes of cooling 2-3, and
heating 4-1, then, in the cycle, all cooling/refrigeration Q0 = QE takes place at a
constant temperature T0, and all heat rejection Qk = QC takes place at a constant
temperature Tk. The COP of the ideal Stirling cycle, therefore, equals the Carnot
COP, T0/(Tk – T0).
V2 = V3 V4 = V1
2 T1 = T2
Tk 1
3 T3 = T4
T0 4
T
QC
QE
a b c d
s b – sa sc – sd
s
(a) T-s Diagram
T
1 =T
2
1
p
305 K (32°C)
3 T3
=T
4
4
275 K (2°C)
V2 = V 3 V4 = V1
V
(b) p-V Diagram
Fig. 11.20 Ideal reversed Stirling cycle
The Stirling cycle, however, suffers from the limitation of the Carnot cycle as far
as the impracticability of accomplishing isothermal compression and expansion
processes with a gas is concerned. But, it does not suffer from the other drawback of
the Carnot cycle, viz., the narrow p-L diagram. The Stirling cycle is, therefore, not
very much susceptible to the internal efficiencies of the compressor and the
expander. On the other hand, it has the problem of executing constant volume heat-
transfer processes 2-3 and 4-1 with change in pressure in the regenerator.
11.6.1 Practical Stirling Cycle

Figure 11.21 shows how the constant volume processes of the Stirling cycle can be
approximated by a machine having two pistons.
TC
TE
Exp. Comp.
Space Space
Regenerator
QE QC
Refrigeration Heat to
Surroundings
Fig. 11.21 Practical Stirling cycle
A regenerator acts as perfect storage of heat and cold, and divides the working
space into two parts. One is the expander/cold space, and the other is the compressor/
hot space. The two spaces are maintained at constant temperatures TE and TC by heat
transfers QE and QC respectively. Two pistons move in the two spaces cyclically
with a phase difference, maintaining the total volume of the two spaces together
nearly constant, thus enabling the execution of constant volume heat transfer
processes. Flow of the gas takes place in alternate directions between the compressor
and the expander via the regenerator.
In practice, two arrangements that are possible are as follows:
1. a-machine, Fig. 11.22, with separate cylinders for compression and expansion
spaces.
Regen.
Stationary Stationary
QE
QC
Comp. Exp.
Space Space
1 2 3 4
Fig. 11.22 a-machine with separate cylinders for compression and

expansion spaces
2. b-machine, Fig. 11.23, with integral cylinder for compression and expansion
spaces as developed by Philips for air liquefaction.
The figures also show the disposition of pistons at 4 terminal points which are as
follows:
Terminal Point 1 Compression space is filled with gas. There is no gas in
expansion space.
Process 1–2 Expander-piston is stationary. Compressor-piston moves. The gas is
compressed rejecting heat QC.
QE
QE
Expansion
Fan Space
Gaseous Liquid Air

Air
QE Displacer QE
Regenerator
QC QC
Compression
Space
Piston
Expander Expansion
Piston Space
Compression
Space
Compressor
Piston 1 2 3 4
Fig. 11.23 b-machine with integral cylinder for compression and expansion
spaces as in Philips liquefier
Process 2–3 Both the compressor and the expander pistons move. The gas is trans-
ferred from compression space to expansion space via the regenerator, getting
cooled in the process.
Process 3–4 Compressor-piston is stationary. Expander-piston moves. The gas is
expanded absorbing heat QE.
Process 4–1 Both the compressor and the expander pistons move. The gas is trans-
ferred back from expansion space to compression space via the regenerator, getting
heated in the process.
In this manner, the cycle is repeated. Figure 11.24 illustrates this operation in the
form of cyclic piston displacement diagram which holds good for both a and b
machines. The upper line represents the expansion space volume. The lower line
represents the compression space volume. The difference between the two repre-
sents the total volume of the gas between the two spaces.
4 Phase Dife. Expansion

Angle Space
Volume
3
1
Piston Displacement
1 2
Time/Crank
Angle
3 4
2 Compression
Space Volume
1 1
Fig. 11.24 Cyclic piston displacement diagram of a and b machines
Note (i) The pressure at any instant of time is the same in both the spaces.
(ii) The a-machine has the disadvantage of large dead volume. This is the volume
that is not swept by any of the pistons.
(iii) The b-machine, on the other hand, has the disadvantage of heat transfer from
the hot space to the cold space along the cylinder walls, thus reducing the
refrigerating effect.
(iv) The maximum volumes of the compressor and expander spaces are VC and VE.
The volumes occupied by the gas in the two spaces at any instant of time are Vc
and Ve. The total volume of the gas is
Vt = Vc + Ve
Philips, Holand have developed an air liquefier which works on the b-machine. The
air enters the top of the expansion space head; it gets cooled and condensed and leaves
as liquid air from the other side of the space as shown by broken lines in Fig. 11.23.
Sharma10 obtained temperatures between 0 to – 20°C with air as well as hydrogen
using a-configuration.
11.6.2 Hydrogen as Working Substance in Stirling Cycle

Crucial factors for high COP in Stirling cycle are:
(i) High regenerator efficiency.
(ii) High heat-transfer coefficients in compressor and expander spaces.
(iii) Low pressure drop in system.
(iv) Low work of compression.
This means we require a working substance (gas) which has high thermal conduc-
tivity simultaneously with high thermal diffusivity. It should also have low viscosity,
and low value of g, the ratio of specific heats. Table 11.4 compares these values for
three important gases, viz., air, hydrogen and helium.
Table 11.4 Values of thermal conductivity k, viscosity m, thermal diffusivity a, and ratio
of specific heats g of air, hydrogen and helium at room temperature
k m ´ 105 a ´ 104 g
Gas W/m.K kg/m.s m2/s
Air 0.02624 1.983 0.2216 1.4
Hydrogen 0.182 0.8963 1.554 1.409
Helium 0.1491 2.012 1.8 1.667
It is seen that hydrogen has the highest thermal conductivity and lowest viscosity.
Its thermal diffusivity is also quite high, and the value of ratio of specific heats is quite
low. Hydrogen is, therefore, the preferred gas for use in Stirling cycle refrigeration.
11.6.3 Why the Stirling Cycle Refrigeration?

Stirling cycle is a viable alternative to vapour-compression system presently using
CFCs. Further, hydrogen as working substance is environment-friendly. Simultane-
ously, with providing an alternative to CFCs, it has high thermodynamic perform-
ance. With regenerator, the COP approaches Carnot value.
Unprecedented opportunities, therefore, exist for applying it to commercial
refrigeration and air conditioning applications. The limitation, however, is that it
can be employed in small refrigerating capacity applications as the heat transfer
surface available is the area of the expansion space only, and the heat-transfer
coefficients with gas are very low.
11.6.4 Basic Design Parameters in Stirling Machine

There are three volumes in a Stirling machine, the maximum volumes of compres-
sion and expansion spaces VC and VE, and the volume of dead space VD, viz., the
volume of the working space which is not swept by any piston. Then, there is the
phase difference angle a between the two pistons. And the temperatures maintained
in the two spaces are TC and TE. The basic design parameters written in dimension-
less form are:
V
Ratio of volumes k= C
VE
VD
Reduced dead volume X=
VE
T
Ratio of temperatures t= C
TE
Further, we have total of swept volumes
VT = VC + VE = (k + 1) VE
11.6.5 Derived Parameters

Some parameters derived from basic parameters, which appear in theoretical analysis,
are the following:
k sin a
Angle q = tan–1
t + k cos a
2 Xt
S= = Reduced dead volume
t +1
A = t 2 + 2tk cos a + k 2
B = t + k + 2S
A
d=
B
11.6.6 Theoretical Analysis of the Cycle11, 12, 13

Figure 11.24 represents a theoretical piston displacement versus crank angle
diagram. Schmidt8 presented his classical analysis of the cycle in which the motion
of the pistons is simple harmonic as it has to be in a practical device. Schmidt made
the following assumptions:
(i) Regenerator is perfect.
(ii) Instantaneous pressure is the same throughout the system.
(iii) Gas obeys ideal gas equation pV = RT.
(iv) Compressor and expander heat exchangers are perfect.
(v) Temperatures TC and TE are constant.
At any instant of time, the volumes of the expansion and compression spaces are
given by
1
Ve = VE (1 + cos f)
2
1 1
Vc = VC [1 + cos (f – a)] = k VE [1 + cos (f – a)]
2 2
where f is the crank angle of expansion space. Note that lower case subscripts e and
c denote instantaneous values of T, p, V and mass, and upper case subscripts E and C
denote maximum or constant values.
Now, equating the sum of masses of gas in the expansion, compression and dead
spaces to total mass mT, we have
pe Ve pV p V 1 V
+ c c + d d = K E = mT (11.24)
RTe RTc RTd 2 RTc
where K is a constant which depends on the total mass of gas charged in the system.
Note, that this will also affect the system pressures.
Now, since compression and expansion are isothermal, hence Te = TE and
Tc = TC. Then, substituting for volumes, putting pe = pc = pd = p, eliminating
R, and rearranging, we get
K T V T
= C (1 + cos f) + k [1 + cos (f – a)] + 2 D C
p TE VE TD
= t (1 + cos f) + k [1 + cos (f – a)] + 2 S (11.25)
TE + TC T FG T IJ FG
T t +1 IJ
where TD =
2 2 H
= C 1+ E = C
TC K 2 Ht K
Equation (11.25) can be written as
K
= (T + k cos a ) 2 + (k sin a ) 2 cos (f – q) + t + k + 2S
p
= t 2 + 2tk cos a + k 2 cos (f – q) + t + k + 2S
K
Þ p= (11.26)
B 1 + d cos(f - q )
The instantaneous pressure p is
(a) minimum when f = q, f – q = 0, and
(b) maximum when f = q + p, (f – q) = p.
K K p 1+d
Thus, we have pmin = , pmax = , max =
B(1 + d ) B(1 - d ) pmin 1-d
1-d
Accordingly, from Eq. (11.26), p = pmax
1 + d cos(f - q )
1+ d
= pmin (11.27)
1 + d cos(f - q )
Mean Cycle Pressure
z z
2p 2p
p p 1-d
pmean = pd (f – q) = pmax d (f – q)
2 0
2 0
1 + d cos(f - q )
1-d
= pmax (11.28)
1+d
Note The values of pmax, p min and pmean depend on each other. But, ultimately, these
depend on the charging pressure, i.e., on the mass of the gas charged.
Heat Transferred and Work Done In the isothermal expansion and compression
z
processes
Q=W= pdV
Heat Transferred in Expansion Space/Refrigeration Produced Putting,
1
Ve = VE (1 + cos f)
2
1
d Ve = – VE sin f d f
2
p @ pmean [1 + D cos (f – q)] approximately
2d
D=
1 + 1 - d2
and integrating, we get
z z
2p 2p
1
QE = p d Ve = - pmean VE [1 – D cos (f – q)] sin f d f
2 0
RS IJ OPUV
0
1 1 LM 1 1 FG 2p
2 T
= - pmean VE – cos f – D - cos q
2
cos 2f + sin q f - sin2 f
N 2 4 0
H K QW
p
= pmean VE D sin
2
d sin q
q = p pmean VE (11.29)
1 + 1 - d2
Heat Transferred in Compression Space/Heat Rejected (Similarly)
z
p
QC = p d Vc
0
κδ sin(θ − α )
= p pmean VE (11.30)
1 + 1 − δ2
Work Done and COP These have their respective Carnot values.
11.6.7 Optimal Design for Stirling Machine

In the case of internal combustion engines, the mean effective pressure (MEP) is
used as a basis of comparing the power output. In a Stirling cycle engine or refrig-
erator, however, there are always two working spaces. In this case, therefore, total
swept volume rather than the expander volume, and the maximum pressure pmax
rather than mean pressure are used to make Eq. (11.29) non-dimensional so that the
specific refrigerating effect becomes,
QE p 1 - d d sin q
=
LM OP (11.31)
N Q
pmax VT (1 + k ) 1 + d 1 + 1 - d 2
Replacing pmax in terms of pmin, Eq. (11.31) can also be written as
QE p 1 + d d sin q
=
LM OP (11.32)
N Q
pmin VT (1 + k ) 1 - d 1 + 1 - d 2
It is seen from Eq. (11.31) that
QE a N, Speed
a pmax, viz., amount of gas charged
a VT
Accordingly, to double the refrigerating capacity, one may just double any, or a
combination of these parameters. In practice, however, it is not so. The increase in
pressure and speed has an adverse effect also because of friction and thermal
saturation of the matrix in the regenerator as well as the compressor and expander
heat exchangers. After reaching an optimum, the increase in p and N in excess may
actually decrease QE.
Other parameters to optimise are t, k, a and X. As in all refrigerating machines,
QE increases as t decreases, or as TE increases and TC decreases. QE also increases
as k = VC/VE increases. It decreases with X = VD/VE. Hence dead volume should be
as small as possible. QE is maximum at phase difference angle a around 90°. But it
is remarkably insensitive to variation of a between 60° – 120°.
We see that there is an optimum value of volume ratio k for a given temperature
ratio t. Thus, if
TE = 278 K (5°C), TC = 318 K (45°C)
318
t= = 1.144, X = 1, a = 90°
278
then, optimum volume ratio is found to be
k = VC /VE = 1.5
and specific refrigerating effect becomes
FG Q IJ
Hp V K
E
= 0.138
max T opt
The analysis and optimization given above is for an ideal Stirling cycle refrigerat-
ing machine. But, there are various factors which affect the performance in an actual
machine. The major ones are the following:
1. Compression and expansion are not isothermal but polytropic. After Schmidt,
the next major contribution to the theory was made by Finkelstein2, 3 who
considered variation in the temperature of the two spaces.
2. Heat transfer processes in the compressor and expander are irreversible.
There is a finite temperature difference between the working fluid and the
medium on the other side.
3. Dead volume ratio may be large.
4. Regenerator efficiency is less than unity. Accordingly:
Gas cooled from TC to TE¢ > TE
Gas heated from TE to TC¢ < TC
5. Aerodynamic losses in the compressor, expander, heat exchangers, regenera-
tor and connecting lines are present.
6. Heat gain of expansion space from surroundings and heat leakage from hot
space to cold space will also offset refrigerating effect.
Note A factor of safety of 3 is recommended to account for these.
Example 11.6 Theoretical Stirling Cycle Calculations

In a Stirling cycle refrigerating machine operating at TC = 318 K and TE = 278 K,
the volumes of the cylinders are:
VC = VE = 6 ´ 10–5 m3
The dead volume ratio is X = 1.5. The phase difference angle is a = 90°. The
speed of the machine is 720 rpm. The working fluid is charged so much as to
give a maximum pressure of pmax = 20 bar.
Find the refrigerating capacity, power, consumption and mean and minimum
pressures of the ideal cycle.
Solution The temperature ratio is t = TC /TE = 1.144, and swept volume ratio is
k = VC /VE = 1. Now
S = 2 Xt = 1.6007
1+t
t 2 + k 2 + 2tk cos a
d= = 0.2843
t + k + 2S
FG k sin a IJ
q = tan–1
H
t + k cos a K
= 61.6°
sin q = 0.6581
QE p 1-d d sin q
Qmax = = = 0.112
pmax VT 1+k 1 + d 1 + 1 - d2
QE = 0.112 (20 ´ 105) (2 ´ 6 ´ 10–5) = 26.9 J
Refrigeration capacity, power consumption and pressures
26.9(720)
Q E = QE N/60 = = 323 W
60
W = Q E /COP = (t – 1) Q E = 46.5 W (Actual)
1-d
pmean = pmax = 14.93 bar
1+d
FG 1 - d IJ
pmin = pmax
H1 + d K = 11.14 bar
11.6.8 Design Aspects of Regenerator

The regenerator is a critical component in Stirling machines. The regenerator effi-
ciency should be close to 0.98 to 1. A 1% reduction in efficiency results in 21% reduc-
tion in QE at 75 K. At the same time, heat exchange in regenerator is very large, viz.,
QREG @ 10 to 50 QE
Hence, the desirable properties of regenerator matrix material are:
(a) High heat capacity (high density and specific heat).
(b) Large thermal conductivity.
(c) Low pressure drop inspite of large heat-transfer surface of matrix.
Comparing a few materials, Table 11.5 clearly highlights that MS pipe can be
used for the casing, while copper would be the best choice for the matrix.
Table 11.5 Comparison of regenerator materials
MS Copper Bronze Brass

Cp, kJ/kg.K 0.465 0.383 0.343 0.385
k, W/m.K 54 386 26 111
After choosing the material, it is also very important to select a mesh number of
proper size. The mesh wire diameter dm should be optimum.
(a) If dm is too small, heat penetrates to the centre before the blow time expires.
This means storage volume is insufficient.
(b) If dm is too large, heat does not penetrate to the centre within the blow time.
This means some volume does not contribute to storage.
Consequently, it is important to select a mesh size for given operating conditions,
viz., working fluid, pressure, temperature, mass/volume flow rate, speed, etc.
References
1. Arora C P, ‘Theoretical analysis of Ranque-Hilsch tube’, Proc. Seventh Con-
gress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Bombay, 1961, pp. 241–48.
2. Finkelstein T, ‘Generalized thermodynamic analysis of Stirling engines’, SAE
Annual Meeting, 1960.
3. Finkelstein T, ‘Optimization of phase angle and volume ratio for Stirling en-
gines,’ SAE Annual Meeting, 1960.
4. ‘Fundamentals and Equipment’, ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, 1963.
5. Hilsch R, ‘The use of the expansion of gases in a centrifugal field as a cooling
process’, The Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 18, No. 2, Feb. 1947, p. 108.
6. Messinger B L, ‘Refrigeration for air conditioning pressurized transport
aircraft’, Trans. SAE Journal, Vol. 54, No. 3, March, 1946.
7. Ranque G J, ‘Experience sur la de’tente giratoire avec productions

simultane’es d’ume’, chappement d’ air chand et. d’un e chappement d’ air
froid’, Le Journal de Physique et le Radium, Vol. 4, series 7.
8. Schmidt G, ‘Theorie der Lehmann’schen, calorischen Maschine’, Z. Ver.
Dtsch. Ing., Vol. 15, No. 1, 1871.
9. Scofield P C, ‘Air cycle refrigeration’, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 57,
No. 6, June 1949, pp. 558–563, 61.
10. Sharma S K, ‘Development of Stirling cycle refrigerator’, M.Tech. Thesis,
IIT Delhi, 1993.
11. Walker G, ‘Operating cycle of the Stirling engine with particular reference to
the function of the regenerator’, J. Mech. Engg. Sc., Vol. 3, No. 4, 1961.
12. Walker G, ‘An optimization of the principal design parameters of Stirling
cycle machines’, J. Mech. Engg. Sc., Vol. 4, No. 3, 1962.
13. Walker G, Cryocoolers Part 1; Fundamentals, Plenum Press, 1983.
14. Walker G, Cryocoolers Part 2: Applications, Plenum Press, 1983.
Revision Exercises
11.1 An open air refrigeration system operating between pressures of 16 bar and
1 bar is required to produce 33.5 kW refrigeration. The temperature of air
leaving the refrigerated room is –5°C and that leaving the air cooler is 30°C.
Assume no losses and clearance. Calculate for the theoretical cycle:
(i) Weight rate of air circulated per minute.
(ii) Piston displacement of compressor and expander.
(iii) Net work
(iv) COP.
11.2 A dense air machine operates between 17 bar and 3.4 bar. The temperature of
the air after the cooler is 15°C and after the refrigerating coils is 6°C. Determine:
(i) Temperature after expansion and compression.
(ii) Air circulated per minute/TR.
(iii) Work of the compressor and expander/TR.
(iv) Theoretical COP and hp/TR.
11.3 A dense air machine is to produce 10 tons of refrigeration with a compressor
entrance pressure of 4.5 bar and a temperature of 0°C. The compressor dis-
charge pressure is 20.5 bar. A pressure drop of 0.6 bar takes place in the air
cooler and of 0.2 bar in the refrigerating coils. Assume the following pressure
drops due to throttling in valves:
Compressor suction 0.2 bar
Compressor discharge 0.4 bar
Expander admission 0.3 bar
Expander exhaust 0.15 bar
The air temperature leaving the cooler is 38.5°C. Also assume the indices of
the compression and expansion processes as 1.25 and 1.35 respectively. The
clearance factor of the compressor is 2 per cent, and its mechanical efficiency
is 0.8. Neglect the heat losses in piping. The compressor and expander are
double-acting. Calculate:
(i) Refrigeration per kg of air and kg of air circulated per min.

(ii) Water flow required per min, the rise in temperature of water being 8°C.
(iii) Indicated work of compressor and expander.
(iv) Horsepower.
(v) Water required in the compressor jacket for 5.5°C rise.
(vi) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
(vii) Piston displacement.
(viii) Bore, stroke and rpm of the compressor, stroke/bore ratio = 1.3.
11.4 An air-cycle unit operating on the simple system is designed for the following
conditions: 7.5 kg/min of conditioned air, air entering the turbine at 4.4 bar,
cabin pressure 1 bar, dry air rated discharge temperature of – 6°C and a tur-
bine efficiency of 80 per cent.
(a) At what temperature does the air enter the turbine?
(b) How much power does the turbine supply to the fan?
11.5 (a) For an air cycle refrigeration system, the highest refrigeration tempera-
ture is 15°C and the exit temperature of the air from the cooling coils is
40°C. Find the minimum pressure ratio necessary for producing refrigera-
tion at 1 atmosphere pressure.
(b) If the capacity of the plant is 33.3 kW and the pressure ratio is 4, calculate:
(i) The weight rate of air circulated.
(ii) Theoretical displacements of the compressor and expander.
(iii) The theoretical horsepower of the plant and its COP.
11.6 Dry air is supplied to the cabin superchargers of an aeroplane at 1 bar and is
discharged at 2 bar and 135°C. Twenty-five kilograms per minute of this air is
supplied to the primary intercooler of an air cycle refrigeration system. Deter-
mine:
(a) The air temperature leaving the intercooler if 25 kW heat is removed.
From the intercooler, the air enters a secondary compressor where the
pressure is increased to 3.2 bar. Determine:
(b) The discharge air temperature.
(c) The compressor horsepower (mechanical efficiency = 86%). The air
then flows through a secondary intercooler and 38 kW heat is removed.
Determine:
(d) The air temperature leaving the secondary intercooler. The air then
enters an expansion turbine (n = 1.3), where the pressure is dropped to
1.02 bar. Determine:
(e) The final discharge air temperature.
(f) The work recovered from the expansion turbine (mechanical efficiency
= 65%).
(g) The kW of refrigeration developed if air is allowed to be heated to 24°C.
11.7 (a) An aircraft is flying at a speed of 1000 km/h at a height where the surround-
ing air pressure and temperature are 0.35 bar and – 15°C. Calculate the
limiting temperature to which air can be cooled after compression.
(b) A reduced ambient cycle is used in the above aircraft refrigeration
system. The pressure ratio of the jet compressor is 3. Effectiveness of the
air cooler is 0.75. Determine DART and COP of the cycle.

Vapour-Absorption System
12.1 SIMPLE VAPOUR-ABSORPTION SYSTEM
The function of the compressor in the vapour-compression system is to continuously

withdraw the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator and to raise its pressure and
hence temperature, so that the heat absorbed in the evaporator, along with the work
of compression, may be rejected in the condenser to the surroundings.
In the vapour-absorption system, the function of the compressor is accomplished
in a three-step process by the use of the absorber, pump and generator or reboiler as
follows:
(i) Absorber: Absorption of the refrigerant vapour by its weak or poor solution
in a suitable absorbent or adsorbent, forming a strong or rich solution of the
refrigerant in the absorbent/adsorbent.
(ii) Pump: Pumping of the rich solution raising its pressure to the condenser
pressure.
(iii) Generator or Desorber: Distillation of the vapour from the rich solution
leaving the poor solution for recycling.
A simple vapour-absorption system, therefore, consists of a condenser, an
expansion device and an evaporator as in the vapour-compression system, and in
addition, an absorber, a pump, a generator or desorber and a pressure-reducing valve
to replace the compressor. The schematic representation of the system is shown in
Fig. 12.1 in which various components of the system are arranged according to their
pressures and temperatures. The refrigerating effect is shown as Q0 at temperature
T0 and the heat rejected in the condenser as Qc at temperature Tc = Tk of the
environment. The compressor work is replaced by the heat supplied in the generator
Qh plus pump work QP. Cooling must be done in the absorber to remove the latent
heat of the refrigerant vapour as it changes into the liquid state by absorption by the
weak solution. Let this heat rejected in the absorber be QA at absorber temperature
TA = Tk. Then the energy balance of the system is
Q0 + QP + Qh = QC + QA = Qk (12.1a)
where Qk represents the net heat rejected to the environment.
Vapour-Absorption System 403
1 5
pk C G Qh
6
QC 2
7
Q0 8
p0 E
Hot Body
3
p
Cold Body
Ambient
P
4 QA
To TA = TC = Tk Th
T
Fig. 12.1 Schematic representation of simple vapour absorption system
The pump work QP = – z L d p, is very small compared to the compressor work in

the vapour compression system, as the specific volume L of the liquid is extremely small
compared to that of the vapour (Lf << Lg). The energy consumption of the system is
mainly in the generator in the form of heat supplied Qh.
Generally, calculations for the vapour-absorption system are based on a unit mass
of the refrigerant vapour distilled from the generator. All heat and mass flow quan-
tities per unit mass of the vapour are then referred to as specific quantities. Thus, if
D is the mass of the vapour distilled, then the various specific heat quantities are
Q0 Q
, qP = P , and so on.
q0 =
D D
The energy balance equation per unit mass of the vapour distilled is then
q0 + qP + qh = qC + QA = qk (12.1b)
The overall coefficient of performance may be denoted by z and is expressed as
z=
Energy supplied
q0 q0
= = (12.2)
qh + q P q k - q0
@ q0/qh, neglecting pumpwork which is small compared to qh.
12.2 MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A

HEAT OPERATED REFRIGERATING MACHINE
The vapour-absorption system is a heat-operated refrigerating machine. It may

be considered as a combination of a heat engine and a refrigerating machine as
illustrated in Fig. 12.2. The energy supplied to the system is in the form of heat Qh at
temperature Th. The thermodynamic cycle is considered to comprise of a heat-en-
gine E cycle, operating between the heat source temperature Th and the temperature
of heat rejection Tk, and a refrigerator R cycle operating between the refrigeration
temperature T0 and temperature of heat rejection Tk. The work done in the heat
engine part of the cycle is equal to the work requirement of the refrigeration part of
the cycle. Thus, one may write for the COP of the cycle
Q W Q
z= 0 = ´ 0 = hth ´ -c
Qh Qh W
which implies that the COP of a heat-operated refrigerating machine is equal to the
product of the thermal efficiency of the heat engine part of the cycle and the coeffi-
cient of performance for cooling of the refrigeration part of the cycle. Accordingly,
COP z of vapour absorption system expressed by Q0/Qh should not be compared
with COP - of vapour compression system which is Q0/W.
Temperature of
Th Heat Source
Qh
QA
Tk Condenser and Absorber
Temperature
QC
Q0
T0 Refrigeration
Temperature
Fig. 12.2 Representation of a heat-operating machine as a combination
of a heat engine and a refrigerator
The COP of a heat-operated refrigerating machine should, therefore, be maxi-

mum when each of the two terms has a maximum value which would be so when
both are equal to their respective Carnot values. Thus
FG T - T IJ FG T IJ
zmax = hthCarnot ´ -c Carnot =
H T KH T - T K
h k 0
h k 0
FG Tk IJ F 1 I
= 1-
H Th K GG T - 1JJ (12.3)
HT K
k
It can be seen from the above expression that the COP depends on temperatures
Th, Tk and T0 and in order for it to be high one should have:
(i) Temperature Th of the heat source as high as possible,
(ii) Temperature Tk of the heat sink as low as possible, and
(iii) Temperature T0 of refrigeration as high as possible.
Note However, absorption system is not a reversible cycle. There is a degree of irrevers-
ibility due to mixing of refrigerant and absorbent. Its COP, first, increases with increase in
generator temperature, it reaches an optimum value, and then it starts decreasing as a
result of increase in irreversibility at high generator temperatures.
In the vapour-absorption cycle, the system formed by the generator-valve-
absorber-pump may be considered to represent the heat engine part of the cycle.
This part in which only the refrigerant-absorbent solution circulates, is named as the
solution circuit. On the other hand, the condenser-expansion device-evaporator form
the usual refrigeration part of the cycle. This part is named as the refrigerant circuit.
It may be noted that, in case, the condenser and absorber temperatures are not the
same and are equal to TC and TA respectively, then the maximum possible COP is
given by
T - TA T0
zmax = h ´ (12.4)
Th TC - T0
Example 12.1 In a vapour-absorption refrigeration system, the refrigeration

temperature is – 15°C. The generator is operated by solar heat where the tem-
perature reached is 110°C. The temperature of the heat sink is 55°C. What is the
maximum possible COP of the system?
Solution T0 = 273 – 15 = 258 K

Th = 273 + 110 = 383 K
Tk = 273 + 55 = 328 K
383 - 328 258
zmax = ´ = 0.0914 ´ 3.69 = 0.34
383 328 - 258
Note Thus, the COP of 0.34 of the heat-operated vapour absorption system is equivalent
to COP of 3.69 of vapour compression system in this case.
12.3 COMMON REFRIGERANT-ABSORBENT SYSTEMS
Some of the desirable characteristics of a refrigerant-absorbent pair for an absorp-

tion system are low viscosity to minimize pump work, low freezing point and good
chemical and thermal stability. Irreversible chemical reactions of all kinds, such as
decomposition, polymerization, corrosion, etc., are to be avoided.
In addition to the above, two main thermodynamic requirements of the mixture are:
(i) Solubility requirement: The refrigerant should have more than Raoult’s law
solubility in the absorbent or adsorbent so that a strong solution, highly rich
in the refrigerant, is formed in the absorber by the absorption of the refriger-
ant vapour.
(ii) Boiling points requirement: There should be a large difference in the nor-
mal boiling point of the two substances, at least 200°C, so that the absorbent
exerts negligible vapour pressure at the generator temperature. Thus, almost
absorbent-free refrigerant is boiled off from the generator and the absorbent
alone returns to the absorber. If absorbent vapour goes with the refrigerant
vapour to refrigerant circuit, the refrigeration produced will not be isother-

mal. In case a solid adsorbent is used, it does not exert any vapour pressure.
Thus, pure refrigerant vapour only will go to the refrigerant circuit.
The two commonly used pairs are those of refrigerant NH3 + absorbent H2O, and
refrigerant H2O + adsorbent LiBr2.
In the ammonia-water system, ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorb-
ent. Ammonia forms a highly non-ideal solution in water. Hence, from the point of
view of the solubility requirement, it is satisfactory. But the difference in their boil-
ing points is only 138°C. Hence the vapour leaving the generator contains some
amount of water.
Thus, the ammonia-water system is not suitable from the point of view of the
boiling point requirement.
In the water-lithium bromide system, water is the refrigerant and lithium bromide
is the adsorbent. Hence the mixture is used only in air-conditioning applications
since water freezes at 0°C. The mixture is again non-ideal and is satisfactory from
the point of view of the solubility requirement. Since lithium bromide is a salt, it
exerts no vapour pressure. So the vapour leaving the generator is a pure refrigerant.
The mixture, therefore satisfies the boiling point requirement also. However, it is
corrosive and the plant works under high vacuum, both in condenser and evaporator.
Hence, a purge unit is used.
The thermodynamic properties of the aqua-ammonia system are available in the
form of Jennings and Shannon7 tables. These tables give values of saturated liquid
and vapour enthalpies, equilibrium temperatures and vapour compositions as a func-
tion of pressure and liquid composition. Kohloss and Scott8 developed a diagram
based on similar data by Scatchard.16
The enthalpy composition (h – x ) diagram for the aqua-ammonia system is due to
Merkel and Bosnjakovic.12 An advantage of this diagram is that it makes it possible
to geometrically represent the complete vapour-absorption cycle. There are auxil-
iary lines on this diagram which are used to locate the equilibrium vapour state, say
A², corresponding to a certain liquid state, Say A¢, by drawing a tie line and vice
versa, as shown in Fig. 4.19.
The properties of H2O – LiBr 2 system were established by Rosenfeld and
Karnaukh15, Lower and McNeely.11 An enthalpy-composition diagram is available
for the liquid mixture. The vapour phase consists of pure water only. Some data in
the form of vapour pressure, specific heat, specific weight and differential heat of
mixing have been given by Niebergall.13
Research work is in progress on various other refrigerant absorbent combina-
tions1, 2, 5, 6, 10, 17, 18, 21.
12.4 MODIFICATIONS TO SIMPLE VAPOUR-

ABSORPTION SYSTEM
There are two drawbacks in the simple vapour-absorption cycle. These are:
(i) Low temperature of the rich solution entering the generator and high tempera-
ture of the poor solution entering the absorber.
(ii) Presence of absorbent in the vapour leaving the generator and going to
refrigerant circuit.
The two are separately discussed along with proposed modifications.
12.4.1 Using Liquid-Liquid Heat Exchanger in the Solution Circuit

Referring to Fig. 12.3, it is observed that in th pk = Const.
the simple system, saturated rich solution at 4 2
at refrigerant concentration xrL in the liquid
Cooling of Poor
1
phase must be heated from the absorber 1a
Rich Solution
temperature tA to the bubble temperature t1 at
Heating of
Solution
the generator pressure, whereas the saturated
poor solution at 2 from the generator at tem-
t
perature th and refrigerant concentration xaL p0 = Const.
again in the liquid phase must be cooled to 3
temperature t3 in the absorber. This is ineffi-
tA 4
cient since useful heat must be added in the
generator and the same must be rejected in the
x aL x Lr
absorber.
x
The system can be improved by incorpo-
rating a regenerative heat exchanger between Fig. 12.3 Diagram showing cooling
of poor solution and
the poor and rich solutions. This will reduce heating of rich solution
the amount of heat added in the generator and
hence increases the COP, and decrease the amount of heat rejected in the absorber.
The sizes of the generator and absorber will also be reduced. This heat exchanger is
called a liquid-liquid heat exchanger. In such a case, the state after heating of the
rich solution at 1a will be a subcooled state below the saturation temperature at 1 at
pressure pk.
12.4.2 Using Analyser—The Exhausting Column, and Dephlegmator—The

Rectifying Column
In a system like that of ammonia-water, the vapours distilled from the generator
contain a considerable amount of absorbent vapour which subsequently reaches the
evaporator after condensation. As a result, evaporation would not be isothermal and
the required low temperature would not be reached in the evaporator as illustrated
in Fig. 12.4.
The temperature entering evaporator at the beginning of evaporation is t01, and
leaving evaporator is t02 which is equal to maximum permissible refrigeration tem-
perature. The temperature after complete evaporation is very high, equal to the dew
point temperature at evaporator pressure and composition.
Let p0 be the required evaporator pressure with pure refrigerant corresponding
to evaporation temperature t0 . With the mixed vapour at V with concentration
xaV leaving the generator in equilibrium with the boiling poor solution at L with
concentration xaL, the condensate is at point 6 at pressure pk and temperature tC of the
condenser.
L V
6
pk = Const. tc
t0
p0 = Const.
p*0 = Const.
t
4* 4 9*
tA
t0 = t02
8* 7, 8
t01
7*
0 L *
a r r xVa Pure
1
NH 3 Refrigerant
Fig. 12.4 Effect of presence of absorbent in evaporator
The temperature at the end of throttling to p0 and complete evaporation is t9 in the

case of refrigerant mixed with absorbent instead of t 7 = t8 = t01 = t02 with the pure
refrigerant at pressure p0. In order to obtain maximum permissible refrigeration tem-
perature t0 = t02, at the end of evaporation, it is necessary to have expansion to a
lower evaporator pressure p0* instead of p0. The liquid entering the evaporator at
first evaporates somewhat like a pure substance at pressure p0* corresponding to
temperature t01 = t7*. The liquid gradually becomes weaker in the refrigerant and at
the end of partial or incomplete evaporation to 8*, it reaches temperature t02 = t8*.
Thus, evaporation is incomplete.
Not only is the evaporator pressure reduced due to concentration xaV being less
than unity, it can be seen that the rich solution concentration at the given absorber
temperature tA is also reduced, say, from xr to xr*, because of a lower absorber
pressure. This will ultimately result in a smaller difference in the rich and poor solu-
tion concentrations and hence a lower COP as explained in Sec. 12.5.3.
We thus see that there are three adverse effects of the absorbent vapour from the
generator entering the refrigerant circuit. These are the following:
(i) Evaporator pressure has to be lowered from p0 to p0* to attain the required
refrigeration temperature of t0 = t02.
(ii) Rich solution refrigerant concentration decreases from xr to xr*, thus increas-
ing rich solution circulation f and decreasing COP.
(iii) Evaporation is incomplete. All the liquid does not evaporate. Part of the
liquid has to go to the absorber without producing any refrigerating effect.
Hence, COP decreases further.
Example 12.2 With assumed numerical values, examine the effect of pres-
ence of water in vapour leaving generator in NH3—H2O system on solution
circulation rates, refrigeration temperature and COP.
Solution Consider following condenser and evaporator temperatures:

tk = tC = 50°C, t0 = – 17.5°C
Assuming pure ammonia vapours are evolved in generator, we have for pressures
from the table of properties of ammonia:
pk = (psat)50°C = 20.33 bar
p0 = (psat)–17.5°C = 2.25 bar
Now, if generator temperature is th = 156°C, we have for poor solution concentra-
tion of NH3
xaL = 0.2 (sat. liq. at 20.33 bar, 156°C)
and if absorber temperature is tA = 40°C, we have for rich solution concentration of
NH3.
xrL = 0.34 (sat. liq. at 2.25 bar, 40°C)
The concentration of NH3 in vapour leaving generator
xd = xaV = 0.73 (sat. vap. at 20.33 bar, 156°C)
Specific Solution Circulation Rates Then, from Eqs (12.7) and (12.8), we have
per unit mass of vapour leaving generator, circulation rates of rich solution leaving
absorber and poor solution leaving generator respectively as
xd - xa 0.73 - 0.2 0.53
f= = = = 3.8 kg/kg vapour
xr - xa 0.34 - 0.2 0.14
f – 1 = 2.8 kg/kg vapour
But, the difference in N.B.P. of NH3(–33°C) and that of H2O (100°C) is small,
only 133°C. The consequences of the same are the following:
(i) Considerable amount of absorbent water is present in the vapour leaving
generator. This goes to the refrigerant circuit. It is equal to (1 – xd) = 1 – 0.73
= 0.27 (27%) in this case.
(ii) As a result, temperature of – 17.5°C would not be attained after throttling to
2.25 bar.
(iii) To attain this temperature, an evaporator pressure lower than 2.25 bar would
be required.
(iv) Let the throttling be done to an evaporator pressure of p*0 = 1 bar. Even with
this low pressure, the temperature attained after throttling would be t01 = –
19°C only.
(v) After complete evaporation, the temperature of this liquid-vapour NH3/H2O
mixture would be as high as t9* = 76°C (Fig. 12.4). As the maximum refrigera-
tion temperature required is t02 = –17.5°C, it is seen that only a small fraction
of the mixture could be allowed to evaporate. The rest would have to go to the
absorber, along with vapour, without producing any refrigerating effect.
Hence, Q0 would be very much reduced.
(vi) Further, with the lowering of absorber pressure to 1 bar, the new rich solution
concentration would be
xr* = 0.234 (sat. liq. at 1 bar, 40°C)
Thus, xr* – xa = 0.235 – 0.2 = 0.035 would become very small resulting in
extremely large solution circulation rates f and (f – 1), and hence large quantity
of heat added in generator, as seen from Eq. (12.9), and very low COP.
To return the absorbent to the generator and to allow, as far as possible, only
the refrigerant vapour to enter the condenser, two elements are added to the simple
absorption system. These are:
(i) The analyser or the exhausting column.
(ii) The dephlegmator and rectifier or the rectifying column.
The analyser or the exhausting column is installed on top of the generator as
shown in Fig. 12.5. The vapour, leaving the generator with refrigerant concentration
V
x a in equilibrium with the boiling poor solution having concentration xaL, enters the
analyser at 2V (Fig. 12.7). As it travels upwards, counterflow to the entering rich
solution at 1 with concentration xrL, the vapour encounters heat and mass exchange
with the falling rich solution ultimately leaving the analyser enriched in the refri-
gerant with vapour concentration x d = x5 £ x Vr in equilibrium with the rich solution
having concentration x rL.
1a, x rL
5, = xVr = 5
An: Analyser or 7V, e

Exhausting Column
QR D: Dephlegmator
7L
2L 2V, x Va
R: Rectifier or
Liquid Vapour Rectifying Column
2, xaL 6 5, xd
Qh Drip
Fig. 12.5 Analyser or exhausting Fig. 12.6 Dephlegmator and
column rectifying column
We see from Fig. 12.7 that this method has the additional advantage of returning
some heat from the vapour to the generator in the form of preheating of the rich
solution from t1a to t1 to t2 with simultaneous cooling of the vapour from t2 to t5 = t1.
The enriched vapour from the generator-analyser now enters the dephlegmator or
the rectifying column as shown in Fig. 12.6 wherein heat is removed from the vapour
by the circulation of a cooling medium. The leaving state 7V of the vapour is deter-
mined by the temperature t7 = tR of the cooling medium (Fig. 12.7) at the end of the
rectifying column. A part of the vapour is condensed at 7L and is returned as drip 6 to

the analyser. The leaving vapour having concentration xe (higher than xd) goes to the
refrigerant circuit. In the rectifying column, heat QR is rejected to the cooling medium.
V
pk = const a
V
r
2V
5
7V
st
on
=c
st
th
con
st
on
t1 =
=c
TR
h
2L
1 6 7L
1a
L L d e
a r
Fig. 12.7 Thermodynamic processes of analyser and exhausting and

rectifying columns on h–x diagram
The latter method of increasing the refrigerant concentration of the vapour has a
drawback in that it involves a loss of useful heat added in the generator which is
rejected to the cooling medium in the dephlegmator. The drip returns to the genera-
tor and has to be evaporated again. The conditions under which the use of a
dephlegmator would improve the COP would depend on the working pair being
used and the operating conditions.
Note It may be noted that the use of analyser and dephlegmator is not necessary in the
case of systems such as lithium bromide-water in which case the absorbent does not exert
any significant vapour pressure at all.
12.5 ACTUAL VAPOUR-ABSORPTION CYCLE AND

ITS REPRESENTATION ON ENTHALPY-
COMPOSITION DIAGRAM3,11
Figure 12.8 shows the schematic arrangement of the actual vapour-absorption cycle
and Fig. 12.9 presents its thermodynamic cycle on the h – x diagram. The system
consists of generator G, analyser AN, dephlegmator D and condenser C on the high
pressure side, and evaporator E and absorber A on the low pressure side. Pump P,
expansion valve VI and pressure-reducing valve VII separate the two sides. In
addition, liquid-vapour heat exchanger HE I and liquid-liquid heat exchanger HE II
are also provided.
7, D kg, e = 7
QR
6
5
1a F kg,
L AN
r
C QC G
2, (F – D) kg, L
a
8 Qh
12
HE II
HEI
3
9
VII
11
VI 3a
10
4a
E A
4
Q0 QA
P
Fig. 12.8 Schematic diagram of actual vapour absorption system
The vapours at 5, distilled from the generator-analyser, enter the dephlegmator.

The vapours from the dephlegmator with higher concentration of the refrigerant at 7
then enter the refrigerant circuit, whereas the drip at 6 returns to the generator-
analyser. The vapours are condensed to 8 in the condenser, precooled to 9 in the
liquid vapour regenerative heat exchanger and throttled to 10 before entering the
evaporator. The state 10 is at the same point as state 9 on the h-x diagram as both
enthalpy and composition remain the same before and after throttling. The
refrigerant entering the evaporator at 10, leaving the evaporator at 11 and the liquid
vapour heat exchanger at 12, comprises of a liquid plus vapour mixture. The
refrigerant is finally absorbed by the poor solution at 2 returning from the generator
after being cooled in the liquid-liquid heat exchanger to 3 and throttled to 3a,
whereas the rich solution from the absorber at 4 is pumped to 4a and heated to 1a
before entering the analyser.
pk
p0 d
5
7V
12V 11V
10V
12
11
t7
qh
q0
2 th 8
h
qA
pk
1 6 (Drip) 7L
1a
9, 10
H
p0 tA 11L
3, 3a 12L
10L
4, 4a
t0 = t02 t0 1 A
a r xe
1 (f – 1)
Fig. 12.9 Representation of vapour-absorption cycle on h-x diagram
The state points 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be located on the h-x diagram according to their
temperatures and compositions as the enthalpy of liquid is independent of pressure.
Also, point 3a lies at 3 only (isenthalpic process) and point 4a lies approximately at
4 itself as the pump work is very small. State point 5 of the vapour is along the
isothermal tie line drawn from 1. State point 7 is on the tie line corresponding to the
dephlegmator temperature t7 and condenser pressure pk. Point 8 is the saturation
state at pk and at the same composition as 7. Point 9 after subcooling of the liquid
can be plotted according to the temperature and composition and point 10 is at 9
itself (isenthalpic process). Point 11 is on the tie line corresponding to the evapora-
tor leaving temperature t02 = t 0 and pressure p0. The composition is same at 7, 8, 9,
10, 11 and 12. Point 12 can be similarly located by knowing the temperature from
the energy balance of the heat exchanger.
12.5.1 Absorption-System Calculations

The thermodynamic analysis of the vapour-absorption cycle is based on the
following three equations which can be applied to any part of the system.
(i) Mass balance Sm = 0
(ii) Material balance (or partial mass balance) Smx = 0
(iii) Energy balance SQ + Smh = 0
Thus, if the mass handled by the pump is F and the refrigerant vapour distilled is
D, then by mass balance, the weak solution returning to the absorber is (F-D).
Also, applying material balance to the generator-analyser-dephlegmator taking
the refrigerant, say ammonia, as the material under consideration, we have
Fxr = (F – D) xa + Dxe (12.5)
in which xr = x 1a, xa = x2 and xe = x7
represent the refrigerant concentrations of rich solution, poor solution and vapour
respectively. The superscripts L and V have been dropped. This gives.
F x - xa
f= = e (12.6)
D xr - xa
Also, when the rectifier is not used, the vapour concentration is xd = x5,
xd - xa
f= (12.7)
xr - xa
Now, f represents the quantity of rich solution handled by the pump per unit mass of
the vapour distilled. This quantity is termed as the specific rich solution circulation.
The specific weak solution circulation is similarly given by
F -D x - xr
(f – 1) = = e (12.8)
D xr - xa
It must be pointed out that these quantities are of great practical importance from
the point of view of the COP of the system. The lower solution circulation rates will
ensure a higher COP. It can be seen that f mainly depends on the value of (xr – xa).
The latter quantity is called degasing range. This quantity should be as large as
possible. This means that xr should be as high as possible, and xa should be as low as
possible. This will happen when refrigerant has more than Raoult’s law solubility in
absorbent at the absorber temperature (negative deviation from Raoult’s law), and
when the N.B.Ps of the refrigerant and absorbent are wide apart.
Accordingly, both the thermodynamic requirements as stated in Sec. 12.3 would
be satisfied.
Further, we see that if the N.B.P. of the absorbent is very high, or if the absorbent
which is used exerts no vapour pressure at all, then pure refrigerant vapour only will
leave the generator, so that x e = x d = 1, and we have:
1 - xa 1 - xr
f= and f–1=
xr - xa xr - xa
We shall now apply energy balance to the individual components of the system
based on unit mass of the vapour distilled from the generator.
Solution Circuit Energy Balance Generator without dephlegmator States 5
and 7 are the same.
qh + f h1a = h5 + (f – 1) h2
whence
qh = h5 – h2 + f (h2 – h1a) (12.9)
Introducing an auxiliary quantity defined by
hH = h2 – f(h2 – h1a) (12.10)
we get
qh = h 5 – h H (12.11)
Equation (12.9) shows that the heat added in the generator depends upon specific
solution circulation f.
Generator with dephlegmator qh + f h1a = h7 + (f – 1) h2 + qR
whence
qh = h7 – h2 + f (h2 – h1a), + qR
= (h7 – hH) + qR (12.12)
Liquid-liquid heat exchanger II Points 3, 4a and 1a represent subcooled liquid
states at pressure pk. Let qII represent the heat transfer in heat exchanger II. Then
qII = (f – 1) Ca (th – t3)
= fCr (t1a – tA) (12.13)
where th and tA are generator and absorber temperatures, and Ca and Cr are the spe-
cific heats of the poor and rich solutions respectively. Thus
f - 1 Ca
t1a = tA + (t – t ) (12.14)
f Cr h 3
Similarly
f -1
h1a = h4 + (h2 – h3) (12.15)
f
Since the specific heat of weak ammonia solution is smaller than that of the strong
solution and also since (f – 1) is less than f, it is seen that
(t1a – tA) < (th – t3)
Absorber qA + fh4 = h12 + (f – 1) h3
whence
qA = h12 – h3 + f (h3 – h4) (12.16)
Introducing another auxiliary quantity for the absorber defined by
hA = h3 – f (h3 – h4 ) (12.17)
we get
qA = h12 – hA (12.18)
Since h3a = h3 and h4 » h4a, we can see from Eqs (12.10) and (12.17) that hA » hH.
Pump The pump work is given by
qP = fL4 ( pk – p0)/hP (12.19)
where hp is the pump efficiency.
Refrigerant Circuit Energy Balance The mass flow rate as well as the composi-
tion is the same at all sections.
Condenser
qC = h7 – h8 (12.20)
Liquid-vapour heat exchanger I
qI = h8 – h9 = h12 – h11 (12.21)
Expansion valve V I
L
h9 = h10 = (1 – z) h10 + z hV10 (12.22)
This along with the material balance equation
x 9 = x10 = (1 – z) x10
L
+ z x10
V
(12.23)
can be solved by trial and error to get the temperature t 10 = t01 after expansion and at
inlet to evaporator. Symbol z is used here for vapour dryness fraction (instead of x)
since x denotes liquid mole fraction in the case of mixtures.
Evaporator
q0 = h11 – h10 (12.24)
The overall energy balance gives
qh + q0 + qP = q C + qA + q R = qk
12.5.2 Auxiliary Quantities

It can be seen from Fig. 12.9 that if points 2 and 1a are joined by a line and the
straight line is extended to meet the vertical line corresponding to the leaving vapour
concentration x e at H, then the projections of 2-1a, 1a-H and 2-H on the abscissa are
proportional to 1, (f – 1) and f respectively. Also, the enthalpy at H is given by
hH = h2 – f (h2 – h1a ) (12.25)
which is the same as the auxiliary quantity for the generator as defined in Eq. (12.10).
Similarly, if one joins points 3 and 4 and extends the line to meet the same verti-
cal at A, then we get the auxiliary quantity for the absorber
hA = h3 – f (h3 – h4) (12.26)
as defined by Eq. (12.17).
These auxiliary quantities make it possible to geometrically represent the genera-
tor and absorber heat quantities on the h-x diagram as shown in Fig. 12.9.
12.5.3 Rich and Poor Solution Concentrations

As stated earlier, the specific solution circulation f is a very significant quantity. The
larger the value of f, the more is the pump work. Higher solution circulation rates of
both rich and poor solutions involve larger pressure drops in the system and hence
still more pump work. In addition, as seen from Eq. (12.9), a higher value of f results
in a larger heat input to the generator qh and hence a lower COP. Also, the heat
rejected in the absorber qA is more. And hence high f implies larger sizes of both
generator and absorber and accompanying losses in addition to a lower COP.
It is, therefore, desirable to have f as small as possible. It is seen from Eq. (12.6)
that for f to be small, the degasing range (xr – xa ) should be as large as possible.
In other words, the rich-solution concentration xr should be as high, and the poor-
solution concentration x a should be as low as possible.
The absorber pressure in the absorption system is equal to the evaporator

pressure p0 and the generator pressure is similarly equal to the condenser pressure
pk. Hence at a given generator pressure, the poor solution concentration is deter-
mined by the heating temperature th, and at a given absorber pressure, the rich solu-
tion concentration is determined by the cooling temperature tA. The higher the th, the
lower is x a. And lower the tA, the higher is x r. Hence the generator temperature
should be as high as possible, whereas the absorber temperature should be as low as
possible.
Example 12.3 In an ammonia-absorption system with an analyser but with-

out a dephlegmator the following data are given:
Condenser pressure 20.3 bar
Evaporator pressure 2.1 bar
Generator temperature 156°C
Absorber temperature 40°C
Determine, per unit mass of the vapour distilled:
(a) Specific solution circulation rates.
(b) Temperature t01 at inlet to evaporator if the liquid from the condenser is
cooled by 13°C in the liquid-vapour heat exchanger.
(c) The refrigerating effect if the maximum refrigeration temperature is 5°C.
(d) The heat transfer in the liquid-liquid heat exchanger.
(e) The heat added in the generator.
(f) The pump work.
(g) The coefficient of performance.
(h) The heat rejected in the absorber and condenser.
(i) Energy balance of the system.

At 20.3 bar and 156°C
Poor solution concentration, xa = 0.2
At 2.1 bar and 40°C
Rich solution concentration, xr = 0.34
Also, the concentration of vapour leaving the analyser, in equilibrium with the
entering rich solution is
x5 = x rV = 0.913
It is convenient to put the thermodynamic properties and flow rates at various
sections in a tabular form as in Table 12.1.
(a) Specific rich solution circulation rate
x - xa 0.913 - 0.2
f= 5 = = 5.1 kg/kg of vapour
xr - xa 0.34 - 0.2
Specific poor solution circulation rate
f – 1 = 5.1 – 1 = 4.1 kg/kg of vapour
(b) Temperature after condensation
t8 = 53°C (Saturated liquid at 0.913 composition and 20.3 bar).
Temperature after subcooling

t9 = 53 – 13 = 40°C
For the throttling-expansion process
(1 – z) x10
L
+ z x10
V
= x10 = x9 = 0.913
L V
(1 – z) h10 + z h10 = h10 = h9 = 444 kJ/kg
Table 12.1 Data for Example 12.3
State Pressure Temperature Concentration Enthalpy Flow rate

Point p t N h m
bar °C kg NH3/kg mixture kJ/kg kg/s
1 20.3 — 0.34 — —
2 20.3 156 0.2 616 4.1
3 20.3 67 0.2 205 4.1
3a 2.1 67 0.2 205 4.1
4 2.1 40 0.34 63 5.1
4a 20.3 40 0.34 63 5.1
1a 20.3 — 0.34 — 5.1
5.7 20.3 — 0.913 1947 5.1
8 20.3 53 0.913 507 5.1
9 20.3 40 0.913 444 5.1
10 2.1 –16 0.913 444 5.1
11 2.1 5 0.913 1281 5.1
12 2.1 — 0.913 — 5.1
There are two variables, temperature t10 and vapour fraction z. A trial and error
solution can be obtained by assuming t10. But in such a solution with the h-x dia-
gram, point 10 fluctuates greatly. A simpler and quite accurate method is to assume
the vapour state 10 V at x10V = 1 and then join the point 10V to 9 and extend the line to
intersect the saturated liquid line for 2.1 bar at 10L which gives the temperature after
expansion and the temperature at inlet to evaporator as
t01 = t10 = – 16°C
(c) Temperature after the evaporator
t02 = t11 = 5°C
Draw the isothermal tie line for 5°C and 2.1 bar. The intersection with x11 = 0.913
locates point 11.
q0 = h11 – h10 = 1281 – 444 = 837 kJ/kg
(d) Heat transfer in the liquid-liquid heat exchanger
q = (f – 1) (h2 – h3) = 4.1 (616 – 205) = 1685 kJ/kg
= f (h1a – h4) = 5.1 (h1a – 63)
whence
h1a = 393 kJ/kg
(e) Heat added in the generator
qh = h5 – h2 + f (h2 – h1a) = 1947 – 616 + 5.1 (616 – 393)
= 2468 kJ/kg vapour
(f) Specific volume of the solution at 40°C, at the inlet to the pump
L4 = xr LNH3 + (1 – x4) LH2O = 0.34 (1.726 ´ 10–3) + 0.66 (1.008 ´ 10–3)
= 1.251 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
Pump work
qP = f L4 (pk – p0) = 5.1 ´ 1.251 ´ 10–3 (20.3 – 2.1) ´ 105
= 11,600 J/kg = 11.6 kJ/kg refrigerant
(g) Coefficient of performance
q0 837
COP = = = 0.34
qh + q P 2468 + 11.6
(h) Enthalpy of vapour entering absorber
h12 = h11 + (h8 – h9)= 1281 + (507 – 444) = 1344 kJ/kg
Heat rejected in the absorber
qA = h12 – h3 + f (h3 – h4) = 1344 – 205 + 5.1 (205 – 63)
= 1865 kJ/kg vapour
Heat rejected in the condenser
qC = h5 – h8 = 1947 – 507 = 1440 kJ/kg
(i) Energy balance
Heat rejected
qk = qA + qC = 1865 + 1440 = 3305 kJ/kg vapour
Heat received
q0 + qh + qP = 837 + 2468 + 11.6 = 3316.6 kJ/kg refrigerant
Thus the energy balance checks very closely.
12.6 REPRESENTATION OF VAPOUR ABSORPTION

CYCLE ON ln p – DIAGRAM
6
For the representation of the processes of vapour absorption machines, it is
necessary to develop state diagrams that contain composition. Enthalpy-concentra-
tion diagram, used for ammonia-water system, is already well-known in this respect.
Similarly, ln p – 1/T diagram, with composition of the mixture as parameter, has
been adopted for the representation of the vapour absorption cycle, particularly for
water-lithium bromide system.
We know that the saturation pressure versus saturation temperature relationship
of pure substances can be expressed in the form
hf g
ln p = a – b
T
In the case of binary mixtures, also, the above relationship can be used for
composition separately. And, in case there is any heat of mixing of the solution Dhm,
the above equation will assume the form
h fg + D h m B
ln p = a¢ – b¢ or ln p = A –
T T
It is to be noted that both hfg and Dhm have been assumed to be independent
of temperature T. It has also been assumed that during boiling in the generator,
no appreciable quantity of the absorbent is evaporated, meaning that the solvent
exerts a negligible vapour pressure. This assumption is true for water-lithium
bromide mixture.
1
Thus, ln p versus relation, to a great extent, follows a straight line for a pure
T
substance as well as for a mixture. We have one such line for the refrigerant and
another for the absorbent. We can obtain such straight lines for each composition of
the mixture. The constant composition lines are parallel if D hm = 0. They diverge
towards higher temperatures if D hm is positive, and converge if D hm is negative as
shown in Fig. 12.10. The absorption system refrigerant-absorbent pairs have nega-
tive heat of mixing. Hence, these lines are convergent for absorption system.
The Appendix gives the ln p –1/T diagram for H2O – Li Br2 system.
=C
on
=
=
st.
C
C
on
on
st
st
.
.
ln p
ln p
ln p
1/T 1/T 1/T

T T T
Positive Dhm = 0 D hm Negative
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 12.10 Nature of ln p – 1/T lines for mixtures
Figure 12.11 shows a simple absorption system of Fig. 12.1 with the liquid-liquid
heat exchanger incorporated in it in addition. The ln p –1/T diagram of the cycle in
Fig. 12.12 represents its working. It is a single-effect H2O – LiBr2 vapour absorption
system since it has one-stage of generation of vapour. The double-effect is described in
Sec. 12.8.
Line R on this diagram represents ln psat versus 1/T sat relationship of the refriger-
ant (x = 1). Then, we draw the two horizontal lines corresponding to the condenser
pressure pk at condenser temperature Tc, and evaporator pressure p0 at evaporator
temperature T0. The various state points are located as follows:
State 6 Saturated liquid refrigerant at condenser temperature TC on x = 1 line.
States 7 & 8 Liquid plus vapour state 7 after throttling, and saturated vapour state
8 at T0 on x = 1 line.
State 4 Saturated liquid mixture leaving absorber at p0 and absorber temperature
tA. This gives the refrigerant rich solution concentration xr.
State 4a It lies at 4 itself since its temperature and composition are the same.
However, it is at pressure pk. Hence, it represents a sub-cooled liquid state.
5
1a
pk C G Qh
6 2
QC
Liquid-Liquid
7 Heat Exchanger
8
Q0
p0 E
3
3a
Hot Body
4a A
p
P
Cold Body
4 QA
Ambient
To TA = TC = TK Th
T
Vapour-Absorption System
Fig. 12.11 Schematic representation of simple vapour absorption system with

liquid-liquid regenerative heat exchanger
421
Tc
Vapour 1 pk = Const.
6 2
1a
=1
g
tlin
r
rot
=
Th
R
a
=
Pump
ln p
7, 8 Vapour p0 = Const.
4, 4a 3, 3a
T0 TA Th
1/T
Fig. 12.12 Representation of absorption cycle on ln p – 1/T diagram
Note For binary mixtures, we have three independent properties. On a two-dimensional

plane, the state cannot be exactly represented unless it is a saturation state.
State 2 Saturated liquid mixture leaving generator at pk and generator temperature
th. This gives the refrigerant poor solution concentration xa.
State 5 Superheated refrigerant vapour at pk and Th. It cannot be shown on this
diagram.
State 3 Subcooled liquid leaving regenerator after cooling at pk and xa. It is as-
sumed the hot solution from generator is cooled from T2 to T3, the saturation tem-
perature of the solution of composition xa and absorber pressure p0.
State 3a Saturated liquid mixture after throttling to absorber pressure p0.
State 1a Subcooled liquid leaving regenerator after heating at pk and xr. Tempera-
ture T1a is obtained from energy balance of regenerative heat exchanger. Note that
T1a is lower than T1 which is the saturation state at pressure pk for mixture of refrig-
erant concentration xr.
12.6.1 Representation of Carnot Processes for Absorption Machines on

ln p – 1/T Diagram
It is seen from Fig. 12.12 that temperature changes in the generator from T1a to T2 =
Th as the refrigerant vapour is boiled off. Similarly, the temperature changes in the
absorber from T3a to T4 as the absorption of refrigerant vapour takes place. For
process to be reversible, both generation and absorption should be isothermal. It is
seen from Fig. 12.13 that under these conditions of Carnot processes, we have x r =
x a. Thus, degasing breadth/range is zero. The machine would, therefore, need an
infinite solution circulation rate f. Such a machine would have maximum COP,
which is impossible to have.
6 1, 2
pk
Tc
=1
a
=
r
ln p
p0
7, 8 4, 3
T0 TA Th min
1/T
Fig. 12.13 Carnot processes for absorption machines on ln p – 1/T diagram
12.6.2 Minimum Generator Temperature for Absorption Machines

Pressures pk and p0 are decided by condenser temperature TC and evaporator tem-
perature T0. Then state 4 in Fig. 12.13 at absorber pressure p0 is located from given
absorber temperature TA. This decides the rich solution concentration x r, and state 1.
In a Carnot cycle machine, x a = x r and state 2 is at 1 itself. This T2 is equal to Th, the
theoretically minimum generator temperature required for given TC, T0 and TA. It is
much above the ambient temperature. On account of other irreversibilities, the re-
quired minimum temperature in generator is still higher.
Note It is thus seen that an absorption cycle cannot be devised simply from a heat source
having temperature higher than the ambient temperature. To make the absorption system
possible, its temperature should be above this Thmin.
12.7 PRACTICAL SINGLE-EFFECT WATER–LITHIUM

BROMIDE ABSORPTION CHILLER
Several Inc., U.S.A. developed an absorption machine which uses solution of lithium
bromide in water, water being the refrigerant and lithium bromide which is a highly
hygroscopic salt-the adsorbent. Thus the solution leaving the absorber, being rich in
refrigerant water, is a weak solution of salt in water. But for the sake of consistency,
we shall continue to use xr to denote the refrigerant concentration which, in this
case, will mean the concentration of water in the solution leaving the absorber. Simi-
larly, the solution returning from the generator is a strong solution of lithium bro-
mide in water, but it being still poor in refrigerant water, xa will, therefore, denote
the concentration of water in the solution leaving the generator. The corresponding
lithium bromide concentration will then be (1 – xr) and (1 – xa) respectively.
The salt does not exert any vapour pressure. So the vapour leaving the generator
is a pure refrigerant (water vapour). Therefore, the analyser and dephlegmator do
not form a part of the system. The equipment is normally designed for chilled-water
applications with a flash system as shown in Fig. 12.14.
1
2
Cooling Water
3
Refrigerant
Water
Steam
Generator
Condenser
Weak Brine, r
Strong
Bring, a
5 7
13 6
8
12
Chilled 9
Water
Refrigerant 10
Water
Cooling Water
Evaporator
Absorber
11
Weak Brine
14
Fig. 12.14 Single-effect water-lithium bromide absorption chiller
The generator and condenser are housed in the single-cylindrical vessel 1 and the
flash evaporator and absorber in another similar vessel 6. Water is boiled off from
vessel 1 by the steam coils 4. The vapour is condensed over the condenser cooling
water coils 2 and collected in the tray 3. The condensate is flashed through expan-
sion valve 5 into the vessel 6. The refrigerant water is collected in the tray 8. Chilled
water is circulated by the pump 12 and is returned to the system at 13.
The strong brine from vessel 1 flows by gravity through the heat exchanger 7 and
the pressure reducing valve 9 to the vessel 6. The flashed water vapour filling the
space in 6 is absorbed by this solution. The absorber heat is removed by the cooling
coils 10. Again, there is separate cooling water line for the absorber. The weak salt
solution leaving the absorber is then returned to the generator by the pump 11
through the liquid-liquid regenerative heat exchanger 7.
Thus, we see that there are three kinds of water flowing in the system:
(i) Refrigerant water.
(ii) Chilled water (secondary refrigerant).
(iii) Cooling water.
The chilled water, used as a secondary refrigerant, and refrigerant water are kept
separate. If refrigerant water itself is used as chilled water, and it goes to the air
conditioning plant and returns to the sealed system, it will bring in air with it. And
thus it will break the vacuum.
Both the vessels 1 and 6 are maintained under high vacuum, vessel 1 correspond-
ing to the condensing temperature (e.g., 55.3 mm Hg pressure at 40°C) and vessel6
corresponding to the flashed refrigerant water temperature (e.g., 4.9 mm Hg pres-
sure at 1°C). To remove air and other non-condensables that may enter the sealed
system through pump glands, a two-stage purge unit is provided. To avoid corro-
sion, the temperature in the boiler should not be higher than 120°C. The overall COP
of the system is reported to be approximately 0.7. The lithium bromide-water system
is thus found to be more suitable in applications involving low heat-source tempera-
tures such as are obtained with low-pressure (1 to 8 bar) or even exhaust (say
0.4 bar) steam, waste heat, solar energy, etc.
Absorption chillers are available in capacities from 100 TR upwards up to
7500 TR.
Example 12.4 Calculations for Single-Effect Water-Lithium Bromide System

The operating conditions for a water-lithium bromide chilled-water plant for air
conditioning are as follows:
Chilled-water temperature 10°C
Find temperature of the solution entering generator assuming hot solution is
cooled to the saturation temperature at absorber pressure. Determine for one
ton refrigeration capacity, the following:
(a) Thermodynamic conditions at all points.
(b) Coefficient of performance.
(c) Mass flow rates at all sections.
(d) Energy balance of complete system.
Solution (a) Refer to Figs 12.11 and 12.12. From table of water vapour pressures
in the Appendix, we obtain the condenser and evaporator pressures corresponding
to their respective temperatures.
Condenser and generator pressure
pk = 55.32 mm Hg (At 40°C)
Flash chamber and absorber pressure

p0 = 9.21 mm Hg (At 10°C)
Now, from ln p–1/T diagram we get first the LiBr2, and then the refrigerant water
concentration in rich and poor solutions at states 4 and 2.
State 4. Saturated cold solution from absorber at
p = 9.21 mm Hg and t = 40°C
xLiBr2 = 0.55
h4 = 93.5 kJ/kg (From h – x diagram)
Rich solution concentration of water (refrigerant)
x r = 1 – xLiBr2 = 1 – 0.55 = 0.45
State 2. Saturated hot solution from generator at
p = 55.32 mm Hg and t = 97°C
xLiBr2 = 0.65
h2 = 248 kJ/kg (From h – x diagram)
Poor solution concentration of water (refrigerant)
xa = 1 – 0.65 = 0.35
State 1. Saturated solution at condenser pressure and 0.55 LiBr2 concentration
t1 = 74°C (From ln p–1/T diagram)
h1 = 166 kJ/kg (From h – x diagram)
State 3. Saturated solution at evaporator pressure and 0.65 LiBr2 concentration
t3 = 60°C
h3 = 180 kJ/kg
State 3a has the same enthalpy, temperature and composition as state 3. But it is at
the generator pressure. It represents a state subcooled from 2 to 3 at 55.32 mm Hg
pressure
State 4a. t = 4°C and xLiBr2 = 0.55
h4a @ h4 = 93.5 kJ/kg (Neglecting pump work)
Note The enthalpy is read against temperature and composition for all solution states as
it is independent of pressure. It may be noted that point 4a after pumping represents a
subcooled state at 55.32 mm Hg pressure.
Specific solution circulation rates
1 - 0.35
f= = 6.5 kg/kg vapour, f – 1 = 5.5 kg/kg vapour
0.45 - 0.35
Heat available in hot solution for transfer
= (f – 1) (h2 – h3) = 5.5 (248 – 180) = 374 kJ
Heat required by cold solution for heating
= f (h1 – h4) = 6.5 (166 – 93.5) = 471 kJ > 374 k
Hence, cold solution at 4a cannot be heated to 1. Let it be heated to 1a.
State 1a. Energy balance of the liquid-liquid heat exchanger gives
f (h1a – h4) = (f – 1) (h2 – h3)
( f - 1) 5.5
whence h1a = h4 + (h2 – h3) = 93.5 + (248 – 180) = 151 kJ/kg
f 6.5
State 5. It is that of water vapour at 55.32 mm Hg pressure and 97°C temperature.

At these conditions it represents a superheated vapour state. The enthalpy of water
vapour above the reference state of saturated water at 0°C can be found either from
steam table having reference state hf = 0 at t = 0°C or from the empirical relation
h = (2501 + 1.88 t) kJ/kg
Using the latter procedure
h5 = 2501 + 1.88 (97) = 2683 kJ/kg
State 6. Saturated water at 40°C
h6 = 4.1868 (40) = 167.5 kJ/kg
State 7. p = 9.21 mm Hg and t = 10°C (liquid + vapour)
h7 = h6 = 167.5 kJ/kg
State 8. p = 9.21 mm Hg at t = 10°C (saturated vapour)
h8 = 2501 + 1.88 (10) = 2520 kJ/kg
q0 = h8 – h7 = 2520 – 167.5 = 2352.5 kJ/kg
Heat added in the generator per unit mass of vapour distilled
qh = h5 – h2 + f (h2 – h1a)
= 2683 – 248 + 6.5 (248 – 151) = 3066 kJ/kg vapour
q 2352.5
Coefficient of performance COP » = 0 = = 0.77
qh 3066
(c) Water vapour distilled per ton refrigeration
211 211
D= = = 0.09 kg/min
q0 2352.5
Mass flow rate of cold solution from the absorber
F = fD = 6.5 (0.09) = 0.585 kg/min
Mass flow rate of hot solution from the generator
F – D = 0.585 – 0.09 = 0.495 kg/min
(d) Head rejected in the condenser
D 0.09
QC = (h5 – h6) = (2683 – 167.5) = 3.77 kW
60 60
Heat rejected in the absorber
QA = DqA = D[h8 – h3) + f (h3 – h4)]
0.09
= [(2520 – 180) + 6.5 (180 – 93.5)] = 4.35 kW
60
Heat supplied in the generator
0.09
Q h = Dqh = (3066) = 4.6 kW
60
Heat absorbed by chilled water (per ton refrigeration)
Q0 = 3.5167 kW
Net heat received = Qh + Q0 = 4.6 + 3.5167 = 8.12 kW
Net heat rejected = QC + QA = 3.77 + 4.35 = 8.12 kW
Again, the energy balance checks very closely.
12.8 DOUBLE-EFFECT H2O – LiBr2 ABSORPTION SYSTEM
A single-stage like the single-effect absorption system is not suited to utilize a heat
source at a temperature higher than a certain point unlike other heat-operated refrig-
erating machines that follow the Carnot trend, viz., the higher the temperature of the
heat source, the higher the COP. In fact, the COP decreases as the heat source tem-
perature increases beyond a point. This is because the absorption system is not a
reversible refrigerating machine. Because of the mixing process of refrigerant and
absorbent, a degree of irreversibility is involved. That is why, the COP of an absorp-
tion system levels with the increase in generator temperature, and then it starts
decreasing.
It is found that the single-effect system gives best results upto a heat source
temperature of 105°C. Above that temperature, it is worthwhile to switch over to
double-effect system as illustrated in Figs 12.15 and 12.16.
Example 12.5 Calculations for Double-Effect H2O-LiBr2 System

The high pressure generator of a double-effect H2O-LiBr2 vapour absorption
system, shown in Fig. 12.15 operates on steam supplied at 8 bar pressure. The
following conditions are specified:
Pressure in high-pressure generator 100 kPa
Temperature in high-pressure generator 150°C
The water vapour from the high-pressure generator I is condensed in the low-
pressure generator II. The temperature of solution leaving generator II is 95°C.
(i) Show all the thermodynamic states on ln p – 1/T diagram.
(ii) Find enthalpies at all state points.
(iii) Determine the heat added in generator I per kg of water in refrigerant circuit.
(iv) Determine COP.
(v) What would have happened if a single-effect system were to be used?
Solution (i) The thermodynamic states are shown on ln p – 1/T diagram in

Fig. 12.16. All states are saturation states except 3a and 4a.
(ii) Condenser pressure at 40°C = 55.32 mm Hg
Evaporator pressure at 10°C = 9.27 mm Hg
Solution Circuit (Enthalpy is found from composition and temperature)
State 1 p1 = 9.27 mm Hg, t1 = 35°C Þ xLiBr2 = 0.525, xH2O = x1 = 0.475
h1 = 77.4 kJ/kg @ h2
State 3 p3 = 55.32 mm Hg, xLiBr2 = 0.525 Þ t3 = 68°C
h3 = 146.5 kJ/kg
State 4 p4 = 100 kPa, xLiBr2 = 0.525 Þ t4 = 137°C
h4 = 295.7 kJ/kg
State 5 p5 = 100 kPa, t5 = 150°C Þ xLiBr2 = 0.578, xH2O = x5 = 0.422

h5 = 324.5 kJ/kg
h6 = 184 kJ/kg = h17
State 7 p7 = 55.32 mm Hg, t7 = 95°C Þ xLiBr2 = 0.642, xH2O = x7 = 0.358
h7 = 240 kJ/kg
h8 = 162.9 kJ/kg
12 10
QC
Generator I
Condenser High Press. QG
13 Generator II
Low Press. 5 4
1 kg 14
11
QHE Heat
I
Exchanger I
17
6
7 3
(f – 1) kg
15 QHE Heat
II
Exchanger II
16 8
Evaporator Absorber
9 2
1 kg
1
QA
QE
f kg
Fig. 12.15 Double-effect vapour absorption system
Refrigerant Circuit (Enthalpies of Water)

h10 = 2776.4 kJ/kg (Superheated vapour at 100 kPa, 150°C from steam table)
h11 = (hf)100 kPa = 417.5 kJ/kg = h13 (Liquid-Vapour Mixture at 55.32 mm Hg)
h12 = 2501 + 1.88 (95) = 2680 kJ/kg (Low pressure vapour)
h14 = (hf ) 40°C = 167.6 kJ/kg = h15
h16 = (hg) 10°C = 2501 + 1.88 (10) = 2519.8 kJ/kg
(iii) Solution Circulation Rates Rich in refrigerant (weak in LiBr2) solution
circulation rate
f = m1 = m2 = m3 = m4
1 - xa 1 - x8 1 - 0.358
= = = = 5.487 kg/kg refrigerant
xr - xa x1 - x 9 0.475 - 0.358
Poor in refrigerant (strong in LiBr2) solution circulation rate
f – 1 = m9 = m8 = m7 = 5.487 – 1 = 4.487 kg/kg refrigerant
100 °C
150 °C
137 °C
100 kPa 11 4 5
5
.52
8
=0
.57
=0
r2
r
Li B
te
Wa
r2
Li B
ln p
55.32 mm Hg 14 3 7
6
2
.64
=0
r2
Li B
9.27 mm Hg 8
16 1, 2
10°C 35°C 40°C 59°C 80°C 95°C

1/T T
Fig. 12.16 ln p-1/T diagram for double-effect H2O – LiBr2 system for Example 12.3
Mass Balance of Generator II

m10 = m11 = m13 = 1 – m12 Þ m12 = 1 – m10
m17 = m12 + 4.487 = 1 – m10 + 4.4487 = 5.487 – m10
Enthalpy Balance of Generator II
m10 h10 + m17 h17 = m12 h12 + m13 h11 + m7 h7
Substituting values and solving, we get
m10 = 0.774 kg
m12 = 1 – m10 = 0.226 kg
m17 = m12 + 4.487 = 4.713 kg
Heat added in Generator I (From enthalpy balance)
(QG)I = m5 h5 + m10 h10 – m4 h4
= 4.713 (324.5) + 0.774 (2776.4) – 5.487 (295.7)

= 2065.2 kJ/kg refrigerant
(iv) Refrigeration produced
Q0 = h16 – h14 = 2519.8 – 167.6 = 2352.2 kJ/kg refrigerant
Q0 2352.2
COP = = = 1.14
(QG ) I 2065.2
(v) If a single-effect system were used, then we would find:
(a) Line 5-6 when extended to absorber pressure-since the solution is very
strong in LiBr2-would end up at point 8¢.
(b) Further, xa would be 0.422 instead of 0.358. Degasification breadth
would be very small. Hence, COP would be very low.
12.9 ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR
Electrolux principle works on 3-fluid system. There is no solution circulation pump.

Total pressure is the same throughout the system. The third fluid remains mainly in
the evaporator thus reducing partial pressure of refrigerant to enable it to evaporate
at low pressure and hence low temperature.
The schematic diagram of the electrolux refrigerator working on NH3–H2O
system with H2 as the third fluid is shown in Fig. 12.17. Liquid NH3 evaporates in
the evaporator in the presence of H2. Hydrogen is chosen as it is non-corrosive and
insoluble in water.
A thermosyphon bubble pump is used to lift the weak aqua from the generator to
the separator. The discharge tube from the generator is extended down below the
liquid level in the generator. The bubbles rise and carry slugs of weak NH3–H2O
solution into the separator.
Two U-bends are provided as vapour-locks to prevent H2 from getting into the
high side or solution circuit.
Partial pressure of H2 provides the pressure difference of NH3 between the con-
denser and the evaporator. Accordingly, we have:
In condenser Pure NH3 vapour pressure = Total pressure
In evaporator NH3 vapour pressure = Total pressure – Partial pressure of H2
For example, consider the condenser temperature as 50°C, and evaporator
temperature as – 15°C. The corresponding vapour pressures of NH3 are:
Condenser, pk = 20.33 bar
Evaporator outlet, p02 = 2.36 bar
er
e ns
nd
Co
vity
NH3 + H2
Gra
E A
H2 uid NH 3
Liq
NH3 + H2
Vapour
Evaporator
ua
Aq Separator
H2 k
ea
W
Heat Exchanger
(NH3 + H2O Vapour Lift
Heated by H2 Pump
Which gets Cooled) (Thermosyphon
Absorber
Bubble Pump)
H2
Generator
Strong Aqua
Heat
Fig. 12.17 Electrolux refrigerator
The approximate pressures in various parts of the system, then will be as given in
Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Partial pressures in electrolux refrigerator in bar
Section NH3 H2O H2 Total

Condenser 20.33 0 0 20.33
Evaporator inlet 1.516 0 18.814 20.33
Evaporator exit 2.36 0 17.97 20.33
Generator top 15.54 4.79 0 20.33
It has been assumed that vapours leaving generator top are in equilibrium with
entering rich solution at 40°C, at which temperature saturation pressure of NH3 is
15.54 bar. It has also been assumed that the temperature at evaporator inlet is – 25°C
at which temperature saturation pressure of NH3 is 1.516 bar.
12.10 NEW MIXTURES FOR ABSORPTION SYSTEM
We know that NH3 and H2O do not form an ideal pair for absorption system because
the difference in their N.B.Ps is not large enough. And, although, H2O and LiBr2
form a very good pair from the points of view of solubility and N.B.P. requirement,
but the system suffers from the problems of corrosion, and of maintaining high
vacuum both on the low pressure side as well as on the high pressure side. Hence, the
efforts are on to find the most suitable pair for the system.
Zellhoeffer et al.21 determined the solubility of R 21 and R 22 in a number of
solvents such as ethers, esters, amides and amines. They found that dimethyl ether of
tetraethylene glycol (DME–TEG) with chemical formula CH3O (CH2CH2O)4CH3 is
an extremely good solvent for these refrigerants. Mastrangelo made a further study
of the solubility of various fluorocarbons in DME-TEG.
Ever since the pioneering work of Zellhoeffer et al., the investiga-
tors2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 17, 18 have been trying to find suitable R 22 based refrigerant-absorbent
mixtures to replace NH3–H2O system. For a study, Arora et al1. chose DME-TEG,
isobutyl acetate, dimethyl formamide (DMF) with the chemical formula HCO.
N (CH3)2 and diethyl formamide (DEF) with the chemical formula HCON (C2 H5)2
as absorbents for R 22. The basic ln p–1/T data for the study was obtained for NH3–
H2O and R 22 – Isobutyl acetate systems from Sellerio17, for R 22-DME-TEG sys-
tem from Mastrangelo and R 22-DMF and R 22-DEF systems from Thieme and
Albright18.
Table 12.3 Solution circulation rates
System ,(N.B.P.), °C Nr Na f
NH3 + H2O 133 0.5 0.22 3.78
R 22 + DME-TEG 316.6 0.496 0.264 3.18
R 22 + Isobutyl
Acetate 158.8 0.52 0.34 3.67
R 22 + DMF 193.8 0.623 0.409 2.76
R 22 + DEF 218.3 0.563 0.433 4.36
Calculations were done for the operating conditions

th = 120°C, tC = tA = tk = 40°C, t0 = 5°C
It was assumed that only pure refrigerant circulates in the refrigerant circuit. The
rectification losses were assumed negligibly small. Table 12.3 gives the differences
between the N.B.Ps of refrigerant and absorbent, and the results of calculations for
rich solution circulation rates. From the table, DMF with minimum solution circula-
tion rates appears to be the best absorbent. Another suitable asbrobent is DME-
TEG. Using Eisman method of calculation, it was also shown by Arora et al., that
R 22-DMF system gives high COP. Recently, Bapat2 and Das5 have done detailed
study of properties and analysis of R 22-DMF and R 22-DEF respectively.
Many studies have, however, been conducted on the use of solid adsorbents/
dessicants.
Ammonia as refrigerant in combination with solid adsorbents such as calcium
chloride, sodium thiocyanate, lithium thiocynate, lithium nitrate, etc., is being tried
in vapour absorption system. All these solid adsorbents are, however, highly
corrossive in nature.
References
1. Arora C P, A K Mittal and A K Gupta, ‘An analysis of the properties of
mixtures for vapour absorption refrigeration’. Reprint No. 2.57, Proc. XIII
International Congress of Refrigeration, Washington, 1971.
2. Bapat S L, Thermodynamic Properties of Dimethyl Formamide and R 22 for
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1982.
3. Berestneff A A, ‘A new development in absorption refrigeration’, Refrigerat-
ing Engineering, Vol. 57, No. 6, June, 1945, p. 553.
4. Bosnjakovic F, Technical Thermodynamics, Holt, Reinhert and Winston,
1965, pp. 255–279.
5. Das M S, A Thermodynamic Study of Diethyl Formamide and R 22 Combina-
tion for Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System, Ph D. Thesis, IIT Delhi,
1984.
6. Eisemen B J. Jr, ‘Why R 22 should be favoured for absorption refrigeration’,
ASHRAE J., Vol. 1, No. 12, Dec. 1959, pp. 45–50.
7. Jennings B H and F P Shannon, ASRE Handbook, 1951, p. 187.
8. Kohloss F H Jr and G L, Scott in ‘Equilibrium properties of aqua-ammonia in
chart from’, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 58, No. 10, Oct. 1950, p. 970.
9. Lower H, ‘Thermodynamic and physical properties of aquous lithium–
bromide solution’, Report of Technical University, Karlsruhe, Germany, 1961.
10. Mastrangelo S V R, ‘Solubility of some chlorofluoro-hydrocarbons in
tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether’, ASHRAE J., Vol. 1, No. 10, Oct. 1959,
pp. 64–68.
11. McNeely L A, ‘Thermodynamic properties of aquous solutions of lithium
bromide’, ASHRAE Trans. 1979, Part One, pp. 413–434.
12. Merkel-Bosnjakovic, Diagrams and Tables Relating to Absorption Refrig-
erators, Springer, Berlin, 1929.
13. Neibergall, W, ‘Absorption refrigerating machines’, Händbuch der
Kältetechnik, Vol. VII, Edited by R. Plank, Springer, Berlin, 1959.
14. Richter K H, ‘Multistage absorption refrigeration systems’, Journal of
Refrigeration, Sept/Oct. 1962, pp. 105–111.
15. Rosenfeld L M and M C Karnaukh, Kholodilnaya Tekhnika, 1958, No. 1,
pp. 37–42.
16. Scatchard G, et al., ‘Thermodynamic properties saturated liquid and vapour
of ammonia-water mixture’, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol. 53, No. 5, May,
1947, pp. 38.
17. Sellerio, U L, ‘Impiego di idro carburi alognetied in particolarlara dell’r 22.
nelle machine frigorifere and assorbimento a funzionamento continuous’,
Estratto da Il CALORE Ressegna Technical Mensile Dell Associazione
Naxionale per Il Controllo Della Combustion, 1965, N-7.
18. Thieme A and L F Albright, ‘Solubility of Refrigerants 11, 21, and 22 in
Organic Solvents Containing a Nitrogen Atom and in Mixtures of Liquids,’
ASHRAE J., July 1961, p. 71.
20. Threlkeld J L and G F Zellhoefer, Thermal Environmental Engineering,
Prentice Hall, 1962, pp. 96-104.
21. Zellhoefer G F, ‘Solubility of halogenated hydrocarbon refrigerants in

organic solvents’, Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 29, May 1937,
pp. 548–51.
Revision Exercises
12.1 For a simple ammonia-absorption system, the following are given:
Condenser pressure 12.5 bar
Rich solution concentration 0.36
Poor solution concentration 0.25
Find on the basis of 1 ton refrigerating capacity:
(a) The temperature at the end of the evaporator if the vapour is assumed to
be dry saturated.
(b) The mass rate of flow of the refrigerant absorbent mixture in the evapo-
rator.
(c) The mass rate of circulation of the rich and poor solution.
(d) Generator and absorber temperatures.
(e) Heat added in the generator if the rich solution is assumed to be heated
in the heat exchanger to 80°C.
12.2 (a) For an ammonia absorption system:
pk = 10 bar, th = 130°C, xr = 0.38
t02 = – 12°C, p0 = 2.75 bar
Find the temperature and concentration of the vapour leaving the gen-
erator-analyser. Assume the specific heats of the rich and poor solutions
as same. Calculate the cooling energy ratio for a system in which there is
no rectifier.
(b) Calculate the same if there is a rectifier which cools the vapours to 60°C
and the evaporator pressure is raised to 3.4 bar.
12.3 In a lithium bromide-water system the condenser and evaporator temperatures
are 35 and 8°C respectively. The generator temperature is 85°C and the ab-
sorber temperature is 30°C. Assume a pressure drop of 2.5 mm Hg between the
generator and condenser and 1 mm Hg between the evaporator and absorber.
Determine the heat rejection rates in the condenser and absorber per unit of
refrigerating capacity. Also find the heat input to the generator, and COP.
12.4 Let an analyser be added in the system of Prob. 12.1, and do the calculations
for (a) to (e).
12.5 For an NH3 absorption cycle, we have
Condenser pressure 14 bar
(a) Find out if such a cycle is possible or not.
(b) Change the evaporator pressure to 2.8 bar. Check if the cycle is possible
now.
(c) Assume temperature leaving evaporator is t02 = 5°C. What is the refrig-
erating effect?
(d) Also find the COP.
(e) Add analyser in the system, and find COP.
(f) Add a dephlegmator which cools the vapour to 40°C. Determine the
effect on COP.
12.6 (a) Find the temperature range through which liquid ammonia containing
(a) 1% water, (b) 10% water will evaporate at a pressure of 2 bar.
(b) It is proposed to design a solar refrigeration NH3–H2O vapour absorp-
tion system operating under the following conditions:
Condenser pressure 16 bar
Evaporator pressure 2 bar
Hot water from flat plate solar collector can be obtained at a temperature
of 80°C at the most. Examine the feasibility of operating the refrigera-
tion system with this hot water.
(c) If not feasible, then suggest suitable measures to make it feasible.
12.7 (a) The operating conditions in a H2O – LiBr2 vapour absorption system are
as follows:
Condenser and absorber temperatures 45°C
Determine the minimum temperature of heat source required to produce
any refrigeration at all.
(b) Saturated liquid mixture of 80% NH3 plus 20% H2O at 16 bar is throttled
to 2 bar pressure. What is the temperature after throttling, and the
temperature after complete evaporation of the mixture after throttling?
12.8 Introduce double-effect generation in Prob. 12.3, and find the new COP.
!
Ejector-Compression System
13.1 WATER AS A REFRIGERANT
Ejector compression can be used as an alternative to centrifugal compression. In

general, the thermodynamic characteristics of refrigerants employed in both are the
same. The fact that so far only water has been used merely points out to the fact that
steam is readily available as a source of motive power for driving the ejector. Some
work has been done on the use of fluorocarbons in ejector compression sys-
tem1, 2, 3, 4. The system using water as the refrigerant in a vapour-compression cycle
in which compression is achieved by the principle of jet compression employing its
own vapour as the motive vapour, is generally known as water-vapour refrigeration
or steam-ejector system.
In a steam-ejector system, refrigeration is obtained by direct evaporation and
subsequent self-cooling of water. This is possible because the latent heat of
vaporization of water is high compared to its specific heat (530 kg of water can be
cooled by 1°C by the evaporation of only 1 kg of itself). Also, there is no need to use
a secondary refrigerant. Thus, irreversibility due to additional secondary refrigerant
between primary refrigerant and cooled body is eliminated. Besides, water as a
refrigerant possesses the most desirable physical and physiological properties.
Notwithstanding these, water has certain limitations also. These are:
(i) Enormous volume to be handled, e.g., at 8°C, 665 m3/hr/TR are required,
whereas for R 123 it is only 30.3 m3/hr/TR. Centrifugal compressors could
also be used with water vapour but they would be expensive. Ejector
compression is the most economical to use with water as refrigerant.
(ii) High operating vacuum, e.g., at 8°C evaporator, the pressure is 0.01072 bar
and the same at 35°C condenser, is 0.0595 bar.
(iii) High freezing point; it can be used for refrigeration above 0°C only, such as is
required for air conditioning.
Accordingly, water is found suitable as a refrigerant with ejector compression,
and not with centrifugal compressors for air conditioning.
Though the overall COP of the system is low, the steam-jet refrigeration system
has proven its utility in applications such as air conditioning for comfort where steam
is available and safety is the prime consideration. It is also suitable for applications
where direct vaporization is used for the concentration or drying of heat-sensitive
foods and chemicals. In such cases, the use of certain heat exchangers is eliminated.
13.2 STEAM EJECTOR SYSTEM
A simple water vapour refrigeration system and its thermodynamic cycle are shown
in Figs 13.1 and 13.2. Water at 9 expands to 11 through throttle openings into the
flash chiller. Due to vaporization (flashing) of a part of it, the remaining water is
chilled to the required temperature T0. The pressure in the flash chamber is main-
tained at p0 which corresponds to the saturation pressure at T0. The chilled water at
7 can be recirculated after taking up the load in the cooling coil of the air-condition-
ing equipment. Corresponding to the amount of water vaporized, the make-up water
at 6 is added to the flash chamber through a throttle valve. Water vapour at 0 can be
compressed to 4 by an ejector driven by steam (motive vapour) at 1. The processes
taking place within the ejector are shown in Fig. 13.3. The compressed water vapour
(steam) at 4 is finally condensed to 5 and is pumped to the boiler.
4 Ejector 1 Motive From Boiler
Vapour
Suction
C 0 Vapour
O 11
N Throttle
11 Valve 6
D B
E O
N Flash Chiller 7 10 Make-up
9 Water I
S L
E 8 E
R R
5
Condensate Q
Pump Cooling Load
To Boiler
12
Fig. 13.1 Simple water-vapour refrigeration system
p1
12 1
Power Cycle
5 pk
4
6
T
Refrigeration Cycle
9
7, 8 0
11 10 p0 , T0
s
Fig. 13.2 Thermodynamic cycle of water-vapour refrigeration system
Ejector-Compression System 439
It is seen that steam ejector system is another kind of heat-operated refrigerating

machine. The processes between boiler pressure p1 and condenser pressure pk form
the heat engine part of the cycle. And the processes between evaporator pressure p0
and pk form the refrigeration part of the cycle.
Note The control of capacity in the steam ejector system is possible either by throttling
the steam inlet pressure, or by providing more than one nozzle operating in parallel, each
driving a certain amount of vapour from the flash chamber.
3a 3b
1 2 4
Motive To
Vapour Condenser
Mixing Shock Subsonic
Chamber Diffuser Diffuser
0 Suction
Vapour
Fig. 13.3 Schematic diagram of steam ejector
13.3 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STEAM EJECTOR
It can be seen that because of the extremely low pressure in the flash chamber,
the suction vapour consists of a very large volume which makes even a centrifugal
compressor uneconomical to use. The suction vapour, therefore, in water vapour
refrigeration is invariably compressed by an ejector using steam as the motive vapour.
A schematic steam ejector is shown in Fig. 13.3 and pressure variation along its
length in Fig. 13.4. The high-pressure motive vapour at 1 expands to a pressure slightly
above the pressure of the suction vapour at 0. The high velocity jet at 2 entrains the
suction vapour and mixing takes place at constant pressure. The state after mixing at
3a is still at a very high velocity (supersonic). The mixing chamber is followed by a
constant area section where a normal shock may occur. After the shock at 3b, the fluid
stream consisting of both the motive and suction vapours is compressed to the con-
denser pressure to state 4 in the diffuser section. The thermodynamic states at various
points are shown on the temperature-entropy diagram in Fig. 13.5. The following
analysis of the ejector is based on the work of Kalustian et al.5
1
Expansion 4
on
usi
Diff
Pressure
3b
Shock
0 2
3a
Constant Pressure
Mixing
Along Ejector
Fig. 13.4 Pressure variation along ejector
p1
1
=p
k
p4
4
T
3b
p0
0
2 3a
s
Fig. 13.5 Thermodynamic processes within ejector
Nozzle If Dn is the efficiency of the nozzle, then the jet velocity C2 is given by
C2 = 2 D n (h1 - h2 ) (13.1)
Mixing Section Here m and C denote the mass flow rate and velocity. The continu-
ity equation for the mixing section is
m1 + m0 = m3 (13.2)
The momentum equation is
(m1 + m0) C3a – m1C2 – m0C0 = 0 (13.3)
Since the process is at constant pressure, the force acting is zero (frictional force
has been neglected in this equation). Considering velocity C0 of the suction vapour
as negligible, we have
m3C3a = m1C2 (13.4)
This equation assumes no loss of momentum in the mixing process. Actual
mixing process is accompanied with entrainment loss of mechanical energy as
defined by Eq. (13.11).
Finally the energy equating for the mixing process is
F I
m1h1 + m0h0 = m3 h3a + GH C32a
2 JK (13.5)
Shock Diffuser Since the velocity at 3a is supersonic, it is necessary to design the

ejector assuming the presence of a shock at this point. A constant-area section is also
provided to stabilize the shock. We have the following equations for the shock:
C3a A C A
Continuity: m3 = = 3b (13.6)
L3a L3b
where L is the specific volume
Momentum: (p3b – p3a)A = (C3a – C3b)m3 (13.7)
C32a C32b
Energy: h3a + = h3b + (13.8)
2 2
Equation of state: Steam property tables may be used. (13.9)
The solution of the above four equations
Fa
for the shock may be obtained by drawing p3b
nn
Rayleigh
o
two curves as shown in Fig. 13.6. The solu-
3b
tion of Eqs (13.6), (13.8) and (13.9) is rep-
resented by a Fanno line and, the solution of
Eqs (13.6), (13.7) and (13.9) is represented
Shock
by a Rayleigh line. The intersection of the
two lines, then, gives a solution of all the
h
four equations. Consequently, we obtain p3a
state 3b after the shock. If the vapour before
shock (at 3a) is dry saturated or superheated, 3a
shock tables may be used and the value of
the adiabatic index C may be taken as 1.33
for steam. s
Diffuser After the shock at 3b, the velocity Fig. 13.6 Process in shock diffuser
is subsonic. The kinetic energy at 3b is con-
verted into enthalpy in the subsonic diffuser section. Neglecting the velocity at the end
of the diffuser and taking Dd as the diffuser efficiency, we have
C32b h¢ - h3b D his
h4 – h3a = = 4 = (13.10)
2 Dd Dd
where h¢4 is the enthalpy after isentropic diffusion to p4, and Dhis is the isentropic
enthalpy rise. The significant quantities in this analysis are the mass ratio of the
motive vapour to suction vapour and the cross-sectional areas at various sections.
The method of solution involves two iterations, one for the mass ratio and the other
for the shock equations. The solution is checked by the pressure developed at 4
which should be equal to the required condenser pressure. Example (13.1) illustrates
the calculation procedure.
When simplifications are made such that the shock is not considered (i.e., state 3b
is the same as 3a or say 3) and the efficiency of the mixing process with entrainment
efficiency De is considered, defined by a mechanical energy balance equation
C22 C2
De m1 = m3 3 (13.11)
2 2
which replaces the momentum Eq. (13.3). Then the solution of Eqs (13.1), (13.11),
(13.5) and (13.10) gives for the mass ratio
m h4¢ - h3
m= 1 = (13.12)
m0 (h1 - h3 ) D nD eD d - (h4¢ - h3 )
or defining the overall ejector efficiency by
D = Dn De Dd, we have
h4¢ - h3
m= (13.13)
(h1 - h3 ) D - (h4¢ - h3 )
For the case of an ideal ejector, D = 1, so that
h - h3
m= 4 (13.14)
h1 - h4
Thus, we find that to keep the mass ratio low, and to maintain the COP high, the
enthalpy h1 and hence the temperature and pressure of the motive vapour should be
as high as possible. We note the following:
Refrigerating effect, q0 = h0 – h9
Heat supplied, qh = m (h1 – h5)
q h0 - h9
COP = 0 =
qh m(h1 - h5 )
Example 13.1 In a steam-jet refrigeration system, the motive vapour is

saturated at 150.3°C, and the chilled water temperature is 6°C. The mass ratio
of the motive vapour to refrigerant vapour is 2.5. Find the saturated discharge
temperature of the ejector. Assume the nozzle, entrainment and diffuser
efficiencies as 0.85, 0.65 and 0.8 respectively.
Solution From the steam tables

p1 = 0.048 bar at 150.3°C p0 = 0.00935 bar at 6°C
h1 = 2745.7 kJ/kg s1 = 6.833 kJ/kg K
At 6°C,
sf = 0.091 kJ/kg K sg = 9.001 kJ/kg K
hf = 25.2 kJ/kg K hg = 2512.6 kJ/kg = h0
Nozzle After isentropic expansion, the dryness fraction is
x¢2 = 6.833 - 0.091 = 0.7567
9.001 - 0.091
Enthalpy after expansion
h¢2 = 25.2 + 0.7567 (2512.6 – 25.2) = 1907.4 kJ/kg
Velocity of motive vapour leaving nozzle
C2 = 2D n (h1 - h2 ) = ( 0.85)( 2 )( 2745.7 - 1907.4 )103 = 1193.8 m/s

Mixing Section The momentum equation gives
De mC22 = (m + 1)C23a
0.65(2.5)(1193.82) = (2.5 + 1)C23a
Þ C3a = 813.4 m/s
The energy equation gives
F I
GH
mh1 + h0 = (m + 1) h3a +
C32a
2 JK
F I
(2.5) (2745.7) + 2512.6 = (3.5) h3a + GH 813.4 2
2 ´ 103
JK
whence h3a = 2348.3 kJ/kg
Dryness fraction at 3a
h3a - h f 2348.3 - 29.2
x3a = = = 0.932
h fg 2487.4
The state 3a corresponds to a dryness fraction of 0.932 at 6°C saturation tempera-

ture. Its specific volume can be found
L3a = xL g + (1 – x)Lf = 0.932(137.8) + (1 – 0.932) (0.001) = 128.5 m3/kg
Shock Diffuser The continuity, momentum and energy equations are
m 3 C C 813.4
= 3b = 3a = = 6.33 (I)
A L3b L3a 128.5
m 3 6.33
p3b = p3a + (C3a – C3b) = 0.00935 + (813.4 – C3b) (II)
A 105
C32a C2 813.4 2 C32b
h3b = h3a + - 3b = 2348.3 + - (III)
2 2 2 ´ 103 2 ´ 103
Equations (I), (II) and (III) are to be solved in conjunction with the steam tables
for the four variables, p3b, L3b, h3b and C3b. The following iterative procedure may be
adopted.
(i) Assume C3b.
(ii) Calculate L3b from Eq. (I).
(iii) Calculate p3b from Eq. (II).
(iv) Find h3b from the steam tables for the calculated values of p3b and L3b.
(v) Again calculate h3b from Eq. (III).
(vi) Compare the two values and if necessary, repeat the procedure. The solution
obtained is
C3b = 222 m/s L3b = 35.07 m3/s
p3b = 0.0468 bar h3b = 2654.5 kJ/kg
At 0.0468 bar pressure, the saturation properties are as follows:
tg = 31.7°C Lg = 30.056 m3/kg < 35.07 m3/kg
hg = 2559.4 kJ/klg sg = 8.42 kJ/kg K
Hence, the vapour after the shock is superheated. The ratio of temperatures is
T3 b L 35.07
= 3b = = 1.167
Tg Lg 30.056
Temperature after shock
T3b = (273 + 31.7) (1.167) = 365.5 K or 82.5°C
Degree of superheat
Dt = 82.5 – 31.7 = 50.8°C
Enthalpy after shock
h3b = hg + Cp Dt = 2559.4 + 1.885 (50.8) = 2655.2 kJ/kg
Note The above value of enthalpy agrees well with the value of 2654.5 kJ/kg calculated
from Eq. (III). Hence the assumption of velocity is correct.
Entropy after shock

T3b
s3b = sg + Cp ln = 8.42 + 1.885 ln 1.167 = 8.711 kJ/kg.K
Tg
Diffuser Enthalpy rise after actual diffusion to 4 (pressure p4 = pk)

C32b FG 222 IJ 1
D h = h4 – h3b =
2
=
H 2 K 10 3
= 24.6 kJ/kg
Enthalpy rise after isentropic diffusion to 4¢ (same pressure)

Dhis = h¢4 – h3b = Dd Dh = (0.8) (24.6) = 19.7 kJ/kg
Enthalpy after isentropic diffusion to 4¢
h¢4 = h3b + D his = 2655.2 + 19.7 = 2674.9 kJ/kg
Entropy after isentropic diffusion
s¢4 = s3b = 8.711 kJ/kg.K
For the state after isentropic diffusion, we follow an iterative procedure. For the
purpose we assume the saturated discharge temperature and check for entropy after
diffusion. The calculations are given in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Iterations for saturation temperature and pressure after diffusion
Sat. Discharge/Condensing Temp.

tk ® 32°C 33°C 33.8°C 34°C
Saturation properties at tk
p, bar 0.0475 0.05035 — 0.0532
hg, kJ/kg 2560.0 2561.8 — 2563.6
sg, kJ/kg K 8.414 8.394 — 8.374
Superheat enthalpy
D h = h¢4 – hg = 2674.9 – hg 114.9 113.1 — 111.3
Degree of superheat
Dh Dh
DT = = 60.95 60.0 — 59.05
Cp 1.885
Superheat entropy
Tg + D T
Ds = 1.885 ln 0.3434 0.3375 — 0.3316
Tg
Entropy
s = sg + Ds 8.757 8.7315 8.711 8.7056
Since the entropy after isentropic diffusion s¢4 is 8.711 kJ/kg.K, we find by inter-
polation that the saturated discharge temperature and hence the required condensing
temperature is 33.8°C. This corresponds to a condensing pressure of 40.1 mm Hg
(5.57 kN/m2).
Note The condensing temperature attained is too low for a cooling water temperature of
30°C. Mass ratio of motive vapour has to be increased.
References
1. Arora C P, ‘Prospects of using refrigerant ejectors’, J. of Refrigeration, Vol.
7, No. 6, Nov./Dec. 1964, pp. 117–121.
2. Arora C P, ‘Other refrigerants in ejector compression system’, Air Condition-
ing and Refrigeration in India, Dec. 1966.
3. Badylkes I S, I.I.R Bulletin, Annexe 1958, J. of Refrigeration, Vol. 1, No. 7,
Nov/Dec. 1958, pp. 168, 169 and 176.
4. Cavallini A, G Lovison and G Trappanese, ‘Experimental research on a
fluorinated hydrocarbon jet refrigeration plant’, Proc. XII International
Congress of Refrigeration, 1967.
5. Kalustian P, ‘Analysis of the ejector cycle’, Refrigerating Engineering, Vol.
38, No. 4, Oct. 1934, pp. 188-193, 208.
6. Martinovsky V S, ‘Use of waste heat for refrigeration, Kholodilnaya
Tekhnika, Vol. 30, No. 1, Jan./March, 1953, p. 60.
Revision Exercises
13.1 (a) In a steam jet refrigeration system, the evaporator temperature is 5°C and
the condensing temperature is 35°C. The motive vapour is dry saturated
steam at 120°C. Assuming ideal processes, find the mass ratio of the
motive vapour to the refrigerant vapour.
(b) Find the same if the nozzle, entrainment and diffuser efficiencies are
0.85, 0.65 and 0.8 respectively. Assume no shocks.
13.2 Repeat the calculations in Problem 13.1 (b) above assuming a normal shock
in the constant area section.
13.3 Find the dimensions of the various sections of the ejector in Problem 13.2 for
a 5,000-ton refrigerating capacity.
"
Properties of Moist Air
14.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF AIR CONDITIONING
The art of air conditioning developed only gradually from the predecessor arts of
cooling, cleaning, heating and ventilating.
Leonardo da Vinci had built a ventilating fan by the end of the 15th century.
Later, Boyle in 1659 and Dalton in 1800 discovered the laws that are very well
known. The first text on heating and ventilating was written by Robertson Buchanan,
a Glasgow civil engineer, in 1815. Fans, boilers and radiators had been invented by
the middle of the 19th century. Refrigeration technology was soon to follow. In
1853, Professor Alexander Twining of New Haven produced 725 kg of ice a day
using a double-acting vacuum and compression pump, employing the 1834 inven-
tion of the vapour compression cycle by Jacob Perkins. He used sulphuric ether as
the refrigerant. While quick developments took place in the manufacture of ice,
a few machines appeared which chilled air by blowing it over brine or direct-
expansion pipe coils.
Towards the latter half of the 19th century, the developments in the art of humidi-
fying air went along with the progress of textile industry in England. Devices for
measuring pressure, temperature, humidity and flow of air were perfected during
this period. To bring the various groups of engineers together, societies such as the
American Society of Refrigerating Engineers (ASRE) in 1904 were formed.
It is worth mentioning here the name of A.R. Wolff who designed air-condition-
ing systems for as many as hundred buildings during his life-time. But it is W.H.
Carrier (1876–1950) who is known as the ‘Father of Air Conditioning’. While Work-
ing with Buffalo Forge Co., he developed formulae for optimizing the application of
forced-draft fans, developed ratings of pipe-coil heaters and set up a research labo-
ratory. He engineered and installed the first year-round air-conditioning system,
providing for the four major functions of heating, cooling, humidifying and dehu-
midifying. He made use of air washers for controlling the dew point of air by heating
or chilling recirculated water. In 1911, Carrier presented his remarkable paper
‘Rational Psychrometric Formulae’ in an ASME meeting. The paper related the dry
bulb, wet bulb and dew point temperatures of air with its sensible, latent and total
Properties of Moist Air 447
heats, and presented a theory of adiabatic saturation.These formulae, together with

the accompanying psychrometric chart, laid the subject of air conditioning on a firm
thermodynamic basis. Carrier also employed the centrifugal compressor for refrig-
eration in 1922.
After Carrier, there was a tremendous increase in the use of air conditioning in
cotton, silk, rayon, tobacco, paper, pharmaceuticals, candy and printing industries.
As far as air conditioning for comfort is concerned, it got off the ground in motion-
picture theatres in 1920 in Chicago employing CO2 machines and in 1922 in Los
Angeles employing NH3 compressors. In the last 30 years, the industry has grown
in leaps and bounds all over the world, using various new refrigerants.
In the following chapters, attention will henceforth be focussed on the art and
science of air conditioning which is the greatest single application of refrigeration,
in addition to that of heating and ventilation. For this purpose it is necessary to study
the properties of the working substance in air conditioning, viz., moist air.
14.2 WORKING SUBSTANCE IN AIR CONDITIONING
An important thing for the student of air conditioning is to appreciate that the work-
ing substance under study, viz., moist air, is a mixture of two gases. One of these is
dry air which itself is a mixture of a number of gases and the other is water vapour
which may exist in a saturated or superheated state.
One might ask whether moist air can be considered as a pure substance. But a
pure substance is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition. Thus, a
homogeneous mixture of gases is a pure substance until its components do not
change in phase. Dry air is a good example of such a kind of pure substance. Water
vapour is certainly a pure substance. But moist air is not a pure substance in any
process in which condensation or evaporation of moisture occurs. In such a case,
regular charts have to be developed to describe the thermodynamic properties of the
mixture under different conditions and compositions.
It is, thus, seen that moist air consists of two parts: one, comprising dry air, con-
sidered as the fixed part, and the other, solely of water vapour, considered as the
variable part.
The dry air part is a mixture of a number of permanent gases with approximate
compositions as given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Composition of dry part in atmospheric air
Component Molecular Part by Part by

Mass Volume Mass
N2 28.02 0.7803 0.7547
O2 32.0 0.2099 0.2319
Ar 39.91 0.0094 0.0129
CO2 44.0 0.0003 0.0005
H2 2.02 0.0001 0.0000
Both dry air and water vapour can be considered as perfect gases since both exist
in the atmosphere at low pressures. Hence, perfect gas laws can be applied to them
individually. In addition, Gibbs-Dalton laws for non-reactive mixtures of gases can
be applied to the dry air part only to obtain its properties as a single pure substance,
before establishing the properties of moist air.
14.2.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Consider a homogeneous mixture of non-reacting Temperature T
ideal gases 1, 2, etc., at temperature T, pressure p Pressure p
and occupying volume V as shown in Fig. 14.1 (a).
Let the number of moles of individual gases be n1,
n2, L etc., and their respective masses be m1, m2, L Gases 1 and 2
etc. Then we have for total number of moles n and Volume V
total mass m
n = n1 + n2 + L = S ni (14.1) Fig. 14.1(a) Gas mixture
m = m1 + m2 + L = S mi (14.2)
where i is the number of each gas.
In the Dalton’s model, each gas is conceived of as existing separately at the
temperature T and total volume V of the mixture as shown in Fig. 14.1 (b).
Temperature T Temperature T
Pressure p1 Pressure p2
Volume V Volume V
Gas 1 Gas 2
Fig. 14.1(b) Figure illustrating Dalton’s model
If one were to measure the pressures exerted by individual gases, they would be
found to be p1, p2, L etc., viz., less than the total pressure p of the mixture. These
are referred to as partial pressures. Considering mixture and each component gas
existing separately at T and V, we have for a binary gas mixture:
pV
Mixture pV = n R T n=
RT
p V
Components p1 V = n1 R T n1 = 1
RT
p2 V
p2 V = n2 R T n2 =
RT
Substitution in n1 + n2 = n gives
p = p1 + p2 or p = Si pi (14.3)
Thus, for a mixture of ideal gases, the total pressure p is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures. This is known as the Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
14.2.2 Amagat Law of Partial Volumes

In the Amagat model, each component gas is considered as existing separately at the
total pressure p and temperature T of the mixture as shown in Fig. 14.1 (c).
Temperature T Temperature T
Temperature T Pressure p
Pressure p Pressure p
Volume Volume V2
Volume V = V1 + V2 = V1 +
Gas 1 + Gas 2 Gas 2
Gas 1
Fig. 14.1(c) Figure illustrating Amagat model
Let the volumes of individual gases under these conditions be V1, V2, L etc.
These are referred to as partial volumes. Again, applying the ideal gas equation of
state to mixture and components, we have:
pV
Mixture pV = n R T n=
RT
p V1
Components p V1 = n1 R T n1 =
RT
p V2
p V 2 = n2 R T n2 =
RT
Substitution in n1 + n2 = n gives
V = V1 + V2 or V = Si Vi (14.4)
Thus, we see that the total volume is equal to the sum of the partial volumes. This
is known as the Amagat law of partial volumes. The ratios V1/V, V2/V, L etc., are
referred to as volume fractions.
14.2.3 Mole Fractions of Component Gases

It is seen from the above section that
p1 V n
= 1 = 1 = y1 (14.5)
p V n
Thus, the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure, and volume fraction are equal
to the mole fraction yi of the gas. It also shows that both Dalton’s law and Amagat
law are equivalent.
14.2.4 Molecular Mass of Mixture

Since m = m1 + m2, and m = Mn, m1 = M1 n1, m2 = M2 n2, we have
Mn = M1 n1 + m2 n2
We have
M = y 1 M1 + y 2 M2 or M = S i y i Mi (14.6)
where M represents the molecular mass of the mixture. Note that n1 = m1/M1 ,
n2 = m2/M 2, etc. Similarly, for the mixture, n = m/M.
14.2.5 Gibbs’ Theorem

Gibbs’ Theorem further enunciates that the internal energy of a mixture is equal to
the sum of internal energies of the individual components, taken each at the tempera-
ture and volume of the mixture. Thus, we have for the internal energy of the mixture.
mu = m1u1 + m2u2 (14.7)
It can also be shown that the enthalpy and specific heat of the mixture can, simi-
larly, be written as
mh = m1h1 + m2h2 (14.8)
mC = m1C1 + m2C2 (14.9)
14.2.6 Molecular Masses and Gas Constants for Dry Air and Water Vapour
From the respective mole fractions and molecular masses of component gases, the
molecular mass of the dry air part may be computed. For the purpose, it may be
observed from Eq. (14.16) that a part by volume represents the mole fraction. Thus
using the values for mole fractions from Table 14.1, we have
Ma = SMy (14.10)
= 28.02 (0.7803) + 32 (0.2099)
+ 39.91 (0.0094) + 44 (0.0003) + 2.02 (0.0001)
= 28.966
where subscript a denotes dry air. Knowing that the value of the universal gas
constant is 8.3143 kJ/kg mole K, the gas constants for the two parts of moist air are
as follows:
Dry air Ma = 28.966
8.3143
Ra = = 0.2871 kJ/kg.K
28.966
Water vapour Mv = 18.016
8.3143
Rv = = 0.461 kJ/kg.K
18.016
where subscript v refers to water vapour.
Example 14.1 One cubic metre of H2 at 1 bar and 25°C is mixed with one
cubic metre of N2 at 1 bar and 25°C. For the mixture at the same conditions,
find:
(a) Mole fractions of components. (b) Partial pressures of components.
(c) Mass fractions of components. (d) Molecular weight of the mixture.
(e) Gas constant of the mixture. (f) Volume of the mixture.
Solution Molecular weights

M1 = MH2 = 4.003, and M2 = MN2 = 28.02
Gas constants
8.3143
R1 = = 2.077 kJ/kg.K
4.003
8.3143
R2 = = 0.2967 kJ/kg.K
28.02
Masses
p1V1 (1 ´ 105 )(1)
m1 = = = 0.1616 kg
R1T1 (2.077 ´ 103 )(298)
p2V2 (1 ´ 105 )(1)
m2 = = = 1.131 kg
R2 T2 (0.2967 ´ 103 )( 298)
m = m1 + m2 = 0.1616 + 1.131 = 1.2926 kg
Number of moles
m1 0.1616
n1 = = = 0.0404
M1 4.003
m 1131
.
n2 = 2 = = 0.0403
M2 28.02
n = n1 + n2 = 0.0807
(a) Mole fractions
n 0.0404
y1 = 1 = = 0.5
n 0.0807
n 0.0403
y2 = 2 = = 0.5
n 0.0807
(b) Partial pressures
p1 = y1 p = 0.5 (1) = 0.5 bar
p2 = y2 p = 0.5 (1) 0.5 bar
(c) Mass fractions
m1 0.1616
= = 0.125
m 1.2926
m2 1131
.
= = 0.875
m 1.2926
(d) Molecular weight of mixture
M = y1 M1 + y2M2 = 0.5(4.003) + 0.5(28.02) = 16.01
(e) Gas constant of mixture
8.3143
R = R /M = = 0.5193 kJ/kg.K
16.01
(f) Volume of mixture
m RT 1.2926(0.5193 ´ 103 )( 298)
V= = = 2 m3
p 1 ´ 105
Also, from Eq. (14.4)
V = V1 + V2 = 1 + 1 = 2 m3
14.3 PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
Dry air and water vapour form a binary mixture. A mixture of two substances
requires three properties to completely define its thermodynamic state, unlike a pure
substance which requires only two. One of the three properties can be the composi-
tion. The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject
which deals with the behaviour of moist air is known as psychrometry.
Water vapour is present in the atmosphere at a very low partial pressure. At this
low pressure and atmospheric temperature, the water vapour behaves as a perfect
gas. The partial pressure of dry air is also below one atmosphere which may also be
considered to behave very much as a perfect gas. The Gibbs-Dalton laws of perfect
gas mixtures can, therefore, be applied to the case of moist air.
In air-conditioning practice, all calculations are based on the dry air part since the
water vapour part is continuously variable. For defining and calculating the relevant
psychrometric properties, we may consider a certain volume V of moist air at pres-
sure p and temperature T, containing ma kg of dry air and mv kg of water vapour as
shown in Fig. 14.2. The actual temperature t of moist air is called the dry bulb tem-
perature (DBT). The total pressure p which is equal to the barometric pressure is
constant. The other relevant properties will now be discussed.
Volume V
Mass m
Pressure p
Temperature T
Dry Air:
Mass = ma kg
Sp. vol. = va m3/kg
Water Vapour:
Mass = mv kg
Sp. vol. = vv m3/kg
Fig. 14.2 A mixture of dry air and water vapour (moist air)
14.3.1 Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio

Specific or absolute humidity or humidity ratio or moisture content as it is variously
called denoted by the symbol w is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour
(w.L.) to the mass of dry air (d.a.) in a given volume of the mixture. Thus
m V / vv v
w= v = = a (14.11)
ma V / va vv
where the subscripts a and v refer to dry air and water vapour respectively.
R R
Now p a va = T pa V = m a T (14.12)
Ma Ma
R R
p v vv = T pv V = mv T (14.13)
Mv Mv
Substituting for mv and ma from these expressions in Eq. (14.11), we obtain
M v pv 18.016 pv p
w= = p = 0.622 pv (14.14)
M a pa 28.966 a a
The units of w are kg of water vapour per kg of dry air. If multiplied by 1000, it
can be expressed as
p
w = 622 v g w.v./kg d.a. (14.15)
pa
Also, since p denotes the actual total atmospheric pressure, then from Dalton’s law
p = pa + p v (14.16)
so that
pv
w = 0.622 (14.17)
p - pv
Considering that the total atmospheric pressure remains constant at a particular
locality, we can see that
w = f ( pv )
viz., the specific humidity is a function of the partial pressure of water vapour only.
Accordingly, if there is no change in specific humidity or the moisture content of air,
the partial pressure of water vapour also does not change.
It may be noted that since pv is very small and p, which is the barometric pressure,
is constant, the denominator in Eqs (14.14) and (14.17) remains more or less con-
stant, i.e.,
pa = p – p v » p
Hence w is approximately a linear function of pv.
The concept of specific humidity is that if we take 1 kg of dry air, viz.,
ma = 1 kg
then the mass of water vapour associated with this dry air, in the same volume is
mv = w kg
so that the total mass of this volume of moist air is
m = (1 + w) kg
Thus specific humidity is not a mass fraction of water vapour which would have
been w/(1 + w), but a ratio of the mass of water vapour to that of dry air in a certain
volume of the mixture.
14.3.2 Dew Point Temperature

Figure 14.3 shows the normal thermodynamic state 1 of water vapour in moist air.
The water vapour existing at temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure pv of
the vapour in the mixture is normally in a superheated state. Moist air containing
moisture in such a state is considered as unsaturated air.
pv
1 Super heated state

T of water vapour in
unsaturated air
ng
oli
Co
T
Td d
s
Fig. 14.3 Thermodynamic state of water vapour in moist air
If a sample of such unsaturated moist air containing superheated water vapour is

cooled (at constant pressure), the mixture will eventually reach the saturation tem-
perature td of water vapour corresponding to its partial pressure pv, at which point
the first drop of dew will be formed, i.e., the water vapour in the mixture will start
condensing. This temperature td is called the dew point temperature (DPT). It is,
therefore, the temperature to which moist air must be cooled at constant pressure
before condensation of moisture takes place.
Moisture can be removed from humid air by bringing the air in contact with a
cold surface or cooling coil whose temperature is below its dew point temperature.
During the process of cooling, the partial pressure pv of water vapour and specific
humidity w remain constant until the vapour starts condensing.
It is seen that the dew point temperature can be found by knowing, from the steam
tables, the saturation temperature td at the partial pressure pv of the water vapour.
Example 14.2 In a dew point apparatus a metal beaker is cooled by gradu-

ally adding ice water to the water initially at room temperature. The moisture
from the room air begins to condense on the beaker when its temperature is
12.8°C. If the room temperature is 21°C and the barometric pressure is 1.01325
bar, find the partial pressure of water vapour in the room air and parts by mass
of water vapour in the room air.
Solution Partial pressure of water vapour at DPT of 12.8°C

pv = 1.479 kN/m2
Partial pressure of dry air
pa = 101325 – 1479 = 99846 N/m2
Specific humidity
m p 1479 kg w. v.
w = v = 0.622 v = 0.622 ´ = 0.009214
ma pa 99846 kg d. a.
Parts by mass of water vapour

mv w 0.009214 kg w. v.
= = = 0.00913
m 1+ w 1.009214 kg mixture
14.3.3 Degree of Saturation

Figure 14.4 again shows the superheated thermodynamic state 1 of water vapour
in unsaturated moist air representing the control volume V in Fig. 14.2. The water
vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure pv.
s
p
pv
3 2 1
T
Saturated Water
Vapour in
Saturated Air Superheated
T
Water Vapour in
Td Unsaturated Air
d
s
Fig. 14.4 An imaginary isothermal process representing change of state
of water vapour in unsaturated air to that of saturated air at
the same temperature
Consider now that more water vapour is added in this control volume V at tem-
perature T itself. The partial pressure pv will go on increasing with the addition of
water vapour until it reaches a value ps corresponding to state 2 in Fig. 14.4, after
which it cannot increase further as ps is the saturation pressure or maximum possible
pressure of water at temperature T. The thermodynamic state of water vapour is now
saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in such a state is called saturated
air. In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific
humidity being ws, corresponding to the partial pressure ps) at temperature T of the
mixture. The maximum possible specific humidity, ws at temperature T is thus
ps
ws = 0.622 (14.18)
p - ps
The ratio of the actual specific humidity w to the specific humidity ws of saturated
air at temperature T is termed as the degree of saturation denoted by the symbol m.
Thus
m=
w
= v
LM
p 1 - ps / p OP
ws N
ps 1 - pv / p Q (14.19)
We thus see that the degree of saturation is a measure of the capacity of air to
absorb moisture.
14.3.4 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity denoted by the symbol f or RH is defined as the ratio of the mass
of water vapour mv in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature to the
mass of water vapour mvs in the same volume of saturated air at the same tempera-
ture. Thus, referring to Fig. 14.4 again, if vv and vs are the specific volumes of water
vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at temperature T and in
volume V, viz., at points 1 and 2 respectively, we see that
mv p V /RT p
f= = v = v (14.20)
mvs ps V / R T ps
V / vv v
Also, f= = s (14.21)
V / vs vv
Using the perfect-gas relationship between points 1 and 2, viz.,
p1v1 = p2v2 or pv vv = psvs (14.22)
we have
p v
f= v = s (14.23)
ps vv
Thus relative humidity turns out to be the ratio of partial pressures of water
vapour in a certain unsaturated moist air at a given temperature T to the saturation
pressure of water vapour (or partial pressure of water vapour in saturated air) at the
same temperature T. It is usually measured in percentage. When pv is equal to ps, f is
equal to unity, and the air is saturated and is considered to have 100 per cent RH.
In general, since partial pressure is a direct measure of the moisture holding of
dry air, relative humidity is considered to be a more commonly understood measure
of the degree of saturation of air.
From Eqs (14.14) and (14.23), it can be shown that
p
w = 0.622f s (14.24)
pa
w pa
f= (14.25)
0.622 ps
Also, from Eqs (14.19) and (14.23), we get
m=f
LM 1 - p / p OP
s
N1 - p / p Q
v
(14.26)
m
f= (14.27)
1 - (1 - m ) ps / p
14.3.5 Enthalpy of Moist Air

According to Gibbs’ law, the enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases is obtained by
the summation of the enthalpies of the constituents. Thus the enthalpy of moist air h
is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and associated water vapour, i.e.,
h = ha + w hv (14.28)
per kg of dry air, where ha is the enthalpy of the dry air part and w hv is the enthalpy
of the water vapour part.
Considering the change in enthalpy of a perfect gas as a function of temperature

only, the enthalpy of the dry air part, above a datum of 0°C, is expressed as
ha = Cpa t = 1.005 t kJ/kg (= 0.24 t Btu/lbm where t is in °F) (14.29)
where Cpa = 1.005 kJ/(kg.K) is the specific heat of dry air, and t is the dry-bulb
temperature of air in °C.
pv
C A
t B
td f
g
t
0°C g 0°C
Reference State
s
Fig. 14.5 Evaluation of enthalpy of water vapour part
Again, taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturated liquid at 0°C, the
enthalpy of the water vapour part, viz., at point A in Fig. 14.5, is expressed as
hv = hA = Cpw td + (hfg )d + Cpv (t – td ) kJ/kg (14.30)
where
Cpw = specific heat of liquid water
td = dew point temperature
(hfg)d = latent heat of vaporization at DPT
Cpv = specific heat of superheated vapour
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/(kg.K) and that of water
vapour as 1.88 kJ/(kg.K), in the range 0 to 60°C, we have
hv = 4.1868 td + (hfg)d + 1.88 (t – td) (14.31)
This expression for enthalpy is rather unwieldy for the purpose of calculations. It
may, however, be pointed out that at low pressures for an ideal gas, the enthalpy is a
function of temperature only. Thus in Fig. 14.5, the enthalpies at points B and C are
also the same as the enthalpy at A. Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at
DPT of td and DBT of t, can be determined more conveniently by the following
two methods:
(i) hA = hC = (hg)t (14.32)
(ii) hA = hB = (hg)0°C + Cpv(t – 0) (14.33)
Thus, employing the second expression and taking the latent heat of vaporization
of water at 0°C as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the
enthalpy of the water vapour part
hv = 2501 + 1.88t kJ/kg ( = 1061 + 0.444 t Btu/lbm, where t is in °F)

(14.34)
and combining Eqs (14.29) and (14.34), we have for the enthalpy of moist air
h = 1.005t + w(2500 + 1.88 t) kJ/kg d.a. (14.35)
( = 0.24t + w (1061 + 0.444t) Btu/lbm d.a. where t is in °F)
14.3.6 Humid Specific Heat

Equation (14.35) for the enthalpy of moist air can also be written in the form
h = (Cpa + w Cpv) t + w (hfg)0°C
= Cp t + w (hfg)0°C (14.36)
where
Cp = Cpa + w Cpv
kJ
= (1.005 + 1.88w) (= 0.245 Btu/lbm d.a.R) (14.37)
(kg d. a. )(K)
is termed as the humid specific heat. It is the specific heat of moist air (1 + w)kg per
kg of dry air. The term Cp t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with tempera-
ture at constant specific humidity, and the term w (hfg)0°C governs the change in
enthalpy with the change in specific humidity, i.e., due to the addition or removal of
water vapour in air.
Since the second term 1.88w is very small compared to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of Cp of 1.0216 kJ/(kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.
Example 14.3 A mixture of dry air and water vapour is at a temperature of 21°C
under a total pressure of 736 mm Hg. The dew-point temperature is 15°C. Find:
(i) Partial pressure of water vapour.
(ii) Relative humidity.
(iii) Specific humidity.
(iv) Specific enthalpy of water vapour by the three methods of Fig. 14.5.
(v) Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air.
(vi) Specific volume of air per kg of dry air.
Solution (i) From steam tables, the partial pressure of water vapour at 15°C DPT is
pv = 12.79 mm Hg = 12.79 (133.5) = 1707.5 N/m2.
(ii) Saturation pressure of water vapour at 21°C DBT
ps = 18.65 mm Hg = 18.65 (133.5) = 2489.8 N/m2
Relative humidity
p 12.79
f = v ´ 100 = ´ 100 = 68.58%
ps 18.65
(iii) Specific humidity
p (12.79) (12.79)
w = 0.622 v = 0.622 = 0.622
pa (736 - 12.79) 723.21
= 0.011 kg w.v./kg d.a.
(iv) Latent heat of vaporization of water at dry bulb and dew-point temperatures
of air
(hfg)21°C = 2452 kJ/kg
(hfg)15°C = 2466.2 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of water vapour from Fig. 14.5 by the three methods
hC = (4.1868) (21) + 2452 = 2540 kJ/kg w.v.
hA = (4.1868) (15) + 2466.2 + 1.88 (21 – 15)
= 2540.3 kJ/kg w.v.
hB = 2501 + 1.88 (21) = 2540.5 kJ/kg w.v.
Note The three values are extremely close to each other.

(v) Enthalpy of air using the value of specific enthalpy of water vapour from the
empirical relation
h = ha + w h v
= 1.005 (21) + 0.011 (2540.5)
= 21.1 + 27.9 = 49.0 kJ/kg d.a.
(vi) Specific volume of air is equal to the volume of 1 kg of dry air or 0.011 kg of
water vapour. Based on the dry air part
Ra T 287.3(273 + 21)
v = va = = = 0.875 m3/kg d.a.
pa (723.21)(133.5)
14.4 WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WBT)10
A method of measuring humidity by a psychrometer may now be described. A

psychrometer comprises of a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb thermometer.
The dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed to the air and measures the
actual temperature of air. The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is covered by a wick
thoroughly wetted by water. The temperature which is measured by the wick-
covered bulb of such a thermometer indicates the temperature of liquid-water in the
wick and is called the wet bulb temperature. Let it be denoted by the symbol t¢.
Referring to Fig. 14.6, when unsaturated moist air at A flows over water in the
wick at f, the partial pressure pv of the water vapour in the mixture is too low for
equilibrium with the liquid which exerts the saturation pressure ps. As a result the
liquid evaporates into air, increasing the vapour pressure to ps1. The enthalpy of
vaporization is derived from liquid water itself as well as air. Accordingly, the state
of water drops to f1, its vapour pressure to ps1, and the state of leaving water vapour
(and also temperature of air) moves to 1.
The process is repeated until the equilibrium temperature t¢ is reached in the
wick, when the water in the wick is at f ¢ and the water vapour in the air after leaving
the bulb is saturated at g¢. The leaving temperature of air is also t ¢. At this equilibri-
um state, the enthalpy of vaporization is completely derived from air. Thus, we have
at this point the heat required to evaporate water to saturate air equal to the heat
surrendered by air.
ps
1
ps
pv
g
f
t g1 A
f1 1
f2 2
g Process in
f3 g3 2 Wet Bulb
t
g4 3 Thermometer
f4 4
t
td d
s
Fig. 14.6 Change of state of water vapour in air flowing over a
wet bulb thermometer
The vapour pressure of water pv¢ in air is now equal to the saturation pressure ps¢ at
the temperature t¢ of the wet bulb. There is only one possible equilibrium wet bulb
temperature t ¢ for the complete saturation of a given initial state A of the moist air.
The change of state of water vapour is from A to g¢.
The difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures is called wet bulb
depression (WBD).Thus
WBD = (t – t ¢)
If the ambient air is saturated, viz., the RH
is 100 per cent, then there will be no evapora-
tion of water on the bulb and hence WBT and
DBT will be equal. The wet bulb depression
will be zero. Thus WBT is an indirect measure
of the dryness of air.
The wet bulb temperature is essentially not a
thermodynamic property. It is the temperature Area A
Gas Film
of equilibrium reached by heat transfer from air
to water in the wick due to the temperature dif- Wet Wick
Initial
ference (t – t¢) causing the evaporation of water Air Final
Air
and the consequent diffusion of water vapour t
into air due to the partial pressure difference
(pv¢ – pv), where pv¢ is the saturation water
vapour pressure at temperature t¢. Referring Fig. 14.7 Flow of air over the wick-
to Fig. 14.7, this equilibrium condition can be covered bulb of a wet
expressed by the energy balance equation bulb thermometer
fg A (t – t ¢) = mv hfg¢ = kd A (pv¢ – pv) hfg¢ (14.38)

where fg = Heat-transfer coefficient of the air film around the wetted surface
A = Area of the wetted surface
mv = Rate of evaporation and diffusion of water vapour

kd = Mass transfer coefficient of water vapour through the film of air and
water vapour mixture
hfg¢ = Enthalpy of vaporization at the wet bulb temperature
Rearranging Eq. (14.38), we obtain for the wet bulb temperature
k
t¢ = t – d hfg¢ (pv¢ – pv) (14.39)
fg
As the specific humidity is solely a function of vapour pressure, the vapour
pressure difference in Eq. (14.39) can be replaced by the corresponding specific
humidity difference (w ¢ – w) and with suitable modification of the units, the mass-
transfer coefficient kd may be replaced by the mass transfer coefficient kw based on
the specific humidity difference so that the expression for the wet bulb temperature
becomes
k
t ¢ = t – w hfg¢ (w ¢ – w) (14.40)
fg
It is thus seen that the equilibrium wet bulb temperature depends on the heat and
mass-transfer coefficients fg and kw respectively and the initial state of air. Further,
the units of the mass-transfer coefficient kw can be obtained from Eq. (14.40) as
[t ] [ f g ] [K] [Js-1 m -2 K -1 ] kg
[kw] = = -1 -1
=
[h fg ] [w ] [J kg ] [kg kg ] s. m2
Comparing Eqs (14.39) and (14.40), we see that
( p¢ - pv )
kd (pv¢ – pv) = kw (w ¢ – w) = 0.622 kw v
pa
1 RT
Þ kw = pa k d = (ra kd) (14.41)
0.622 0.622
14.5 THERMODYNAMIC WET BULB TEMPERATURE OR

TEMPERATURE OF ADIABATIC SATURATION
For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which the air
becomes adiabatically saturated by the evaporation of water into air, at exactly the
same temperature t*. Figure 14.8 is a schematic representation of this process, called
the adiabatic saturation process. The leaving air is saturated at temperature t*. The
specific humidity is correspondingly increased to w*. The enthalpy is increased from
a given initial value h to the value h*. The weight of water added per kg of dry air is
w* – w which adds energy to the moist air of amount equal to (w* – w ) hf*, where hf*
is the specific enthalpy of the injected water at t*.
Therefore, since the process is strictly adiabatic, we have by energy balance
h + (w* – w) hf* = h* (14.42)
Now h = Cpa t + whv
and h* = Cp t* + w* hv*
a
where hv* = hf* + hfg* (saturated vapour)

Adiabatic
Enclosure
Outlet Air
Inlet Air
t t*
*
h h*
t*
hf Feed Water
= ( * – ) per kg of Dry Air

Fig. 14.8 Adiabatic saturator
and, hv can be expressed in terms of h*v , such that

hv = hv* + Cpv (t – t*) = hf* + hfg* + Cpv (t – t*)
Substituting these values in Eq. (14.42), we obtain
Cp t + w [hf* + hfg* + Cp (t – t*)]
a v
+ (w * – w) hf* = Cpa t* + w* [hf* + hfg*] (14.43)

Simplifying Eq. (14.43) we get
(Cpa + w Cpv ) t – (Cpa + w*Cpv) t* = hfg* (w* – w)
or Cp t – Cp* t* = hfg* (w* – w) (14.44)
Considering the humid specific heats Cp and Cp* as approximately the same, we
can simplify Eq. (14.44) to
Cp (t – t*) = hfg* (w* – w)
h *f g
whence t* = t – (w* – w) (14.45)
Cp
It can be seen from Eq. (14.45) that there is only one solution for t*, and it
depends only on t and w which are the thermodynamic properties representing the
initial state of air. Thus, the temperature of adiabatic saturation is a thermodynamic
property of moist air.
14.5.1 Difference between t¢ and t*

Let us compare the expressions for the wet bulb temperature t ¢ and the temperature
of adiabatic saturation t *, i.e.,
kw
t¢ = t – h¢fg (w ¢ – w)
fg
h*f g
t* = t – (w * – w)
Cp
It follows that if
kw 1
=
fg Cp
fg FG a IJ 2/3
or = Le = 1 =
kw C p H DK (14.46)
then t ¢ = t*, i.e., the two temperatures are equal. The dimensionless quantity fg/kw Cp
is called the Lewis number.5,6 Fortunately, for the air and water vapour mixture at
low pressures, this number is approximately equal to unity (Le = 0.945).
Thus by an entirely fortuitous circumstance, the measurable wet bulb temperature
is equal to the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. There is no theoretical basis,
however, to assume that the two temperatures are the same. For any other kind of gas
and vapour mixture these would not be the same. In a way, it is also somewhat
unfortunate that in the case of air and water vapour mixture, the two temperatures
are exactly the same and they are confused as meaning one for the other.
14.5.2 Measurement of Psychrometric Properties

It may be seen that there is no convenient way of measuring w, m or f. They are
properties which have to be calculated. The measurable properties are dry bulb, wet
bulb and dew point temperatures.
To define the complete thermodynamic state of the air and water vapour mixture,
one needs to know three properties. Usually, two of these are the total pressure (ba-
rometer pressure) and dry bulb temperature. The third measurable property is either
the dew point temperature or the wet bulb temperature.
The dew point temperature is measured by cooling a bulb in a stream of air until
the first dew appears on the bulb. The wet bulb temperature is measured by rotating
the wick-covered bulb of a thermometer at 160 to 660 rpm in air.
From the dew point temperature, the saturation pressure of water can be obtained
from the steam table which in turn is equal to the actual partial pressure of water
vapour in the air. It is generally difficult to accurately measure the dew point
temperature.
The wet bulb temperature is easily measured with the help of a psychrometer.
The wet bulb temperature, as stated earlier, is not a thermodynamic property. There-
fore, no analytical expression can be derived to relate WBT with pv or other thermo-
dynamic properties. Nevertheless, since WBT happens to be equal to the tempera-
ture of adiabatic saturation, it can be considered as a thermodynamic property. It is
thus an easily measurable property, and empirical relations exist to obtain the value
of pv in terms of t ¢. They are:
(i) Modified Apjohn equation
. p( t - t ¢)
18
pv = pv¢ – (14.47)
2700
(ii) Modified Ferrel equation
LM 18
. tOP
(iii) Carrier equation
N
pv = pv¢ – 0.00066p (t – t ¢) 1 +
1571 Q (14.48)
( p - pv¢ )( t - t ¢)(1.8)
pv = pv¢ – (14.49)
2800 - 1.3(1.8t + 32)
where all the temperatures are in °C, and pv¢ is the saturation pressure at the wet bulb
temperature t ¢. The pressures p, pv¢ and pv may be in any consistent units.
Example 14.4 Calculate, (i) relative humidity, (ii) humidity ratio, (iii) dew
point temperature, (iv) density and (v) enthalpy of atmospheric air when the
DBT is 35°C, WBT is 23°C and the barometer reads 750 mm Hg.
Solution (i) From the saturation properties of water, at a WBT of 23°C

pv¢ = 21.06 mm hg
Then from Eq. (14.49)
( p - pv¢ )(t - t ¢)(18
. )
pv = pv¢ –
2800 - 1.3(18 . t + 32)
(750 - 21.06)( 35 - 23)(1.8)
= 21.06 –
2800 - 1.3(18
. ´ 35 + 32)
= 21.06 – 5.88 = 15.18 mm Hg
From saturation properties of water, at a DBT of 35°C
ps = 42.4 mm Hg
Relative humidity
p 1518
.
f = v ´ 100 = ´ 100 = 36%
ps 42.2
(ii) Humidity ratio
pv 1518
.
w = 0.622 = 0.622 = 0.01285 kg w.v./kg d.a.
p - pv (750 - 1518
. )
(iii) Dew point temperature
td = 17.7°C (Saturation temperature at 15.18 mm Hg pressure)
(iv) Partial densities
pa (750 - 1518 . )(133.5)
ra = = = 1.1086 kg/m3
Ra T (287.1)( 273 + 35)
pv (15.18)(133.5)
rv = = = 0.0143 kg/m3
Rv T ( 461)( 273 + 35)
Density of moist air
r = ra + rv = 1.1086 + 0.0143 = 1.1229 kg/m3
(v) Enthalpy
h = 1.005t + w (2500 + 1.88t)
= 1.005(35) + 0.01285(2500 + 1.88 ´ 35) = 68.15 kJ/kg d.a.
14.6 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART7,9

All data essential for the complete thermodynamic and psychrometric analysis of
air-conditioning processes can be summarised in a psychrometric chart. At present,
many forms of psychrometric charts are in use. The chart which is most commonly
used is the w – t chart, i.e., a chart which has specific humidity or water vapour
pressure along the ordinate and the dry bulb temperature along the abscissa. The
chart is normally constructed for a standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or
1.01325 bar, corresponding to the pressure at the mean sea level. A typical layout of
this chart is shown in Fig. 14.9. The procedures for drawing various constant
property lines on this chart will now be described.
Temperature
Wet Bulb
Water Vapour Pressure, pv = f ( )

Specific Humidity,
Temperature
Vol
Dew Point
um
W
e
et
Bu
lb
Dew Point Moisture
Content
L ine
tion idity
S at ura
ive Hum
Relat
Dry-bulb Temperature, t
Fig. 14.9 Constant property lines on a psychrometric chart
14.6.1 Saturation Line

The saturation line represents the states of saturated air at different temperatures. As
an example of fixing such a state on the chart, consider an atmosphere A at 20°C and
saturation as shown in Fig. 14.10. From the steam tables at 20°C, water vapour
pressure
ps = pL = 17.54 mm Hg = 2342 N/m2
Partial pressure of dry air
pa = p – pL = 101325 – 2342 = 98983 N/m2
Specific humidity at 20°C saturation
0.622 pL 0.622( 2342 )
Ms = = = 0.01472 kg w.v./kg d.a.
pa 98983
Knowing t and M, point A can be plotted. In a similar manner, saturation states
at other temperatures can also be plotted to draw the saturation line on the
psychrometric chart.
=p
s
pv Saturated Air
At 20°C
t
, kg/kg
20°C Condition of s = 0.01472

Water Vapour at A
20°C Saturation
s 20°C t
(a) t-s Diagram of water (b) Psychrometric Chart
Fig. 14.10 Saturated air at 20°C
14.6.2 Relative Humidity Lines

Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual vapour pressure to the vapour pressure
which would exist in a saturated mixture at the temperature of the air. The saturation
line on the chart is, therefore, the line of 100 per cent RH since for all points on this
line pv = ps. The lines on this chart for any other desired value of RH can be con-
structed as follows.
Taking 50 per cent RH as an example, the point on the 20°C line corresponding to
this RH must be at the intersection C (Fig. 14.11) with the line representing a vapour
pressure of
pv = 0.5 ´ 2342 = 1171 N/m2
H
R
%
1 00
RH
%
, kg/kg
A 50
0.01472
C 0.00727
= 0, 0% RH
20°C t
Fig. 14.11 Drawing 50 per cent RH line
At this point
pa = 101325 – 1171 = 100154 N/m2
0.622(1171)
w= = 0.00727 kg w.v./kg d.a.
100154
Likewise, points for other temperatures can be plotted to construct the complete
50 per cent RH line. It may be noted that the w = 0 line also corresponds to zero per
cent RH.
14.6.3 Constant Specific Volume Lines

Consider a line corresponding to a specific volume of, say, 0.85 m3/kg d.a. as shown
in Fig. 14.12. One point on this line is A which is on the saturation curve. To locate
this point, the following trial and error procedure is to be followed:
(i) Assume t at A and find ps = pv.
(ii) Find pa.
(iii) Calculate v and check.
In this case, an assumed value of t = 20°C is taken initially at which
ps = pv = 2342 N/m2
pa = 101325 – 2342 = 98983 N/m2
287.3(273 + 20)
va = Ra T/pa = = 0.85 m3/kg d.a.
98983
A
0.01472
, kg/kg
v=0
B 0.00597
.85
20°C 25 C
t
Fig. 14.12 Drawing 0.85 m3/kg d.a. constant-volume line
It checks with the required value. If it does not agree with the required value, a
new value of t may be assumed. Now to plot point A, we calculate
0.622(2342)
w= = 0.01472 kg w.v./kg d.a.
98983
Thus point A can be plotted. Consider now another point B on this line at a DBT
of 25°C. For this point with the same specific volume
Ra T 287.3(273 + 25)
pa = = = 100724 N/m2
va 0.85
pv = 101325 – 100724 = 601 N/m2
0.622(601)
w= = 0.00597 kg w.v./kg d.a.
100724
Thus point B can also be plotted. Likewise, a number of other unsaturated states
can be plotted up to w = 0, to give the complete constant-volume line. It may be
noted that at any point on this line
v = va = w vv
14.6.4 Constant Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature Lines

Consider the energy balance equation (14.41) for the adiabatic saturation process, viz.,
h + (w* – w)hf* = h*
Rearranging, we have
h – w hf* = h* – w*hf* = const.
Now in Fig. 14.13, point A at 20°C DBT also has a WBT of 20°C. For any other
point on the 20°C constant WBT line, we must have
S = h – w hf* = h* – w* hf* = S* = const. (14.50)
where S is called the sigma heat function which is constant along the constant WBT
line. All states on this constant wet bulb temperature or constant sigma heat function
line have a combination of h and w which must satisfy Eq. (14.50). Now for point A
w* = 0.01472 kg w.v./kg d.a.
h* = (1.005 + 1.88 w*) t * + 2501 w*
= (1.005 + 1.88 ´ 0.01472)20 + 2500 (0.01472)
= 57.45 kJ/kg d.a.
hf* = 83.9 kJ/kg (at 20°C)

S* = h* – w* hf*
= 57.45 – 0.01472 (83.9)
= 57.45 – 1.24 = 56.21 kJ/kg d.a.
A * = 0.01472
20
, kg / kg
°C
WB
TL
ine
= 0.01072
B
t = t* = 20°C t = 30°C
t
Fig. 14.13 Drawing 20°C constant WBT line
Then for point B, say at 30°C

S = h – w hf* = S* = 56.21
Þ (1.005 + 1.88 w) 30 + 2501w – 83.9 w = 56.21
whence w = 0.01072 kJ/kg d.a.
and h = S + w hf* = 56.21 + 0.01072 (83.9) = 57.11 kJ/kg d.a.
Similarly, the points at the other dry bulb temperatures for a sigma heat function
of 56.21 kJ/kg d.a. can be plotted to enable the construction of the 20°C WBT line as
shown in Fig. 14.13.
14.6.5 Constant Enthalpy Lines

It may be observed from the preceding calculations that the difference of the
enthalpies at the saturation point A and another point B on the constant WBT line is
very small. This difference denoted by the symbol D is called enthalpy deviation
and is given by
D = h – h* = (w – w*) hf*
In spite of the small enthalpy deviation, separate lines of constant wet bulb tem-
perature and constant enthalpy can be shown on the psychrometric chart, if it is made
sufficiently large. Many psychrometric charts follow this practice. Another method
suggested by Palmatier and Wile8 uses constant wet bulb lines and also shows constant
enthalpy deviation lines as shown in Fig. 14.14. The enthalpy deviation at B is
D = h – h* = 57.11 – 57.45 = – 0.34 kJ/kg d.a.
Thus the enthalpy scale only gives the values of enthalpies h* for points on the
saturation line (Fig. 14.14). To find the enthalpy at any other point we go along the
constant WBT line, and determine the enthalpy by the expression
h = h* + D
a.
d.
g
/k
kJ
5
.4
57
=
h*
4
.3
–0
=
D
A w* = 0.01472
, kg / kg
B = 0.01072
0
0°C 20°C 30°C

t
Fig. 14.14 Enthalpy deviation line
14.6.6 Psychrometric Charts for Low and High Temperatures and High
Altitudes
The particular psychrometric chart given in the appendix is for the normal DBT
range of 0 to 50°C and a humidity ratio of 0 to 0.03 kg/kg of dry air. Psychrometric
charts are also prepared for subzero temperatures for extreme winter-heating calcu-
lations, and for high temperatures for calculations of drying processes. In a subzero
temperature chart, the water vapour pressure is that of sublimated vapour over ice
since 0.01°C is the triple point of water. Also, the latent heat used for enthalpy
calculations is that of sublimation instead of vaporization.
Psychrometric charts are to be specially constructed for localities at higher
altitudes and consequently lower barometric pressures. An idea of the variation of
barometric pressure with altitude is obtained from values given in Table 14.2.
Table 14.2 Barometric pressure with altitude
Height above MSL Barometric Pressure

m mm Hg
Seal level 760
760 693
1520 633
2280 577
14.7 APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW TO A PSYCHROMETRIC

PROCESS
The change of state of moist air is referred to as a psychrometric process. Such a

process may involve any one or a combination of the following processes.
(i) Cooling.
(ii) Heating.
(iii) Dehumidifying.
(iv) Humidifying.
By far, a combination of cooling and dehumidifying is mostly used in summer air
conditioning. On the contrary, winter air conditioning commonly involves heating
and humidifying of air.
For the analysis of equipment involving psychrometric processes, the first law in
the form of SSSF energy equation can be conveniently applied. For the purpose, the
specific volume, enthalpy, etc., of moist air are either calculated from fundamental
procedures as outlined in Example 14.5, or are obtained from the psychrometric
chart. The following example illustrates the calculation procedure.
Example 14.5 Cooling and Dehumidification of Moist Air

Moist air at standard atmospheric pressure is passed over a cooling coil. The
inlet and exit states are as follows:
Number State DBT B or RH

°C %
1 Inlet 30 50
2 Exit 15 80
Show the process on a psychrometric chart. Determine the amount of heat

and moisture removed per kg of dry air.
Solution Figure 14.15 shows the schematic diagram of the cooling coil, and
Fig. 14.16 shows the cooling and dehumidification process on a psychrometric chart.
Consider air around the cooling coil as forming the control volume in which moist
air enters at 1 and leaves at 2. The condensed moisture leaves at 3. Applying
continuity equation we have, by dry air and moisture balance
m& a1 = m& a 2 = m& a
m& w 3 = m& a (w 1 – w 2 )
Steady-state steady-flow (SSSF) energy equation:
Q& + m& a h1 = m& a h2 + m& w hw
3 3
Dividing the equation by m& a we get for 1 kg of dry air
q + h1 = h2 + (w 1 – w 2 ) hw3
q + ha1 + w 1 hv1 = ha2 + w 2 hv2 + (w 1 – w 2 ) hw3
Saturation pressures of water at 25°C and 15°C from steam tables are
p01 = (psat)30°C = 4.246 kPa, p02 = (psat)15°C = 1.7051 kPa
Partial pressures of water vapour in air at inlet and outlet
pv1 = f1 ps1 = 0.5 (4.246) = 2.123 kPa
pv2 = f2 ps2 = 0.8 (1.7051) = 1.3641 kPa
Vapour Liquid
Refrigerant Refrigerant
Out In
Cooling Coil
Fins
1
Moist 2
Moist
Air In Air Out
25 C 15 C
50% RH 90% RH
Condensed
Moisture At 8 C
3
Fig. 14.15 Cooling and dehumidification of air for Example 14.5
H
H
R
RH
R
%
%
50
0
10
90
pv
S
10°C 15°C 30°C

t
Fig. 14.16 Cooling and dehumidification process on psychrometric chart in
Example 14.5
Specific humidities
pv 1 2.123
w1 = 0.622 = 0.622 = 0.01331 kg w.v./kg d.a.
pa 1 101.325 - 2.123
pv 2 1.3641
w2 = 0.622 = 0.622 = 0.00849 kg w.v./kg d.a.
pa 2 101.325 - 1.3641
Specific enthalpies of water vapour and condensed moisture are:
hv1 = (hg )30°C = 2556.3 kJ/kg
hv2 = (hg )15°C = 2528.9 kJ/kg
hw3 = (hf )15°C = 63 kJ/kg
Substituting values in SSSF energy equation, we get

q = (ha2 – ha1) + w 2 hv2 – w 1 hv1 + (w 1 – w 2) hw3
= 1.005 (15 – 30) + 0.00849 (2528.9) – 0.01331 (2556.3)
+ (0.01331 – 0.00849) 63 = – 27.3 kJ/kg d.a.
References
1. Goff J A, ‘Standardisation of thermodynamic properties of moist air’, Trans.
ASHVE, Vol. 55, 1949, p. 463.
2. Haywood R W, Thermodynamic Tables in SI Units, Cambridge University
Press Cambridge, 1968.
3. Keenan J H, Thermodynamics, Chapter XIII, John Wiley, New York, 1941.
4. Keenan J H and F G Keys, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, John Wiley,
New York, 1936.
5. Lewis W K, ‘The evaporation of a liquid into a gas’, Trans. ASME, Vol. 44,
1922, p. 325.
6. Lewis W K, ‘The evaporation of a liquid into a gas—a correction’, Mechani-
cal Engineering, Vol. 55, Sept. 1933, p. 1567.
7. Palmatier E P, ‘Construction of the normal temperature ASHRAE psychro-
metric Chart’, ASHRAE J., Vol. 5, No. 5, May 1963, p. 55.
8. Palmatier E P and D D Wile, ‘A new psychrometric chart’, Refrigerating
Engineering, Vol. 52, No. 1, July, 1946, p. 31.
9. Raber B F and F W Hutchinson, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineering, John Wiley, New York, 1949.
10. Threlkeld J L, Thermal Environmental Engineering, Prentice-Hall, New
Jersey, 1962.
Revision Exercises
14.1 For a dry bulb temperature of 25°C and a relative humidity of 50 per cent,
calculate the following for air, when the barometric pressure is 740 mm Hg.
(a) Partial pressures of water vapour and dry air.
(b) Dew point temperature.
(c) Specific humidity.
(d) Specific volume.
(e) Enthalpy.
14.2 A sample of moist air has a dry bulb temperature of 43°C and a wet bulb
temperature of 29°C. Calculate the following without making use of the
psychrometric chart:
(a) Partial pressure of water vapour. (b) Specific humidity.
(c) Relative humidity. (d) Dew point temperature.
(e) Humid specific heat. (f) Enthalpy.
(g) Degree of saturation. (h) Sigma heat function.
14.3 A sample of air has dry and wet bulb temperatures of 35°C and 25°C respec-
tively. The barometric pressure is 760 mm Hg. Calculate:
(a) Humidity ratio, relative humidity and enthalpy of the sample.
(b) Humidity ratio, relative humidity and enthalpy, if the air were adiabati-
cally saturated. The use of steam tables only is permitted.
14.4 Investigate the effect of humidity on the density of moist air by computing the
vapour density for an air water vapour mixture at 26°C and relative humidi-
ties of 0, 50 and 100 per cent. Also, for each case, compare the values of the
degree of saturation to the values of relative humidity.
14.5 Air at a condition of 30°C dry bulb, 17°C wet bulb and a barometric pressure
of 1050 m bar enters an equipment where it undergoes a process of adiabatic
saturation, the air leaving with a moisture content of 5 g/kg higher than what
it was while entering. Calculate:
(i) Moisture content of air entering the equipment.
(ii) Dry bulb temperature and enthalpy of the air leaving the equipment.
14.6 (a) Moist air is at 25°C temperature. Its dew point is measured as 20°C. The
barometric pressure is 755 mm Hg. What are the values of specific and
relative humidities of the air?
(b) If this air is cooled to 15°C dry bulb temperature and 50% relative
humidity, what will be the amount of total heat removed per unit mass of
dry air? What will be the corresponding amount of moisture removed?
14.7 (a) The temperature of air entering an adiabatic saturator is 42°C, and the
leaving air temperature is 30°C. Compute the humidity ratio and relative
humidity of entering air.
(b) The conditions inside a room are 25°C and 50% degree of saturation.
The inside surface temperature of the glass window is 10°C. Will the
moisture condense from room air upon the window glass?
14.8 Using tables and applying first law of thermodynamics, estimate the heat
transfer rates in the following two cases:
(a) Heating of 1.2 m3/s of air at 15°C and 90% RH to 50°C without the
addition of moisture.
(b) Cooling of 1.5 m3/s of moist air at 30°C and 60% RH to 15°C and 80%
RH. The condensate leaves at 20°C.
#
Psychrometry of
Air-Conditioning Processes
This chapter presents the psychrometry of common air-conditioning processes

showing how the state of moist air is altered as the respective processes take place.
15.1 MIXING PROCESS
Let us consider the adiabatic mixing of different quantities of air in two different
states at constant pressure. Let subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two streams of air, and
let ma refer to the mass of dry air in the stream. Then by moisture balance, we have
for the specific humidity of the mixture
ma3 M3 = ma1 M1 + ma2 M 2
ma 1M 1 + ma 2 M 2
Þ M3 = (15.1)
ma 3
where by dry air mass balance,
ma3 = ma1 + ma2
is the mass of dry air in the mixture.
Also, by energy balance, we similarly get the expression for the enthalpy of the
mixture
ma 1 h 1 + ma 2 h 2
h3 = (15.2)
ma 3
Substituting expressions from Eq. (14.36) for the enthalpies in the above
equation, we have
ma 1 ma 2
(Cp t 3 + hfg0M3) = (Cp t1 + hfg 0 M 1) + (Cp t 2 + hfg0 M 2)
ma 3 ma 3
Simplifying, we get an expression for the temperature of the mixture
ma 1 t1 + ma 2 t 2
+
LM
h fg0 ma 1
M1 +
ma 2
M2 - M3
OP
t3 =
ma 3 Cp MN m
a3 ma 3 PQ
Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 475
The second term in the above expression being negligible, we can write
ma 1 t1 + ma 2 t 2
t3 » (15.3)
ma 3
The sign of approximation has been used since an assumption has been made that
the humid specific heat Cp is the same for all three streams.
Thus, if the psychrometric chart had been plotted on a M – h coordinate system,
the state point for the mixture would lie on the straight line joining the two states. On
the M – t coordinate system (Fig. 15.1) it is only approximately so. The position of
the mixture state is such that it divides the straight line joining states 1 and 2 in the
inverse ratio of the masses ma1 and ma2 of the two dry air streams.
h1
m h3
a 2
1 ma
h2 ma
1
ma 2
1
w
ma 3 w1
3 w3
ma1
w2
2
ma 2
t t3
Fig. 15.1(a) Adiabatic mixing of Fig. 15.1(b) Mixing process on psychrometric
air streams chart
Example 15.1 30 m3/min of a stream of moist air at 15°C DBT and 13°C
WBT are mixed with 12 m3/min of a second stream at 25°C DBT and 18°C WBT.
Barometric pressure is one standard atmosphere. Determine the dry bulb and
wet bulb temperatures of the resulting mixture.
Solution From the psychrometric chart:

For the first stream
t1 = 15°C, t1¢ = 13°C, L1 = 0.827 m3/kg d.a.,
M1 = 0.0084 kg w.v./kg d.a., h1 = 36.85 kJ/kg d.a.
For the second stream
t2 = 25°C, t¢2 = 18°C, L2 = 0.859 m3/kg d.a.,
M2 = 0.01 kg w.v./kg d.a., h2 = 51.1 kJ/kg d.a.
Dry air mass flow rates
30
m a1 = = 36.2 kg d.a./min
0.827
12
m a2 = = 13.9 kg d.a./min
0.859
For the mixture
ma3 = 36.2 + 13.9 = 50.1 kg d.a./min
36.2(0.0084) + 13.9(0.01)
M3 = = 0.00886 kg w.v./kg d.a.
50.01
36.2(36.85) + 13.9(511.)
h3 = = 40.8 kJ kg./d.a.
50.1
From the psychrometric chart for calculated values of M3 and h3
DBT of mixture, t3 = 17.5°C
WBT of mixture, t3¢ = 14.5°C
Example 15.2 A stream of moist air at 2°C dry bulb and 80 per cent relative
humidity mixes with another stream of moist air at 30°C dry bulb and 10°C dew
point in the-ratio by mass of one part of the first to two parts of the second.
Calculate the temperature and specific humidity of the air after mixing.
Solution For the first stream

M 1 = 0.0035 kg w.v./kg d.a.
h1 = 10.78 kJ/kg d.a.
Mass of dry air per unit mass of moist air
1 1
ma1 = kg = = 0.9955 kg
1 + M1 1.0035
For the second stream
M2 = 0.00765 kg w.v./kg d.a.
h2 = 49.67 kJ/kg d.a.
Mass of dry air per two-units mass of moist air
2 2
ma2 = kg = = 1.9848 kg
1 + M2 1.00765
For the mixture
0.9965(10 . 78) + 1.9848(49.67)
h= = 36.68 kJ/kg d.a.
0.9965 + 1.9848
0.9965(0.0035) + 1.9848(0.00765)
M= = 0.00627 kg w.v./kg d.a.
0.9965 + 1.9848
15.1.1 Mixing with Condensation

When a large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at a high
relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, as seen in
Fig. 15.2, and the mixture will then consist of saturated air and the condensate.
If the DBT of the mixture falls below 0°C, the condensate may eventually freeze.
It may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture M4,
will be reduced to below M3 given by Eq. (15.1), as shown in Fig. 15.2 (b). Corre-
spondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t4 from t3 due to the
release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if Mc represents the mass of the
condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
Mc = M 3 – M4
ma 1M 1 + ma 2 M 2
or M4 = – Mc (15.4)
ma 1 + ma 2
and ma4 h4 + ma4 Mc hf4 = ma4 h3
ma 1 h 1 + ma 2 h 2
or h4 = – Mc hf4 (15.5)
ma 1 + ma 2
where hf4 is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t4 of the mixture. The two
variables to be solved from Eqs (15.4) and (15.5) are t4 and Mc. By assuming differ-
ent values of t4 and substituting for M4, h4 and hf4, the two equations can be solved by
trial and error to obtain the final state after mixing.
1
w1
w
3 w3
1 w4
Adiabatic 4
4
Mixer
2 w2
2
wc t
Fig. 15.2(a) Adiabatic mixer with Fig. 15.2(b) Mixing process with
condensation condensation
Mixing with condensation rarely occurs in air-conditioning processes. However,

during winter it is a common phenomenon in nature for fog or frost to form. It is due
to the mixing of cold air near the earth’s surface with the humid and warm air which
develops towards the evening or after rains.
15.2 BASIC PROCESSES IN CONDITIONING OF AIR
Four basic thermodynamic processes and four combinations of processes by which

the state of moist air can be altered are shown in Fig. 15.3. They are:
(i) Sensible heating – process OA
(ii) Sensible cooling – process OB
(iii) Humidifying – process OC
(iv) Dehumidifying – process OD
(v) Heating and humidifying – process OE
(vi) Cooling and dehumidifying – process OF
(vii) Cooling and humidifying – process OG
(viii) Heating and dehumidifying – process OH.
E
G C
B A
H
F D
t
Fig. 15.3 Basic psychrometric processes
The first two processes, viz., sensible heating and cooling, involve only a change
in the dry bulb temperature, whereas the processes of humidifying and dehumidify-
ing involve a change in the specific humidity. Thus, when the state of the air moves
from O to A or to B, there is no change in the moisture content of the air; if the state
changes from O to C or to D, the DBT remains constant. However, most practical
moisture-transfer processes involve a change in temperature as well. The last four
fundamental processes listed above involve both changes in temperature as well as
in humidity.
We shall, now, consider calculations for processes involving changes in
temperature and humidity.
15.2.1 Sensible Heat Process-Heating or Cooling

hB
When the state of moist air is altered along
the M = constant line such as AB in hA
Fig. 15.4, the heat has to be transferred which
goes to change the temperature of the air. The
heat transfer, is given by
B
QS = ma (hB – hA ) A B
=
A
= ma Cp (tB – tA )
= ma Cpa (tB – tA ) + ma MCpv (tB – tA)
= ma (1.005 + 1.88 M) (tB – tA) (15.6) td tA tB
t
where Cp is the humid specific heat. This Fig. 15.4 Sensible heat process
heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the
sensible heat. If a building to be air conditioned receives or loses heat due to trans-
mission or other reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load. Heat gain in
buildings will require the conditioning of air to lower temperatures, causing a cool-
ing load on the air-conditioning equipment. However, heat loss in buildings will
require the heating of air causing a heating load on the equipment.
In Eq. (15.6), m& a denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of
air is measured in terms of cubic metres of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow
rate of dry air can be calculated from
m& a = Q& LH (15.7a)
where Q& L is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have
( cmm) H
m& a = kg d.a./s (15.7b)
60
For the purpose of calculations, standard air is taken at 20°C and 50 per cent RH.
The density of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m3 d.a. The value of humid
specific heat is taken as 1.0216 kJ/(kg d.a.) (K). Substituting these in Eq. (15.6),
we obtain
Q& S = (cmm)(1.2)(1.0216) D t
60
= 0.0204 (cmm) D t, kW (= 1.08 (cfm) D t Btu/h) (15.8)
In English units, D t is in °F.
It may be noted that, whereas, simple heating of moist air can be done to any
desired temperature, simple cooling can be done only up to the dew point tempera-
ture, viz., up to td in Fig. 15.4. Cooling below this temperature will result in the
condensation of moisture.
15.2.2 Latent Heat Process-Humidification or Dehumidification

When the state of air is altered along the hC
t = constant line, such as BC in Fig. 15.5,
moisture in the form of vapour has to be hB
C
transferred to change the humidity ratio of C
the air. This transfer of moisture is given by
G = ma (MC – MB) (15.9)
B
Because of this change in the humidity B
ratio, there is also a change in the specific
enthalpy of the air given by (hC – hB) as
t = tB = tC
shown in Fig. 15.5. In air-conditioning
t
practice, this change in enthalpy due to the
Fig. 15.5 Latent heat process
change in the humidity ratio is considered
to cause a latent-heat transfer given by
QL = ma (hC – hB) = ma (Cp tC + hfg0 MC ) – (Cp tB + hfg0 MB)
= ma hfg0 (MC – MB)
= Ghfg0 = 2500 G (15.10)
In the above derivation Cp has been taken as the same for both B and C. it is
evident that though the term latent heat appears to be a misnomer, the quantity QL is
proportional to the latent heat of vaporization hfg0. It implies that if water is to be
evaporated or condensed at the temperature of air, the required heat transfer would
be QL.
Accordingly, if a building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-
heat load. A gain of moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehu-
midification of air in the conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the
other hand, a loss of moisture will necessitate the evaporation of water for the
humidification of air in the apparatus and hence a heating load. Substituting 2500
for hfg0 in Eq. (15.10) and using the expression for m& a from Eq. (15.7b) we obtain
Q& L =
(cmm)(1.2)(2501)
DM
60
= 50 (cmm) DM, kW (= 0.68 (cfm) DM Btu/h) (15.11)
In English units, DM is in grains/Ibm d.a. Note that 7000 grains = 1 Ibm.
15.2.3 Total Heat Process

Consider now a change in the state of air along the path AC as shown in Fig. 15.6.
This involves both a change in temperature as well as in the humidity ratio. The
change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by
Q S = ma (hB – hA )
= ma Cp (tC – tA ) (15.12)
The change in the humidity ratio causes a moisture transfer given by
G = ma (MC – MA)
and a latent heat load given by
QL = ma (hC – hB)
= ma hfg0 (MC – MA) (15.13)
Adding Eqs (15.12) and (15.13) we obtain an expression for total heat load as
Q = QS + QL
= ma (hC – hA) (15.14a)
= ma [Cp (tC – tA) + hfg0 (MC – MA)] (15.14b)
Again, expressing the mass flow rate in cmm, we get
Q& = (cmm)(1.2) Dh
60
= 0.02 (cmm) Dh, (15.15a)
which is the same as
Q& = (cmm) (0.0204 D t + 50 DM), kW (15.15b)
15.2.4 Sensible Heat Factor (SHF)

The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is termed as the sensi-
ble heat factor. Thus
QS Q
SHF = = S
QS + QL Q
Substituting from Eqs (15.8) and (15.15), we obtain
hB - hA h - hA
SHF = = B
(hB - hA ) + (hC - hB ) hC - hA
0.0204 D t 0.0204D t
= = (15.16)
0.0204 D t + 50DM 0.02D h
It may be observed from Fig. 15.6 that point B divides the total enthalpy change
(hC – hA) in the ratio of SHF and 1 – SHF. The sensible heat transfer taking place
along AB is proportional to SHF and the latent heat transfer along BC is propor-
tional to 1 – SHF. The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or
process or condition line.
hC
F)
SH
h
hB –
(1
C
wC
F
SH
hA
w
q wA
A B
t
tA tC
t
Fig. 15.6 Total heat process
It is obvious that a sensible heat factor of unity corresponds to no latent heat

transfer and the SHF line is horizontal on the psychrometric chart. However, a zero
SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer.
An SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air-conditioning practice in a normal dry
climate. A lower value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent heat load, which is
quite common in a humid climate.
Simplifying Eq. (15.16), we have
1 1
SHF = = (15.17)
DM 1 + tan G
1 + 2451
Dt
DM
where tan G =
Dt
1 FG 1 - 1IJ
=
2451 H SHF K (15.18)
We see that G is the slope of the SHF line AC on the psychrometric chart, which
is purely a function of SHF.
Thus, when a process line is to be drawn on the psychrometric chart, the
following two things have to be known:
(i) Initial state of air
(ii) Sensible heat factor
The following are the ways in which the SHF line can be drawn on the
psychrometric chart with this data:
(i) In the first method, we can calculate tan G. Then move vertically a certain
distance DM from the initial state, and then horizontally a distance
Dt = (DM) (tan G)
Finally, join the point obtained to the initial state point. However, this method
is prone to grave error since DM is numerically small, and tan G tends to a
value close to zero. The method is given here only to illustrate the principle
involved. It is never used.
(ii) In the second method, move vertically a certain enthalpy change DhL. This is
proportional to the latent heat change. Then move horizontally equivalent to
the sensible heat change in terms of enthalpy given by
F SHF I
D hS = (D hL)
H 1 − SHF K
Again, join the final point to the initial point.
(iii) The third method uses a nomographic method with some charts in which a scale
is provided for SHF. There is also a reference point provided which is joined to
the appropriate SHF on the scale. Then a line from the initial state point can be
drawn parallel to the above line which will give the required SHF line.
(iv) The fourth and the best method is by calculation. In the case of cooling and
dehumidification of air, we have from Eq. (15.16)
0.0204(tC - tADP )
= SHF
0.0204(tC - tADP ) + 50(M C - M ADP )
where, t C, MC are the conditions at C, and t ADP is the apparatus dew point
temperature (see Chap. 19). It is the temperature at S where the SHF-line CA cuts
the saturation curve when extended. This equation can be solved by iteration. Once
tS = tADP is found, the point on saturation curve can be joined to the initial state point
C to give the SHF line. Or, in general, take any value of tD on the line and find MD by
iteration.
15.3 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES IN AIR-

CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Eight basic psychrometric processes are listed in Sec. 15.2. However, all of them
cannot be achieved in practice by the use of known air-conditioning equipment.
Even if a certain process can be carried out in a particular range, it may not be
possible to achieve it in the complete range. The limitations of practical
psychrometric processes and the types of equipment used for them are discussed
below. But we will discuss the concept of bypass factor first which is a vital para-
meter signifying the performance of air-conditioning equipment.
15.3.1 Bypass Factor

Figure 15.7 shows the process that the moist air undergoes while flowing over a
surface. The air enters at 1 and leaves at 2 when the surface is maintained at S. In the
transfer of heat and water vapour, in any conditioning process, the particles of air
stream come in contact with a surface. The state of the contacted air is that of satu-
rated air at the temperature of the surface. There is thus the equivalent of perfect
contact of a definite portion of the air particles with the surface or no contact or an
equivalent bypass of the remaining particles. The uncontacted air remains at the
entering state. The end state of the air is the same as that produced by the complex
mixing of contacted and uncontacted particles, viz., 2 as shown in Fig. 15.7.
h1
h2
1
w1
hS 2
S w2
wS
w
X (1 – X)
tS t2 t1
t
Fig. 15.7 Bypass factor and leaving air state
Thus one can define a bypass factor (BPF) of the apparatus representing the frac-
tion of “uncontacted” air in terms of the states 1, 2 and S, as
t - tS M - MS h - hS
X= 2 = 2 = 2
t1 - t S M1 - M S h1 - hS
Conversely, one can define a contact factor (1 – X) representing a fraction of
the contacted air. Thus the bypass factor can be defined in terms of temperature or
specific humidity or enthalpy of air. In the absence of any specific data, values from
all the three may be considered to be the same. It may be seen in Fig. 15.7 that the
resulting state 2 divides the line joining 1 to S in the ratio of X and 1 – X.
15.3.2 Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils and Apparatus Dew Point of Coil
Moist air can be made to flow over a battery of cooling coils which may be of the
direct-expansion type, or may carry chilled-water or brine as the secondary
refrigerant (Fig. 15.8).
Refrigerant Out
1 2
Air In Air Out
Refrigerant In
Rows of Cooling Coil

Fig. 15.8 Cooling and dehumidifying coil
Sensible or simple cooling of air takes place when it flows over dry cooling coil
whose surface temperature tS is lower than the dry bulb temperature of the air as
shown in Fig. 15.9. The air is cooled along the constant DPT line. The leaving air
state depends on the bypass factor of the coil. Thus in Fig. 15.9, the leaving air state
is 2 for a bypass factor of X. The bypass factor can be decreased and the leaving air
state can be made to approach the coil surface temperature by increasing the number
of rows in the coil thus improving the contact between air and surface. There is a
minimum limit to the coil temperature for simple cooling, viz., td which is equal to
the dew point temperatures of entering air.
Sprayed Coil
S 2
Dry Coil
2
1 w1 = w 2
w
X (1 – X)
td tS t2 t1
t
Fig. 15.9 Simple cooling, and sprayed coil processes
Figure 15.9 also shows a process along a broken line 1 – S, the leaving air state
being 2¢. Such a process would, however, occur if the coil were wet, say, it were
sprayed with water at temperature tS. It is seen that the cooling process is accompanied
with humidification. Such coils are used, often, in the air conditioning of textile mills.
There is no method by which one can obtain simple dehumidification of air.
Dehumidification processes are accompanied with either simultaneous cooling or
heating of air.
Dehumidification will take place along with cooling if moist air flows over a
cooling coil, whose mean surface temperature tS is below the dew point temperature
td of the entering air, as shown in Fig. 15.10.
This temperature tS of the cold surface is named apparatus dew point of the coil,
or simply as coil ADP. Between the air and the surface, both sensible and latent heat
transfers will take place. For sensible heat transfer, the driving potential is the tem-
perature differential (t – tS). For latent heat transfer, the driving potential is the par-
tial pressure difference (pL – pLS) or the corresponding specific humidity difference
(M – MS), where pLS is the partial pressure of water vapour in the air in the immediate
vicinity of the cold surface at temperature tS. The actual path followed in the process
will be a curve 1 – S depending on the heat and mass transfer coefficients. We shall
assume this path to be a straight line 1 – S. The leaving air state will then be at 2 as
a result of the bypass factor of the coil.
h1
td
Actual
h2 path 1
w1, pv1
hS
S 2 w2, pv2
w
wS, pvS
S Approximate Path
1-2-5 and SHF Line
Tangent
Limiting
SHF Line
tS tS t2 t1
t
Fig. 15.10 Cooling and dehumidification
There is, however, a limitation to the practical limit of this process. This limit is
up to the condition line 1 – S¢ in Fig. 15.10, where it becomes a tangent to the
saturation line. A sensible heat factor lower than that of the line 1 – S¢ cannot be
achieved in any conditioning process with the given entering air state at 1. Even for
the process 1 – S¢, a very low value of the cooling surface temperature tS¢ would be
required, resulting in a low coefficient of performance of the refrigeration unit. Such
a situation arises when the latent heat load is high and the SHF line is steep (very low
value of SHF).
Example 15.3 39.6 cmm of a mixture of recirculated room air and outdoor
air enter a cooling coil at 31°C DB and 18.5°C WB temperatures. The effective
surface temperature of the coil is 4.4°C. The surface area of the coil is such as
would give 12.5 kW of refrigeration with the given entering air state. Determine
the dry and wet bulb temperatures of the air leaving the coil and the coil bypass
factor.

At the apparatus dew point Ms= 5.25 g/kg d.a.
hS= 17.7 kJ/kg d.a.
State of entering air M1= 8.2 g/kg d.a.
L1= 0.872 m3/kg d.a.
h1= 52.5 kJ/kg d.a.
Q& 39.6
Mass flow rate of dry air m& a = L = = 44.41 kg d.a./min
L 0.872
Q& (12.5)( 60)
Cooling load per kg of dry air h1 – h2 = = = 16.89 kJ/kg d.a.
m& a 44.41
Enthalpy of air leaving the coil h2 = 52.5 – 16.89 = 35.61 kJ/kg d.a.
h1 - h2 M - M2
Equation for the condition line = 1
h1 - hS M1 - M S
52.5 - 35.61 8.2 - M 2
=
52.5 - 17.7 8.2 - 5.25
whence M 2 = 6.77 g w.v./kg d.a.
Dry and wet bulb temperatures of air leaving the coil for calculated values of h2,
M2 from psychrometric chart
t2 = 18.6°C
t2¢ = 12.5°C
h - hS 35.61 - 17.7
Coil bypass factor X= 2 = = 0.515 (very high)
h1 - hS 52.5 - 17.7
15.3.3 Heating Coils

Sensible or simple heating of air takes place
when it flows over a heating coil similar
to the cooling and dehumidifying coil of
Fig. 15.8, whose surface temperature tS is
1 2 1= 2
higher than the dry bulb temperature of air
(Fig. 15.11). There is no critical limit to the
coil temperature for sensible heating. The
heating medium flowing through the coil is
usually steam, or hot gases from a furnace.
t1 t2 tS
In general, three methods are commonly t
employed for winter heating of air. Fig. 15.11 Simple heating
(i) Hot water or steam coils
(ii) Direct-fired furnace gases coils
(iii) Finned electric strip heaters.
In hot water coils, boilers are run on light fuel oil. The boiler provides hot water
at about 92°C to the heating coils. The water returns to the boiler at about 70°C.
Furnaces are either oil-fired (at 75% efficiency) or gas-fired (at 80 – 85% efficiency)
15.3.4 Air Washer

Figure 15.12 shows the schematic representation of an air washer. It involves the
flow of air through a spray of water. During the course of flow, the air may be cooled
or heated, humidified or dehumidified, or simply adiabatically saturated, depending
on the mean surface temperature of water. The water is, accordingly, externally
cooled or heated or simply recirculated by a pump. Make-up water is added for any
loss in the case of humidification of air. Eliminator plates are provided to minimise
the loss of water droplets.
Air Out
Air In
Make-up
Water
Eliminator
Plates
Pump External Heater

or Cooler
Fig. 15.12 Air washer
Figure 15.13 shows the thermodynamic changes of state of air along paths 1-2 in
an air washer, depending on the mean surface temperature of water droplets tS which
is equal to the actual temperature of water tw.
Thus, the droplets of water act as wetted surface, and both sensible and latent heat
transfers take place. Their directions depend on the temperature and vapour pressure
potentials. The following processes are possible:
Process 1-2 A: Heating and humidification (tS > t1)
The mean surface temperature of water is greater than the dry bulb temperature of
air. The water is externally heated.
Process 1-2B: Humidification (tS = t1)
The mean surface temperature of water is equal to the dry bulb temperature of air.
The enthalpy of air increases. Hence the water is required to be externally heated.
Process 1-2C: Cooling and humidification (t1¢ < tS < t1)
The mean surface temperature of water is less than the dry bulb temperature of air
but greater than the wet bulb temperature of air. Though the air is cooled, its enthalpy
increases as a result of humidification. The water is, therefore, required to be exter-
nally heated.
Process 1-2D: Adiabatic saturation (t1¢ = tS)
This is the case of pumped recirculation of water without any external heating or
cooling as discussed in Sec. 14.5. The recirculated water reaches the equilibrium
temperatures which is equal to the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of air.
Process 1-2E: Cooling and humidification (td < t S < t1¢)
The process is similar to 1-2C with the difference that the enthalpy of air
decreases in this case. Accordingly, water is required to be externally cooled.
S
2B
2C
S 2A
2D
S 2E
S 2F w1
w
1
2G
S
td t1 t1
t
Fig. 15.13 Range of psychrometric processes with an air washer
Process 1-2F: Cooling (tS = td)

The temperature of water is equal to the dew point temperature of air. Water is
required to be cooled.
Process 1-2G: Cooling and dehumidification (tS < td)
The mean water surface temperature is lower than the dew point temperature of
air. Air is simultaneously cooled and dehumidified. The process is exactly similar to
that of a cooling and dehumidifying coil. Again, the limiting process is along the
condition line tangent to the saturation line drawn from initial state 1.
It is thus seen that the air washer affords means for an year-round air-condition-
ing system.
Consider the energy balance of an air washer, the mass balance of which is shown
in Fig. 15.14. Let m& a and m& w be the mass flow rates of dry air and water respec-
tively. The energy balance gives
m& a (h2 – h1) = m& w Cpw tw3 – [ m& w – m& a (M2 – M1)] Cpw tw4
or m& a (h2 – h1) = m& w Cpw (tw3 – tw4) + m& a (M2 – M1) Cpw tw4
Neglecting the effect of the temperature of water in the last term, we obtain by
combining it with the left-hand side term
m& a eå 2
- å1j = m& w Cp w
(tw3 – tw4) (15.19a)
Thus for any section of the air washer
m& a dS = – m& w Cpw dtw (15.19b)
For the case of the adiabatic saturation process, dS = 0.
Hence dtw = 0 and tw3 = tw4.
Water, mw
1
2
Air In, ma
Air Out, ma
[mw – ma ( 2 – 1)]
Fig. 15.14 Mass balance of an air washer
Thus we can make the following conclusions:

(i) If the spray water is heated external to the washer, the WBT of air increases.
(ii) If the spray water is cooled external to the washer, the WBT of air decreases.
(iii) If the spray water is neither heated nor cooled external to washer, the WBT of
air is not changed. It is an adiabatic saturation process.
We define the humidifying efficiency of an air washer as
h - h1 M - M1
DH = 2 = 2
hS - h 1 MS - M1
It can be seen that the bypass factor X can be expressed as
M - M2 M - M1
X= S =1– 2 = 1 – DH
M S - M1 M S - M1
Thus the humidifying efficiency is the same as the contact factor.
15.3.5 Use of Hygroscopic Solutions in Air Washer

Hygroscopic solutions, such as brines, glycols, etc., exert lower vapour pressures as
compared to pure water at the same temperature as shown in Fig. 15.15. The satura-
tion curve A on the psychrometric chart represents the vapour pressure of water pLA.
Representative vapour-pressure curves for certain hygroscopic solutions are shown
as B, C, D, E., etc. The vapour pressures pLB, pLC, etc., of the solutions are lower than
the vapour pressure pLA of water at the same temperature t.
Now, if a hygroscopic solution such as C at temperature t is circulated in an air
washer instead of water at the same temperature, the condition line will be 1-C
instead of 1-A for the initial state 1 of air. Thus, a spray of the hygroscopic solution
is more effective for dehumidification. The solution after absorbing moisture,
however, becomes dilute and has to be regenerated again by heating and driving off
the water vapour.
A
B
C D
1
A pvA
C pvC
tS t
Fig. 15.15 Dehumidification of air by hygroscopic solutions
15.3.6 Adiabatic Dehumidifier

Adiabatic dehumidification is based on the principle of adsorption, viz., capillary
action. The vapour which is condensed at the surface of the adsorbent is drawn into
capillaries, thereby reducing the vapour pressure at the surface causing a pressure
gradient, and hence a mass transfer from the passing air stream to the absorbing
surface. As the capillaries get filled with water, the attraction decreases and the rate
of dehumidification falls off.
Thermodynamically, an adsorption
process is the reverse of the adiabatic
saturation process as shown in Fig. 15.16. Adsorption
1 Dehumidification
As the air passes over the adsorbing sur-
face, water vapour flows to the surface
through the air film, condenses and 2 w
Constant
releases its latent heat which raises the WBT Line
adsorbent and air temperatures. Thus the
heat of condensation supplies the sensible
heat for the heating of air. t
Fig. 15.16 Adsorption dehumidification
In actual practice, however, the proc-
process
ess is accompanied with a release of an
additional heat called the heat of adsorption. This heat, with adsorbents, such as
silica gel and activated alumina, is very large. Thus the sensible heat gain of air
exceeds the loss of latent heat and the process line 1-2 lies above the constant WBT
line, as shown in Fig. 15.16.
It is to be noted that after adsorption, the material becomes saturated and has to
be reactivated by heating as in the case of hygroscopic solutions.
15.3.7 Water Injection

Let liquid water at temperature tf be injected and sprayed into a flowing air stream
with the help of nozzles. The condition of the air will change depending on the
amount of water that evaporates. The enthalpy of vaporization will come from the
enthalpy of the air.
Let us consider that the amount of water that has been evaporated mL is
exactly equal to the amount injected. The process line is as shown in Fig. 15.17. The
air flow rate is ma. The mass and enthalpy balances give
m
M2 = M1 + L (15.20)
ma
m
h 2 = h1 + L hf
ma
= h1 + (M 2 – M1)hf (15.21)
where hf is the enthalpy of liquid water. It is evident from Eq. (15.21) that if water is
injected at the wet bulb temperature of the air, the sigma heat function is constant,
and the process follows the constant WBT line 1-2b. Otherwise, the process follows
line 1-2a or 1-2c, depending on whether the temperature of water is lower or higher
than the WBT of air. Nevertheless since the term (M 2 – M 1) ht is extremely small
compared to h1 and h2, lines 1-2a and 1-2c are very close to line 1-2b, irrespective of
the temperature of the injected water.
Co
ns
tan
tW
BT
2b 2c
w
2a
1
w1
t 1¢ t1
t
Fig. 15.17 Process with liquid water injection
Note In recent years, this method of evaporative cooling has gained popularity specially
in places where there is shortage of water since it eliminates at least 2-3% water loss which
occurs in air washer equipment. Also, it provides for individual control of supply condi-
tions for different spaces. And the equipment is simple and economical.
15.3.8 Steam Injection

Steam is normally injected into fresh outdoor air which is then supplied for the con-
ditioning of textile mills where high humidities have to be maintained. The process
can be analysed by considering mass and energy balances. If mL is the mass of steam
supplied with enthalpy hL and ma the mass of dry air, then the leaving air state is
given by
m
M 2 = M1 + L (15.22)
ma
m
h 2 = h1 + L hL (15.23)
ma
h2
2
w2
h1 Steam
Injection
w
w1
1
t1 t2
t
Fig. 15.18 Process with steam injection
The process is shown in Fig. 15.18. The dry bulb temperature of air changes very
little during the process.
Note The reference state for zero enthalpy for h1, h 2 and hv must be the same.
Example 15.4 Moist air enters a chamber at 5°C DBT and 2.5°C thermodynamic
WBT at a rate of 90 cmm. The barometric pressure is 1.01325 bar. While passing
through the chamber, the air absorbs sensible heat at the rate of 40.7 kW and
picks up 40 kg/h of saturated steam at 110°C. Determine the dry and wet bulb
temperatures of the leaving air.
Solution This is a case of simple heating and humidification of air by the addition
of steam as shown in Fig. 15.19. The air mass flow rate is
(cmm)60 90 ´ 60
m& a = = = 6820 kg d.a./h
L 0.792
Steam
1 Q 3
2
ma ma
Fig. 15.19 (a) System for Example 15.4

3
h1 = 13.82 w3
t1 = 2.5
Adding
Steam
w
Simple Heating 2
1 w1 = w2
v1
= = 0.0036
0.
79
2
t1 = 5 t2
t
Fig. 15.19 (b) Psychrometric processes for Example 15.4
where 0.792 m3/kg d.a. is the specific volumes of the entering air.
By moisture balance
m& a (M 3 – M 1) = 40
40 40
M3 = M1 + = 0.0036 +
m& a 6820
= 0.00947 kg w.v./kg d.a.
By energy balance
m& a (h3 – h1) = (40.7) (3600) + 40 hL
where hL = 2691.3 kJ/kg is the enthalpy of saturated steam at 110°C.
Thus
1
h3 = 13.82 + [146,540 + 40 (2691.3)] = 51.1 kJ/kg d.a.
6820
From psychrometric chart, at 3
DBT = 26.5°C
WBT = 18.1°C
15.4 SIMPLE AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM AND

STATE AND MASS RATE OF SUPPLY AIR
The problem of air-conditioning a space essentially reduces to the calculation of the

state and mass rate of air to be supplied to the space-necessary to pick up its sensible
and latent heat loads. For the simplest air-conditioning system, consider a space
which is to be maintained at the room or inside conditions of, say, dry bulb tempera-
ture ti and humidity ratio Mi.
Let QS represent the sensible heat gain and G, the moisture gain of the room from
internal and external sources. In the usual nomenclature we may denote the room
sensible heat and the room latent heat as RSH and RLH respectively. Thus the room
total heat, viz., RTH is
RTH = RSH + RLH
In the case of the air-conditioning apparatus, the return or recirculated air from
the room is conditioned to a supply dry bulb temperature of ts and a humidity ratio of
Ms. Air is then supplied to the space by a supply air fan. The schematic diagram of
the whole system is shown in Fig. 15.20. Assuming steady-state conditions and the
supply air flow rate as (cmm)s, we have the following two equations by sensible and
latent heat balances.
Return or Recirculated QS
Air at ti , wi Room at
t i , wi
G
Air-conditioing
Apparatus
Supply Air
Fan
Supply Air at ts, ws
Fig. 15.20 Simple air-conditioning system
Sensible Heat Balance

RSH = Q& S = m& a Cp (ti – ts )
= 0.0204 (cmm)s (ti – t s) (15.24)
Moisture or Latent Heat Balance
RLH = Q& L = m& a (hfg)0 (M i – M s )
= 2500G = 50 (cmm)s (M i – M s ) (15.25)
We thus have only two equations and three independent variables, viz. ts, M s and
(cmm)s, to solve. Hence one of the three variables is to be known in advance or fixed
from experience. Generally, it is either the supply air flow rate or the supply air
temperature. The other two parameters can then be calculated.
Thus, we find that there will be one supply air state corresponding to each supply
air rate. An innumerable number of such combinations are possible. But for all these
states we have from Eqs (15.24) and (15.25)
0.0204(ti - t s ) QS
= (15.26)
0.0204(ti - t s ) + 50(M i - M s ) QS + QL
which is the same as Eq. (15.16) for the SHF line. Thus all the supply air states lie on
a line, the slope of which is governed by Eq. (15.26). The locus of these states is the
sensible heat factor or the condition line drawn from the room state. Figure 15.22
shows a number of such supply air states, s1, s2, L, etc., in a summer air-condition-
ing plant, that satisfy the governing equations.
A similar treatment is possible for a winter air-conditioning system. The following
example gives an illustration of the calculation procedure for an industrial problem in
which an adsorption type of dehumidifier is used.
Example 15.5 A room for process work is maintained at 20°C DBT and 25%
RH. The outside air is at 40°C DB and 25°C WB temperatures. Twelve cmm of
fresh air is mixed with a part of recirculated air and passed over the adsorption
dehumidifier. It is then mixed with another part of recirculated air and is sensi-
bly cooled in a cooler before being supplied to the room at 14°C.
The room sensible and latent heat gains are 6 and 0.8 kW respectively. Calcu-
late the volume flow rate of the air entering the dehumidifier and the amount of
heat removed in the cooler. The performance of the adsorbent material is as
follows:
Entering 2.86 4.29 5.7 7.15 8.57 10.0 11.43 12.86 14.29
moisture
content,
g/kg d.a.
Leaving 0.43 0.57 1.0 1.57 2.15 2.86 3.57 4.57 5.23
moisture
content,
g/kg d.a.
The heat of adsorption may be taken as 390 kJ/kg of the moisture adsorbed.
Solution The schematic arrangement of the plant is shown in Fig. 15.21 (a) and
its processes in Fig. 15.21(b).
i
Room
(mai )1 (mai )2
i i ma s
Dehumidifier Cooler
0 1 2 3 s
m a0 m a1
Fig. 15.21(a) System for Example 15.5
Supply air rate

Q& S 6
m& as = = = 0.979 kg d.a./s
C p ( ti - t s ) (1.0216)( 20 - 14)
Latent heat balance gives the value of Ms which is the same as M 3.
m& a (M i – M s ) 2500 = Q& L
s
Q& L
whence Ms = M 1 –
mas ( 2500)
0.8
= 0.00365 – = 0.0033 kg w.v./kg d.a.
(0.979)(2500)
40
15.5
0
27.5
w, g/kg d.a.
1 8.1
i
3.65
s 3.0
3
2
1.96
14 20 34.9 44.9
t, °C
Fig. 15.21(b) Psychrometric processes for Example 15.5
Q&L 12
Fresh air m& a0 = = = 0.22 kg d.a./s
L0 (60)(0.91)
Total recirculated air
m& ai = m& as – m& a0 = 0.979 – 0.22 = 0.759 kg d.a./s
Of this (mai )1 is added before the dehumidifier, and (mai)2 after the dehumidifier.
Mixing before the dehumidifier
ma0 M0 + (mai ), M i = [ma0 + (ma i )1] M1
0.22 (15.5) + (mai )1 (3.65) = [0.22 + (ma1)1] M1
0.22M 1 - 3.41
Þ (mai)1 = (I)
3.65 - M 1
Mixing after the dehumidifier
(m& a1) Mi + m& a2 M2 = m& as Ms
& ai )1] M2 = 0.759 (3.3)
[0.759 – (m& ai )1] (3.65) + [0.22 + ( m
FG 0.22M + 0.195IJ
( m& ai)1 =
H 3.65 - M K
2
or (II)
2
Equating (I) and (II), we have
0.22M 1 - 3.41 0.22M 2 + 0.195
= (III)
3.65 - M 1 3.65 - M 2
The relationship between the entering moisture content M1 and the leaving
moisture content M 2 is given in terms of the performance data. Solving Eq. (III)
simultaneously or graphically with the tabulated data, we get
M1 = 8.1 g w.v./kg d.a.
M2 = 1.96 g w.v./kg d.a.
From Eq. (I)

0.22(8.1) - 3.41
( m& ai )1 = = 0.366 kg d.a./s
3.65 - 8.1
and ( m& ai )2 = mai – (mai)1 = 0.759 – 0.366 = 0.393 kg d.a./s
Dry air flow through the dehumidifer
m& a1 = mas – (ma1)2 = 0.979 – 0.393 = 0.586 kg d.a./s
Heat liberated due to the condensation of moisture
FG IJ
8.1 - 1.96
Q& cond = m& a (M1 – M2)hfg = 0.586
1 H K
1000
(2500) = 9.0 kW
Heat of adsorption
FG IJ
Q& ads = m& a (M1 – M2) (390) = 0.586 8.1 - 1.96 (390) = 1.5 kW
1 H K
1000
Temperature rise of air in the dehumidifier
Q& 9 + 1.4
t2 – t1 = = = 17.4°C
m& a C p (0.586)(1.0216)
Temperature of air entering the dehumidifier
( m& a1 ) 1 ti + m& a0 t0 (0.366)(20) + 0.22(40)
t1 = = = 27.5°C
m& a 0.586
Temperature of air leaving the dehumidifier
t2 = t1 + 17.4°C = 27.5 + 17.4 = 44.9°C
Specific volume of air through the dehumidifier from the psychrometric chart
L1 = 0.86 m3/kg d.a.
Volume flow rate of air through the dehumidifier
Q&L = m& a L = (0.586) (0.86) (60) = 30.2 cmm
1 1
Temperature after mixing after the dehumidifier
m& a t 2 + (m& ai ) 2 ti 0.586(44.9) + 0.393(20)
t3 = 1 = = 34.9°C
m& as 0.979
From the psychrometric chart
h3 = 44.6 kJ/kg d.a.
hs = 22.4 kJ/kg d.a.
Heat removed in the cooler
Q& = m& (h – h ) = 0 .979 (44.6 – 22.4) = 21.7 kW
as 3 s
15.5 SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING-APPARATUS DEW POINT
In summer, the outside air temperature and humidity are both high. The room, there-
fore, gains heat as well as moisture. It is thus required to cool and dehumidify the
recirculated room air in the air-conditioning apparatus either by the use of a cooling
coil or by an air washer in which chilled water is sprayed. The process follows the
room sensible heat factor (RSHF) line. The room sensible heat factor is the ratio of
the room sensible heat to the room total heat
RSH RSH
RSHF = =
RSH + RLH RTH
In a cooling and dehumidification process, the temperature at which the RSHF or
condition line intersects the saturation curve is called the room apparatus dew point
(Room ADP). Thus tADP in Fig. 15.22 denotes the effective surface temperature tS.
The condition line i-S represents the locus of all possible supply air states. One
extremity of the condition line is i which would be the supply air state with an infi-
nite quantity of supply air. The other extremity is S which is the supply state with the
minimum supply air requirement corresponding to the given condition line. It is not
possible to have any other supply air state with a DBT lower or higher than the ADP
on the saturation curve which would satisfy the given condition line.
h
i
i
h
s s3
h s2 wi
AD
ws
w
P s1
ws2 3
S s ws
wADP 1
X (1 – X )
tS = tADP ts ts1 ts2 ts3

t
Fig. 15.22 Locus of supply air states for cooling and apparatus dew point
The minimum quantity of supply air will then be given by either of the following
three equations:
RSH
(cmm)s, min = (15.27a)
0.0204(ti - tADP )
RLH
= (15.27b)
50(M i - M ADP )
RTH
= (15.27c)
0.02(hi - hADP )
In the case of an actual coil with a bypass factor of X, the leaving air state will be
at s. It is seen that the effect of the bypass factor is to decrease the difference in
temperature between the room air and supply air, and hence to increase the supply
air quantity over its minimum value.
For any supply air state, the temperature difference (ti – ts) available to
counteract the room sensible heat load is called the dehumidified rise and the corre-
sponding dehumidified air quantity (cmm)d which is equal to the quantity of the
supply air, is obtained by the equation for sensible heat balance, and considering the
effect of bypass factor
RSH RSH
(cmm)d = (cmm)s = = (15.28)
0.0204 (ti - t s ) 0.0204(ti - t ADP )(1 - X )
It can also be found from the equations of latent heat or total heat balances.
15.5.1 Summer Air-Conditioning System with Ventilation Air-Zero

Bypass Factor
The introduction of fresh outside air for the ventilation of conditioned space is nec-
essary to dilute the carbon dioxide and odours and other air contaminants for main-
taining the purity of room air. Accordingly, the simple air-conditioning system of
Fig. 15.20 is modified, so that the supply air to the room comprises fresh air and
recirculated room air. An amount equivalent to the fresh air is ejected from the room.
The schematic diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 15.23, and the processes for
the cases of cooling and dehumidification are shown in Fig. 15.24.
ma 0 QS
cmm0 Room
QL
mai cmmi
ma 0
cmm0
1 2 s
Fan ma s
Cooling and cmms
Dehumidifying
Apparatus
Fig. 15.23 Schematic diagram of system with ventilation air
In Fig. 15.24, 0 and i represent the outside and inside air states and 1 is the state
of air after the mixing of recirculated room air with ventilation air. The mixture
entering the conditioning apparatus comprises recirculated room air mai and venti-
lation air ma0. The room sensible heat factor (RSHF) line is drawn from the inside
condition i to intersect the saturation curve at room ADP at 2. Point 2 represents the
supply air state for a minimum rate of supply air. The line 1-2, therefore, represents
the condition line for the apparatus and is called the grand sensible heat factor
(GSHF) line. It is noted that the line i-2 is the condition line for the room or the
RSHF line and line 1-2 is the condition line for the apparatus or the GSHF line
intersecting the saturation curve at coil apparatus dew point (Coil ADP). Note that,
in this case, the coil ADP and the room ADP are the same.
In the absence of ventilation air the load on the air-conditioning apparatus is that
due to the room sensible heat and room latent heat. When ventilation air is used,
there is an additional load on the apparatus named the ventilation load equivalent to
the change of state of the ventilation air from the outside condition to inside condi-
tion. This becomes evident when we write for the total load on the air-conditioning
apparatus in terms of the change of state of the mixture air m& as from 1 to 2. Thus
0
S : Surface at ADP
2 : Leaving air
s : Supply air GSHF Line
1
i
w
S, s, 2
RSHF Line
tADP ti t0
t
Fig. 15.24 Summer air-conditioning processes with ventilation air and
zero bypass factor
Q& = m
& as (h1 – h2) = ( m& ai hi + m& a0 h0) – m& as h2
= ( m& as – m& a0) hi + m& a0 h0 – m& as h2
= m& as (hi – h2) + m& a0 (h0 – hi) (15.29)
The first term on the right-hand side in Eq. (15.29) represents the room load and
the second term, the load due to the ventilation air as explained earlier. Accordingly,
if (cmm)0 is the outside ventilation air volume flow rate, then the outside air sensible
heat (OASH) and outside air latent heat (OALH) loads are
OASH = Q& S0 = 0.0204 (cmm)0 (t0 – ti) (15.30)
OALH = Q& L0 = 50 (cmm)0 (M0 – Mi) (15.31)
Also for the outside air total heat (OATH), we have
OATH = Q& 0 = OASH + OALH = 0.02 (cmm)0 (h0 – hi) (15.32)
Note These equations apply to winter air conditioning as well.
The break-up of the load on the air conditioning apparatus is now as follows:
Room Load
Sensible RSH
Latent RLH
Total RTH = RSH + RLH
Ventilation Load
Sensible OASH
Latent OALH
Total OATH = OASH + OALH
Air-conditioning Equipment Load
Total sensible TSH = RSH + OASH
Total latent TLH = RLH + OALH
Grand total GTH = TSH + TLH
In Fig. 15.24, the process line 1-2 represents the grand sensible heat factor line
for the process in an air-conditioning apparatus. The grand sensible heat factor is the
ratio of the total sensible heat to the grand total heat. Thus
TSH TSH
GSHF = =
TSH + TLH GTH
Example 15.6 The air-handling unit of an air-conditioning plant supplies a

total of 4500 cmm of dry air which comprises by weight 20 per cent fresh air at
40°C DBT and 27°C WBT, and 80 per cent recirculated air at 25°C DBT and 50
per cent RH. The air leaves the cooling coil at 13°C saturated state. Calculate
the total cooling load, and room heat gain.
Solution Refer to Fig. 15.24. From the psychrometric chart the following condi-
tions are noted:
Condition DBT WBT RH Sp. Hu. Enthalpy

°C °C % g w.v./kg d.a. kJ/kg d.a.
Outside 40 27 17.2 85
Inside 25 50 10.0 50.8
ADP 13 100 9.4 37.0
Condition of air entering the cooling coil

M1 = 0.2 (17.2) + 0.8 (10) = 11.44 g w.v./kg d.a.
h1 = 0.2 (85) + 0.8 (50.8) = 57.64 kJ/kg d.a.
t1 = 0.2 (40) + 0.8 (25) = 28°C
Specific volume of air entering the cooling coil
L1 = 0.869 m3/kg d.a.
Mass flow rate of air entering the cooling coil
4500
m& a1 = = 86.31 kg d.a./s
(60)(0.869)
Total cooling load
Q& = m
& a1 (h1 – h2) = 86.31 (57.64 – 37) = 1781.4 kW
Fresh air load Q& 0 = m& a0 (h0 – hi) = 0.2 (86.31) (85 – 50.8) = 590.4 kW
Room heat gain
RTH = Q& – Q& 0 = 1781.4 – 590.4 = 1191 kW
Note A point to be noted here is that the fresh air load is a significant part of the cooling
load. In the present case, it is 33 per cent. In some applications such as operation theatres
in hospitals where 100 per cent fresh air is taken, it is of overriding importance. In cinema
halls and theatres also, the predominant load is due to occupancy and fresh air. In such
cases, the peak load occurs when the outside wet bulb temperature is maximum. This
usually occurs between 2 and 5 p.m.
Example 15.7 An air-conditioned space is maintained at 27°C DBT and

50 per cent RH. The ambient conditions are 40°C DBT and 27°C WBT. The
space has a sensible heat gain of 14 kW. Air is supplied to the space at 7°C
saturated.
Calculate:
(i) Mass of moist air supplied to the space in kg/h.
(ii) Latent heat gain of space in kW.
(iii) Cooling load of the air washer in kW if 30 per cent of the air supplied to the
space is fresh, the remainder being recirculated.
Solution Refer to Fig. 15.24. From the psychrometric chart.
Condition DBT WBT RH Sp. Hu. Enthalpy

°C °C % g w.v./kg d.a. kJ/kg d.a.
Outside 40 27 — 17.2 85
Inside 27 — 50 11.2 56.1
Supply 7 — 100 6.2 23.0
(i) Mass of dry air supplied to space

Q& S 14( 3600)
m& a = = = 2467 kg d.a./h
Cp Dt 1.0216( 27.7)
Ratio of moist air to dry air in supply air = (1 + M2) = 1.0062
Mass of moist air supplied to space
m& = (1 + M2) m& a = 1.0062 (2467) = 2482 kg/h
(ii) Latent heat gain of space
2467 (11.2 - 6.2 )
Q& L = m& a (M1 – M2) hfg = (2500) = 8.57 kW
0 ( 3600)(1000)
(iii) For point 1
t1 = 0.7 (27) + 0.3 (40) = 30.9°C
On the line joining o to i, locate point 1 at 30.9°C. Then, from the psychro-
metric chart
h1 = 64.9 kJ/kg d.a.
Cooling load of the air washer
Q& = m& a (h1 – h2) = 2467 (64.9 – 23.0) = 28.71 kW
3600
15.5.2 Summer Air-conditioning System with Ventilation Air-Bypass

Factor X
In the case when the bypass factor of cooling and dehumidifying apparatus is not
zero, it is evident from Fig. 15.24 that if the surface temperature is tS, viz., equal to
room ADP, the leaving air state 2 will not be at S; it will be on the line joining 1 to S.
Hence the supply air state will not lie on the room sensible heat factor line which is
essential to satisfy the room sensible and latent heat load requirements. In such a
case, which usually occurs in actual practice, it will be necessary to lower the appa-
ratus dew point, i.e., the effective surface temperature of the air-conditioning appa-
ratus, as shown in Fig. 15.25, in such a way that the leaving air state 2 lies on the
RSHF line i-S, and also the new surface temperature t¢S or coil ADP is such that the
following condition for the bypass factor X is satisfied
t 2 - t S¢ M - MS h - hS¢
X= = 2 = 2
t1 - t S¢ M 1 - M ¢S h1 - hS¢
GSHF Line 1
ts = tADProom
w
S s i
2 RSHF Line
S
X (1 – X )
tS = tADPcoil t
Fig. 15.25 Summer air-conditioning processes with ventilation air and
finite bypass factor
It will be seen that the effect of the bypass factor is to lower the ADP of the
surface, and hence to decrease the coefficient of performance of the refrigerating
machine. It is also seen that the position of the grand sensible heat factor line is
changed. This is explained in greater detail in Sec. 19.7. The supply air temperature
ts is now increased to the leaving air temperature t2. Further, the dehumidified rise
now is ti – t2. The dehumidified air quantity may be calculated accordingly, which
will be found to be more than that of the apparatus with a zero bypass factor. The
recirculated air quantity can then be calculated by the difference of the dehumidified
(supply) air and ventilation air quantities. Since ventilation air quantity is fixed
according to requirement, this leads to a variation in the recirculated air quantity.
The greater the BPF, the more the recirculated air quantity. As a result, point 1 after
mixing, shifts closer towards i.
Example 15.8 A building has the following calculated cooling loads:

RSH gain = 310 kW
RLH gain = 100 kW
The space is maintained at the following conditions:
Room DBT = 25°C
Room RH = 50%
Outdoor air is at 28°C and 50% RH. And 10% by mass of air supplied to the
building is outdoor air. If the air supplied to the space is not to be at a tempera-
ture lower than 18°C, find:
(a) Minimum amount of air supplied to space in m3/s.

(b) Volume flow rates of return (recirculated room) air, exhaust air, and out-
door air.
(c) State and volume flow rate of air entering the cooling coil.
(d) Capacity, ADP, BPF and SHF of the cooling coil.
Solution Refer to Fig. 15.25. Room SHF is 0.756.

Draw room SHF line. Its intersection with t = 18°C vertical gives supply air state
point s which is the same as coil leaving air state point 2. From psychrometric chart
hi = 50.5 kJ/ kg d.a., h2 = hs = 41.2 kJ/kg d.a.,
Ls = 0.836 m3/kg d.a.
h0 = 92.0 kJ/kg d.a.
(a) Supply air quantity and volume flow rate (minimum)
RTH 410
m& as = = = 44.09 kg/s
hi - hs 50.5 - 41.2
Q& L = m& a Ls = (44.09) (0.836) = 36.86 m3/s
s s
(b) Quantity and volume flow rate of outdoor/exhaust air
m& a0 = 0.1 m& as = 0.1 (44.09) = 4.41 kg/s
Q& = m& L = 4.41 (0.91) = 4.01 m3/s.
L0 a0 0
Quantity and volume flow rate of return air
m& ai = m& as – m& a0 = 44.09 – 4.41 = 39.68 kg/s
Q& = m& L = 39.68 (0.86) = 34.05 m3/s
Li ai i
Here, L0 = 0.91 and Li = 0.86 m3/kg d.a. are the specific volumes of outdoor
and indoor air respectively.
(c) State of air entering cooling coil
t1 = 0.9 ti + 0.1 t0 = 0.9 (25) + 0.1 (38) = 26.3°C
t ¢1 = 19.2°C at 26.3°C DBT on the line joining i to o.
Þ L1 = 0.865 from psychrometric chart
h1 = 54.6 kJ/kg d.a.
Volume flow rate of air entering the cooling coil
Q& L1 = m& as L1 = 44.09 (0.865) = 38.14 m3/s
(d) Refrigerating capacity of the coil
Q& coil = GTH = m& as (h1 – h2) = 44.09 (54.6 – 41.2) = 591 kW
Coil ADP is obtained by the intersection of the line joining 1 to 2 with the satura-
tion curve. Thus
tADP = 9°C
BPF and SHF of the coil
t 2 - t ADP 18 - 9 = 0.52
BPF = =
t1 - t ADP 26.3 - 9
TSH m& as C p (t1 - t 2 ) 44.09(1.0216)(25 - 18)
GSHF = = = = 0.533
GTH 591 591
Note Room SHF of 0.756 is normal. But GSHF of 0.533 is very low. This is due to high
OALH; because of the outside air being very humid and hot, M0 = 21 g/kg d.a. and
h0 = 92.0 kJ/kg d.a. Low GSHF and high BPF of the coil chosen, viz., 0.52 has resulted in
low ADP of 9°C. This would result in low evaporator temperature and high power con-
sumption of the refrigerating machine. It would be better to choose a coil of low BPF. That
would require a higher coil ADP and evaporator temperature, and hence would give better
performance. But, then the supply air temperature would be lower than 18°C, and quan-
tity of supply air would be reduced.
Example 15.9 The conditioning plant of a room consists of a fresh air intake,
a cooling coil-followed by a mixing chamber for the cooled fresh air and
recirculated room air, and a supply fan as shown in Fig. 15.26. The cooling coil
handles all fresh air and has a BPF of 0.1. (See also Sec. 23.7).
The ratio of fresh air to recirculated air is determined by modulating
dampers. The other data is as follows:
Inside conditions : DBT = 24°C, RH = 50%
Outside conditions : DBT = 30°C, WBT = 23.3°C
Heat gains : RSH = 14.7 kW, RLH = 3 kW
Supply air quantity : 191 cmm
Neglecting temperature changes in the fan and duct, determine:
(i) DBT and moisture content of supply air.
(ii) Mass flow rate of moist air supplied to room.
(iii) DBT and moisture content of air leaving cooling coil.
(iv) Load on the cooling coil.
i
Room
Recirculated s
Room Air i
Fresh Air
0 2 s
Mixing
Cooling Coil Chamber
(Modulating Damper)
Fig. 15.26 Conditioning plant for Example 15.9
Solution (iii) The processes are shown in Fig. 15.27.

14.7 14.7
RSHF = = = 0.831
14.7 + 3 17.7
This is the slope of line i–s–2. However, it is not possible to fix points s and 2 at
this stage. But, we know that
Line 2 - S
BPF = = 0.1
Line 0 - S
h0
=6
9.8
o
hi =
48
.8
w
s i
2
S A
ts DBT
Fig. 15.27 Processes in Example 15.9
Accordingly, point 2 can be fixed by trial and error on the RSHF line. However,
the following construction is simpler and more accurate. Draw line o–i and extend it
to A such that:
Line i - A
= 0.1
Line o - A
And then draw AS parallel to RSHF line i – s. Intersection with saturation curve
gives coil ADP of 11.1°C at S. Join 0 – S. It cuts i–s extended at 2. Thus, we get
condition of air leaving coil as:
t2 = 12.2°C, M2 = 8.5 g/kg d.a., h2 = 33.8 kJ/kg d.a.
(i) DBT and moisture content of supply air
Q&Ls 191/ 60
m& as = =
Ls Ls
191/ 60
RTH = m& as (hi – hs) = (48.8 – hs) = 17.7
Ls
This equation can be solved by trial and error. Thus, point s can be located on
RSHF line. It is found that:
Ls = 0.856 m3/kg d.a., ts = 20°C,
hs = 43.8 kJ/kg d.a., Ms = 9.1 g/kg d.a.
(ii) Mass flow rate of moist air supplied to room
191/ 60
m& s = (1 + 0.0091) = 3.753 kg/s
0.856
(iv) Fresh air through coil
m& a2 t2 + ( m& as – m& a2) ti = m& as t1
FG 191 - m& IJ (24) = 191 (20)
m& a2 (12.2) +
H 0.856 K a2
0.856
Þ m& a2 = 76.1 kg/min = 1.268 kg/s = m& a0
Load on cooling coil

GTH = m& a2 (h0 – h2) = 1.268 (69.8 – 33.8) = 45.7 kW
Example 5.10 Given for a conditioned space:

Room sensible heat gain = 20 kW
Room latent heat gain = 5 kW
Inside design conditions: 25°C DBT, 50% RH
Bypass factor of the cooling coil = 0.1
The return air from the space is mixed with the outside air before entering the
cooling coil in the ratio of 4 : 1 by weight. Determine:
(i) Apparatus dew point.
(ii) Condition of air leaving cooling coil.
(iii) Dehumidified air quantity.
(iv) Ventilation air mass and volume flow rates.
(v) Total refrigeration load on the air conditioning plant.
Solution Refer to Fig. 15.25. From the psychrometric chart

Condition DBT WBT RH Sp. Hu, Enthalpy Sp. Vol.
°C °C % g w.v./kg d.a. kJ/kg d.a. m3/kg d.a.
Outside 43 27.5 17.0 87.5 0.922
Inside 25 50 10.0 50.8
Condition of air entering the cooling coil

M1 = 0.8 Mi + 0.2 M0 = 0.8 (10) + 0.2 (17) = 11.4 g w.v./d.a.
h1 = 0.8 (50.8) + 0.2 (87.5) = 58.1 kJ/kg d.a.
t1 = 0.8 (25) + 0.2 (43) = 28.6°C
(i) and (ii). Both parts have to be worked out together. There are two methods.
One method is to draw the RSHF line and then draw a line from 1 to S on the satura-
tion curve so that (S – 2)/(1 – 2) are in the ratio of 1 : 9. Another method is to do the
same thing using calculations as given below.
Ratio of room sensible and latent heats
RSH 0.0204(25 - t2 ) 20
= = (I)
RLH 50 (0.01 - M 2 ) 5
Relations for bypass factor
t 2 - t ADP t - t ADP
= 2 = 0.1 (II)
t1 - tADP 28.6 - t ADP
M 2 - M ADP M 2 - M ADP
= = 0.1 (III)
M 1 - M ADP 0.0114 - M ADP
Solving Eqs (I), (II) and (III) by iteration for tADP, t2 and M2, we obtain
tADP = 11.8°C (Corresponding MADP = 8.6 g w.v./kg d.a.)
t2 = 13.5°C
M2 = 0.0089 kg w.v./kg d.a.
(iii) Dehumidified air quantity

RSH 20
(cmm)d = = = 85.25
0.0204(ti - t 2 ) 0.0204(25 - 13.5)
(iv) Specific volume of supply air
L2 = 0.822 m3/kg d.a.
Mass flow rate of supply air
(cmm)d 85.25
m& a s = = = 1.729 kg d.a./s
(60)L2 (60)( 0.822)
Mass flow rate of fresh air
m& a0 = 0.2 m& a s = 0.2 (1.729) = 0.346 kg d.a./s
Volume flow rate of fresh air
QL0 = m& a0 L0 (60) = (0.346) (0.922) (60) = 19.12 cmm
(v) Outside air total heat
OATH = m & a0 (hi – h0) = 0.346 (87.5 – 50.8) = 12.7 kW
Total refrigeration load on the air conditioning plant
GTH = RTH + OATH = (20 + 5) + 12.7 = 37.7 kW
15.6 WINTER AIR CONDITIONING
In winter, the building sensible heat losses are partially compensated by the solar
heat gains and the internal heat gains such as those from occupancy, lighting, etc.
Similarly, the latent heat loss due to low outside air humidity is more or less offset
by the latent heat gains from occupancy. Thus in winter, the heating load is likely to
be less than the cooling load in summer. However, the actual situation both in sum-
mer and winter depends on the swing of the outside temperature and humidity with
respect to the inside conditions.
Further, certain sensible heat gains (negative loads) such as the solar heat may not
be present at the time of peak load, and hence they are not counted. On the other
hand, latent heat gains from occupancy, etc., are always present and should be taken
into account. As a result, the design heating load for winter air conditioning is pre-
dominantly sensible.
In general, the processes in the conditioning apparatus for winter air conditioning
for comfort involve heating and humidifying. Two of the typical process combina-
tions are:
(i) Preheating the air with steam or hot water in a coil followed by adiabatic
saturation and reheat.
(ii) Heating and humidifying air in an air washer with pumped recirculation and
external heating of water followed by reheat.
The processes for the two systems are shown in Fig. 15.28. The first system with
preheating and adiabatic saturation follows processes 1-2 and 2-3 respectively. The
second system replaces the two processes with heated water spray in the air washer
and the process line is 1-3. The leaving air state 3 from the air washer may be
affected by its saturation efficiency. The reheating process 3-s is common to both.
The supply air states should lie on the room sensible heat factor line. It is, therefore,
determined by the RSHF and by the choice of supply air rate which is usually known
from summer air-conditioning calculations.
Reheating
3 s
Ad
iab
ati e
cS RSHF Lin
atu i
rat
w
ion
1
2
Preheating
Air Washer Process with

0 External Heating of Water
t
Fig. 15.28 Winter air-conditioning processes
Example 15.11 In an industrial application for winter air conditioning, an

air washer is used with heated water spray followed by a reheater. The room
sensible heat factor may be taken as unity. The design conditions are:
Outside: 0°C DBT and dry
Inside: 22°C DBT and 50% RH
Room heat loss : 703 kW
The following quantities are known from the summer design.
Ventilation air 1600 cmm
Supply air 2800 cmm
Spray water quantity 500 kg/min
The air washer saturation efficiency is 90 per cent. The make-up water is
available at 20°C. Calculate:
(i) The supply air condition to space.
(ii) The entering and leaving air conditions at the spray chamber.
(iii) The entering and leaving spray water temperatures.
(iv) The heat added to the spray water.
(v) The reheat, if necessary.

(i) Supply air temperature
RSH 703
ts = + ti = + 22 = 34.2°C
0.0204(cmm) s 0.0204(2800)
A RSHF = 1 line from the room condition i can be drawn as shown in Fig. 15.29.
Intersection with the 34.2°C DBT line locates the supply air state. The supply air
WBT is found to be 19.6°C, and its specific humidity Ms to be 0.0082 kg/kg d.a.
t s = 19.6°C tw1 = 34°C
w, g / kg d.a.
t 2 = 11.5 °C = tw2
t 1 = 4.8°C tS =
23 50% RH
kJ
0.8
11.8°C
18
/k
8
.2
g S
m
kJ
3 /k
8.73
/k
RSHF = 1
gd
8.2
g
2 i s
.a.
t 2 = 11.6 °C
3.4
0 1
0.0
9.43 22 34.2
t, °C
(ii) Entering air conditions (calculated from the volume flow rates).
(cmm) 0 t0 + (cmm)i ti
t1 =
(cmm)i
(1600)( 0) + (2800 - 1600)(22)
= = 9.43°C
2800
(1600)(0) + 1200(0.0082)
Similarly, M1 = = 0.0035 kg w.v./kg d.a.
2800
Wet bulb temperature of entering air (from the psychrometric chart)
t¢1 = 4.8°C
Specific humidity of leaving air
M2 = Ms = Mi = 0.0082 kg w.v./kg d.a.
Expression for saturation or humidifying efficiency
M - M1
DH = 2
M S - M1
0.0083 - 0.035
0.9 =
M S - 0.0035
which gives the specific humidity at the wetted-surface temperature tS as
MS = 0.00873 kg w.v./kg d.a.
From the psychrometric chart
tS = 11.8°C
Dry bulb temperature of leaving air
t2 = DH (tS – t1) + t1 = 0.9 (11.8 – 9.43) + 9.43 = 11.6°C
Wet bulb temperature of leaving air (from the psychrometric chart)

t¢2 = 11.5°C
(iii) The temperature of the leaving spray water and the wet bulb temperature of the
leaving air may be taken to be the same. Hence, the leaving spray water temperature
tw2 = 11.5°C.
Energy balance of the air washer
(cmm) s
(h2 – h1) = m & w Cpw (tw1 – tw2)
Ls
2800
(33.0 – 18.2) = (500) (4.187) (tw1 – 11.5)
0.88
Þ tw1 = 34°C
(iv) Make-up water
(cmm) s 2800
D m& w = (M2 – M1) = (0.0082 – 0.0035) = 14.95 kg/min
Ls 0.88
Heat added to make-up water
14.95
Q&1 = (4.187) (34 – 20) = 14.61 kW
60
Heat added to raise temperature of spray water
Q& 2 =
500
(4.187) (34 – 11.5) = 785.1 kW
60
Heat added to spray water
Q& = Q&1 + Q& 2 = 14.61 + 785.1 = 799.71 kW
(v) Reheat = 0.0204 (cmm)s (ts – t2) = 0.0204 (2800) (34.2 – 11.6) = 1290.9 kW
Revision Exercises
15.1 250 kg/h of air saturated at 2°C is mixed with 50 kg/h of air at 35°C and 80
per cent RH. Determine the final state of air.
15.2 Air at 20°C DBT and 19°C DPT enters a heating and humidifying apparatus,
from which it leaves at 35°C DBT and 28°C DPT. Moisture is supplied as
liquid water at 25°C to humidify the air. Find the quantity of heat that must
be added per kg of dry air through the apparatus.
15.3 500 kg of air is supplied per minute to an auditorium maintained at 21°C and
40 per cent RH. The outside air at 5°C DBT and 60 per cent RH is first
passed over heating coils and is heated until its WBT is equal to the room
WBT. It is then passed through an adiabatic saturator and is finally heated to
45°C before being supplied to the room. Determine:
(i) The heat added in both the heating coils.
(ii) The mass of water evaporated in the air washer.
15.4 Given:
Room conditions: 26°C DBT, 19°C WBT
Outside conditions: 35°C DBT, 27°C WBT
Room heat gains:

Sensible heat = 11.1 kW
Latent heat = 3.9 kW.
The conditioned air supplied to the room is 50 cmm and contains 25 per cent
fresh air and 75 per cent recirculated room air. Determine:
(a) The DBT and WBT of supply air.
(b) The DBT and WBT of mixed fresh and recirculated air before the cool-
ing coil.
(c) The apparatus dew point and bypass factor of the coil.
(d) The refrigeration load on the cooling coil and the moisture removed by
the coil.
15.5 In an auditorium which is to be maintained at a temperature not exceeding
24°C, and a relative humidity not exceeding 60%, a sensible heat load of
132 kW and 84 kg/h of moisture has to be removed. Air is supplied to the
auditorium at 15°C.
(a) How many kg of air per hour must be supplied?
(b) What is the dew point temperature of supply air and what is its relative
humidity?
(c) How much latent heat is picked up in the auditorium?
(d) What is the sensible heat factor?
(e) What is the ADP of the coil, and what is its BPF?
15.6 An air conditioned space is maintained at 25°C DBT and 50% RH. The out-
side conditions are 40°C DB and 25°C WB. The space has a sensible heat gain
of 24.5 kW. Conditioned air is supplied to the space as saturated air at 10°C.
The equipment consists of an air washer. The air entering the air washer com-
prises 25% outside air, the remainder being recirculated room air.
Calculate:
(i) Volume flow rate of air supplied to space.
(ii) Latent heat gain of space.
(iii) Cooling load of air washer.
15.7 Given for the air conditioning of a room
Room conditions: 26.5°C DBT and 50 per cent RH
Room sensible heat gain = 26.3 kW
Room sensible heat factor = 0.82
Find:
(i) The room latent heat gain.
(ii) The apparatus dew point.
(iii) The cmm of air if it is supplied to the room at the apparatus dew point.
(iv) The cmm and specific humidity of air if it is supplied to the room at
17°C.
15.8 (a) 28.5 cmm of room air at 25.5°C DBT and 50 per cent RH is mixed with
28.5 cmm of outside air at 38°C DBT and 27°C WBT. Find the ventila-
tion load and the condition of air after mixing.
(b) The above mixture of air is passed through an air conditioning equip-
ment. If the wet bulb temperature of air after the equipment is 14.5°C,
determine the heat removed by the equipment.
15.9 An air washer cools and dehumidifies 18,200 kg of dry air per hour from
41°C DBT and 24°C WBT. Chilled water enters the washer at 7°C with a
flow of 18,500 kg per hour. The washer is 88 per cent effective. What is the
heat removed from the air in kW?
15.10 Saturated steam at standard atmospheric pressure is injected into a passing
air stream in an amount sufficient to raise the absolute humidity from 0.0057
to 0.0143 kg w.v./kg d.a. If the air enters the humidifier at 21°C DBT, deter-
mine its leaving state.
15.11 300 cmm of outside air at 5°C and 60 per cent RH are heated and humidified
to maintain room conditions at 21°C and 40 per cent RH. Devise a suitable
system for the air conditioning and find the kW of various heaters and the
moisture added. The supply air temperature is 45°C and the room sensible
heat factor is 0.75.
15.12 Moist air at 31°C dry bulb, 22°C wet bulb and 1013.25 mbar barometric
pressure flows over a cooler coil and leaves it at a state of 10°C dry bulb and
7.95 g w.v./kg d.a.
(a) If the air is required to offset a sensible heat gain of 2.5 kW and a latent
heat gain of 0.35 kW in a room being air-conditioned, calculate the
mass of dry air which must be supplied to the room in order to maintain
a dry-bulb temperature of 23.5°C inside.
(b) What will be the relative humidity in the room?
(c) If the sensible heat gain is diminished by 1.75 kW but the latent heat
gain remains unchanged, at what temperature and moisture content must
the air be supplied to the room?
15.13 A summer air conditioning plant mixes 70 cmm of outside air at 35°C DB
and 23°C WB with 210 cmm of return air at 24°C DB and 50% RH. The
mixture passes over a cooling coil. Air off the coil is 90% RH. The room
SHF is 0.7.
(i) Find the ADP, and air off the coil dew point and dry bulb temperatures.
(ii) How much cooling in kW is the unit doing?
(iii) How much of the total load is sensible, and how much is latent?
15.14 A conditioned room with partial recirculation of room air is to be maintained
at 24°C DB, 17°C WB. The local outside environment conditions are 35°C
DB, 26°C WB. The sensible heat load is 48 kW. The latent heat load from
occupants and infiltration, but excluding ventilation, is 57 kW. Based on the
occupancy, 36 cmm of ventilation air is required. Find:
(a) the temperature of air entering the room,
(b) the volume of air passing through the room,
(c) the state of air entering the conditioner,
(d) the required ADP, and
(e) the system BPF.
$
Design Conditions
When one refers to design conditions, it is implied that these pertain to the room or
inside, and the ambient meaning outside conditions. Before proceeding with the de-
sign, the inside and outside design conditions have to be specified. Also, in most
cases, the supply air design conditions have to be fixed as well.
16.1 CHOICE OF INSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS
The inside design conditions depend on the particular air-conditioning application.

Among the many applications of air conditioning, the important ones can be identi-
fied as:
(i) Cold storage.
(ii) Industrial air conditioning.
(iii) Comfort air conditioning.
16.1.1 Cold Storage

Though cold storage is understood to be merely an application of refrigeration, it is
in fact a complete air-conditioning system in which room air is cooled to much lower
temperature over a cooling coil and supplied back to the storage space. The condi-
tions maintained inside the storage space depend on the nature of the product stored.
It is to be noted that in cold storages, often, strict control of both temperature and
relative humidity is required. Also, the storage life depends a great deal on the tem-
perature at which a product is stored. The required storage conditions for a number
of important food products are given in Table 16.1. It is seen that in the case of
bananas, there is no storage period. Instead, there is a period of ripening. Bananas
cannot be stored after they have ripened. The best temperature for slow ripening is
14.5°C. Further, in the case of milk, the storage temperature is 0.5°C, whereas its
highest freezing temperature is – 0.6°C. Thus, air is to be maintained within a close
tolerance of 0°C so that milk does not freeze. The same is also true for the pasteuri-
zation process. Hence, it is necessary to use automatic-expansion valves in milk-
chilling and storage plants so as to have constant temperature in the evaporator. The
ice-bank type water chillers are also used which permit the use of a refrigeration
Table 16.1 Storage conditions and properties of food products
Product Temperature Relative Approximate Water Highest Sp. Heat Sp. Heat
°C Humidity Storage Life Content % Freezing Above Below
% Point Freezing Freezing
°C kJ/kg.K kJ/kg.K
Apples –1 to 0 85–90 84.1 –1.5 3.643 1.884
Bananas 14.5 95 For ripening in 8–10 days 74.8 –0.8 3.35 1.76
Butter 0 to 4.4 80–85 2 months 15.5–16.5 — 1.382 —
–18 to –23 80–85 1 year 15.5–16.5 — — —
Milk, Pasteurized 0.5 — 7 days 87 –0.6 3.77 1.93
Eggs –1.5 to –0.5 80–85 6–9 months 66 –2.2 3.06 1.68
Fish, fresh 0.5 to 1.5 90–96 5–15 days 62–85 –2.2 2.93–3.6 —
frozen –23.5 to –18 90–95 8–10 months 62–85 — — 1.59–1.884
Grapes –0.5 85–90 3–8 weeks (American) 81.9 –1.3 3.6 1.842
— — 3–6 months (European) 81.6 –2.2 3.6 1.842
Beef, fresh 0 to 1 88–92 1–6 weeks 62–77 –2.2 2.93–3.52 —
frozen –23.5 to –18 90–95 9–12 months 62–77 — — 1.59–1.8
Mangoes 10 85–90 2–3 weeks 81.4 –0.9 3.56 1.842
Potatoes, late crop 3 to 4.5 85–90 5–8 months 77.8 –0.6 3.433 1.8
Tomatoes, green 14 to 21 85-90 2–4 weeks 94.7 –0.6 3.98 2.01
ripe 7 to 10 85-90 2–7 days 94.1 –0.5 3.98 2.01
Design Conditions 515
system having a considerably less capacity, and to supply chilled water at a constant
16.1.2 Industrial Air Conditioning

There are various categories of applications requiring varying standards of inside
design conditions. One category comprises those where constancy of temperature is
the prime consideration, such as metrology laboratories, precision-machine shops,
computer centres, etc. In these a variation of ±10 to 20 per cent in relative humidity
will not have much effect. The other category may comprise paper and textile mills
where the relative humidity is to be maintained constant at a high value, e.g., of the
order of, say, 70 to 75 per cent in a textile mill. The temperature requirements of
such spaces are not severe. There is still another category of applications where
strict control of both temperature and relative humidity is required. These pertain to
chemical and biological process industries.
16.1.3 Comfort Air Conditioning and Effective Temperature

Extensive tests have been conducted on the effects of temperature, humidity and air
velocity. The results are not in complete agreement. Also, there is the problem of
measuring comfort in terms of a single parameter which could include all three
parameters governing comfort, namely, air temperature, humidity and air velocity in
addition to air purity. Often, a single parameter called the effect temperature is used
as an index of comfort.
Effective temperature (ET) is defined as that temperature of saturated air (100%
RH) at which the subject would experience the same feeling of comfort as experi-
enced in the actual unsaturated environment.
Correspondingly, another effective temperature ET* can also be defined as the
temperature at 50% RH at which the subject would experience exactly same feeling
of comfort as at ET at 100% RH, and as experienced in the actual environment.
Because ET and ET* depend on activity and clothing, it is not possible to gener-
ate a universal ET chart. Figure 16.1, however, shows pairs of constant ET lines (a)
for activity with 180 W/m2 of body surface heat generation, standard clothing, and
air velocity < 0.2 m/s, and (b) with 3 times heat generation, and with clothing just
half of (a). Figure 16.1 shows, for example, a line of ET = 22°C or ET* = 25°C for
activity and clothing as in (b).
At lower humidities, the DBTs of air can be higher for the same ET and for the
same feeling of comfort. Thus at a higher DBT, the body would lose more heat in the
form of latent heat, i.e., by the evaporation of perspiration. An increase in temperature
can also be compensated by an increase in velocity. For example, an increase of 2 to
3°C in DBT can be compensated by increasing the air velocity from 0.1 to 0.3 m/s.
Note that ET or ET* combine temperature and humidity into a single index.
Accordingly, two environments at same ET* evoke the same thermal response even
though they may be having different temperatures and humidities provided they have
the same air velocities.
The slope of a constant ET* line depends on ‘skin wettedness’, and moisture
permeability of clothing. Skin wettedness represents fraction of skin that is covered
with water to account for rate of moisture loss by evaporation.
Note that activity determines metabolic rate, and hence skin wettedness.
Thus, effective temperture for a given temperature and humidity depends on ac-
tivity and clothing. Figure 16.1 shows ET* lines ‘a’ that correspond to low activity
levels. That means lower metabolic rates, and hence low skin wettedness.
At low activity levels, air humidity has little effect, and constant ET* lines are
nearly vertical as at ‘a’. As activity and hence metabolic rate and skin wettedness
increase, the lines become more horizontal as at ‘b’. The influence of humidiy is
more pronounced.
Since ET* depends on activity and clothing, it is not possible to have a universal
ET* chart.
In Fig. 16.1, ET* lines at ‘a’ correspond to metabolic rate ‘1’ which is taken as
58.1 W/m2 of naked body area. Lines ‘a’ also correspond to ‘clothing factor’ of
‘0.6’. That is equivalent to 60% of some standard clothing. Lines ‘b’ corresspond to
more normal situations of metabolic rate of ‘3’, viz., 3 ´ 58.1 = 144.3 W/m2, and
clothing factor of 50% of that in ‘a’.
According to Malhotra5, the effective temperatures and also the range of DBT at
50 per cent RH for comfort are as follows:
Climate ET, Corresponding

°C DBT at 50% RH, °C
Hot and dry 21.1 to 26.7 23.9 to
Hot and humid 22 to 25.6 26.7
The general practice is to recommend the following optimum inside design

conditions for comfort for summer air conditioning:
ET 22°C or ET* = 25°C
DBT 25 ± 1°C
RH 50 ± 5%
The corresponding room air velocity is 0.4 m/s. The points of this equal comfort
are shown in Fig. 16.1.
a
b
4
a
b
ET = 24°C a
3
ET = 22°C b
ET* = 25
ET
Vapour pressure, kPa
*=
35
ET* =
a
ET
2
b
ET* = 20 ET
ET* = 30
*=
a, b
25 ET = 24
ET*
30
25°C
ET* = 10
= 20 ET =
ET = 22
1 100 % RH
ET
ET = 27
=2
= 18
50 % RH
5
19
0
0 10 20 30 40
Temperature, °C
Fig. 16.1 Effective temperature lines
During winter, the body gets acclimatized to withstand lower temperatures. Con-
sequently, a DBT of 21°C at 50 per cent RH and 0.15–0.2 m/s air velocity is quite
comfortable.
In addition to the maintenance of temperature, humidity and air velocity, it is also
important to maintain the purity of room air. Even if there are no sources of produc-
tion of pollutants within the conditioned space, the carbon dioxide content of air
increases because of the occupants. It is, therefore, necessary to introduce fresh air
or ventilation air into the space. The requirement of ventilation air is much more
when some occupants are smoking. In the case of auditoriums, because of very large
occupancy, the ventilation air requirement is very large. Hence the need to prohibit
smoking in auditoriums and assembly halls. Table 16.2 gives the ventilation air
requirements for some applications.
Table 16.2 Ventilation air requirements
Application Smoking Recommended Minimum

Status cmm/person cmm/person cmm/m
floor area
Apartments Some 0.56 0.28 —
Offices and factories Occasional-Some 0.28–0.6 0.21 —
Restaurants Some 0.4 — —
Board rooms Very heavy 1.4 0.56 0.03
Department stores None 0.21 0.14 0.0015
Theatres None 0.21 0.14 —
Hotel rooms Heavy 0.84 0.7 —
Hospital wards None 0.84 — —
Hospital operation
theatres None All outdoor — —
16.1.4 Comfort Chart

Studies have shown correlation between comfort level, temperature, humidity, sex,
length of exposure, etc. For example for exposure for a period of one hour, the
values of index Y for comfort on ASHRAE thermal sensation scale for men, women
and both sexes separately are expressed as follows:
Men Y = 0.22 t + 0.233 pL – 5.673
Women Y = 0.272 t + 0.248 pL – 7.245
Both Y = 0.245 t + 0.248 pL – 6.475
where t is dbt in °C, and pL is vapour pressure in kPa. ASHRAE scale refers to value
for feeling of comfort of Y as below:
+3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –3
Hot Warm Slightly Neutral Slightly Cool Cold
Warm Cool
It is seen that women are more sensitive to temperature, and less sensitive to
humidity than men. In genral 3°C change in temperature or a 3 kPa change in water
vapour pressure is necessary to change thermal sensation index from one to the next.
Based on the concept of ET, some ‘comfort charts’ have been developed.
Fig. 16.2 shows ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones in the form of comfort
chart. This chart may be referred to when a compromise in the inside design condi-
tions is to be achieved.
The chart in Fig. 16.2 is valid for typical summer and winter clothing during
primarily sedentry activity. The warmer and cooler temperature borders coincide
with lines of constant ET*.
In the middle of zone, a person wearing standard clothing will have comfort sen-
sation index Y very near to netural zero.
Near the boundary of the warmer zone, a person would feel about Y = 0.5 warmer.
Near the boundary of the cooler zone, one would feel about Y = – 0.5 cooler. The
upper and and lower limits of humidity levels of the comfort zones in the chart are
less precise.
H RH 15
R 20° %
20 0
% CW 60 RH
10 B %
18° 50
CW
B
Dew-point temperature, °C
15
10
Humidity ratio, g/kg

H
%R
Summer
10 30
Winter
5 5
0
–5
–10
0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Fig. 16.2 ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones
16.2 COMFORT2
The salient features governing human comfort are discussed below.

16.2.1 The Metabolic Rate
The rate at which body produces heat is called the metabolic rate. The heat pro-
duced by a normal healthy person while sleeping is called the basal metabolic rate
which is of the order of 60 W. The maximum value may be 10 times as much as this
for a person engaged in sustained hard work.
The temperature of the body remains comparatively constant at about 36.9°C
(98.4°F) for tissues at the surface or the skin and about 37.2°C for the deep tissues or
the core. It is found that the body temperature in the morning after sleep is about
0.5°C less than its temperature in the afternoon. A value of 40.5°C (104.9°F) is
considered serious and 43.5°C (110°F) is certainly fatal.
Human comfort is influenced by physiological factors determined by the rate of
heat generation within the body and the rate of heat dissipation to the environment.
16.2.2 Mechanism of Body Heat Loss

The body loses heat to the surroundings mainly by convection C, radiation R,
and evaporation of moisture E. In addition, there is heat loss by respiration having
sensible component Cres and latest component Eres. The total heat loss from the body
is thus
Q = (C + R + Cres) + (E + Eres)
There are two components of this heat loss: C + R + Cres forms the sensible heat
component QS, and E + Eres forms the latent heat component QL. The sensible heat
component depends on the temperature difference between the surface of the body
and the surroundings, and the latent heat component, similarly, depends on the
difference in the water vapour pressures.
In summer, the temperature difference available for sensible heat transfer is less.
Thus the convective and radiative heat losses are reduced. To maintain thermal equi-
librium, the body starts perspiring to increase the evaporative loss. On the other
hand, in winter, the sensible heat transfer is increased; the evaporative losses thus
tend toward zero.
16.2.3 Mathematical Model of Heat Exchange between Man and Environment

The heat exchange between man and his environment can be expressed by the
following energy balance equation
M–W=Q+S (16.2)
where
M = Metabolic rate
W = Work done by man
Q = Rate of convective, radiative, respirative and evaporative heat losses
S = Rate of heat storage.
In summer, the body temperature has a tendency to rise since the stored energy S
is positive. The blood flow rate through the extremities increases, and the body starts
perspiring. This is called the condition of vasodilation. In winter, the temperature
tends to fall, the stored energy may be negative and the blood flow rate through the
extremities becomes low. This leads to the condition of vasoconstriction resulting in
shivering.
For the condition of equilibrium or thermal neutrality of the body, there should
be no stored energy, and hence no change in body temperature. For a feeling of
comfort, thermal neutrality is the required condition. Any variation in body tempera-
ture acts as a stress signal to the brain which ultimately results in either perspiration
or shivering.
The net heat release rate of the body due to oxidation is
H = (M – W) = M (1 – D)
where D is the thermal efficiency of the body heat engine. Work done W is positive
when the body performs work. Both M and D are governed by the activity of the
man. The values of heat liberated depending on the activity are given in Table 19.1.
The thermal efficiency in most cases is zero, except in cases of high activity, such as
when playing outdoor games—it is of the order of 20 per cent.
16.3 OUTSIDE DESIGN CONDITIONS
It is observed that there is a kind of sinusoidal relationship between the air dry bulb
temperature and the sun time. For example, in the month of June in a certain locality
where the sunrise is at about 5 a.m. and the sunset at about 7 p.m., the time of mini-
mum temperature falls at about 4 a.m. and that of maximum temperature at about
4 p.m., i.e., with a lapse of about 12 hours.
As regards relative humidity, it is seen that it reaches a minimum value in the
afternoon. Since the mean daily maximum dry bulb temperature occurs between
1 p.m. and 4 p.m., it is reasonable to assume that the minimum relative humidity
would occur during the same period.
Accordingly, meteorological data of the locality may be collected in the form of
the mean daily or monthly maximum and minimum temperatures, in combination
with corresponding relative humidities or wet bulb temperatures.
For the outside design conditions in summer, it is, therefore, recommended to
use the mean monthly maximum dry bulb temperature and its corresponding wet
bulb temperature. Very often the value of the wet bulb temperature cannot be
ascertained from the data provided by metereological laboratories. The wet bulb
temperatures fall usually at the time of maximum dry bulb temperature. However,
it is essential to take the value of the wet bulb temperature in this manner, and not
the value of the maximum wet bulb temperature as that would lead to an errone-
ously high cooling load. This is because the relative humidity is the lowest when
the dry bulb temperature is the highest, and vice versa. This does not mean that the
wet bulb temperature would also be the lowest when the dry bulb temperature is
the highest during a single day. In fact, the wet bulb temperature remains more or
less uniform on any particular day.
As for winter, the concept of degree-days is used. It is found that the fuel con-
sumption in winter for the heating of buildings varies almost directly as the differ-
ence between the outside temperature and a reasonably comfortable inside tempera-
ture of 18.5°C (65°F). Thus the fuel consumption would be practically nil if the
outside temperature is 18.5°C. On the other hand, the fuel consumption, would dou-
ble if the outside temperature dropped from 13.5 to 8.5°C. A degree-day is obtained
for every degree when the mean outside temperature is below 18.5°C during the 24-
hour period. Accordingly, if in a given locality the outside temperature average of
30 days is 10°C, the degree days for the period would be
(18.5 – 10)(30) = 255
This concept enables the calculation of fuel consumption for a given period for a
building. For example, the steam consumption S can be calculated by the following
equation
QD (degree-days)(24)( 3600)
S= (16.3)
1055
where QD = Heat loss of the building per degree of temperature difference
between inside and outside in kW, and
1055 = Approximate amount of heat released by steam in kJ/kg.
The value of QD can be calculated by knowing the total heat loss Q of the building
for a particular temperature difference. Thus
Q
QD = (16.4)
ti - t0
For the calculation of the outside design temperature take, for example, a typical
January month for a locality for which the number of degree-days is 677. Then the
outside design temperature may be obtained as follows:
31 (18.5 – t0) = 677
Þ t0 = – 3.3°C
16.4 CHOICE OF SUPPLY DESIGN CONDITIONS3
Consider a room that is completely sealed having an internal sensible heat gain of
Q S. The inside dry bulb temperature ti of the room will then rise above the outside
temperature t0 until the heat transferred to the outside is equal to the heat generated
inside. Under this equilibrium condition
Q
ti = t0 + S (16.5)
UA
where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient of the structure and A is its surface
area. For example, if for a typical cubical room of side equal to 3.16 m
Q S = 2 kW, U = 1.2 Wm– 2 K–1, A = 6(3.162) = 60 m2
then, if the outside temperature is 40°C, the inside temperature in the absence of air
conditioning will become
2 ´ 103
ti = 40 + = 67.8°C
(1.2)( 60)
To improve the situation, it would help to ventilate the room. If the fresh outside
air is supplied as ventilation air to the room, the temperature attained will be re-
duced. Let such air supplied be equal to n air changes per hour. One air-change is
equivalent to the amount of air supplied per hour equal to the volume of the room. If
V is the volume of the room, then the temperature attained in the room will be given
by the energy balance equation
Q S =
b
HC p nV ti - t0 g
+ UA (ti – t0)
3600
3600Q S
whence ti = t0 + (16.6)
HC p nV + 3600UA
In the case of the example of the room taken earlier, if we take n = 10, then
(3600)(2)
ti = 40 +
FG
1.2 IJ = 51.1°C
. 3 ) + (3600)
(1.2)(1.0216)(10)( 316
H
1000 K
(60)
Thus, if the internal heat gain of the room is high, ventilation will help decrease
the room temperature.
In practice, however, the situation is not so bad as it appears from the above
calculations. Due to the effect of fall in the outside dry bulb temperature at night,
and the storage of heat due to the heat capacity of the structure, the room tempera-
ture would not rise to the extent shown above, and ti may even be below the
instantaneous value of t0 if internal heat gain is not much.
Nevertheless, to maintain conditions of comfort in the room, it is necessary to
condition the air and supply it to the room, generally, at a lower temperature and
moisture content in summer, and a higher temperature and moisture content in win-
ter. It was shown in the preceding chapter that the supply air condition lies on the
room sensible heat factor line. Thus, thermodynamically, there is a wide choice
available for the supply air-condition. For each supply air condition, there is a sup-
ply air rate. Corresponding to the minimum weight of the supply air, the supply
condition is at the apparatus dew point for summer, or slightly away from it in the
case of a finite bypass factor of the conditioning apparatus. This minimum weight of
the supply air may not be adequate from the point of view of good room air distribu-
tion aiming at equalizing both the temperature and humidity throughout the condi-
tioned space, in addition to providing a certain air movement at the occupancy level.
For good room air distribution, it is found necessary to supply the conditioned air
equivalent to 8–12 air changes per hour. The normally acceptable value is 10 air
changes per hour. A lower value will cause stagnancy whereas a higher value will
cause draft, both leading to discomfort. Some consultants in India take supply air
15 air changes per hour as an insurance against dirty filters. This comes to about
2.5 cfm/ft2 of floor area with a height of about 10 feet.
In case of evaporative cooling, this value is close to 20 air changes per hour.
Corresponding to the specified amount of the quantity of supply air, the supply air
temperature for summer air conditioning would be 12.5 to 7.5°C below the room tem-
perature. For a room temperature of 25°C, the supply air temperatures is close to 13°
to 15°C.
In case, the minimum weight of the supply air does not meet the air change
requirement, it is possible to increase the quantity of the supply air by mixing it with
an additional amount of recirculated room air after the A/C apparatus as shown in
Fig. 16.3.
After the A/C apparatus
Room
(mai )1 (mai )2
ma s
ma 0 1 2 s
A/C Apparatus
Fig. 16.3 Recirculated room air added after the A/C apparatus
The effect of such mixing is merely to increase the bulk of the supply air, and
correspondingly change its temperature and moisture content, but in no way does it
affect the capacity of this air to meet the room sensible and latent heat loads. In such
a case, the conditioned air quantity is [( m ai)1 + m a0] but the supply air quantity be-
comes [( m ai)1 + m a0 + ( m ai)2]. Accordingly, the supply air condition moves to s as
shown in Fig. 16.4. The dehumidified air rise available is ti - ts.
Note The supply air temperature for winter heating is kept at about 45-55°C.
Example 16.1 An air-conditioned space is maintained at 26°C DBT and

50 per cent RH when the outside conditions are 35°C DBT 28°C WBT.
(a) If the space has a sensible heat gain of 17.6 kW and air is supplied to the
room at a condition of 8°C saturated, calculate:
(i) The mass and volume flow rates of air supplied to the room.
(ii) The latent heat gain of the space.
(iii) The cooling load of the refrigeration plant if 15 per cent of total weight
of air supplied to the space is fresh air, and the remainder is recircu-
lated air.
(b) If the supply air to the room is to be maintained at a level of at least 6 cmm
per ton of the cooling load, find:
(i) The new supply air temperature.
(ii) The mass and volume flow rates of the supply air, and recirculated air
added after the A/C apparatus.

(a) From the psychrometric chart
h0 = 90 kJ/kg
hi = 53.5 kJ/kg
h2 = 25 kJ/kg (8°C saturated)
hA = 43.8 kJ/kg (8°C DPT, 26°C DBT)
Point A is obtained by drawing the horizontal from point 2 at ADP, and a vertical
from i.
(i) Mass rate of supply air
Q S (17.6)( 3600)
m as = = = 3370 kg/h
hA - h2 43.8 - 25
Specific volume of air at 2
L = 0.805 m3/kg
Volume rate of supply air
( 3370)( 0.805)
Q L = m as L = = 45.2 cmm
s 60
(ii) Latent heat gain of space
Q L = m a (hi – hA) = 3370 (53.5 – 43.8) = 9.1 kW
s
3600
(iii) Cooling load of the refrigeration plant
LM OP
Q = m a (h1 – h2) = 3370 3 ( 90) + 1 (53.5) - 25 = 52.3 kW
s
N
3600 4 4 Q
28
W
BT
°C
1 Li
ne
50%
RH
i
B
2 s
A
8 °C t 26 °C 35 °C
Fig. 16.4 Processes on psychrometric chart for the system of
Fig. 16.3 and Example 16.1
(b) In this case, the supply air moves to point s from 2.

(i) Tons refrigeration
52 .3
TR = = 14.9
3.5167
Supply air volume flow rate
Q Ls = 6(14.9) = 89.4 cmm
Supply air temperature is then given by
Q = m C (t – t )
S as p i s
89.4
17.6 = (1.0216) (26 – ts)
60Ls
Solving by trial and error
ts = 17°C
Ls = 0.828 m3/kg
(ii) Mass flow rate of the supply air
(89.4)( 60)
m as = = 6478 kg/h
0.828
Recirculated room air added after the conditioning apparatus
ai)2 = 6478 – 3370 = 3108 kg/h
(m
Volume flow rate of this air
3108
ai)2 Li =
(QLi)2 = ( m (0.86) = 44.55 cmm
60
16.4.1 Purposes of Ventilation

The fresh air or ventilation air is a must in any comfort air-conditioning system. Its
purposes are the following:
(a) To provide oxygen The oxygen concentration is 21% by volume in atmospheric
air. It should not be allowed to fall below 15% under any circumstances whatsoever.
The metabolic oxygen requirement of individuals varies between 0.03 m3/hr for very
light work to 0.15 m3/hr for very heavy work.
(b) To remove carbon dioxide The CO2 concentration in atmospheric air is 0.03%
by volume. It should not be allowed to rise above 5% under any circumstance. For
CO2 dilution, a minimum fresh air flow of 0.2 cmm per sedentary adult is recom-
mended. In spaces of heavy activity and smoking, 0.7 to 1.1 cmm per person is
required. 0.42 cmm of fresh air per person is used as a design standard.
(c) To remove odours 0.42 cmm of fresh air per person is required to remove body
odours. The actual air requirement depends on room size and level of activity.
(d) To remove heat and humidity Removal of body heat and moisture addition by
ventilation is the controlling factor. If this is accomplished, all other requirements
will be met. For sedentary adults, the body heat generation is taken as 116 W per
person. The ventilation requirement can be determined from the room sensible and
latent heat generation rates using the following equation:
QS = QL0 H Cp Dt (16.7)
QL = QL0 H hfg DM (16.8)
where Dt and DM are the allowable changes in room DBT and humidity.
(e) To dilute toxicity This is required when toxic and hazardous fumes/particles
are being generated in the space. A very detailed study is required for the purpose.
However, the dilution ventilation is not very effective. In such cases, an outright
removal by exhaust ventilation is recommended.
Note During mild weather, e.g., March/April at the beginning of summer, and Septem-
ber/October at the beginning of winter, recourse to only ventilation calculated froms
Eqs (16.7) and (16.8) may be a satisfactory substitute for air conditioning.
16.5 CRITICAL LOADING CONDITIONS6
There are five critical loading conditions. Three are determined by the maximum
values of the three loads, viz., sensible, latent and total, and the other two are deter-
mined by the maximum and minimum values of the room sensible heat factor. The
condition lines for the five cases are drawn in Fig. 16.5 for the case of summer air
conditioning involving cooling and dehumidifying of air.
It is seen that for a certain minimum quantity of supply air, RSHmax determines
the minimum supply air temperature tsmin , and RLHmax determines the minimum sup-
ply air humidity Msmm. Similarly, the RTHmax determines the minimum supply air
enthalpy hsmin. A curve through these three supply air states b, c, d forms the locus of
the supply air states to maintain the room at i under the three maximum load condi-
tions, at the assigned constant minimum supply air rate which may be fixed in terms
of the maximum sensible heat load.
The other two conditions of maximum and minimum room sensible heat factors
often occur at partial loads. The supply conditions for these two cases can, simi-
larly, be determined as e and a for the two cases respectively. Curve a b c d e forms
the complete locus of supply air states at the minimum supply air rate. A similar
curve a¢ b¢ c¢ d¢ e¢ can be drawn corresponding to the maximum supply air rate.
Between these two curves fall an infinite number of loci corresponding to different
supply air rates and states. A perfect air-conditioning system should be able to
handle all such conditions.
hs min i
e
e
g
mi nd
d
yin
hu g a
F ax
RSH m
dif
c
de olin
b a
Co
ax
d
R SH m
c b a
ma
x s min
H
RT
ax
m
LH
R
in
m
HF
RS
ts min t
Fig. 16.5 Five critical loading conditions
The investigation of each of the above critical loading conditions is the most
complex task that faces an air-conditioning engineer. In most applications, one or
more of these critical condition lines will coincide on the psychrometric chart, thus
simplifying the problem.
Figure 16.6 shows the four basic types of supply problems. Lobe A represents the
region of the supply air states for comfort air conditioning for summer which is
associated with the cooling and dehumidification of air. Lobe B represents the same
for winter which is accompanied with heating and humidification. Lobes C and D
are, respectively, for cooling and humidification, and heating and dehumidification.
These process combinations do not normally arise in comfort air-conditioning, but
often are of great importance in industrial air-conditioning systems.
C B
A
D
t
Fig. 16.6 Four types of supply problems
16.6 CLEAN SPACES
Apart from contamination of conditioned spaces from undesirable and obnoxious

gases which is taken care of by ventilation, the application of clean rooms/spaces
pertains, primarily, to the problem of particulate contamination. This contamina-
tion not only poses a threat to human health, but also to certain industrial processes
involving assembly of microscopically small electronic devices, manufacturing of
optical instruments, drugs, etc., and medical and biological applications. These proc-
esses are carried out in clean rooms/spaces wherein airborne particles are limited
and air flow patterns are regulated. In addition, the temperature and humidity are
controlled, the space is pressurized so that no outside air can infilterate into the
space, and special materials of construction are used so as to eliminate generation of
any particulate matter within the conditioned space.
The limiting of air borne particles is achieved by using a series of filters of vari-
ous grades, and selecting air flow patterns as described in Chap. 21.
The design conditions are specified by particle size and number of particles per
unit volume as follows:
Class 100,000 Particles not to exceed 3, 531,000/m 3 (100,000/ft3) of size 0.5 mm
and larger, or 24,700/m3 of size 5 mm and larger.
Class 10,000 Particles not to exceed 353,000/m3 (10,000/ft3) of size 0.5 mm and
larger, or 2,295/m3 (65/ft3) of size 5 mm and larger.
Class 100 Particles not to exceed 3,500/m3 (100/ft3) of size 0.5 mm and larger.
In these applications, high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used.
These filters must have an efficiency of 99.97% for 0.3 mm particles as determined
by Dioctyl Phthalate (DOP) test. Air recirculating through HEPA filters is called
primary air. The portion of primary air circulated through A/C equipment is called
secondary air. In addition, we have make-up air which is added through normal
filters to secondary air for the purpose of ventilation and pressurization.
References
1. ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, Application Volume, 1964.
2. Fanger P O, Thermal Comfort, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
3. Jones W P, Air-Conditioning Engineering, Edward Arnold, London, 1973.
4. Kadambi V and F W Hutchinson, Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and
Environmental Control in India, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1968.
5. Malhotra H S, ‘Environmental comfort zone in warm and humid atmosphere’,
J. Scientific and Industrial Research, 14A, pp. 469-473.
6. Raber B F, and F W Hutchinson, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineering, John wiley, New York, 1949.
Revision Exercises
16.1 (a) For an office building in a city having a calculated heating load of
940 kW, estimate the weight of steam required during the heating season
for which the number of degree-days are 3413. The design outside and
inside temperatures are –17 and 21°C respectively.
(b) Also estimate the consumption if gas, oil or coal is used instead of steam.
The heating values of the three alternative fuels are 29,806 kJ/m3 ,
4,315,910 kJ/m3 and 29,810 kJ/kg respectively.
16.2 (a) A hermetically sealed room 4 m ´ 4 m ´ 4 m has an internal sensible heat
gain of 3 kW. The overall heat-transfer coefficient of its walls, floor and
ceiling is 1.1 W m–2 K–1. The outside temperature is constant at 37°C.
Calculate the steady-state temperature of the room.
(b) What will be the temperature maintained inside the room if the ventila-
tion air supplied is equivalent to 10 air changes per hour?
(c) For the above room with other conditions same, calculate the steady
outside temperature that will result in an inside temperature of 26°C.
16.3 (a) An air-conditioned building has a space volume of 1000 m3 and a room
sensible heat gain of 20 kW. The room is maintained at 25°C DBT and
50 per cent RH. The outside design conditions are 43°C DBT and
26.5°C WBT. The ventilation air is 20 per cent of the supply air. The
apparatus dew point of the coil is 11°C and its bypass factor is 0.1. De-
termine:
(i) The state and mass flow rate of the supply air.
(ii) The latent heat gain of the room.
(iii) The cooling load of the refrigeration plant.
(b) If the supply air rate is to be maintained at 10 air changes per hour,
determine the mass and volume flow rates of the recirculated room air
added after the air conditioning apparatus.
%
Solar Radiation
17.1 DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation forms the greatest single factor of cooling load in buildings. It is,
therefore, necessary to study the subject not only for the purpose of load calculation,
but also from the point of view of load reduction. Further, the subject has acquired
new dimensions in the present-day world in the context of solar energy utilization
for heating as well as cooling.
For all practical purposes, the sun is the source of energy for the continuation of
life on earth. It is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter. It is a fusion reactor—the
most important of its reactions is the combination of hydrogen to form helium, the
difference in mass being converted to energy. This fusion energy is produced in the
interior of the solar sphere at a temperature of many millions of degrees. The energy
is transferred to the surface of the sun by radiation and convection. The surface is
opaque. For all practical purposes, it may be considered to be radiating energy as a
black body at an effective temperature of 6000 K. The spectrum of the wavelength
of radiation stretches from 0.29 to 4.75 mm. As a consequence of high temperature,
the maximum radiation intensity is found to be at a wavelength of 0.5 m m.
The mass of the sun is about 332,000 times that of the earth and its diameter is
about 1,392,400 km. The earth is about 12,710 km in diameter. It makes one rotation
about its axis in 24 hours, and a revolution around the sun in a period of approxi-
mately 365 14 days.
The earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. The earth is closest to the
sun on January 1, and remotest from it on July 1 (about 3.3 per cent farther away). The
mean distance of the earth from the sun is 149,500,000 km. The intensity of solar
radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere varies inversely with the square of the dis-
tance between the centre of the earth and the centre of the sun. Accordingly, the earth
receives 7 per cent more radiation in January than in July.
The earth’s axis of rotation is, however, tilted 23.5° with respect to its orbit
around the sun as shown in Fig. 17.1. This angle of tilt is essentially responsible for
the distribution of solar radiation over the earth’s surface and, consequently, the
change of seasons.
Solar Radiation 531
N Equator N Tropic of Cancer

Axis Axis
(Latitude 23.5 °N)
SUN
Sun’s Sun’s
23.5° Rays Rays 23.5°
Tropic of
Capricorn Axis of Revolution of Orbit Plane
(Latitude 23.5°) the Earth About the Equator
S Sun S
December 21 (Winter in June 21 (Summer in
Northern Hemisphere) Northern Hemisphere)
Fig. 17.1 Earth’s position with respect to the sun during summer and winter
17.1.1 Solar Radiation Intensity Outside Earth’s Atmosphere

The solar radiation intensity—normal to the sun’s rays incident upon a plane surface
situated in the outer limits of the earth’s atmosphere—varies with the time of the
year as the distance of the earth from the sun changes. Its value when the earth is at
its mean distance from the sun is called the solar constant. The presently accepted
standard value of the solar constant as determined by Thekaekara and Drummond11
in 1971 is 1353 W/m2. The variation of the normal solar radiation intensity outside
the earth’s atmosphere, denoted as In0, with the time of the year can be obtained by
applying a correction factor to the solar constant as given in the Smithsoman Physi-
cal Tables and reproduced here in Table 17.1.12
Table 17.1 Solar constant correction factors12
Month Day of the Month

1 8 15 22
January 1.0335 1.0325 1.0315 1.03
February 1.0288 1.0263 1.0235 1.0207
March 1.0173 1.0141 1.0103 1.0057
April 1.0009 0.9963 0.9913 0.9875
May 0.9841 0.9792 0.9757 0.9727
June 0.9714 0.9692 0.9680 0.967
July 0.9666 0.967 0.9680 0.9692
August 0.9709 0.9726 0.9757 0.9785
September 0.9828 0.9862 0.9898 0.9945
October 0.9995 1.0062 1.0087 1.0133
November 1.0164 1.0207 1.0238 1.0267
December 1.0288 1.0305 1.03 1.028
The spectral distribution of this extra-terrestrial radiation is given in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2 Spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial radiation2
Region Ultraviolet Visible Region Infra-red

Wavelength Range 0 – 0.38 mm 0.38 – 0.78 mm 0.78 – ¥ mm
Percentage Radiation 7 47.3 45.7
17.1.2 Direct and Diffuse Solar Radiation

From outside the earth’s atmosphere, the solar heat reaches any part of the earth’s
surface in two ways. A part of the sun’s radiation travels through the atmosphere and
reaches the earth’s surface directly. This part is called direct or beam radiation. It is
specular in nature and is incident on a surface at an angle which is determined by the
line joining the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth. Thus if the orientation of
the surface is changed, this radition can be increased or decreased. It is maximum
when the surface is normal to the sun’s rays, and zero when it is parallel to them.
A major part of the sun’s radiation is scattered, reflected back into space and
absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere. A part of this radiation is re-radiated and
reaches the earth’s surface uniformly from all directions. It is called diffuse or sky
radiation. It is diffuse in nature and does not normally change with the orientation of
the surface.
The total solar radiation reaching a surface is equal to the sum of the direct and
diffuse raditions.
The difference between the solar radition outside the earth’s atmosphere and the
total radiation reaching the earth’s surface is governed by the distance travelled by
the radiation through the atmosphere to reach the surface, and the amount of haze in
the atmosphere.
The sky radiation is usually a very small part of the total radiation in a clear sky.
But with a hazy or cloudy sky, the sky radiation increases while direct radiation is
depleted considerably.
17.1.3 Depletion of Direct Solar Radiation by Earth’s Atmosphere

After entering the earth’s atmosphere, the solar radiation is scattered in all directions
by air and water vapour molecules and dust particles. A part of this radiation is also
absorbed, particularly by ozone, in the upper atmosphere and water vapour and car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere near the earth. To some extent, it is also absorbed by
oxygen as well. Thus, the depletion of the direct solar radiation is quite large even on
clear days when most of the air-conditioning load requirement occurs.
In order to take this depletion into account, the concept of air mass has been
introduced. Unit air mass corresponds to the condition of a clear sky and the sun at
the zenith, i.e., when the sun is directly overhead or at an altitude angle of 90°. The
altitude angle is defined as the angle in a vertical plane between the sun’s rays and
the projection of the sun’s rays on a horizontal plane. Thus in Fig. 17.2, the angle
APH is the altitude angle. However, when the sun is at B, then the altitude angle is
equal to 90° and the distance BP corresponds to an air mass equal to unity. In this
position, the sun’s rays have to travel through the shortest distance through the
atmosphere, and the depletion of the direct solar radiation is minimum.
The air mass can now be defined as the path length of solar radiation through the
atmosphere, assuming the vertical path at the mean sea level as unity. Thus for any
altitude angle b, we see from Fig. 17.2, that
AP sin 90°
=
BP sin b
Solar Radiation 533
or considering BP as unity, we have for the air mass

1
L = AP = (17.1)
sin b
A B
Limit of Earth’s
90° Atmosphere
AP BP = 1
=L
°
90
Horizontal
H
P
Fig. 17.2 Length of path of direct solar radiation through the atmosphere
and altitude angle
Thus AP corresponds to the air mass L for an altitude angle of b. We see that
the air mass is a measure of the length of the path the radiation has to travel in the
earth’s atmosphere. It can be readily seen that for b = 0, the air mass L = ¥. The zero
value of the air mass corresponds to the solar-radiation intensity outside the earth’s
atmosphere.
Table 17.3 gives values of air mass and the corresponding solar altitude angles
along with the values of the direct solar radiation, as given by Moon.7
Figure 17.3 shows a plot of these values of the direct normal solar radiation
against the air mass. The variation can be expressed in the form of an exponential
relationship.
In = In0 e–KL (17.2)
where In = Direct solar radiation normal to the sun’s rays at a location
such as P in Fig. 17.2
In 0 = Direct solar radiation normal to the sun’s rays at the outer
limits of the atmosphere
K = Solar-extinction constant.
Table 17.3 Solar radiation Intensity vs. air mass
Air Mass 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0
Solar Altitude 90° 41°48¢ 30° 19°3¢ 14°30¢ 11°32¢ 9°36¢ 7°14¢
Radiation, W/m2 1320 925 826 744 616 523 454 384 337
Equation (17.2) may also be written in the form of a straight-line relationship

between log In and L, viz.,
log10 In = log10 In0 – (K log10 e)L
= log10 In0 – K1L (17.3)
where K1 = 0.434 K
1200
In 3.2
Log10 In
In
1000 3.12
3.03 3.0
800 Log10 In
2.8
Log10 In
In, W
600
2.6
253
400
337 2.4
200
2.2
0
0 2 4 6 8
Air Mass, L
Fig. 17.3 In and log10 In vs. Air Mass
The points from Table 17.3 are plotted in Fig. 17.3. Most of these points satisfy
the straight-line relationship of Eq. (17.3) if
Log10 In0 = 3.03
This gives
In0 = 1082 W/m2
Such an equation is, however, not satisfied by the extreme values corresponding
to L = 0 and L = 8 in Fig. 17.3. Now by taking the values at any other point on the
line, such as L = 2, ln = 744 W/m2, we can find the value of the solar extinction
coefficient. Thus
log I n 0 - log I n log 1082 - log 744
K1 = = = 0.0789
L 2
Solar Radiation 535
and since K1 = 0.434 K

Þ K = (0.434)–1 (0.0789) = 0.182
Accordingly, the equation for the depleted normal solar radiation becomes
In = 1082 e – 0.182L W/m2 (17.2a)
This equation takes care of the absorption of the solar radiation by the
atmosphere, the length of which is determined by the altitude angle. Besides the
solar altitude, other factors that can be considered to affect the air mass are the
atmospheric conditions.
17.1.4 Variation in Solar Intensity with Altitude of a Place

The above calculations of the air mass and solar intensity are applicable to the mean
sea level. However, the intensity increases for places at higher altitudes. The increase
in intensity with height for different solar altitude angles is given in Table 17.4.
Table 17.4 Percentage increase in solar intensity with height
Solar Altitude Angle, Degrees

Height
Above Mean 10 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80
Sea Level, m
Percentage Increase in Solar Intensity
1000 17.5 14 13 12 10 10 9 8 8 8
1500 26 23 20 15 17 16 15 15 15
2500 40 35 32 30 28 26 24 23 22
3000 42 37 33 32 30 28 27 26 25
17.2 EARTH-SUN ANGLES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS12
At first we shall define the fundamental angles describing the orientation of the earth
with respect to the sun. This will be followed by the definitions of certain derived
angles and relationships between these angles.
17.2.1 Fundamental Earth-Sun Angles N

The position of any point on the earth’s
surface, in relation to the sun’s rays, is
described at any instant by the latitude of the
place l, hour angle h and sun’s declination P
d. These angles are illustrated in Fig. 17.4
0
for a point P in the northern hemisphere. The l d In
point O in the figure represents the centre of
Equatorial h
the earth. Plane B
The angle which the line OP makes with S A
its projection OA in the equatorial plane is Fig. 17.4 Latitude angle, hour angle
the latitude l of the point P. and sun’s declination
The hour angle h is the angle between the projection OA and the projection OB of
the line joining the centre of the earth to the centre of the sun. The hour angle is zero
at solar noon at P. Thus OB represents the projection of the centre-to-centre line, at
noon i.e., the line of the sun’s rays. The hour angle is a measure of the time of the day
with respect to solar noon. One hour of time corresponds to 360/24 = 15° of the hour
angle. Thus at 3 p.m. solar time, the hour angle is 45°.
The declination d is the angle between the centre-to-centre line and its projection
OB. It is, thus, the angle between the sun’s rays and the equatorial plane.
North pole of
Celestial Sphere Celestial Sphere
90
°
Autumnal
Equinox
23.5° Orbit
Plane Summer
N Solstice
Winter Earth
Solstice Sun S
Vernal 23.5°
Equinox
Equatorial
Plane
Fig. 17.5 Relative motion of the sun with respect to the earth
N
Parallel of
Latitude Rays
Sun’s
P d
Rays
Sun’s
d
d
90° – (l – d) = noon
0
Ho
riz
Equatorial
on
Plane
t al
Pl
an
e
S
Fig. 17.6 Another representation of sun’s declination as angle between
the sun’s rays and equatorial plane
If we take the earth as the centre of the universe, the sun would appear to orbit the
earth as shown in Fig. 17.5. This orbit would be the same as the earth’s own orbit
around the sun. The sphere with a diameter equal to the distance between the winter
and summer solstice positions of the sun is called celestial sphere. The declination is
shown here as the angle between the orbit plane and the equatorial plane. Another
representation of sun’s declination is shown in Fig. 17.6 as the angle between the
Solar Radiation 537
sun’s rays and the equatorial plane. It will be seen that the sun’s declination is maxi-
mum at the solstice positions and is equal to 23.5° south (d = – 23.5°) of the equato-
rial plane at the time of the winter solstice on December 21 and 23.5° north (d =
+ 23.5° ) of the plane at the time of the summer solstice on June 21. At the autumnal
and vernal equinoxes it is equal to zero. The weekly variation of d over the year is
given in Table 17.5. During the year d can be approximated by a sinusoidal variation
360(284 + N )
d = 23.47 sin (17.4)
365
where N is the day of the year counted from January 1.
17.2.2 Derived Solar Angles

Some other angles used in solar radiation calculations which can be derived in terms
of the fundamental angles are the sun’s zenith angle y, altitude angle b and azimuth
angle g. For a point P on the surface of the earth, these angles are shown in Fig. 17.7.
Vertical
W
Sun
Horizontal
In Plane
H P
S N
0
E (Centre of Earth)
Fig. 17.7 Derived solar angles
The altitude angle b has already been defined in Sec. 17.1.3. It is the angle
between the sun’s rays and the horizontal plane. The zenith angle is the angle
between the sun’s rays and the vertical line at P. Thus
p
y= – b.
2
Finally, the azimuth angle g is the angle measured from the north direction to the
projection of the sun’s rays in the horizontal plane. Note that f = g – p is the azimuth
angle measured from the south direction.
17.2.3 Relationship between Angles

The relationships between the derived and fundamental earth-sun angles are given
below.
In Fig. 17.8, the plane x-y corresponds to the equatorial plane and the z-axis
corresponds to the earth’s axis. Vector In representing the sun’s radiation is in the
538
Table 17.5 Weekly variation of sun’s declination angle and equation of time12
Day 1 8 15 22
Declination Equation Declination Equation Declination Equation Declination Equation
of Time of Time of Time of Time
Month Deg:Min Min:Sec Deg:Min Min:Sec Deg:Min Min:Sec Deg:Min Min:Sec
January –23:08 –3:16 –22:20 –6:26 –21:15 –9:12 –19:50 –11:27
February –17:18 –13:34 –15:13 –14:14 –12:55 –14:15 –10:17 –13:41
March –7:51 –12:36 –5:10 –11:04 –2.25 –9:14 0:21 –7:12
April 4:16 –4:11 6:56 – 2:07 9:30 –0:15 11:57 1:19

May 14:51 2:50 16:53 3:31 18:41 3:44 20:14 3:30
June 21:57 2:25 22:47 1:15 23:17 –0.09 23:27 –1:40
July 23:10 – 3:33 22:34 –4:48 21:39 –5:45 20:25 –6:19
August 18:12 – 6:17 16:21 –5:40 14:17 -4:35 12:02 –3:04
September 8:33 – 0:15 5:58 2:03 3:19 4:29 0:36 6:58
October –2:54 10:02 –5:36 12:11 –8:15 13.59 –10:48 15:20
November –14:12 16:20 –16:22 16:16 –18:18 15:29 –19:59 14:02
December –21:41 11:14 –22:38 8:26 –23:14 5:13 –23:27 1:47
Solar Radiation 539
x-z plane. It coincides with the line joining the centre of the earth to the centre of the
sun. O-X is then the projection of In on the equatorial plane. The angle d as shown,
therefore, represents the sun’s declination.
V
z N ln
P Parallel
S H
ln
l d
0 x
h
A
Fig. 17.8 Relationship between angles
The projection of P on the equatorial plane x-y is A. The angle POA is, therefore,
the latitude l at P, and the angle XOA in the x-y plane is the hour angle h.
The line OP represents the vertical through P, and the line PH the horizontal. The
line PN is pointing north. It is, therefore, perpendicular to OP as well as the z-axis.
Now, let a1, b1 and c1 be the direction cosines of OP. Also let a2, b2 and c2 be the
direction cosines of In. Then
a1 = cos l cos h; a2 = cos d
b1 = cos l sin h; b2 = 0
c1 = sin l; c2 = sin d
The zenith angle y is the angle between OP and In. Therefore, for the altitude angle
b, we have
FG p IJ
sin b = sin
H 2 K
- y = cos y = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
= cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d (17.5)

Similarly, it can be shown that the sun’s azimuth angle is given by
sin h
tan f = tan (g – p) = (17.6)
sin l cos h - cos l tan d
At solar noon, h = 0, so that from Eq. (17.6)
g = p if l > d and g = 0 if l < d
In the use of Eq. (17.6), the convention followed are given below:
In the afternoon : The value of h is positive. Equation (17.6) may give either a posi-
tive or a negative value of (g – p).
(i) If (g – p) is positive, say f, then f is measured clockwise from S-direction.
(ii) If (g – p) is negative, say – f, then f is measured anticlockwise from
N-direction.
In the morning before noon: The value of h is negative. Again Eq. (17.6) may give
positive or negative values of (g – p).
(i) If (g – p) is negative, say – f, then f is measured anticlockwise from
S-direction.
(ii) If (g – p) is positive, say f, then f is measured clockwise from N-direction.
Another relation for finding the sun’s azimuth angle is the following:
sin b sin l - sin d
cos f =
cos b cos l
It can be shown by putting h = 0 in Eq. (17.5) that the altitude angle at noon is
given by
sin b = cos l cos d + sin l sin d = cos (l – d) or cos (d – l)
p
Þ bnoon = – |(1 – d)| (17.7)
2
where |(1 – d )| is the net positive value of (1 – d). Equation (17.7) makes it possible
to determine the maximum altitude angle at a particular place and a particular time
of the year.
The sunset hour angle h0 can be found by setting b = 0 in Eq. (17.5).
Thus,
cos h0 = – tan l tan d (17.8)
The hour angle at sunrise is also the same but will be negative of this value.
Similarly, from Eq. (17.6), the solar azimuth angle at sunset is given by
sin h0
tan (g 0 – p) = (17.9)
sin l cos h0 – cos l tan d
Example 17.1
(a) Find out the sun’s altitude and solar azimuth angle at 3 p.m. solar time on
August 1 for a location at 30°N latitude.
(b) Also, find the maximum altitude angle, sunshine hours and solar azimuth
angles at sunrise and sunset.
(c) Determine the solar radiation intensity normal to the sun’s rays at 3 p.m.
Solution Given l = 30°N

From Table 17.5, on August 1,
d = 18°12¢
(a) At 3 p.m., h = 45°
From Eq. (17.5), for the altitude angle
sin b = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
= cos 30° cos 45° cos 18°12¢ + sin 30° sin 18°12¢ = 0.7379
b = 47°33¢
Solar Radiation 541
From Eq. (17.6), for the solar azimuth angle

sin h
tan (g – p) =
sin 45°
= = 10.28
sin 30° cos 45° - cos 30° tan 18°12¢
f = g – p = 84°24¢
g = 180° + 84°24¢ = 264°24¢
Note Since g is measured from north, the direction of the sun’s rays is at an angle of
84°24¢ from south towards west. Thus on August 1, the sun is almost due west at 3 p.m.
(b) Maximum altitude angle
p
bnoon = – |(1 – d)| = 90° – (30° – 18°12¢) = 78°12
2
Note The sun is almost at the zenith.
Hour angle at sunset
cos h0 = – tan l tan d = – tan 30° tan 18°12¢ = – 0.1898
h0 = 100.9°
100.9°
Time at sunset t= = 6.73 hours after solar noon
15
Sunshine hours Dt = 6.73 + 6.73 = 13.46 hrs
Solar azimuth angle at sunset
sin h 0
tan f0 = tan (g0 – p) =
sin l cos h0 - cos l tan d
sin 100.9°
= = – 2.5889
sin 30° cos 100.9º - cos 30° tan 18°12¢
f0 = g0 – p = – 68.88° = – 68°53¢
The solar azimuth angle at sunset is 68°53¢ measured anticlockwise from
N-direction, i.e., 21° 7¢ north of west.
The solar azimuth angle at sunrise can, similarly, be found as 21°7¢ north of east.
(c) Normal solar radiation intensity at 3 p.m.
In = 1082 e– 0.182L = 1082 e– 0.182/sin 69.2° = 890.6 W/m2
17.3 TIME
Solar radiation calculations are made in terms of the solar time. We will now relate
the solar time to the local time in a particular locality.
However, first we introduce the Greenwich mean time which is the time at
Greenwich meridian taken at zero longitude. Midnight at Greenwich is 0 h and noon
is 12 h. Then we have the local civil time (LCT). On a particular longitude, LCT is
more advanced towards the east, and less advanced towards the west. The difference
amounts to four minutes for each degree of difference in longitude.
Local solar time (LST) is the time that would be shown by a sun dial. It may be
pointed out here that whereas a civil day is exactly 24 hours, a solar day is not
exactly so due to the irregularities of the earth’s rotation, obliquity of the earth’s
orbit and other factors. The difference between the local solar time and local civil
time is called the equation of time. Thus
LST = LCT + Equation of time (17.10)
Table 17.5 gives the weekly values of the equation of time.
The actual official time in a locality may be different from the civil time. It may
be based on the mean longitude of a country. This time is called the central standard
time (CST). For example, the CST in India is based on 82° 30¢ E longitude of
Allahabad. To find the solar time at 3 p.m. on June 22 at Delhi where the longitude
is 77°12¢ E, we find the difference in LCT of Allahabad and Delhi which is 0 h 21
min 12 s. Then, at Delhi at 3 p.m. CST, LCT is 15 h-(0h 21 min 12 s) = 14 h 38 min
48 s. Equation of time on June 22 is – 1 min 40 s. Hence the solar time is 14 h 38 min
48 s – 0 h 1 min 40 s = 14 h 37 min 8 s.
Example 17.2 Determination of Local Solar Time

(a) Determine the local solar time corresponding to 10 : 00 a.m. central stan-
dard time on February 8 for a location at 95°W longitude. The central stan-
dard time is equal to the local civil time at 90°W longitude.
(b) Determine the same on June 22 for a location at 82.5°W when the central
standard time is equal to the local civil time at 77.1°W.
Solution (a) The local civil times at 90° and 95°W longitude
LCT90 = 4(90) = 360 min (6 h)
LCT95 = 4(95) = 380 min (6 h 20 min)
The difference in time at the two locations is 20 minutes. At 95°W longitude,
therefore, LCT is 20 minutes less advanced than LCT at 90°W longitude. Thus at
95°W longitude
10 : 00 a.m. CST = 9:40 a.m. LCT
The equation of time, from Table 17.5 on February 8 = – 14 min 14 s » – 14 min
Local solar time LST = LCT + equation of time
9 : 40 – 0 : 14 = 9 : 26 a.m.
(b) Difference in time at the two longitudes
Dt = 4(82.5 – 77.1) = 22 min
Thus at 77.1°W
10 : 00 a.m. CST = 10 : 00 – 0 : 22 = 9 : 38 a.m. LCT
Equation of time on June 22 = – 1 min : 40 s » 2 min
Local solar time LST = 9 : 38 – 0 : 02 = 9 : 36 a.m.
Solar Radiation 543
Note There is a very small difference between LCT and LST. Should the difference
between CST and LCT be kept to a minimum, the central standard time will be very close
to the local solar time.
17.4 WALL SOLAR AZIMUTH ANGLE AND ANGLE

OF INCIDENCE
We shall now refer to angles which are in relation to the orientation of vertical walls
of buildings.
Consider a building block as shown in Fig. 17.9. Also consider the wall facing SW
direction. Accordingly, the altitude angle b and solar azimuth angle g are also shown.
N
Sun
In South West
Wall
al E
rm
No
West of
South
East of
South
S
Fig. 17.9 Solar angles of a building wall, a = f ± y
Now the location of the sun with respect to the wall is defined by the wall solar
azimuth angle a and angle of incidence q. The wall solar azimuth angle a is the
angle in the horizontal plane between the projection of the sun’s rays and the normal
to the surface. Also, the sun’s angle of incidence q on a wall is the angle between the
sun’s rays and the normal to the wall as shown in Fig. 17.9.
The angle a can be found from the solar azimuth angle g and the orientation of
the wall itself. Note that a is positive when the wall faces west of south and negative
when it faces east of south. For the angle of incidence q on a vertical wall, we may
derive the relation
cos q = cos b cos a (17.11)
17.5 DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION ON A SURFACE
We are now in a position to estimate the intensity of the direct solar radiation
incident on a surface. It can be determined if the intensity In normal to the sun’s rays
and the angle of incidence q at the point under consideration are known. The direct
radiation ID, then, is equal to the component of In perpendicular to the given surface.
Thus, in general,
ID = In cos q (17.12)
17.5.1 On a Vertical Surface

The direct solar radiation on a vertical surface is shown in Fig. 17.10. It is seen that
the component of I n in the horizontal plane is I n cos b. Its further resolution into a
component normal to the vertical wall gives
IDV = In cos b cos a = In cos q (17.13)
so that cos q = cos b cos a as already derived for a vertical wall in Eq. (17.11).
In
Horizontal In cos Vertical

P Surface
to
mal ID
Nor face
Sur
Fig. 17.10 Direct solar radiation on a vertical surface
17.5.2 On a Horizontal Surface

The direct solar radiation on a horizontal surface is shown in Fig. 17.11. The compo-
nent of In normal to the horizontal surface is
IDH = In sin b = In cos q (17.14)
Normal
In
IDH
P Horizontal Surface
Fig. 17.11 Direct solar radiation on a horizontal surface
so that cos q = sin b. The angle of incidence q in this case is equal to

p FG IJ
2
-b
H K
17.5.3 On an Inclined Surface
Consider a surface inclined to the vertical at an angle f, away from the sun as shown
in Fig. 17.12. Let the solar azimuth angle of the surface, in case it is vertical, be a.
Also let the solar altitude angle be b.
Solar Radiation 545
Then the horizontal and vertical components of In at point P on the surface are
BP = In cos b cos a and AB = In sin b
N
A or
m
al
In to
Su
rfa
ce
In sin
D
B P
P In In cos cos
co (90 –
s
co
s
co
s
C
(90 –
Horizontal
Q
Fig. 17.12 Direct solar radiation on an inclined surface
Now, their respective components normal to the surface are

BC = In cos b cos a cos f
and AD = I n sin b sin f
Adding the two terms, we obtain for the direct solar radiation normal to the
surface at P
ID = In (cos b cos a cos f + sin b sin f)
= In cos q (17.15)
so that the angle of incidence for a surface inclined away from the sun is given by
cos q = cos b cos a cos g + sin b sin a (17.16)
It may be observed here that if the surface is inclined towards the sun as P ¢ Q in
Fig. 17.12, then f will be negative. Then the second term on the right-hand side of
Eqs (17.15) and (17.16) will also be negative.
The ratio of direct radiation on a tilted surface to that on a horizontal surface
RD is known as the geometric factor. From Eqs (17.14) and (17.16), the geometric
factor is
RD = sin f + cos a cot b cos f (17.17)
17.6 DIFFUSE SKY RADIATION ON A SURFACE
As stated earlier, a large proportion of the direct solar radiation is either absorbed or
scatterd by the constituents of the earth’s atmosphere. A part of this radiation also
reaches the earth in the form of diffuse radiation. The magnitude of this radiation is
such that even on clear days it cannot be neglected even though it is quite small
compared to the direct solar radiation. On cloudy days, the direct solar radiation is
very much reduced and the diffuse sky radiation increases.
Diffuse sky radiation mostly consists of short-wavelength radiation as it is more
readily scattered by the atmosphere. Also, as it is non-directional in nature, it is
difficult to analyse it. The measurements show that diffuse sky radiation for clear
days is given approximately by the equation
Id = CIn Fss (17.18)
where C is a dimensionless coefficient given in Table 17.6 and Fss is the angle factor
between the surface and the sky. For this purpose, the angle factor between the sur-
face and the ground is given by
Fsg = 1
2 (1 – sin f) (17.19)
where f is the angle of tilt of the surface with the vertical. Then, the factor
between the sky and the surface is
Fss = 1 – Fsg (17.20)
Thus, for a vertical wall, f = 0, sin f = 0, Fsg = 0.5 and Fss = 0.5.
ASHRAE recommends the following empirical coefficients C derived by
Stephenson, given in Table 17.6.
Table 17.6 Dimensionless coefficient for sky radiation
Date C Date C
Jan. 21 0.058 July 21 0.136
Feb. 21 0.060 Aug. 21 0.122
March 21 0.071 Sept. 21 0.092
April 21 0.097 Oct. 21 0.073
May 21 0.121 Nov. 21 0.063
June 21 0.134 Dec. 21 0.057
Example 17.3 Calculate the direct and diffuse sky radiation intensities on a
roof with a 30° angle of tilt to the horizontal facing south-east at 3 p.m. solar
time on July 21 at a location of 30°N latitude.
Solution Given: l = 30°

h = 45°
f = 60°
From Table 17.5, on July 21 d = 20°25¢
Altitude angle sin b = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
= cos 30° cos 45° cos 20° 25¢ + sin 30° sin 20°25¢ = 0.7482
b = sin–1 0.7482 = 48.4°
1 1
Air mass L= = = 1.3365
sin b sin 48.4°
Solar Radiation 547
Normal solar radiation intensity

In= 1082 e– 0.182 L = 1082 e– 0.182 (1.3365) = 848 W/m2
Solar azimuth angle
sin h
tan (g – p) =
sin 45°
= = 22.4
sin 30° cos 45° - cos 30° tan 20º 25¢
g – p = tan–1 22.4 = 87° (measured from south)
Wall solar azimuth angle measured from normal to wall, viz., SE direction
a = 87° + 45° = 132°
Angle of incidence
cos q = cos b cos a cos f + sin b sin f
= cos 48.4° cos 132° cos 60° + sin 48.4° sin 60° = 0.4258
q = cos–1 0.4258 = 64.8°
Direct solar radiation intensity
ID = In cos q = 848 (0.4258) = 361 W/m2
Angle factor between the surface and the ground
Fsg = 12 (1 – sin f) = 12 (1 – sin 60°) = 0.067
Angle factor between the sky and the surface
Fss = 1 – Fsg = 1 – 0.067 = 0.935
Coefficient for the sky radiation, from Table 17.6
C = 0.136
Diffuse sky radiation intensity
Id = CIn Fss = (0.136) (848) (0.935) = 108 W/m2
17.7 HEAT GAIN THROUGH GLASS
Glass construction forms a significant part of modern building structures. It is,

therefore, important to study how a space gains heat through glass.
Solar radiation—direct and diffuse—incident upon a glass surface is, in parts,
transmitted, reflected and absorbed. This is shown in Fig. 17.13.
Thus if t, r and a represent the respective fractions known as transmissivity,
reflectivity and absorptivity, then
t+r+a=1
The heat gain of a space through glass then comprises
(i) all the transmitted radiation,
(ii) a part of the absorbed radiation that travels to the room, and
(iii) the heat transmitted due to the difference between the outside and inside
temperature.
The direct radiation enters the space only if the glass is receiving the direct rays
of the sun. The diffuse radiation enters the space even when the glass is not facing
the sun.
Incident Glass at tg
Radiation
Absorbed Radiation
Entering Space
Outside at t0
Inside at ti
Reflected
Radiation
Transmitted
Radiation
Outside film Inside film

coefficient f0 coefficient fi
UA (t0 – ti)
Fig. 17.13 Heat transfer through glass
The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of glass, and the glass then
transmits this heat partly to the outside and partly to the inside. Thus from Fig. 17.13,
if tg represents the temperature of glass, then the heat gain of the space is given by
Q = Asun tD ID + A td Id + fi A (tg – ti) (17.21)
where fi is the inside film-coefficient of heat transfer, subscripts D and d denote the
terms for direct and diffuse radiations respectively, Asun is the glass area directly
exposed to the sun and A is the total glass area.
Writing a steady-state energy balance for the glass sheet itself, we have
Asun aD ID + A ad Id = A[ fi (tg – ti) + f0 (tg – t0)] (17.22)
where f0 is the outside film-coefficient of heat transfer.
In Eq. (17.22), the left-hand side represents the heat gain of glass due to absorp-
tion, and the right-hand side represents the heat loss by convection and radiation
from its two surfaces. In this equation, the thermal resistance of glass has been
neglected. Eliminating tg between Eqs (17.21) and (17.22), we get for the heat gain
of space
A a I + Aad I d
Q = (Asun tD ID + Atd Id ) + sun D D
FG
f0 IJ
+ UA (t0 – ti) (17.23)
1+
fiH K
where U is the overall coefficient of heat transfer given by
1 1 1
= + (17.24)
U fi f0
Solar Radiation 549
If the thermal resistance of glass is considered, we have for U

1 1 Dx 1
= + + (17.25)
U fi kg f0
where D x is the thickness of glass and kg—its thermal conductivity.
It is seen from Eq. (17.23) that the first two terms represent the transmitted radia-
tion, the third term represents the portion of the radiation absorbed by glass that
travels to the room, and the last term represents the heat transmission by conduction,
convection and radiation due to the temperature difference on the two sides of glass.
Now the common glass used in building construction is ordinary glass. It is the
crystal glass of single thickness and single or double strength. The transmissivity
and absorptivity of glass are functions of the angle of incidence. The variation of t
and a for direct radiation with q for ordinary glass is given in Table 17.7. As the
angle of incidence increases beyond 60°, the transmitted radiation rapidly falls down
to zero.
Table 17.7 Transmissivity and absorptivity of ordinary glass 2
Angle of Incidence 0° 20° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Transmissivity 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.84 0.79 0.67 0.42 0
Absorptivity 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0
For diffuse radiation, the transmissivity and absorptivity are taken as 0.79 and
0.06 respectively, regardless of the angle of incidence.
Example 17.4 Effect of Tilt of Glass on Solar Gain

(a) For a 2.5 m wide and 3 m high unshaded glass window in a south-west wall,
calculate the heat gain of space assuming a single vertical glass. The following
data are given:
Direct radiation normal to sun’s rays 720 W/m2
Diffuse radition 95 W/m2
Sun’s altitude angle 60°
Solar azimuth angle 15° west of south
Outside temperature 40°C
Inside temperature 21°C
Outside surface heat-transfer coefficient 17.5 W/m2K
Inside surface heat-transfer coefficient 11.5 W/m2K
(b) Determine the per cent reduction in the solar heat gain if the glass is
sloped inwards so that the bottom of the glass is recessed 0.5 m inside with respect
to the top.
Solution (a) From Fig. 17.14, the wall solar azimuth angle
a = 45 – 15 = 30°
Angle of incidence cos q = cos b cos a = cos 60° cos 30° = 0.433
q = cos–1 0.433 = 64.3°
W E
45°
30°
al 15°
m
Rays
or
N
Sun’s
S
Fig. 17.14 Figure for Example 17.4(a)
Direct solar radiation normal to the glass

ID = In cos q = 720 (0.433) = 312 W/m2
From Table 17.7, at 64.3° angle of incidence
tD = 0.74, aD = 0.06
Total transmitted radiation
Q 1 = A(tD ID + td Id) = (2.5 ´ 3) (0.74 ´ 312 + 0.79 ´ 95) = 2294 W
Energy balance for the glass gives
A (aD ID + ad Id) = Af0 (tg – t0) + Afi (tg – ti)
whence tg =
å aI + f i ti + f 0 t 0
fi + f 0
=
b g
0.06 312 + 95 + 11.5 21 + 17.5 40a f a f= 33.3°C
11.5 + 17.5
Heat transfer to the space from the inside surface of the glass
Q 2 = Afi (tg – ti) = (3 ´ 2.5) (11.5) (33.3 – 21) = 1061 W
Total heat gain of the space
Q = Q 1 + Q 2 = 2294 + 1061 = 3355 W
Note The quantity 3 2 includes the radiation entering the room, that is absorbed by the
glass and the heat transmitted due to the temperature difference on the two sides of the
glass.
(b) The glass is sloping as shown in Fig. 17.15. The angle of inclination of the
glass to the vertical is
0.5
sin f = = 0.1645
3.04
Þ f = sin–1 0.1645 = 9°28¢
Solar Radiation 551
Angle of incidence
0.5 m
cos q = cos b cos a cos f – sin b sin f
= cos 60° cos 30° cos 9°28¢ – sin 60° sin 9°28¢
= 0.2739
q = 74°
3.0
Direct radiation normal to the glass 3m
4m
ID = 720 (0.2739) = 197 W/m2
Transmissivity for direct radiation
tD = 0.57
Temperature of the glass
tg =
b g a f
0.06 197 + 95 + 11.5 21 + 17.5 40 a f
11.5 + 17.5 Fig. 17.15 Figure for
= 33.1°C Example 17.4(b)
Heat gain of the space
Q = A[tD ID + td Id + fi (tg – ti)]
= (3 ´ 2.5) [0.57 (197) + 0.79 (95) + 11.5 (33.1 – 21)] = 2449 W
FG 3355 - 2449 IJ 100 = 27%
Per cent reduction in heat gain =
H 3355 K
17.8 SHADING FROM REVEALS, OVERHANGS AND FINS8
Most glass areas in buildings are provided with reveals, overhangs and fins in the
form of vertical and horizontal projections from walls. Thus some portions of glass
are shaded to cut down the direct solar radiation. The shading, however, does not
eliminate the diffuse radiation.
Consider, now, a vertical projection of depth Dx on a glass window of width X
and height Y as shown in Fig. 17.16. Then the shading x on the width is given by the
tangent of the wall solar azimuth angle
x = Dx tan a (17.26)
Again, consider a horizontal projection of overhang Dy (it need not be equal to
the depth of vertical projection) causing a shading y on the height. Then the shading
y is given by
y = Q¢Q² = QQ¢ tan b
Dy
But QQ¢ = = Dy sec a
cos a
Hence y = Dy sec a tan b (17.27)
The sunlit area of the glass is Asun = (X – x) (Y – y)
= (X – Dx tan a) (X – Dy sec a tan b) (17.28)
Note In Fig. 17.16, both vertical and horizontal projections, are shown equal.
Horizontal
Projection
x
Q X
Q
Dy
Vertical
Projection
Q
y
X–
Y
Y–y
x
A P
Dx
Fig. 17.16 Shading on glass due to horizontal and vertical projections
Example 17.5 For a window opening in a south-west wall of a building, the

following data are given
Latitude 40°N
Outside air temperature 40°C
Inside air temperature 25°C
Time and day 1 p.m. on 21st July
Size of glass window 4m´4m
Recess in window 0.4 m
Absorptivity of glass 0.06
The incident radiation normal to the sun’s rays at 40°N latitude is given by
the empirical relation
- 0.182
sin b
In = 1082 e , W/m2
Calculate the total heat gain of the space through the glass. The outside and
inside heat-transfer coefficients from the glass surface may be taken as 23 and 8
W/m2K respectively.
Solution For 21st July d = 20°25¢

Solar Radiation 553
At 1 p.m. h = 15°
Solar altitude angle
sin b = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
= cos 40° cos 15° cos 20°25¢ + sin 40° sin 20°25¢ = 0.9165
b = sin 0.9165 = 66°25¢
Solar azimuth angle
sin h
tan (g – p) =
sin 15°
= = 0.768
sin 40° cos 15° - cos 40° tan 20°25¢
(g – p) = tan–1 0.768 = 37°31¢
g = 180º + 37°31¢
The direction of the sun’s rays is 37°31¢ west of south as shown in Fig. 17.17.
Wall solar azimuth angle, from Fig. 17.17
a = 45° – 37°31¢ = 7°29¢
Sunlit area x = Dx tan a = 0.4 tan 7°29¢ = 0.0525 m
y = Dy sec a tan b = 0.4 sec 7°29¢ tan 66°25¢ = 0.924 m
Asun = (X – x) (Y – y) = (4 – 0.0525) (4 – 0.924) = 12.14 m2
SW Norm
al a = 7° 29
Horizontal Component
of Sun’s Rays 31
45° 37°
S
Total glass area A = XY = 4 ´ 4 = 16 m2

Radiation normal to the sun’s rays
In = 1080 e– 0.182/sin b = 1080 e– 0.182/sin 66°25¢ = 886 W/m2
Direct radition normal to the window
ID = In cos b cos a = 884 cos 66°25¢ cos 7°29¢ = 350 W/m2
Coefficient for diffuse radiation on July 21
C = 0.136
Diffuse radiation
Id = CIn Fss = 0.136 (886) (0.5) = 60 W/m2
Angle of incidence
cos q = cos b cos a = cos 66°25¢ cos 7°29¢ = 0.3966
q = 66°38¢
Transmissivity for direct radiation from Table 17.7
tD = 0.71
Transmissivity for diffuse radiation may be taken as
td = 0.79
Total transmitted radiation
Q 1 = Asun tD ID + Atd Id
= 12.14 (0.71) (350) + 16(0.79) (60) = 3775 W
Overall heat-transfer coefficient
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
U f0 fi 23 8
U = 5.94 W/m2.K
Note This is the value of U through most single-pane glass windows with no storm sash,
and no indoor shading. With no storm sash but with indoor shading, its value is 4.7. With
storm sash having 25 mm air space, the value is 2.6. The value can be further reduced by
employing low emittance coatings.
Energy balance gives
aI = f0 (tg – t0) + fi(tg – ti)
aI + f 0t 0 + f i ti
whence tg =
f 0 + fi
=
a f a f a f
0.06 340 + 62 + 23 40 + 8 25
= 3.9°C
23 + 8
Total absorbed radiation entering the space
A a I + Aad I d
Q 2 = sun D D
f
1+ 0
fi
12.14(0.06)(350) + 16(0.06)(60)
= = 81 W
23
1+
8
Heat entering due to temperature difference
Q 3 = UA (t0 – ti) = 5.94(16) (40 – 25) = 1426 W
Total heat gain through the glass
Q = Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 = 3775 + 81 + 1426 = 5282 W
Note The heat gain due to the absorbed radiation is only 1.5 per cent of the total
heat gain.
Solar Radiation 555
17.9 EFFECT OF SHADING DEVICE2
The effect of the shading device is to further cur- 0.4agI

tail the heat gain of the conditioned space. The I
effectiveness is more if the shading device is out- agI
side the space than when it is inside. This is be- tgI tsd gI
rg I
cause the inside shading devices dissipate all of
I
their absorbed heat into the conditioned space. r sd g
asd g I
They must also reflect the solar heat back to the rg r
sd t
glass which absorbs some of it. On the other gI
hand, the outside shading devices dissipate all
0.4ag rsd gI
their absorbed as well as the reflected radiation
into the surroundings. Figure 17.18 illustrates Glass Venetian
the effect of an inside shading device such as Blinds
venetian blinds.
Consider a radiation I incident on an ordinary
glass surface at an angle of incidence of q, say Fig. 17.18 Heat gain of space
equal to 30° for which transmissivity is 0.86. A through glass with
venetian blinds
part of this radiation will be reflected, a part will shading
be transmitted and a small part, of the order of
5 to 6 per cent, will be absorbed.
The heat absorbed by glass increases its temperature above that of the outside and
inside air. A part of this heat, therefore, travels to the outside and a part to the inside.
It was seen in Examples 17.4 and 17.5 that about 40 per cent of the absorbed radia-
tion enters the space. The total heat gain of the space from the direct solar radiation
is then equal to the sum of the transmitted radiation and about 40 per cent of the
absorbed radiation. Thus, the radiation heat gain through a 6.35 mm thick, regular
plate glass is
Qg = tg I + 0.4ag I = [0.86 + 0.4(0.06)]I = 0.884I
where tg = 0.86 and ag = 0.06 are the transmissivity and absorptivity
of the glass.
Now, if an inside-shading device is used for which the transmissivity, reflectivity
and absorptivity are tsd, rsd and asd respectively, then from Fig. 17.18, the heat gain
of the space to first approximation is
Qsd = [0.4ag + tg(asd + tsd + rsd rg + 0.4agrsd)]I (17.29)
The values of t, r and a for an angle of incidence of 30° for various types of glass
and shading devices are given in Table 17.8. The values for venetian blinds are
tsd = 0.12, rsd = 0.51, asd = 0.37
Accordingly, the radiation heat gain of space through the glass with venetian
blinds is
Qsd = [0.4(0.15) + 0.86(0.37 + 0.12 + 0.51(1 – 0.86 – 0.15)
+ 0.4 (0.15) (0.15))]I = 0.492I
The solar heat-gain factor represents the ratio of the radiation heat gain with the
shading device to that of plain glass. Thus, in the present case, the solar heat-gain
factor is
Qsd 0.492 I
R= = = 0.56.
Qg 0.884 I
Table 17.8 gives such factors for various categories of glass and shading devices.
Table 17.8 Radiation properties of glass and shading devices
Type of Glass Absorptivity Reflectivity Transmissivity Solar

or a a r J Factor
Shading Device R
Ordinary glass 0.06 0.08 0.86 1.00
6.35 mm regular plate 0.15 0.08 0.77 0.94
Heat absorbing glass By mfg 0.05 (1 – 0.05 – a) –
Double pane ord. glass 0.9
Double pane reg. 0.8
plate glass U|
Venetian blind light 0.37 0.51 0.12 0.56
||
ordinary glass
compared to
medium 0.58 0.39 0.03 0.65
dark 0.72 0.27 0.01 0.75 |V
Cotton cloth, beige
Cotton cloth, dark
0.26 0.51 0.23 0.56
||
green 0.02 0.28 0.7 0.76 ||
Dacron cloth, white 0.02 0.28 0.7 0.76
W
17.10 TABLES FOR SOLAR HEAT GAIN THROUGH
ORDINARY GLASS
The factors affecting the solar heat gain through ordinary glass are:
(i) Location of the point on the earth’s surface given by the latitude of the place
(ii) Time of day
(iii) Time of year
(iv) Facing direction of window.
To simplify the air-conditioning calculations of the solar heat gain through ordi-
nary glass, tables have been prepared by Carrier2 Air Conditioning Co. Table 17.9(a)
to (e) provide this data in SI units for latitudes from 0 to 50° from January to Decem-
ber and for each hour of the day. The heat gain includes the direct and diffuse solar
radiation plus the portion of the heat absorbed by glass which enters the room. It is to
be noted that the transfer of heat across the glass—because of the temperature differ-
ence between the outside and the room air—is not included. The data are based on
the following conditions:
(i) Glass windows have a typical wood-sash construction in which the glass area is
equal to 85 per cent of the sash area. Metal-sash windows may be considered all
glass so that a correction factor of 1/0.85 = 1.17 has to be applied to them.
(ii) No haze in the air. For hazy conditions, a reduction up to a maximum of
15 per cent may be made.
Solar Radiation 557
(iii) Sea level elevation. For higher altitudes, an increase of 0.23 per cent per
100 m of height above the mean sea level may be made.
(iv) A sea level dew point temperature of 19.3°C. This corresponds to about 4 cm
of precipitable water vapour which is the water vapour contained in a col-
umn of air from the mean sea level to the outer edge of the atmosphere. For
local DPT above and below 19.3°C, substract and add respectively 6.3 per
cent per 5°C difference in DPT.
(v) North latitude. For south latitude, for December and January, add 7 per cent.
It is seen that the values in Table 17.9 include the transmitted radiation and a part
of the absorbed radiation that enters the space. This is verified in Example 17.5 for
the case of the S-W wall without any shading.
Transmitted radiation
Q 1 = JD ID + Jd Id = 0.71(350) + 0.79(60) = 296 W/m2
Absorbed radiation entering the space
a I + ad Id
Q 2 = D D
1 + f0 / fi
0.06( 350 + 60)
= = 6 W/m2
1 + 23/ 8
Total radiation entering the space
Q = Q 1 + Q 2 = 295 + 6 = 302 W/m2
And considering the glass area as 85 per cent of the actual sash area, the radiation
heat gain of the glass is
Q corrected = Q (0.85) = 302(0.85) = 257 W/m2
The numerical value from Table 17.9(e) for 40°N latitude, on July 23, at 1 p.m.
on a S-W wall is 259 W/m2. It is thus seen that the calculation procedure outlined in
this chapter for solar radiation through glass is extremely precise.
Note As the solar and transmission heat gain through glass forms a major component of
the cooling load in buildings, it is desirable from the point of view of energy conservation
to minimize the glass areas. It is recommended that the glass areas should not exceed 25
per cent of the floor or carpet areas in buildings. Further, a cursory glance at Tables 17.9(a)
through (f) will show that the maximum heat gain is from the west-facing glass. Hence,
providing glass on the walls facing west, south-west and north-west should be avoided,
as far as possible.
Example 17.6 Time of Peak Solar Heat Gain through Glass

A building located at 30°N latitude has equal glass areas on the south and
west walls. Find the time of the peak solar heat gain of the space through the
glass areas in the afternoon.
Table 17.9 (a) Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (W/m2)
558
0° North Latitude a.m. p.m. 0° South Latitude

Time of yr. Exposure 6 7 8 9 10 11 Noon 1 2 3 4 5 6 Exposure Time of yr.
North 0 142 205 233 246 252 259 252 246 233 205 142 0 South
North east 0 375 492 486 426 300 167 63 44 41 35 19 0 South east
East 0 365 464 426 293 136 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 East
South east 0 117 132 85 47 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 North east
June 21 South 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 North December 22
South west 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 47 85 132 117 0 North west
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 136 293 426 464 366 0 West
North west 0 19 35 41 44 63 167 300 420 486 492 375 0 South west
Horizontal 0 88 274 464 603 685 713 685 603 464 274 89 0 Horizontal
North 0 117 170 192 205 208 211 208 205 192 170 117 0 South
North east 0 372 483 473 391 271 136 50 44 41 35 35 0 South-East
East 0 382 479 438 303 136 44 44 44 41 35 35 0 East
July 23 South east 0 145 164 114 57 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 North east Jan. 21
& South 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 North &

May 21 South west 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 57 114 164 145 0 North west Nov. 21
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 136 303 438 479 382 0 West
North 0 54 88 98 104 107 107 107 104 98 88 54 0 South
East 0 407 514 467 325 145 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 East
Aug. 24 South east 0 211 249 205 110 47 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 North east Feb. 20
& South 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 North &
April 20 South west 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 47 110 205 249 211 0 North west Oct. 23
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 145 325 467 514 407 0 West
North 0 19 38 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 South
(Contd)
Table 17.9a (Contd )
East 0 423 527 476 338 148 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 East
Sept. 22 South east 0 300 372 318 215 98 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 North east March 22
& South 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 North &
March 22 South west 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 98 215 319 372 300 0 North west Sept. 22
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 148 338 476 527 426 0 West
North 0 19 38 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 South
East 0 407 514 467 325 145 44 44 44 41 38 19 0 East
Oct. 23 South east 0 347 445 420 322 192 76 44 44 41 38 19 0 North east April 20
& South 0 54 88 98 104 107 107 107 104 98 88 54 0 North &
Feb. 20 South west 0 19 38 41 44 44 76 192 322 420 444 347 0 North west Aug. 24
West 0 19 38 41 44 44 44 145 325 467 514 407 0 West
North 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 South
East 0 382 479 438 303 136 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 East
Nov. 21 South east 0 372 483 473 391 271 136 50 44 41 35 19 0 North May 21
& South 0 117 170 192 205 208 211 208 205 192 170 117 0 North &
Jan. 21 South west 0 19 35 41 44 50 136 271 39 473 483 372 0 North west July 23
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 136 303 438 479 382 0 West
North 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 South
East 0 366 463 426 293 136 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 East
Dec. 22 South 0 142 205 233 246 252 259 252 246 233 68 142 0 North June 21
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 136 293 426 464 366 0 West
Solar Radiation 559
Table 17.9 (b) Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (W/m2)
560

North 60 139 160 142 139 136 129 136 139 142 158 139 6 South
East 170 423 489 438 309 129 44 44 44 41 35 25 6 East
June 21 South 6 25 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 25 6 North Dec. 22
West 6 25 35 41 44 44 44 129 309 438 489 423 170 West
North 16 107 123 110 104 90 94 98 104 110 123 107 16 South
East 158 426 498 448 309 136 44 44 44 41 35 22 3 East
& South 3 22 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 22 3 North &

West 3 22 35 41 44 44 44 136 309 448 498 426 158 West
North 3 47 50 47 47 44 44 44 47 47 50 47 3 South
East 79 435 514 470 328 145 44 44 44 41 35 22 East
& South 3 22 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 22 3 North &
West 3 22 35 41 44 44 44 145 252 470 514 435 79 West
North 3 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 3 South
(Contd)
Table 17.9b (Contd )
East 3 410 517 476 334 148 44 44 44 41 35 19 3 East
& South 3 19 35 50 76 85 88 85 76 60 41 19 3 North &
March 22 South west 3 19 35 41 44 44 66 177 297 385 401 306 3 North west Sept 22
West 3 19 35 41 44 44 44 148 334 476 517 410 3 West
North 0 16 32 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 32 15 0 South
East 0 372 489 457 315 126 44 44 44 41 32 15 0 East
& South 0 57 126 173 205 240 230 224 205 173 126 57 0 North &
West 0 16 32 41 44 44 44 126 315 457 489 372 0 West
North 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 South
East 0 312 451 416 293 123 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 East
Nov. 21 South east 0 312 483 508 461 328 221 98 54 38 28 13 0 North east May 21
& South 0 110 205 287 303 328 334 328 303 287 205 110 0 North &
West 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 123 293 416 451 312 0 West
North 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 South
East 0 271 432 410 287 132 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 East
Dec. 21 South 0 158 233 297 344 366 379 366 344 297 233 158 0 North
South west 0 13 28 38 73 114 233 382 470 514 486 312 0 North west June 21
West 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 132 287 410 432 271 0 West
Solar Radiation 561
Table 17.9 (c) Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (W/m2)
562

North 88 129 104 79 60 54 47 54 60 79 104 129 88 South
East 256 467 505 451 303 129 44 44 44 44 38 28 9 East
West 10 28 38 44 44 44 44 129 303 451 505 467 256 West
North 63 88 73 54 47 44 44 44 47 54 73 88 63 South
East 237 467 514 457 312 145 44 44 44 41 38 25 9 East
& South 10 25 38 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 25 9 North &

West 10 25 38 41 44 44 44 145 312 457 514 467 237 West
North 19 32 25 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 32 19 South
East 167 448 521 470 334 161 44 44 44 41 35 22 6 East
Aug. 24 South east 92 281 357 349 309 173 63 44 44 41 35 22 6 North west Feb.20
& South 6 22 35 44 63 76 82 76 63 44 35 22 6 North &
West 6 22 35 41 44 44 44 161 334 471 520 448 167 West
North 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 South
(Contd)
Table 17.9c (Contd )
East 0 410 514 470 328 142 44 44 44 41 35 19 0 East
& South 0 25 69 120 164 199 205 199 164 120 69 69 0 North &
West 0 19 35 41 44 44 44 142 328 470 514 410 0 West
North 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 South
East 0 312 464 445 315 155 44 44 41 38 28 13 0 East
& South 0 66 158 240 293 334 350 334 293 298 156 66 0 North &
West 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 155 315 366 464 312 0 West
North west 0 13 28 38 41 44 44 44 41 91 164 139 0 South west 6:8
North 0 10 25 35 41 41 41 41 41 35 25 9 0 South
East 0 224 404 401 287 136 41 41 41 35 25 9 0 East
Nov. 21 South east 0 230 454 517 498 426 287 145 50 35 25 9 0 North east
& South 0 88 218 315 388 429 445 429 388 315 217 88 0 North
Jan. 21 South west 0 10 25 35 50 145 287 426 498 517 454 230 0 North west
West 0 10 25 35 39 41 41 136 287 401 404 224 0 West May. 21
North west 0 10 25 35 39 41 41 41 41 35 82 76 0 South east &
Horizontal 0 16 151 319 461 542 568 460 460 319 151 16 0 Horizontal July 23
North 0 6 22 35 38 41 41 41 38 35 22 6 0 South
East 0 177 372 382 268 107 41 41 38 35 22 6 0 East
West 0 6 22 35 38 41 41 107 268 382 372 177 0 West
Solar Radiation 563
Table 17.9 (d) Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (W/m2)
564

North 104 91 57 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 51 91 104 South
East 340 492 508 451 309 139 44 44 44 44 38 32 16 East
West 16 32 38 44 44 44 44 138 309 451 508 492 341 West
North 69 63 76 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 44 63 69 South
East 315 489 517 457 312 139 41 44 44 41 38 28 13 East
& South 13 28 38 44 63 85 95 85 63 44 38 28 13 North &

West 13 28 38 41 44 44 44 139 312 457 517 489 315 West
North 19 25 34 41 41 44 44 44 41 41 35 25 19 South
East 208 148 520 467 322 145 44 44 41 41 35 25 6 East
& South 6 25 41 85 148 183 199 183 148 85 41 25 6 North &
West 6 25 35 41 41 44 44 145 322 467 520 464 208 West
North 0 16 32 38 41 44 44 44 41 38 32 16 0 South
(Contd)
Table 17.9d (Contd )
East 0 391 498 454 325 151 44 44 41 38 32 16 0 East
Sept.22 South east 0 309 413 430 445 356 211 79 41 38 32 16 0 North east March 22
& South 0 28 57 189 259 309 311 309 259 189 57 28 0 North &
West 0 16 32 38 41 44 44 151 325 454 498 391 0 West
North 0 9 25 35 38 41 44 41 38 35 25 9 0 South
East 0 249 426 416 297 136 44 41 38 35 25 9 0 East
& South 0 57 180 290 382 438 457 438 382 290 180 57 0 North &
West 0 9 25 35 38 41 44 136 297 416 426 249 0 West
North 0 23 19 28 35 38 38 38 35 28 19 3 0 South
East 0 85 34 366 262 110 38 38 35 28 19 3 0 East
& South 0 32 215 344 432 486 502 486 432 344 216 32 0 North &
West 0 3 19 28 35 38 38 110 262 366 344 85 0 West
North 0 0 13 28 235 38 38 38 35 28 13 0 0 South
East 0 0 290 331 252 101 38 38 35 28 13 0 0 East
Dec. 22 South 0 0 202 356 448 502 514 502 448 356 202 0 0 North
South west 0 0 13 28 88 227 341 451 511 495 360 0 0 North west June 21
West 0 0 13 28 35 38 38 101 88 331 290 0 0 West
Solar Radiation 565
Table 17.9 (e) Solar heat gain through ordinary glass (W/m2)
566

North east 101 63 38 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 63 101 South
North 372 420 353 230 495 44 44 44 44 41 38 32 19 South east
East 397 508 511 448 300 139 44 44 44 41 38 32 19 East
West 19 32 38 41 44 44 44 139 300 448 511 508 397 West
North 19 32 38 41 44 44 44 44 95 230 353 420 372 South west
North 76 44 38 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 38 44 76 South
East 372 508 517 454 309 136 44 44 44 41 38 32 16 East
& South 16 32 41 82 139 199 218 199 139 82 41 32 16 North &
West 16 32 38 41 44 44 44 136 309 454 517 508 372 West
North 22 25 35 41 44 44 44 44 44 41 35 25 22 South
East 265 464 511 457 319 142 44 44 44 41 35 25 9 East
& South 9 25 76 161 281 306 322 306 281 161 76 25 9 North &
West 9 25 35 41 44 44 44 142 319 457 511 464 265 West
North 0 16 28 38 41 41 44 41 41 38 28 16 0 South
East 0 366 470 438 312 142 44 41 41 38 28 16 0 East
South east 0 300 454 511 495 420 284 129 44 38 28 16 0 Noth east March 22
(Contd)
Table 17.9e (Contd )
Sept. 22 South 0 38 139 256 347 385 442 385 347 256 139 38 0 North &
& South west 0 16 28 38 44 129 284 420 495 511 454 300 0 North west Sept. 22
March 22 West 0 16 28 38 41 41 44 142 312 438 470 366 0 West
North 0 16 19 32 35 38 38 38 35 32 19 6 0 South
East 0 269 369 385 278 123 38 38 35 32 19 6 0 East
& South 0 66 186 328 432 486 511 486 432 328 186 66 0 North &
West 0 6 19 32 35 38 38 123 278 385 369 268 0 West
North 0 0 9 22 28 32 35 32 28 22 9 0 0 South
East 0 0 287 315 233 104 35 32 28 22 9 0 0 East
& South 0 0 186 328 438 498 524 498 438 328 186 0 0 North &
West 0 0 9 22 28 32 35 104 233 315 287 0 0 West
North 0 0 6 19 28 32 32 32 28 19 6 0 0 South
East 0 0 227 271 215 98 32 32 28 19 6 0 0 East
West 0 0 6 19 28 32 32 98 215 271 227 0 0 West
Solar Radiation 567
Solution The peak solar heat gain through the glass areas will correspond to the
time of the maximum solar radiation through the glass areas. Hence taking values
from Table 17.9 for the south and west side glass areas on June 22 at different hours
and adding, we get the average radiation heat gain per 2 m2 glass area, as given in
Table 17.10.
Table 17.10 Solar radiation gain through glass on June 22
Time 2 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m.

South glass, W/m2 47 44 38 32
West glass, W/m2 309 451 508 492
Total, W/m2 356 495 546 524
It is seen that the peak load occurs at 4 p.m.
17.11 THE FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR
Solar radiation in buildings may be an unwanted quantity as far as summer cooling is

concerned. But for winter heating it can be a very useful aid. Attempts have been
made to trap this energy for heating water and air.
Utilization of solar energy requires a solar collector of which there are two types:
(i) Absorption type or the flat-plate collector.
(ii) Reflecting type or the concentrating collector.
The reflecting type has to be continuously rotated with the changing altitude of
the sun. Also, its collecting area which is formed by a short width along the focal
point/axis of the reflecting surface is very small. The flat-plate collector is quite
popular. It is commonly employed for water or air heating.
A schematic diagram of a flat-plate collector is shown in Fig. 17.19.
Carrier Fluid
Air or Water
Insulation Collector
Air Space
Glass-plate
ts
ID
t0
Id t0
t
qF = UF (ts – t0)
qB = UB (t – t0)
Black
Absorbing
Surface
Reflecting
Surface
Fig. 17.19 Schematic diagram of a flat-plate collector
Solar Radiation 569
It essentially consists of a flat surface of high absorptivity. Generally, selectively

coated black surfaces-with high absorptivity and low emissivity-of highly conduct-
ing materials like copper, aluminium and galvanized iron in that order are used. Heat
is carried away by a carrier fluid, such as air or water, flowing on the back-side of
the plate. Heat loss from the plate to the ambient from the front-side is reduced by
covering it and sealing it with transparent diathermaneous material, such as glass
or thin plastic film, which transmits high temperature short wavelength radiation
from the sun to the plate, but is incapable of transmitting the low temperature long
wavelength radiation from the plate to the ambient. Thus, sun’s radiation is trapped
in the collector. Further, the heat loss from the carrier fluid to the ambient from the
back-side is eliminated to a great extent by providing insulation. And to improve
heat transfer between the plate and the fluid, extended surface/fins are provided.
In the simplified analysis, by energy balance, we have for the heat Q received by
the plate, and then transferred to the fluid and the ambient from the front side
Q = (Asun ID JD + A Id Jd) =s= U0 A0 (ts – t) + UF A (ts – t0) (17.30)
where A = Collector surface area
Asun = Collector surface area receiving direct radiation ID
ID, Id = Direct and diffuse components of solar radiation
JD, Jd = Transmissivity of glass for direct and diffuse radiation
=s = Absorptivity of plate for radiation
A0 = Extended surface area on the side of fluid
U0 = Overall heat-transfer coefficient from plate to fluid
UF, UB = Overall heat-transfer coefficients from plate to ambient
from front side, and from fluid to ambient from back side.
t0, ts, t = Ambient, plate surface and fluid temperatures.
Considering an elemental plate surface area dA over which the temperature of the
fluid rises by dt, we have:
A
m C dt = U0 0 d A (ts – t) – UB dA (t – t0) (17.31)
A
where m is the mass flow rate of the carrier fluid, and C is its specific heat.
Now, eliminating ts between Eqs (17.30) and (17.31), and integrating, we get
z
t2
- K2 d t
t1
b
K1 - K2 t - t0 g
= – K3 (17.32)
FA I
where K1 =
HA sun
K
I Dτ D + Id τ d α s
=
Q /A
U A U A
1+ F 1+ F
U0 A0 U0 A0
UF
K2 =
U A
1+ F
U 0 A0
A
K3 = K2

mC
Equation (17.32) gives, for the rise in temperature of the carrier fluid
D t = t2 – t 1 =
LM K - bt - t gOP (1 – e
1 –K3
NK Q
1 0 ) (17.33)
2
The rate of heat collection is given by
Q = m C D t
and the collector efficiency by
Heat collected per unit area Q / A
Dc = =
Solar intensity I D + Id
It can be seen that the heat collection rate depends on a number of factors includ-
ing the orientation of the collector. In general, the collector should face south in the
northern hemisphere, and its surface should be normal to the sun’s rays as far as
possible. The optimum angle of tilt from the horizontal position for winter operation
is 10 to 20 degrees greater than the latitude angle of the place. The optimum angle of
tilt for summer operation is taken as equal to the latitude angle.
Equation (17.33) shows that for maximum t2, K3 should be ¥, so that m = 0.
Under these conditions, Q = 0 and t2 = t1 = ts. Then, if A0 and A are equal, we have
Q
(UF + UB) (ts – t 0) = (17.34)
A
Equation (17.34) gives the maximum value of the surface temperature ts. This
temperature is called the stagnation temperature of the plate.
In case the collector is used for evaporation of a liquid as a boiler for power
generation or as a generator for vapour absorption refrigeration system, the tempera-
ture of the carrier fluid is constant, viz., t2 = t1. Then, if hfg is the latent heat of
vaporization of the carrier fluid, Eq. (17.31) will give
m hfg = U0 A0 (ts – t) – UB A (t – t0)
and solving this with Eq. (17.30), we get
A
m = [K1 – K2 (t – t0)] (17.35)
h fg
since K3 = 0.
Example 17.7 Solar Air Heater Design

A flate plate solar collector at latitude of 34° for heating 300 kg/hr of outside air
from –10°C to 0°C on a clear January 21st day. Design for solar noon time.
Keep angle of tilt to the horizontal as 50°. Take: Asun = A,JD = Jd = 0.8,= = 0.9,
UF = 5.2, U0 = 30, UB = 0.6 W/m2.K, A0/A = 2
Solution Here l = 34°; d = – 19.9°, h = 0, = = 0

B = 90 – 50 = 40°
sin > = cos l cos h cos d + sin l sin d
= cos 34° cos 0° cos 19.9° – sin 34° sin 19.9° = 0.5885
Þ > = 36°
Solar Radiation 571
cos G = cos > cos = cos B + sin > sin B

= 0.808 ´ 1 ´ 0.766 + 0.5885 ´ 0.0428 = 0.9985
In = 1082 e–0.182/sin > = 798 W/m2
ID = In cos G = 797 W/m2
1 1
Fss = (1 + sin B) = (1 + 0.6426) = 0.813
2 2
C = 0.058 on Jan 21
Id = CFss In = 0.058 (0.813) (798) = 37.6 W/m2
Calculations for the collector
bI J g
+ IdJ d = s b
0.8 ´ 0.9 797 + 37.6 g
FG A IJ FG IJ
D D
K1 = = = 552.8
5.2 1
HK
UF
1+
U0 HA K
0
1+
30 2
UF 5.2
K2 =
U A
+ UB =
5.2 1 FG IJ + 0.6 = 5.384
1+ F
U 0 A0
1+
30 2 HK
The temperature of entering air is t1 = t0. Hence t 1 – t0 = 0.
LM K - bt - t gOP (1 – e ) –K3
NK Q
1
t2 – t1 = 10 = 1 0
2
L552.8 - 0OP (1 – e ) = 102.7 (1 – e

= M –K3 –K3
N5.384 Q
)
A Ab5.384g
Þ K3 = 2.33 =
mC
K =
p
2
b300/ 3600ga1,005f
Þ A = 36.3 m2
Note that t represents the temperature of air.
References
1. Bull L C, ‘Solar radiation and air conditioning’, Heat. Vent. Engr., April
1961.
2. Carrier Air Conditioning Co., Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
3. Chawla O P, Proceedings of the Q.I.P Short Term Course on Applications of
Solar and Wind Energy, IIT Delhi, 1977.
4. Eastop T D and J M Gasiorek, Air Conditioning through Worked Examples,
Longmans Green, London, 1968.
5. Groundwater I S, Solar Radiation in Air Conditioning, Crosby Lockwood,
1957.
6. Jones W P, Air Conditioning Engineering, 2nd Ed., Edward Arnold, London
1973.
7. Moon P, ‘Proposed standard solar radiation curves for engineering use’,

J. Franklin Institute, Vol. 230, p. 583, 1940.
8. Olgyay and Olgyay, Solar Control and Shading Devices, Princeton Univer-
sity Press, Princeton, 1957.
9. Robinson N, Solar Radiation, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1966.
10. Stewart J P, ‘Solar heat gain through walls and roofs for cooling load calcula-
tions’, Trans. ASHVE, Vol. 54, pp. 361–68, 1948.
11. Thekaekara M P and A J Drummond, ‘Standard values for the solar constant
and its special components’, Nat. Phys. Sci., Vol. 229, p. 6, 1971.
12. Threlkeld J H, Thermal Environmental Engineering, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1962.
Revision Exercises
17.1 A factory in Delhi (latitude 30°N) has a sloping glass roof 30 m long and 6 m
wide, the glass facing south-west lengthwise and making an angle of 30° with
the horizontal. Calculate the heat gain through the glass in kW at solar noon
on June 21. The following information is given:
Intensity of direct solar radiation on a
plane normal to the sun’s rays 910 W/m2
Intensity of diffuse radiation 142 W/m2
Transmissivity of glass 0.8
Reflectivity of glass 0.1
Inside heat-transfer coefficient 10 W/m2K
Outside heat-transfer coefficient 28 W/m2K
Inside air temperature 35°C
17.2 (a) Calculate the area of the shaded portion of a window that is recessed by
50 cm from the surface of the wall. The following information is given:
Altitude of the sun 43°
Solar azimuth 66° west of south
Orientation of window Facing south-west
Dimensions of window 3m´3m
(b) Also calculate the depth of recess that would result in the entire window
being shaded.
17.3 (a) Figure 17.20 shows the orientation of buildings A and B located at a
place at 20°N latitude. Make a table showing the dimensions of the area
of the shadow produced on the face of building A by building B at noon
on the 21st of every month.
(b) If the intensity of the direct solar radiation normal to sun’s rays is 850
W/m2, and the sun’s declination is 23°, calculate the value of the direct
solar radiation on the road-side face of building A.
Solar Radiation 573
36 m
Building A
30 m High 10 m
N E
R O AD 12 m
Building B
12 m W 60°
36 m High
18 m 25 m S
Fig. 17.20 Figure for Problem 17.3
17.4 Determine the following at 3 P.M. solar time at 30°N latitude.

(i) Altitude and solar azimuth angle on June 21.
(ii) Angle of incidence on June 8 on a vertical wall facing south.
(iii) Direct solar radiation on June 21.
(iv) Diffuse radiation on a roof facing SE with B = 60° on July 21.
(v) Instantaneous heat gain through 3 m wide ´ 2.5 m high glass window
facing SE recessed 0.4 m inside. Outside and inside temperatures are
40°C and 25°C.
17.5 A flat plate solar collector is to be designed for Delhi (30°N latitude) to
evaporate 50 kg/h of liquid ammonia. The plane of the collector plate facing
south may be tilted at 45° to the horizontal. Determine the required collector
plate area. Assume suitable values for heat—transfer coefficients, etc.
&
Heat Transfer through
Building Structures
18.1 FABRIC HEAT GAIN
After the solar and transmission heat gain through glass, the most important heat
gain or loss to be considered in the air conditioning of buildings is the heat transfer
through walls, roof, ceiling, floor, etc., i.e., the building structure. The load due to
such heat transfer is often referred to as the fabric heat gain or loss. In this connec-
tion, it is to be considered whether a particular wall or roof is exposed to the sun or
not. In the case of a sunlit wall or roof, the heat gain of the room will be more in
comparison to a shaded one, as the outside surface temperature of the wall or roof
will increase above the outside air temperature due to the incident solar radiation.
The conduction heat transfer through the wall or roof will depend on the thick-
ness and the thermal conductivity of the material used. In addition, there will be
convection and radiation from both the outside and inside surfaces. Hence, the
steady-state heat transfer is expressed in terms of an overall heat-transfer coefficient
U and the overall temperature difference between the outside and inside D t = (t 0 – ti)
as given by Eq. (18.1). Also, the wall may consist of composite layers of different
materials including insulation. In that case, U will incorporate the effect of all the
materials. In the first instance, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the value of the
overall heat-transfer coefficient U.
Further, since the outside air temperature and solar radiation vary almost periodi-
cally over the 24 hours, it is required to establish a method to evaluate the transient
heat transfer instead of using Eq. (18.1) which is only applicable to steady-state
heat transfer.
18.2 OVERALL HEAT-TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT
A wall may be composite, consisting of many sections of different construction and

insulating materials. Also, the outside and inside wall surfaces may exchange heat
by convection and radiation with the surrounding atmosphere. Thus, there will be
Heat Transfer through Building Structures 575
more than one thermal resistance to heat transfer. Taking into account the number of
layers of different materials with varying thickness D x and thermal conductivity k, we
have for the overall heat-transfer coefficient and overall thermal resistance R
Dt
q = UD t = (18.1)
R
so that the overall heat-transfer coefficient may be calculated from the relation
1 1 ∆x 1 1
=R= + ∑ + ∑ + (18.2)
U f0 k C fi
In Eq. (18.2), conductances C have been included which are equivalent to the
value of k/D x for a material. For some materials such as plaster, hollow tiles, etc., data
are available in the form of conductance C instead of the thermal conductivity k.
These values of C are only applicable to the prescribed thickness D x. Also, f0 and fi in
the equation represent the heat-transfer coefficients for combined convection and
radiation from the outside and inside wall surfaces respectively. These terms are
also referred to as surface conductances.
The properties of thermal conductivity, conductance, specific heat, density, etc.,
are referred to as thermophysical properties. The same for the common building and
insulating materials are given in Table 18.1.
Note Typical value of U for 22.5 cm brick wall with 1.25 cm plaster on both sides is
2.14 W/m2°C. The same for 13.75 cm RCC slab roof with 1.9 cm plaster is 3.7 W/m2°C. Note
the need for insulating roofs, particularly, since they are exposed to sol. air temperature
and not just DBT of outside air (see sec. 18.3.1).
18.2.1 Surface Conductance

The heat transfer between the wall surface and the surrounding air is mainly by
convection and to some extent by radiation.
In still air, the convective heat transfer is by natural convection. The heat flux by
natural convection can be approximated by a relation of the type
qC = K (Dt)5/4 (18.3)
Expressing the heat flux in terms of the convective coefficient fC, we have
qC = fC (Dt) (18.4)
From Eqs (18.3) and (18.4), the convective coefficient is
fC = K (D t)1/4 = 1.42 (D t/L)1/4 (18.5)
where L is the vertical or horizontal dimension in m.
In actual cases, however, the air is in motion as a result of the wind velocity, and
the convective coefficients are higher.
The radiation component of the heat flux is expressed by the relation
qR = es (T w4 – T 4¥ ) (18.6)
Table 18.1 Thermophysical properties of selected building and insulating materials
Specific Density Thermal

Material Description Heat Conductivity Conductance
kJ/kg.K kg/m3 W/m.K W/m2K
Asphalt 0.74-0.76
Bricks Common 0.84 1600 0.77
Face brick 0.84 2000 1.32
Diatomaceous (fired) 0.24
Firebrick
(500 to 1100) 0.96 2000 1.04 to 1.09
Magnesite
(200 to 1200) 1.13
Woods Ply — 544 0.1
Hard 2.39 720 0.158
Soft 2.72 512 0.1
Masonary Concrete 0.88 1920 1.73
Materials Plaster, cement 0.796 1885 8.65
Hollow clay
tiles, 10 cm — — — 5.23
20 cm — — — 3.14
30 cm — — — 2.33
Hollow concrete
blocks, 10 cm — — 8.14
20 cm — — 5.23
30 cm — — 4.54
Foam concrete 210–704 0.043–0.128
(Precast slabs for roof)
Glass Window 0.84 2700 0.78
Corosilicate 2200 1.09
Insulating Mineral or
Materials glass wool 0.67 24–64 0.038
Rockwool — 64 0.067
Fibreglass board 0.7 64-144 0.038
Cork board 1.884 104–128 0.038
Cork granulated 1.88 45–120 0.045
Expanded polysterene
(Thermocole) — 30 0.037
PUF (Polyurethane 0.0173
Foam)
Diatomaceous
earth — 320 0.061
Felt — 330 0.052
Insulex, dry — — 0.064
Kapok — — 0.035
Magnesia — 270 0.067
Asbestos 0.816 470–570 0.154
where e is the emissivity of the wall surface, and Tw and T¥ are the absolute tempera-
tures of the wall and air respectively. Also, the Stefan-Boltzman constant is
s = 5.669 ´ 10–8 W/m2 K4
Expressing in terms of a radiative coefficient fR, we have
qR = fR (D t) (18.7)
so that
es
fR = (T w4 – T ¥4 ) (18.8)
Dt
The combined convection and radiation heat flux is given by
q = qC + qR = (fC + fR) D t = fD t
where f = (fC + fR) represents the net surface conductance or heat-transfer coeffi-
cient. In turn, 1/f represents the thermal resistance of the surface. Practical values of
the outside and inside wall-surface coefficients for various orientations, air veloci-
ties and surface emissivities are given in Table 18.2.
Table 18.2 Surface heat transfer coefficients f, W/m2 K
Orientation of Air Direction Surface Emissivity

Surface Velocity of Heat 0.9 0.7 0.5
Flow
Horizontal Still air Up 9.4 5.2 4.4
Horizontal Still air Down 6.3 2.2 1.3
Vertical Still air Horizontal 8.5 4.3 3.5
Any position 25 kmph Any 35 — —
Any position 12.5 kmph Any 23.3 — —
18.2.2 Air Spaces

The construction of many structures includes an air space between the wall materi-
als. This air space may be narrow, such as a cavity of 5 cm or less in a 55 cm thick
brick wall, or large such as the air space of a void between a flat ceiling and a pitched
roof. The air space helps to reduce heat transfer and thus acts as an insulation. Heat
transfer is greatly affected by surface emissivities and the width and orientation of
the air space.
A greater natural convection results when the air space is vertical than when it is
horizontal or sloping.
When the surfaces are close together, the natural air movement is suppressed and
the heat transfer is by conduction alone. The thickness being very small, the resist-
ance of the gap is very low and conductance is high.
As the width of the gap increases, the conduction component of heat transfer
decreases rapidly to the extent that it becomes negligible, but convection comes into
play as a result of which the overall conductance of the gap is not decreased very
much. This is illustrated in Fig. 18.1
It is seen that for a gap of more than 2.5 cm, there is hardly any improvement in
the insulation characteristic of the air space. This is due to an increase in internal
convection. The conductive heat transfer is insignificant and the convective coeffi-
cient reaches a constant value. For a gap of 3 cm or more, the heat transfer may,
therefore, be considered mainly by convection and radiation.
5
4
Overall Coefficient, W/m2°C
2
t = 10°C
t = 5°C
1
Conduction
only
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Air Space, cm
Fig. 18.1 Heat transfer across an air gap
Consider an air gap in a wall as shown in

Fig. 18.2. The two surfaces of the wall are at
temperatures t1 and t2. Let the convective and
radiative components of the heat flux between t1
the two surfaces be qC and qR respectively. t2
Now convection occurs on both the surfaces. q
Thus if fC is the convective coefficient for one
surface, the total convective resistance is given by
1 1 2
+ =
fC fC fC
The reciprocal of this, viz., fC/2 becomes the fc fc
effective convective coefficient between the two
Fig. 18.2 Air gap in a wall
surfaces, and the convective heat flux is given by
f
qC = C (t1 – t2) (18.9)
2
Considering the surfaces as comprising infinite parallel planes, we have for the
radiative flux
qR = F 12s (T 41 – T 42) = fR(t1 – t2) (18.10)
where
1
F 12 =
1 1
+ -1
e1 e 2
is the shape factor in which e1 and e 2 are the emissivities of the two wall surfaces.
With non-reflecting surfaces, as is usual in building construction, the emissivities
can be taken as equal to 0.82. Equation (18.10) gives the value of the radiative
coefficient fR. Then, by adding Eqs (18.9) and (18.10), we obtain for the total heat
flux between the wall surfaces
q = qC + qR
FG f IJ
H2 + fR
K
C
= (t1 – t2) = C(t1 – t2) (18.11)
where C represents the overall conductance between the two wall surfaces.
Table 18.3 gives the thermal conductance for air spaces of three widths with
different orientations and at two different mean temperatures.
Table 18.3 Thermal conductance C of air spaces
Position Direction of Width Conductance

Heat Flow cm W/m2 °C
Mean Temperature = 10°C
Horizontal Up 2.1 6.7
11.6 6.2
Down 2.1 5.7
4.2 5.1
11.6 4.8
Vertical Horizontal 2.1 5.8
11.6 5.8
Mean Temperature = 32°C
Horizontal Up 2.1 7.7
11.6 7.2
Down 2.1 7.0
4.2 6.2
11.6 5.8
Vertical Horizontal 2.1 7.0
11.6 6.9
Example 18.1 Effect of Air Space and Insulation

(a) Figure 18.3 shows the construction of a wall consisting of 1.5 cm of cement
plaster, 10 cm each of hollow clay tile and air space, 20 cm of concrete block
and 10 cm of face brick. Assume an outside velocity of 25 kmph. Calculate the
heat-transmission coefficient of the wall with and without the air space.
(b) Calculate the same if the air space is filled with a bat of glass-fibre insulation.
Solution (a) From Tables 18.1, 18.2 and 18.3

fi = 8.5 W/m2 K (still air)
f0 = 35 W/m2 K (at 25 kmph)
k1 = 8.65 W/mK
C2 = 5.23 W/m2K
C3 = 6.9 W/m2K
C4 = 5.23 W/m2K
k5 = 1.32 W/mK
1 2 3 4 5
Tile Air Concrete Face

Space Block Brick
k1 C 2 C3 C4 k5
Plaster
f0 fi
Fig. 18.3 Construction of wall for Example 18.1
With air space

Total thermal resistance
1 D x1 1 1 1 D x5 1
R= + + + + + +
f0 k1 C2 C3 C4 k5 fi
1 0.015 1 1 1 0.1 1
= + + + + + + = 0.7609 m2 K/W
35 8.65 5.23 6.9 5.23 1.32 8.5
1 1
U= = = 1.33 W/m2 K
R 0.7609
Without air space
1 1
R = 0.7609 – = 0.7609 – = 0.63 m3 K/W
C3 6.9
1
U= = 1.62 W/m2 K
0.63
Note The air space reduces heat transfer by (1.62 – 1.33)/1.62 or 19 per cent. The contri-
bution of air space is small in this heavy construction. Air space is more effective in lighter
constructions, and also in roofs exposed to sun (sunlit roofs).
(b) Air space filled with glass fibre From Table 18.1 for glass fibre
k3 = 0.038 W/mK
Then
0.1
R = 0.63 + = 2.5316 m2 K/W
0.038
1
U= = 0.31 W/m2 K
2.5316
Note Case(a) represents a typical construction of a wall for an air-conditioned building,

whereas case (b) represents the wall construction for a cold storage with a minimum low
temperature insulation thickness of 10 cm.
Glass wool reduces heat transfer by (1.62 – 0.31)/1.62, viz., 80.8%.
18.3 PERIODIC HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH

WALLS AND ROOFS
Heat transmission through the walls and roofs of building structures is not steady
and is therefore, difficult to evaluate. The two principal factors causing this are:
(i) The variation of the outside air temperature-over a period of 24 hours.
(ii) The variation of the solar radiation intensity that is incident upon the surface
over a period of 24 hours.
The phenomenon is further complicated by the fact that a wall has a thermal
capacity due to which a certain amount of heat passing through it is stored and is
transmitted to the outside and/or inside at some later time.
Figure 18.4 shows a typical variation of the outside air temperature and radiation
on a hot summer day. The maximum temperatures usually occur just 2–3 hours after
solar noon while the minimum temperatures occur just before sunrise. The outside
air temperature t0 follows nearly a harmonic variation. The mean line is shown at
temperature t0m.
800
700
I
600 40
t0
ID
500
t0m
I, W / m2
t0, °C
400 30
300
200 20
Id
100
0 10
12 4 8 12 4 8 12
Noon
Midnight Solar Time Midnight
Fig. 18.4 Typical variation of solar radiation and outside air temperature
during day
Whereas the combined effect of the solar radiation and outside air temperature
can be incorporated into a single effective temperature as discussed in Sec. 18.3.1,
the problem requires a solution of the governing equation for unsteady-state one-
dimensional heat transfer, viz.,
¶t ¶ 2t
=a (18.12)
¶t ¶ x2
where t is the temperature at any section of the wall at a distance x from the surface
at time t, and a is the thermal diffusivity given by
k
a=
rC
where k is the thermal conductivity and r C is the heat capacity of the wall, in which
r and C are density and specific heat respectively. Equation (18.12) is to be solved
with the boundary condition of periodic variation of the outside air temperature and
solar radiation. The analytical solution of the problem requires many assumptions
and is extremely cumbersome. In this chapter we shall lay stress on the numerical
finite difference solution and the empirical methods invariably used by practicing
engineers.
18.3.1 Sol-Air Temperature

For calculations of heat transfer through structures, it has been found convenient
to combine the effect of the outside air temperature and incident solar radiation
intensity into a single quantity as was introduced by Mackey and Wright.7 For the
purpose, an expression for the rate of heat transfer from the environment to the
outside surface of the wall may be written as
q0 = f0 (t0 – ts0) + aI (18.13) t ts 0
0
where f 0 is the outside film-coefficient of heat
transfer, ts0 is the temperature of the outside
surface, a the absorptivity of the surface and I
I
the total radiation intensity, as shown in Fig. 18.5.
Introducing an equivalent temperature te we
may write for the heat-transfer rate
q0 = f0(te – ts0) (18.14) q0
Wall
Then , from Eqs (18.13) and (18.14)
aI
te = t0 + (18.15)
f0 f0
This temperature te is called the sol-air tem-
perature and can be considered as an equivalent
outside air temperature such that the total heat
Fig. 18.5 Heat transfer to
transferred is the same as due to the combined
outside surface
effect of the incident solar radiation and outside of a building
air and the wall temperature difference. wall
Example 18.2 Calculate the instantaneous sol-air temperature for a wall

with the following conditions:
Total of direct and diffuse solar radiation 260 W/m2
Absorptivity of surface 0.9
Outside surface heat-transfer coefficient 23 W/m2 K
Solution Sol-air temperature

aI 0.9 ´ 260
te = t0 + = 35 + = 45.2°C
f0 23
Note For all purposes of heat transfer through building structures, the sol-air temperature
may be used instead of the dry bulb temperature of the outside air and the solar radiation
separately.
18.3.2 Analytical Solution to Periodic Heat-transfer Problem

In this section, we shall see the form of the analytical solution of Eq. (18.12) derived
by Alford et al.1
Figure 18.6 shows an infinite wall of homogeneous construction for which the
boundary conditions in terms of the heat fluxes q0 and qi on the outside and inside
surface respectively are
FG ¶ t IJ
q0 = – k
H ¶ xK x = 0
= f0(t e – ts0) (18.16)
F ¶t I
q =–k G J
i
H ¶ xK x = L
= fi(tsi – ti) (18.17)
where ts0 and tsi are the outside and inside wall-surface temperatures, and the outside
sol-air temperature is given by the periodic equation9
ts0 tsi
Ambient at q0 qi Room at ti
t0
f0 fi
x
Fig. 18.6 One-dimensional heat transfer through a homogeneous wall
te = te + te cos (w1t – y1)

m 1
+ te cos (w2t – y2) + K + (18.18)
2
where te is the mean outside sol-air temperature te and w1, y1, etc., are numerical
m
values in the various harmonics. It is obvious that a solution for the inside wall-
surface temperature tsi will also be periodic. Its solution along with Eq. (18.17) gives
the following solution9 for heat gain of the space maintained at a constant tempera-
ture ti.
q = qi = fi (tsi – ti)
= U(tem – ti) + Ul 1te1 cos (w1t – y1 – f1)
+ Ul2te2 cos (w2t – y2 – f2) + K + (18.19)
The first term on the right-hand side in Eq. (18.19) represents the mean
steady-state heat-transfer rate and the subsequent terms give the amplitudes of the
harmonics with ln denoting the decrement factor for each harmonic, and fn the time
lag between the harmonic of the sol-air temperature and the harmonic of the inside
wall-surface temperature.
18.4 FINITE DIFFERENCE APPROXIMATION OF ONE-

DIMENSIONAL HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH WALL
The drawback of the analytical solution is that it is cumbersome and only approxi-
mate due to the rejection of a large number of terms to make it possible to find a
continuous mathematical solution.
For a numerical solution5, 6 of Eq. (18.12) for the temperature distribution in
space and time, the wall may be divided into a grid with space intervals of D x as
shown in Fig. 18.7. The results for the temperature will then be found for nodal
points (m – 1), m, (m + 1), K , etc., which lie at the midpoints of these space ele-
ments, representing the average temperature of each element. Also, the temperature
will be determined at time intervals of Dt.
m–2 m–1 m m+1 m+2
A tm B
Fig. 18.7 Space grid in the conduction region

18.4.1 Node in the Conduction Region

Consider a section of the space element represented by any nodal point m in the
conduction region within the wall for which the temperature is tm. The temperature
gradients at points A and B, to the left and right of m, at D x/2 from m, can be written
as follows:
FG IJ
¶t t
= m +1
- tm
H K
¶x Dx
FG ¶ t IJ
B
tm - tm -1
H ¶ xK A
=
Dx
Then the differential of the temperature gradient in Eq. (18.12) at m is expressed as
FG ¶ t IJ FG ¶ t IJ
F ¶ t I = H ¶ xK
2
-
H ¶ xK
GH ¶ x JK 2
m
B
Dx
A
t m +1 + t m -1 - 2 t m
=
bD xg 2 (18.20)
The time derivative in Eq. (18.12) is approximated by

¶ t2 t -t
= m m (18.21)
¶t Dt
where t m1 is the temperature at m after 1 D t time interval from the instant when the
temperature at m was tm.
Substitution of expressions from Eqs (18.20) and (18.21) into Eq. (18.12) gives
for point m at any instant of time (t + D t)
t m1 - t m a
Dt
=
Dxb g 2 (tm + 1 + tm – 1 – 2tm)
a Dt LM 2a Dt OP t
(tm+1 + tm–1) + 1 -
whence t 1m =
bD x g 2
MN bD xg PQ 2 m (18.22)
or substituting a parameter M, such that
M=
bD x g 2
(18.23)
a Dt
1 2 LM OP
we have t ml =
M
(t m+1 + t m–1) + 1 -
M
tm
N Q (18.24)
Thus, the temperature t ml at point m after a time interval 1 Dt can be found in

terms of temperatures tm+1 to the right, tm–1 to the left, and the local temperature tm at
any instant of time t. Equations similar to (18.24) can be written for all points and
solved simultaneously by a calculator or on a computer.
Some general remarks concerning the use of numerical method for the solution of
transient heat conduction problem may now be made. It may be observed from
Eq. (18.24) that if
2
>1
M
then the coefficient of tm will be negative, so that for given values of tm+1 and tm–1, the
higher the value of tm at any time, the lower will be the temperature t m1 at time (t + Dt).
The result is incompatible and leads to instability in calculations. This mathematical
anomaly can be avoided by choosing grid intervals in such a way that
2 2a D t
M
=
b g Dx
2 £ 1
M=
bD x g 2
³2 (18.25)
a Dt
Thus, once the space interval D x and the value of M are established, the time
interval Dt is fixed. If the minimum value of M is chosen, viz., M = 2, Eq. (18.24)
becomes
t +t
t ml = m + 1 m - 1 (18.26a)
2
t + t m + tm - 1
or if M = 3, then t ml = m + 1 (18.26b)
3
Accordingly, the temperature at any point x at time (t + Dt) is equal to the mean
value of the two temperatures at the adjacent points to the left and right of the point
at time t, in case M = 2, or equal to the mean value of the local temperature and the
temperatures to the left and right of the point, in case M = 3.
The solutions for values of M equal to 2 and 3 can be physically interpreted from
Fig. 18.8 which presents a graphical solution called the Schmidt plot.8
tm – 1
tm
1
tm (M = 3)
1
tm (M = 2)
tm + 1
x x
Fig. 18.8 Schmidt plot for graphical solution of nodal temperatures in

the conduction region
It is seen that M = 3 gives a solutions t ml , nearer to the local value of the tempera-
ture t m. Usually, a larger value of M gives a more accurate solution as a result of the
smaller values of DJ for a fixed D x. But this, evidently, requires more computation
time. On the other hand, a smaller value of M results in larger time intervals and
hence less computational time and less accuracy in calculations. This restriction
automatically limits our choice of DJ and hence that of the value of the parameter M.
18.4.2 Nodes at the Surface and Next to the Surface

Consider a nodal point m located on the surface of the wall exposed to a convection
and radiation environment as shown in Fig. 18.9. The equivalent temperature of the
environment is equal to the sol-air temperature te which takes into account the effect
of the convective film as well as radiation. The temperature at the surface of the wall
is ts which is to be determined. The energy balance for node S gives
2k
f (te – ts) + (tm – t s) = 0 (18.27)
Dx
where f is the heat-transfer coefficient on the wall and k is the thermal conductivity
of the material of the wall. Equation (18.27) simplifies to
FG 2k IJ 2k
H
f +
Dx
ts = fte +
K Dx
tm
whence ts = LM f OP t + LM 2k / D x OP t
MN f + D2kx PQ MN f + D2 kx PQ
e m
FG Bi IJ t + FG 2 IJ t
=
H Bi + 2K H Bi + 2K
e m (18.28)
f Dx
where Bi = is the Biot number which is a dimensionless number representing
k
a convection boundary.
x
x
2
f
t = te
S m A m–1
Surface
Fig. 18.9 Nodal point at the surface
For the nodal point m at a space interval of D x/2 from the convection boundary,
Eq. (18.12) can be written in the finite difference form. We first find the temperature
gradient at A
FG IJ
¶t tm - tm - 1
H K
¶x A
=
Dx
and the temperature gradient at S
FG ¶ t IJ t s - tm
H ¶ xK S
=
D x /2
Hence we have at the mid point m
FG ¶ t IJ FG ¶ t IJ
F ¶ t I = H ¶ xK
2
-
H¶ xK
GH ¶ x JK
2
m
S
Dx
A
1
=
bD x g 2 [2ts + tm–1 – 3tm] (18.29)
Substituting in Eq. (18.12) we get the finite difference approximation of the tem-
perature at node m at time (t + Dt) as
M - 3 FG IJ
H K
1
t 1m = (2ts + tm–1) + tm (18.30)
M M
It can be seen that the stability criterion for this case requires that
M³3
In the limiting case when M = 3, we have
1
t 1m = (2ts + tm–1) (18.31)
3
18.4.3 Procedure for Heat-transfer Calculations for a Homogeneous Wall
With periodic variation of the outside air temperature t0 and solar radiation I, it is
first necessary to evaluate the periodic value of the sol-air temperature te preferably
on an hourly or half-hourly basis. These values are then imposed as the outside
boundary conditions. In addition, as the initial condition, an approximate tempera-
ture distribution through the wall at a certain time t = 0 is to be assumed. Further, the
inside air temperature t i may be assumed constant, and also equal to that maintained
by air-conditioning equipment. The calculations may now proceed for the tempera-
tures at various nodes at time intervals 1 D t, 2Dt, 3Dt, etc., until the total time of
24 hours is completed. The calculations may be stopped if at the end of 24 hours the
same initial values are obtained as assumed, or may be repeated with new initial
values until the two values are in agreement.
The following example illustrates the calculation procedure.
Example 18.3 Calculation of Heat Transfer through Wall by Finite

Difference Method
A 25 cm thick brick wall is exposed to the periodic temperature and incident
radiation variation given in Table 18.4. Determine the average and peak loads
on the air conditioner maintaining the room at 25°C per unit area of the wall.
Given for the wall:
Thermal conductivity, k = 1.5 W/m°C
Thermal diffusivity, a = 8 ´ 10–7 m2/s
Absorptivity of surface, a = 0.8
Outside wall coefficient, f0 = 23 W/m2°C
Inside wall coefficient, fi = 7 W/m2°C
Table 18.4 Values of outside air temperature and radiation for Example 18.3
Time t0 I Time t0 I
°C W/m2 °C W/m2
12 (Midnight) 30 0 12(Noon) 38.5 1000
1 a.m. 29.5 0 1 p.m. 39.5 960
2 29 0 2 40.5 825
3 28.5 0 3 41.5 645
4 28.5 0 4 39.5 385
5 28 0 5 39 190
6 28 47 6 38 47
7 29 186 7 36 0
8 31.5 390 8 34.5 0
9 33.5 640 9 33.5 0
10 35.5 814 10 33 0
11 a.m. 37 954 11 p.m. 31.5 0
Solution To minimise the effort and time involved with hand calculations, it
may be considered sufficient to divide the wall into two sections only, as shown in
Fig. 18.10 so that D x = 12.5 cm. The corresponding nodal points are so and si on the
outside and inside surfaces, and 1 and 2 inside the wall in the conduction region. The
stability criterion requires that
M³3
Dt £
bD x g 2
=
b0.125g 2
e j
= 6510 s
3a 3 8 ´ 10 - 7
Choosing D t = 1 h = 3600 s for the convenience of the outside air temperature

and radiation data given, we have
bD xg 2
=
b0.125g 2
e8 ´ 10 j a3600f
M= = 5.43
a Dt - 7
o so 1 2 si i
f0 fi
x x x
2 2
Fig. 18.10 Nodal points for wall in Example 18.3
Outside and inside surface Biot numbers

f Dx
Bi0 = 0 =
23 0.125 b
= 1.917
g
k 1.5
Bii =
fi D x
=
b g
7 0.125
= 0.583
k 1.5
The finite difference relations for nodal temperature will now be established.
Outside surface temperature
Bi 0 2
tso = te +
Bi 0 + 2 Bi 0 + 2
1.917 2
t1 = te + t1 = 0.489 te + 0.511 t1
3.917 3.917
Inside surface temperature
Bi i 2
tsi = t +
Bi i + 2 i Bi i + 2
0.583 2
t2 = ti + t 2 = 0.2257 ti + 0.7743 t2
2.583 2.583
Temperature at node 1
2t + t 2 M - 3 2 1 2.43
t11 = so + t1 = t so + t2 + t1
M M 5.43 5.43 5.43
= 0.3683 tso + 0.1842 t2 + 0.4475 t1
Temperature at node 2
2t si + t1 M - 3 2
t si +
1
t1 +
2.43
t12 = + t2 = t2
M M 5.43 5.43 5.43
= 0.3683 tsi + 0.1842 t1 + 0.4475 t2

Table 18.5 lists the coefficients of these equations in terms of left, right and local
temperatures, called influence coefficients, for facilitating calculations.
Table 18.5 Influence coefficients
Influence Coefficients
Node Left Local Right
so 0.489 0 0.511
1 0.3683 0.4475 0.1842
2 0.1842 0.4475 0.3683
si 0.7743 0 0.2257
Before proceeding further, the following steps are to be taken:

(a) Use of the excess temperature q defined by
q = t – ti
where ti is equal to a constant room temperature of 25°C. The equations derived for
temperature can also be used for excess temperatures.
(b) Sol-air temperature are evaluated first.
Thus for example at 12 noon
t0 = 38.5°C
I = 1000 W/m2
The sol-air temperature is
aI
te = t0 + = 38.5 +
0.8 1000 a f
= 38.5 + 34.8 = 73.3°C
f0 23
And the excess sol-air temperature is
qe = 73.3 – 25 = 48.3°C
The calculated values of sol-air temperatures at different hours of the day are
given in Table 18.6.
(c) Since the variation in temperature and radiation is periodic, the initial tempera-
ture at various nodal points are not known. Assumptions for the nodal temperatures
at any instant of time can be made as equal to either the outside sol-air temperature
or the room temperature. But this will make the calculations more tedious and time-
consuming. Hence we assume the temperatures by a close guess of the expected
temperatures as follows:
Time G0 Ge G so G1 G2 Gsi Gi
12
(Midnight) 5 5 7.6 10.0 10.0 8.1 0
(Data) (Data)
We may now proceed with the calculations of finite difference approximations of

the temperatures every hour. Thus at 1 a.m.
qe = 4.5°C
qso = (0.489) (4.5) + (0.511) (10) = 7.3°C
Note For the calculation of qso at 1 a.m., the left-side temperature qe is taken at the same
instant, viz., at 1 a.m. itself, whereas the right-side temperature, q1 is taken at a time, 1D t
earlier, viz., at 12 o’clock.
q1 = (0.3683) (7.6) + (0.4475) (10) + (0.1842) (10) = 9.1°C
q2 = (0.1842) (107) + (0.4475) (10) + (0.3683) (8.1) = 9.3°C
qsi = (0.7743) (10) + (0.2257) (0) = 7.7
Proceeding likewise, the calculations are made for every hour and are given in
Table 18.6.
Table 18.6 Finite difference approximations of excess temperatures
Time, Excess Temperature in °C

Hours e so 1 2 si
12
(Midnight) 5 7.6 10.0 10.0 8.1
1 a.m. 4.5 7.3 9.1 9.3 7.7
2 4 6.6 8.5 8.7 7.2
3 3.5 6.1 7.8 8.1 6.7
4 3.5 5.7 7.2 7.5 6.3
5 3 5.1 6.7 7.0 5.8
6 a.m.
(Radiation in) 4.6 5.7 6.2 6.3 5.4
7 10.5 8.3 6.1 6.0 5.0
8 20.1 12.9 6.9 5.7 4.6
9 30.8 18.6 8.9 5.5 4.4
10 38.8 23.5 11.8 5.7 4.3
11 45.2 28.1 15.0 6.3 4.4
12
(Noon) 48.3 31.3 18.2 7.2 4.9
1 p.m. 47.9 32.7 21.0 8.4 5.6
2 44.2 32.3 23.0 9.7 6.5
3 38.9 30.8 24.0 11.0 7.5
4 27.9 25.9 24.1 12.1 8.5
5 20.6 22.4 22.6 13.0 9.4
6 14.6 18.7 20.8 13.4 10.1
7 p.m.
(Radiation out) 11.0 16.0 18.7 13.5 10.4
8 9.5 14.2 16.7 13.3 10.5
9 8.5 12.7 15.2 12.9 10.3
10 8.0 11.7 13.9 12.4 10.0
11 p.m. 6.5 10.3 12.8 11.8 9.6
12
(Midnight) 5.0 9.0 11.7 11.2 9.1
(Contd)
1 a.m. 4.5 8.2 10.6 10.5 8.7

2 4.0 7.4 9.7 9.9 8.1
3 3.5 6.7 8.9 9.2 7.6
4 3.5 6.3 8.3 8.6 7.1
5 3.0 5.7 7.6 8.0 6.6
6 a.m.
(Radiation in) 4.6 6.1 7.0 7.4 6.2
7 10.5 8.7 6.7 6.9 5.7
8 20.1 13.3 7.5 6.4 5.3
9 30.8 18.9 9.4 6.2 5.0
10 38.8 23.8 12.3 6.3 4.8
11 a.m. 45.2 28.4 15.4 6.9 4.9
12
(Noon) 48.3 31.5 18.6 7.7 5.3
1 p.m. 47.9 32.9 21.3 8.8 6.0
2 44.2 32.5 23.3 10.1 6.8
3 38.9 30.9 24.3 11.3 7.8
4 27.9 26.1 24.3 12.4 8.8
Final Solution
5 20.6 22.5 22.8 13.3 9.6
6 14.6 18.8 20.9 13.7 10.3
7 p.m.
(Radiation out) 11.0 16.1 18.8 13.8 10.6
8 9.5 14.3 16.9 13.5 10.7
9 8.5 12.8 15.3 13.1 10.5
10 8.0 11.7 14.0 12.5 10.1
11 p.m. 6.5 10.3 12.9 11.9 9.7
12
(Midnight) 5.0 9.0 11.8 11.3 9.2
1 a.m. 4.5 8.2 10.7 10.6 8.7
2 4.0 7.4 9.8 9.9 8.2
3 3.5 6.7 8.9 9.3 7.7
4 3.5 6.3 8.2 8.6 7.2
5 3.0 5.7 7.6 8.0 6.7
6 a.m.
(Radiation in) 4.6 6.1 7.0 7.4 6.2
While proceeding with calculations it is found that agreement occurs at 6 a.m. on

the next day. The values shown between dashed lines in Table 18.6 are, therefore,
repetitive and, hence, calculations may be discontinued. In case there is no agree-
ment, the calculations may be continued until agreement occurs.
The average value of qsi over a 24-hour period can be found by adding all the
values and dividing by 24. Thus
(qsi)mean = 7.7°C
Also, the maximum value of q si is found from Table 18.6 at 8 p.m.
(qsi)max = 10.7°C
The load on the air conditioner due to heat transfer through the wall per unit area
of the wall can be evaluated by
q = fi(tsi – ti)
Average load on the air conditioner
qmean = 7(7.7 – 0) = 53.9 W/m2
Maximum load on the air conditioner
qmax = 7(10.7 – 0) = 74.9 W/m2
which occurs at 8 p.m., five hours after the maximum outdoor temperature of 41.5°C
is experienced.
Note If the air conditioner has to do an effective job, it must meet the requirement of
peak load. Since the average load is less, its running time will be partial, viz., (53.9/74.9)
= 0.72, or 72 per cent.
18.5 EMPIRICAL METHODS TO EVALUATE HEAT

TRANSFER THROUGH WALLS AND ROOFS
There are two approaches to empirical calculations of heat transfer through walls
and roofs. They are:
(i) The decrement factor and time lag method.
(ii) The equivalent temperature differential method.
Both the methods use analytical-experimental results for their formulations.
The equivalent temperature differential method is more commonly used by the air-
conditioning engineers as it is also applicable to sunlit walls and roofs.
18.5.1 Using Decrement Factor and Time Lag

If the thermal capacity of the wall is ignored, then the instantaneous rate of heat
transfer through the wall at any time t is given by
Q = UA(te – ti) (18.32)
and on an average basis, the mean heat flow is given by
Qm = UA(tem – ti) (18.33)
For the sake of simplicity, in this Chapter and the next the dot above Q has been
dropped to indicate the rate.
But most building materials have a finite thermal capacity which is expressed as
mC = rCV = r C (AD x)
where m = Mass of wall
r, C = Density and specific heat of wall material
A = Cross-sectional area of wall
D x = Wall thickness.
It has been seen that there is a two-fold effect of thermal capacity on heat transfer:
(i) There is a time lag between the heat transfer at the outside surface q0 and the
heat transfer at the inside surface qi.
(ii) There is a decrement in the heat transfer due to the absorption of heat by the
wall and subsequent transfer of a part of this heat back to the outside air when
its temperature is lower.
The use of the rigorous analytical method to determine the time lag f and
decrement factor l is quite complicated. The use of finite difference approximation
for each wall, roof, etc., for each building is also time-consuming from the point of
view of a practising engineer. Hence an empirical approach based on the determina-
tion of f and l for standard wall constructions, and their use for calculations can be
employed.
It is observed that the specific heat of most materials is about 0.84 kJ/kg.K. The
thermal capacity of most materials, therefore, essentially depends on their density
and thickness. The IHVE Guide gives value of the time lag and decrement factor as
a function of the wall thickness and density of construction materials. Figure 18.11
gives values of time lag for three different densities, while in Fig. 18.12, the effect of
density on the decrement factor has been considered insignificant. In addition to
these figures, Tables 18.7 and 18.8 give values for l and f for certain constructions
taken from the ASHRAE Handbook.
20
15
3
/m
kg
00 00
18
00
– 24
12
–
00 00
18
Time lag , hours
12
10
0
0 15 30 45 60
Thickness x, cm
Fig. 18.11 Time lag of walls
Considering the effect of thermal capacity, the actual heat transfer at any time t is
Qt = UA (tem – ti) + UAl (tet – f – tem) (18.34)
where tet–f is the sol-air temperature at time t – f, i.e., f hours before the heat trans-
fer is to be calculated.
A comparison of Eq. (18.34) with Eq. (18.33) shows that Qt can be greater or less
than Qmean, depending on whether tet–f is greater or less than tem, f hours before. The
second term in Eq. (18.34), therefore, represents the periodic component which is
equal to the sum of all such component harmonics in Eq. (18.19).
1.0
0.8
0.6
Decrement factor,
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 15 30 45 60
Thickness, x, cm
Fig. 18.12 Decrement factor of walls
It is evident that if the wall is thick, the decrement factor will be small as is also
seen from Tables 18.7 and 18.8. For example, from Table 18.8, the decrement factor
for a 15 cm concrete roof is 0.48 whereas for a 5 cm concrete roof, it is 0.83. Thus in
the case of a very thick wall, the second term on the right-hand side in Eq. (18.34)
can be ignored so that Eq. (18.33) holds
Qt = UA (t em – ti) = Qm
which implies that the heat transfer across the wall remains uniform at its mean value
throughout the day. It is, therefore, advantageous to provide thicker walls in build-
ings that are not air conditioned. Such buildings will not become excessively hot in
summer or excessively cold in winter.
Table 18.7 Amplitude decrement factor and time lag of shaded walls2
Construction Decrement Time Lag,

Factor, l f hours
10 cm brick or stone veneer + frame 0.62 4
20 cm hollow tile or
20 cm cinder block 0.48 5
10 cm brick or concrete 0.69 3
20 cm brick or concrete, or
30 cm hollow tile or cinder block 0.39 5
Table 18.8 Amplitude decrement factor and time lag of roofs exposed to sun 2
Construction Decrement Time Lag,

Factor, l f hours
5 cm concrete 0.83 3
5 cm concrete +
5 cm insulating board 0.69 5
15 cm concrete +
5 cm insulating board 0.26 7
Opposite conditions prevail when the wall is too thin. In the limiting case, when
the wall thickness approaches zero, the decrement factor l tends to unity and the
time lag f tends to zero. In that case Eq. (18.32) is applicable
Qt = UA (te – ti)
i.e., the heat transfer through the wall is equal to its instantaneous value.
Accordingly, for thick wall, the heat gain does not vary much, whereas for thin
walls, it varies considerably over 24 hours. The effect of the type of construction
on heat gain is shown in Fig. 18.13. It is seen that a light wall with a low thermal
capacity having a time lag of about 3 hours has a maximum heat gain at 3 p.m., and
great variation in heat transfer over a 24-hour period. A heavier wall with high ther-
mal capacity has a reduced and more uniform heat gain, and the peak occurs much
later, say at 12 midnight, with a corresponding time lag of 12 hours.A still heavier
construction may result in very small and uniform heat-transfer rate.
Light Wall Low

Thermal Capacity
Heavy Wall High

Heat Gain, Q
Thermal Capacity
8 12 4 8 12 4 8
N M
Solar time,
Fig. 18.13 Comparison of heat transfer through light and heavy construction
Thus in a locality where the daily range of variation of the outside air temperature
is small, it is immaterial what thickness of wall is provided. But in a locality where
the daily range of temperature is large, it is desirable to have thick walls so as to cut
the cooling load in summer and the heating load in winter. Moreover, such walls will
not allow the inside temperature to rise very much during the day and drop at night,
and thus maintain a reasonably uniform and moderate inside temperature even
without air conditioning.
Also, in buildings that are not conditioned, night ventilation helps to maintain
them cooler during the day.
Example 18.4 If the wall in Example 18.3 has a density of 2400 kg/m3, calcu-
late the maximum heat gain of the room and the heat gain at 5 p.m. per unit area
of wall, using the time lag and decrement factor approach.
Solution From Figs 18.11 and 18.12 for 25 cm thickness, 2400 kg/m3 density,
we have:
Time lag, f = 6.7 hours
Decrement factor, l = 0.455
From Table 18.6, the mean value of the excess sol-air temperature is qem = 19.1°C.
Mean sol-air temperature
tem = qem + ti = 19.1 + 25 = 44.1°C
Maximum sol-air temperature is at 12 noon
temax = 48.3°C
1 1 Dx 1 1 0.25 1
= + + = + +
U f0 k fi 23 1.5 7
U = 2.833 W/m2°C
Maximum heat gain of the room will occur 6.7 hours after the maximum sol-air
temperature of 48.3°C is reached, viz., at 6.7 hours after noon.
Maximum heat gain
qmax = U[(tem – ti) + l(te – tem)]
= 2.833 [19.1 + (0.455) (48.3 – 19.1)] = 91.8 W/m2
Note A comparison can be made with the calculations by the finite difference method
of Example 18.3. Here the time of peak load is obtained as 6.7 p.m. instead of 8 p.m.
and the maximum heat gain is 91.8 W/m 2 instead of 74.9 W/m2 . Of course, the accuracy
of the finite difference procedure can be improved by taking smaller time and
space increments.
For calculating the heat gain at 5 p.m., we take the sol-air temperature from the
table about 6.7 hours before the time, or say at 11 a.m., to be on the safer side. Sol-
air temperature at 11 a.m.
te = 45.2°C
Heat gain at 5 p.m.
q = 2.833 [19.1 + (0.455) (45.2 – 19.1)] = 87.8 W/m2
18.5.2 Equivalent Temperature Differential (ETD) or Cooling Load

Temperature Difference (CLTD) Method
Equation (18.34) for heat transfer through walls and roofs can also be expressed in
terms of an equivalent temperature differential D tE defined by the equation
Q = UA (tem – ti) + UAl (tet – f – tem)
= UA D tE = fi (tsi – ti) (18.35)
so that D tE = (tem – ti) + l(tet – f – tem) (18.36)
Thus D tE when multiplied by UA for the construction gives the heat transfer rate.
We can see that D tE depends on:
(i) Decrement factor l and time lag f, which in turn depend on the thermo-
physical properties of the construction.
(ii) The outside air temperature t0 and solar radiation intensity I.
(iii) Room temperature ti.
Thus, the equivalent temperature differential approach takes care of the exposure
of the wall or roof to the sun. Tables of D t E can be prepared for fixed values of t0 and
ti, for different types of constructions, and as a function of latitude and time for
roofs, and latitude, time and orientation for walls. The Carrier Handbook3 makes use
of this approach and Tables 18.9 and 18.10 give the required values for walls and
roofs respectively. It will be noticed on seeing these tables that the effect of density
and wall thickness is incorporated by specifying the mass of the wall per unit area of
its cross-section. Further, it must be pointed out here that these tables have been
established from calculations made on an analogue computer using Schmidt’s
method based on the conditions given below:
(i) Latitude 40°N, but normally suitable for latitudes 0 to 50°N, for the hottest
summer period
(ii) An outdoor daily range of a dry bulb temperature of 11.1°C (20°F)
(iii) An outside and inside design temperature difference of 8.3°C (15°F)
(iv) Dark colour walls and roofs with absorptivity of 0.9
(v) A specific heat of the construction material of 1.005 kJ/kg.K.
When there is a departure from these conditions, the following corrections may
be applied.
(i) The values of t0 and ti are additive to D tE. Hence add or subtract the difference
of t0 – ti and 8.3°C.
(ii) If the daily range is different from 11.1°C, then apply effective corrections as
follows:
(a) For each 1°C difference Add 0.25° for medium construction.
less than 11.1°C Add 0.5° for heavy construction.
(b) For each 1°C difference Subtract 0.25° for medium construction.
greater than 11.1°C Subtract 0.5° for heavy construction.
(c) Maximum correction 2° for medium and 3° for heavy
construction.
(d) Light construction No correction.
(iii) For south latitude use the following exposure values:
South Latitude Exposure Value

North-east South-east
East East
South-east North-east
South North (shade)
South-west North-west
West West
North-west South-west
North (shade) South
Example 18.5 If the wall in Example 18.4 is facing west, calculate the heat
gain of the room per unit area of the wall, on an hourly basis between 1 p.m. and
6 p.m. The outdoor maximum and minimum temperatures are 40 and 22°C
respectively. The outside and inside design temperatures are 40 and 25°C
respectively. What is the time of maximum heat gain from the wall?
Solution Thickness and density of wall

D x = 0.25 m
r = 2400 kg/m2
Mass of wall
m = r (D x)A = (2400) (0.25) (1) = 600 kg/m2 area
1 1 Dx 1 1 0.25 1
= + + = + +
U fi k f0 7 15
. 23
U = 2.83 Wm–2 K –1
Outdoor daily range = (t 0)max – (t0)min = 40 – 22 = 18°C > 11.1°C
Outside and inside temperature difference = t0 – ti = 40 – 25 = 15°C > 8.3°C
Correction for equivalent temperature difference
D t¢e = (15 – 8.3) – (18 – 11.1) (0.25) = 4.98°C
The following table gives the values of equivalent temperature differentials from
Table 18.9 and those obtained after correction by adding D t¢e to the values from the
table. The table also gives the calculated values of the heat flux from the relation
q = UD tE
Time (, tE)table (, tE)corrected = (, tE)table + 4.98°C Q
p.m. °C °C W/m2
1 4.25 9.23 2.61
2 4.75 9.73 27.5
3 5.5 10.48 29.7
4 6.32 11.3 32.0
5 8.34 13.32 37.7
6 9.69 14.67 41.5
Note It will be seen from Table 18.9 that the maximum equivalent temperature difference
occurs at 8 p.m. Thus, the maximum heat gain from the wall is at 8 p.m.
Example 18.6 Orientation of a Building

A 20 m ´ 40 m ´ 3.5 m high building having a flat roof is located near Bombay
(about 20°N latitude). For summer, based on June 21, show which of the
orientations (A) or (B) is better (Fig. 18.14).
20 m
40 m 40 m
N
20 m
(a) (b)
Fig. 18.14 The two orientations of a building for Example 18.6
Solution Since the roofs are horizontal flat, both the orientations will receive
same solar radiation, and will have same equivalent temperature differential for roof.
However, the walls will receive different radiations, and hence will have different
temperature differentials.
Daily solar radiation from Table 17.9 (c):
N-Wall = 88 + 129 + 104 + 79 + 60 + 54 + 47 + 54 + 60 + 79 + 104
+ 129 + 80 = 1, 075 W/m2
E-Wall = 256 + 467 + 505 + 451 + 303 + 129 + 44(4) + 38 + 28 + 9
= 2, 362 W/m2
S-Wall = 10 + 28 + 38 + 44 (7) + 38 + 28 + 9 = 459 W/m2
W-Wall = Same as E-wall = 2, 362 W/m2
Wall areas are 20 ´ 3.5 = 70 m2, and 40 ´ 3.5 = 140 m2
Total solar radiation received by the four walls are:
Orientation A
SIA = 70 (1075) + 70(459) + 2 ´ 140 (2362) = 643,490 W
Orientation B
SIA = 140 (1075) + 140 (459) + 2 ´ 70 (2362) = 545,440 W
Orientation B receives less radiation than orientation A. Hence, B is better than A.
Note Any orientation between A and B will receive more radiation than B. Hence, B is
the best.
602
Table 18.9 Equivalent temperature differential (°C) for walls2 : 24-hour operation
Expo- Mass
sure wall a.m. p.m.
kg/m2
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
North- 106 12.2 12.8 13.3 10.6 7.8 7.2 6.7 7.2 7.8 7.8 7.8 6.7 5.5
east 319 –1.1 2.8 13.3 12.2 11.1 8.3 5.5 6.1 6.7 7.2 7.8 7.2 6.7
532 2.2 2.2 2.2 5.5 8.9 8.3 7.8 6.7 5.5 6.1 6.7 6.7 6.7
744 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 5.5 7.8 8.9 7.8 6.7 5.5 5.5 5.5
106 16.7 18.3 20 19.4 17.8 11.1 6.7 7.2 7.8 7.8 7.8 6.7 5.5
East 319 0 11.7 16.7 17.2 17.2 10.6 7.8 7.2 6.7 7.2 7.8 7.2 6.7
532 3.0 4.4 7.8 11.1 13.3 13.9 13.3 11.1 10 8.9 7.8 7.8 7.8
744 5.5 5.0 4.1 5.0 5.5 8.3 10.0 10.6 10 9.4 8.9 7.8 6.7
South- 106 7.2 10.6 14.4 15 15.6 14.4 13.3 10.6 8.9 8.3 7.8 6.7 5.5
east 319 0 17.2 11.1 7.8 15.6 14.4 13.9 11.7 10 8.3 7.8 7.2 6.7
532 3.3 3.3 3.3 6.1 8.8 9.4 10.0 10.6 10 8.9 7.8 7.2 6.7
744 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.9 3.3 6.1 7.8 8.3 8.9 10.0 8.9 8.3 7.8
106 –2.2 0.55 2.2 7.8 12.2 15 16.7 15.6 14.4 11.1 8.9 6.7 5.5
South 319 –2.2 –1.17 –1.1 3.9 6.7 11.1 13.3 13.9 14.4 12.8 11.1 8.3 6.7
532 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.7 2.2 4.4 6.7 8.3 8.9 10.0 10.0 8.3 7.8
744 3.3 2.8 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 3.8 5.5 7.3 7.8 8.3 8.9
(Contd.)
Table 18.9 (Contd)
Expo- Mass
sure wall a.m. p.m.
kg/m2
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
106 –2.2 –1.1 0 2.2 3.3 10.6 14.4 18.9 22.2 22.8 23.3 16.7 13.3
South- 319 0 0 0 0.55 1.1 4.4 6.7 13.3 17.8 19.4 20.0 19.4 18.9
west 532 3.3 2.8 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.9 4.4 6.7 7.8 10.6 12.2 12.8 13.3
744 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.9 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 4.4 5.0 5.51 8.3 10.0
106 –2.2 –1.1 0 1.7 3.3 7.7 11.1 17.8 22.2 25.0 26.7 18.9 12.2
319 0 0 0 1.1 2.2 3.9 5.5 10.6 14.4 18.9 22.2 22.8 20.0
West 532 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.9 4.4 5.5 6.7 9.4 11.1 13.9 15.6
744 5.5 5.0 4.4 4.4 4.4 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.1 6.7 7.8 8.9
106 –2.2 –1.1 0 1.7 3.3 5.5 6.7 10.6 13.3 18.3 22.2 20.6 18.9
North- 319 –2.2 –1.7 –1.1 0 1.1 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.7 11.7 16.7 17.2 17.8
west 532 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.7 3.3 5.0 6.7 9.4 11.1
744 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.9 4.4 5.0 5.5
106 –2.2 –1.7 –1.1 0.55 2.2 4.4 5.5 6.7 7.8 7.2 6.7 5.5 4.4
North 319 –2.2 –1.7 –1.1 –0.55 0 1.7 3.3 4.4 5.5 6.1 6.7 6.7 6.7
532 0 0 0 0 0 0.55 1.1 1.7 2.2 2.8 2.8 2.8 4.4
744 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.55 1.1 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.3
(Contd.)
604
Table 18.10 Equivalent temperature differential (°C) for dark-coloured, sunlit and shaded roots3: 24-hour operation
Condition Mass of
Roof a.m. p.m.
kg/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
Exposed 53 –2.2 –3.3 –3.9 –2.8 –0.55 3.9 8.3 13.3 17.8 21.1 23.9 25.6
to 106 0 –0.55 –1.1 –0.55 1.1 5.0 8.8 12.8 16.7 20.0 22.8 23.9
sun 212 2.2 +1.7 –1.1 1.7 3.3 5.5 8.8 12.8 15.6 18.3 21.1 22.2
319 5.0 4.4 3.3 3.9 4.4 6.1 8.8 12.2 15.0 17.2 19.4 21.2
524 7.2 6.7 6.1 6.1 6.7 7.2 8.8 12.2 14.4 15.6 17.8 19.4
Covered 106 –2.8 –1.1 0 11.1 2.2 5.5 8.8 10.6 12.2 11.1 10.0 8.6
with 212 –1.7 –1.1 –0.55 –0.55 0 2.8 5.5 7.2 8.3 8.3 8.8 8.3
water 319 –0.55 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 2.8 3.9 5.5 6.7 7.8 8.3
Sprayed 106 –2.2 –1.1 0 1.1 2.2 4.4 6.7 8.3 10.0 9.4 8.8 8.3
212 –1.1 –1.1 –0.55 –0.55 0 1.1 2.8 5.0 7.2 7.8 7.8 7.8
319 –0.55 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 0 1.1 2.8 4.4 5.5 6.7 7.2
106 –2.8 –2.8 –2.2 –1.1 0 1.1 3.3 5.0 6.7 7.2 7.8 7.2
Shaded 212 –2.8 –2.8 –2.2 –1.7 –1.1 0 1.1 2.8 4.4 5.5 6.7 7.2
319 –1.7 –1.7 –1.1 –1.1 –1.1 –0.55 0 1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.0
(Contd)
Table 18.10 (Contd)
Condition Mass of
Roof p.m. a.m.
kg/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
Exposed 53 25.0 22.8 19.4 15.6 12.2 8.9 5.5 3.9 1.7 0.55 –0.55 –1.7
to 106 23.9 22.2 19.4 16.7 13.9 11.1 8.3 6.7 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1
sun 212 22.8 21.7 19.4 17.8 15.6 13.3 11.1 9.4 7.2 6.1 5.0 3.3
319 21.7 21.1 20.0 18.9 17.2 15.6 13.9 12.2 10.0 8.9 7.2 6.1
524 20.6 20.6 19.4 18.9 18.9 17.8 16.7 15.0 12.8 11.1 10.0 7.8
Covered 106 7.8 6.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0.55 0.55 –0.55 –1.1 –1.7 –2.2 –2.8
with 212 8.3 7.8 6.7 5.5 3.9 2.8 1.7 0.55 –0.55 –1.1 –1.7 –1.7
water 319 8.9 8.3 7.8 6.7 5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.7 1.1 0.55 0
106 7.8 6.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0.55 0 –0.55 –1.1 –1.1 –1.7 –1.7
Sprayed 212 7.8 7.2 6.7 5.0 3.9 2.2 1.7 0.55 0 0 –0.55 –0.55
319 7.8 7.2 6.7 6.1 5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1 0.55 0 –0.55
106 6.7 5.5 4.4 2.8 1.1 0.55 0 –0.55 –1.7 –2.2 –2.8 –2.8
Shaded 212 6.7 6.1 5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1 0 –0.55 –1.7 –2.2 –2.8
319 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1 0.55 0 –0.55 –1.1
18.6 NATURAL VENTILATION THROUGH INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the name given to the leakage of outside air through door openings,
and through cracks and interstices around windows and doors into conditioned
space. Even though the air inside is slightly pressurized, the leakage does take place
which is principally due to the following factors:
(i) Stack effect, particularly in tall buildings
(ii) Wind pressure
(iii) Entry and exit of occupants effecting change of air due to door openings.
It must be pointed out here that corresponding to every infiltration there is an
equivalent amount of exfiltration. In effect, infiltration involves an exchange
between the outside and inside air.
Infiltration, as a result of stack effect, wind effect, and through doors and
windows and other openings can be treated as contributing to natural ventilation.
Note If natural ventilation is not enough to provide for desired level of comfort then
recourse to mechanical ventilation is necessary.
18.6.1 Stack Effect

Differences between temperatures and humidities produce differences in the densities
of air between the outside and inside of buildings. As a result, pressure differences
occur causing flow of air known as chimney or stack effect.
When the inside temperature is lower than Flow in
the outside, the stack effect produces positive
inside pressure at lower levels and negative
Inside Outside
inside pressure at high levels. Consequently,
the outward flow of air takes place at lower
levels and the inward flow at higher levels, Neutural
Height
with the neutral zone in the middle as shown in Zone

Fig. 18.15. The reverse is true when the inside
is at a higher temperature than the outside.
Thus, we have Flow Out
In Summer Infiltration at the top and exfiltration
at the bottom. Pressure
In Winter Infiltration at the bottom and Fig. 18.15 Stack effect in summer
air conditioning
exfiltration at the top.
The infiltration from the stack effect is generally small but is greatly influenced
by the height of the building and the presence of staircases and elevators. The
ASHRAE Guide gives the following formula to evaluate the infiltration rate Q L in
m3/s due to stack effect
a
Q L = 0.172 A H ti − t0 f (18.37)
where H is the building height in m, ti and t 0 are the inside and outside temperatures
in °C, and A is the area in m2 available for the flow of air into or out of the building.
The corresponding velocity of the air flow is
C=
Q L
A
= 0.172 H ti - t 0 b g (18.38)
The pressure difference inducing this flow will then be given by
Dp C2
=
r 2
Assuming an effectiveness of 0.8, and a standard air density of 1.2 kg/m3, we have
FG
1.2 0.172 IJ 2
Dp =
2 H
0.8 K H(ti – t0)
= 0.028 H(ti – t0), N/m2 (18.39)
18.6.2 Wind Action Flow

Out In
The flow of air due to wind over a building
creates regions in which the static pressure is Wind Ward
higher or lower than the static pressure in the In Side
undisturbed air stream. The pressure is posi- Side
tive on the windward side resulting in the
infiltration of air, and negative on the leeward
side resulting in exfiltration. This is illus-
trated in Fig. 18.16. In a tall building, the
Height
wind velocity is very high towards the top of

the building and hence the leakage rate is also Leeward
higher. Side Out In
There are two methods of estimating the
Flow
infiltration of air into conditioned space due
to wind action. They are: Wind Pressure
(i) Crack method, and Fig. 18.16 Wind effect on
leakage of air
(ii) Air-change method.
In the crack method, the estimate is based on measured leakage characteristics
and the width and length of cracks around windows and doors. The air-change
method assumes a certain number of air changes per hour for each space depend-
ing on its usage. The crack method is generally regarded as more accurate and is
used in the case of windows. The air change method is more convenient to use in
the case of doors.
The leakage of air in this case is a function of the wind pressure D p which can be
determined by knowing the wind velocity C using the equation (Sec 21.2)
D p = 0.00047 C 2 (18.40)
where D p is in cm H2O and C is in km/h. It is a common practice to take 0.64 Dp only
as the pressure difference between the outside and inside air to evaluate the infiltra-
tion rate, which can be expressed by an equation of the type
Q L = C(Dp)n (18.41)
where C is a constant, and n lies between 0.5 and 1. For non-weather-stripped
windows, the following relation may be used
Q L = 0.125 (Dp)0.63 (18.42)
where Q L is in L/m of crack length, and Dp is in N/m2. The leakage rates of most
window cracks fall between the four classes of double-hung wood windows as given in
Table 18.11. Similarly, Table 18.12 gives the leakage rates through cracks in doors on
the windward side for different wind velocities and different door constructions.
Table 18.11 Infiltration through double-hung windows in m3/h/m of crack3
Window type Pressure Difference, cm H2O

0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non-weather-stripped, loose fit 7.1 11.3 14 18 21
Non-weather-stripped, average fit 2.5 4 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, loose fit 2.5 4 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, average fit 1.3 2.1 2.8 3.3 3.9
Table 18.12 Infiltration through doors-crack method3
Type of door cmm per Linear Metre of Crack

Wind Velocity, kmph
8 16 24 32 40 48
Glass door
Good installation
3.2 mm crack 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.21 1.49 1.77
Average installation
4.76 mm crack 0.45 0.93 1.3 1.86 2.23 2.7
Poor installation
6.4 mm crack 0.6 1.21 1.77 2.42 2.42 3.53
Ordinary wood or metal door
Well fitted
W-stripped 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
Well fitted
Now W-stripped 0.08 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.39
Poorly fitted
Not W-stripped 0.08 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.61 0.78
Factory door
3.2 mm crack 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.21 1.49 1.77
The ASHRAE Guide publishes data that indicates that wind pressure causes a
leakage of air even through brick and concrete walls. Its numerical value is, how-
ever, very small. For example, for a 21.5 cm plastered brick wall at 24 kmph wind
velocity, it is only 0.000356 cmm/m2 of the wall area.
In the air-change method, it is required to use experience and judgement to esti-
mate the overall value of the infiltration rate. In practice, the following values of air-
changes per hour can be used with reasonable precision for rooms with the extent of
windows and external doors given.
1
No windows or exterior doors : 2
Exterior doors or windows on one side : 1
Exterior doors or windows on two sides : 1 12
Exterior doors or windows on three sides : 2

Entrance halls : 2
These values include the exchange of air due to door openings which is
discussed below.
18.6.3 Infiltration due to Door Openings

Infiltration through doors depends on the type of door, as well as its usage. Often the
tables developed for doors give the infiltration rates through doors which include the
leakage rates through cracks due to door openings. Table 18.13 through 18.15 from
the Carrier Handbook give the infiltration rates through doors on the windward side
for various door constructions and usage, and for a wind velocity of 12 kmph. For
other doors, the values may be multiplied by 0.6. For other wind velocities, the
values may be multiplied by the ratio of the velocities.
Table 18.13 Infiltration through doors on adjacent walls (wind velocity 12 kmph)3
Description cmm/m2 Area cmm

Standing Open
No Use Average Use No Vestibule Vestibule
Revolving Doors-
Normal Operation 0.24 1.58 — —
Panels Open — — 34 25
Glass Door-4.75 mm Crack 1.37 3.0 20 14
Wood Door- 0.3 1.98 20 14
Small Factory Door 0.23 1.98 — —
Garage and Shipping
Room Door 0.61 1.37 — —
Ramp Garage Door 0.61 2.06 — —
Table 18.14 Infiltration through swinging doors on opposite walls (wind velocity
12 kmph)3
% Time cmm/Pair of Doors

2nd Door is Open % Time 1st Door is Open
10 25 50 75 100
10 2.8 7 14 21 28
25 7.1 18 35 53 71
50 14 35 71 106 142
75 21 53 106 159 210
100 28 71 142 210 280
It may be noted that vestibules may decrease the infiltration to the extent of
30 per cent when the door usage is light. However, when the door usage is heavy,
vestibules are of little value.
18.6.4 Load due to Infiltration

Infiltration involves the heat gain or loss to the conditioned space due to the replace-
ment of the conditioned inside air by the undesirable outside air. This load includes
both sensible and latent, and is evaluated in the same manner as the ventilation load
from the infiltration rate (cmm)1. If ventilation air is greater than infiltration/
exfiltration air then infiltration may not be considered seprately.
Table 18.15 Infiltration through doors based on usage (wind velocity 12 kmph3)
Application cmm/Person in Room/Door

182 cm 91 cm Swinging Door
Revolving Door No Vestibule Vestibule
Bank 0.184 0.227 0.17
Barber Shop 0.113 0.142 0.108
Soda Shop 0.156 0.198 0.15
Cigar Store 0.566 0.85 0.637
Department Store 0.182 0.227 0.17
Dress Shop 0.057 0.071 0.108
Drug Store 0.156 0.198 0.15
Hospital — 0.099 0.637
Lunch Room 0.113 0.142 0.17
Men’s Shop 0.076 0.105 0.054
Restaurant 0.057 0.071 0.15
Shoe Store 0.076 0.099 0.074
Example 18.7 A room is 5.5 m ´ 3.5 m ´ 3 m high. The total perimeter of an

average fit non-weatherstripped window crack in the room is 10 m. The wind
velocity is 9 m/s. Calculate the air-change rate of infiltration:
(i) Using Table 18.11.
(ii) Using the empirical relation for the frictional resistance to air flow
Q L = 0.125 (0.64 Dp)0.63 L/m
where Dp is in N/m 2
Solution Volume of room = (5.5) (3.5) (3) = 57.75 m3

Wind pressure
Dp =
rC 2
=
b ga f
1.2 9
2
= 48.6 N/m2 =
48.6
= 0.5 cm H2O
2 2 98.1
(i) Infiltration rate for average fit non-weatherstripped windows from Table 18.11
at 0.5 cm H2O pressure difference is 4.0 m3/h/m crack. Total infiltration rate
Q L = (0.4) (10) = 40 m3/h
40
Air-change rate = = 0.69
57.75
(ii) Total infiltration rate Q L =

b ga fa
0.125 48.6 ´ 0.64 10 3600 f= 39.2 m3/h
1000
39.2
Air-change rate = = 0.68
57.75
Note It is, thus, seen that the infiltration rate from just one large non-weatherstripped
window is more than half the air-change per hour.
18.7 PASSIVE HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS
A passive solar building may be defined as that in which thermal energy flows by
natural means, enabling the system to function without external power. The opera-
tion of a passive system involves the control of the flow of thermal energy, and
includes the ability to completely stop energy from escaping or entering the building
(e.g., by insulation) and the ability to vary the timing or location of energy flow
inside the building (e.g., by opening or closing spaces to each other).
A space-heating system comprises the space, a solar collector and a thermal stor-
age. A space-cooling system comprises the space, an environmental sink (sky and
ground) and a thermal or cold storage. The heat exchange between the three ele-
ments falls into two categories, viz., forced exchange (using fans, pumps, etc.) and
natural exchange (involving conduction, natural convection and radiation). If all the
significant exchanges linking the three elements of a heating or cooling system
involve forced flow, the system is classified as active, and if they involve purely
natural flow, the system is classified as passive. A mixture of the two may be called
a hybrid system.
Three basic passive solar concepts have been defined; each involving differential
relationships relating the sun, storage mass and living space. They are direct gain,
indirect gain and isolated gain. Each concept will now be dealt with, separately,
from the viewpoints of principles, requirements, variations and controls.
It must be stated here that without the controls, the addition of the passive system
with large glass areas and storage masses can cause much discomfort due to winter
heat losses and summer overheating.
18.7.1 Direct Gain

This is the most common passive solar gain building. The living space is directly
heated by the sun as shown in Fig. 18.17 and serves as a live-in collector. The basic
requirements for direct-gain building are:
Sun
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Storage
Mass
Direct gain
Insulation
~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~
Fig. 18.17 Direct gain principle

(i) A large south-facing glazing (collector area) with the living space exposed
directly behind.
(ii) A floor and/or wall storage mass of significant dimension for solar exposure
and for thermal capacity.
(iii) A method for isolating the storage from the exterior climatic conditions by
using insulation between the storage mass and outdoors.
The best location of the storage mass is often decided by the physical laws
governing natural heat flow by radiation and convection. Typical variations of this
mass are given below:
(a) External building walls
(b) Internal walls
(c) Floor
(d) Free-standing masses inside the space.
In addition to storage location, there may be significant variation in storage mate-
rials providing thermal capacities and different time-lag properties. Storage materi-
als may vary from concrete, brick, sand and ceramics, to water and other liquids
either singly or in various combinations.
To add to the efficiency and usefulness of direct gain, several controls must be
considered. To prevent unwanted heat gain, sunshading is required for the large
expanse of south-facing glass. Due to the high location of the southern summer sun,
overhangs can provide adequate protection for vertical southern glazing, but some
other solutions must be found for tilted glazing, or those with east and west
orientations faced with low sun angles.
To prevent unwanted heat loss, for example on sunless winter days and nights,
movable insulation panels, shutters, etc., may be used. These will also prevent heat
gain on hot summer days. Other controls include exhaust and ventilation arrangements.
18.7.2 Indirect Gain

In an indirect gain building, a storage mass collects heat directly from the sun, stores
it, and then transfers it to the living space. The storage wall is placed just behind the
glass as shown in Fig. 18.18. The basic requirements of such a wall, called the mass
Trombe wall, is a large glass area with a large storage mass directly behind it to
intercept the sun’s rays.
Again, variations are possible in the material used and the thickness of wall,
depending on which the radiant distribution from the storage mass to the living space
can be either instantaneous or delayed. It is possible to have distribution by natural
convection through openings at the top of the wall as shown in Fig. 18.19 in addition
to radiation and convection directly from the wall. If the openings are controllable,
natural convection can be stopped and started as and when desired. Also, insulation
placed behind the storage mass can eliminate radiant distribution.
The following controls are possible for the optimum operation of a mass Trombe
wall building.
(i) In winter, when the sky is overcast and during the night, external insulation
must be provided to prevent undesirable heat loss.
(ii) Similarly in summer, during the day, overhangs or external insulation will
serve the purpose of preventing overheating of the living space.
(iii) The mass Trombe wall has the potential of providing induced ventilation dur-
ing summer if exhaust vents are provided at the top. For this purpose, inlet
openings for fresh air must be provided from a shaded or cooler area, as
shown in Fig. 18.19. Thus sun’s heat can be used to induce air movement to
augment natural ventilation.
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Natural convection
Radiation
Sun
Glazing
Wall
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 18.18 Indirect gain principle illustrated by a mass trombe wall
Air out
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Natural convection
Radiation
Sun
Glazing
Wall
Air in
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~
~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Fig. 18.19 Mass trombe wall with induced ventilation

The roof pond is another indirect gain-type construction in which water is the
storage mass, and it is located at the roof instead of the floor or wall. The body of the
water is directly exposed to the sun. The thermal storage is also provided by the
ceiling mass. External insulation is necessary for control, as in the case of the mass
Trombe wall, to cut off the day heat gain in summer and the night loss in winter.
A clear night sky acts as a large heat sink. Thus, the heat collected by water
during the day and stored in its mass is dissipated to the sky during the night. During
the day, therefore, the water mass acts as a cold storage, drawing the heat away from
the living space. It is obvious that such a system will be effective in a climate with a
large swing in day and night temperatures.
Direct evaporative cooling has already been discussed. There are other methods
which use Indirect evaporative cooling. For example, a shaded roof pond also acts
as an indirect evaporative cooler. The water is cooled to nearabout the wet bulb
temperature of air. Thus, if the roof is completely shaded, there will be a loss of heat
from the living space-which is at the dry bulb temperature of air—to the outside.
An underground construction provides another example of this type which is suit-
able both for passive solar cooling and heating. The ground temperature at a depth
of about 10 m is uniform throughout the year, irrespective of the ambient conditions.
This is due to the decrement in temperature oscillations as heat travels between the
ground surface and the inside. Care must, however, be taken about the ground water
level before deciding about the depth of construction. Also, a vapour barrier should
be incorporated in the construction for preventing moisture transfer.
18.7.3 Isolated Gain

This is different from either direct or indirect gain concepts: In this, the collector
and storage function somewhat independently from the building. An example is a
solarium, in which solar radiation is collected in a secondary space and the living
space is heated or cooled by convection. Also, evaporatively-cooled air can be used
to cool large masses of rock beds at night, which act as cold storages. Room air can
be circulated through these beds during the day for cooling.
18.8 WATER VAPOUR TRANSFER THROUGH STRUCTURES
As a result of vapour pressure difference existing on the two sides, water vapour
flows across building walls and roofs, and across insulation over pipes; etc. This
results in latent heat gain of rooms. The load is, however, quite insignificant, but
there are other harmful effects as a result of condensation.
The process of vapour flow is similar to the flow of heat. Water vapour flows
from high to low vapour pressure regions. As water vapour flows through the struc-
ture, its temperature also decreases. And, if at any section the local temperature falls
below the dew point temperature, condensation occurs. This condensation is called
concealed condensation.
Condensation not only causes deterioration of materials (such as steel rusting, wood
decay, etc.) but also damages the insulation, and increases the thermal conductivity,
thus, increasing cooling load in conditioned spaces, cold storages, frozen food
storages, refrigerator cabinets, suction line and chilled water piping, supply air ducts,
etc. Control of moisture transfer is, therefore, essential to ensure satisfactory operation
in heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC), and refrigeration systems. In
winter heating applications, condensation occurs with warm humid air inside the room
and cold air outside, and in refrigeration applications, it is the outside air which is
humid and inside air is at low temperature and low vapour pressure.
18.8.1 Vapour Transfer Equation

L per unit area A is given by Fick’s law Eq. (1.76), viz.,
Vapour transfer rate m
m L dp
=–m L (18.43)
A dx
where m is called permeability. It is like thermal conductivity in heat transfer. Inte-
grating between outside and inside vapour pressures pL and pL0 and thickness L of
construction, we get
m L pL - pLi D pL
=m o =m (18.43 a)
A Dx Dx
Sometimes, we may use the permeance coefficient designated as M = m/D x. It is
similar to heat-transfer coefficient. Thus, we have
m L
= M D pL (18.44)
A
The units of permeability m will be
LM g × cm OP
N hr × m × cm Hg pressure Q
2
while the units of permeance coefficient M will be

LM g OP
N hr × m × cm Hg pressure Q
2
The numerical values of m and M for some common materials are given in
Table 18.16.
Note If condensation occurs, Fick’s law and hence, the above relations are not applica-
ble. After condensation, the water vapour pressure follows the saturation curve.
Example 18.8 A frozen food storage wall is exposed to the outdoor condi-
tions of 39.5°C DBT and 28°C WBT in Chennai. The inside conditions are main-
tained at –18°C DBT and 80% RH. The wall has the following construction:
Plaster (outside): 1.25 cm k = 8.65 W/mK, M = 4 g/hr.m2.cmHg
Brick : 22.5 cm k = 0.77 W/mK, m = 2.2 g.cm/hr.m2.cmHg
Thermocole : 10 cm k = 0.037 W/mK, m = 4.0 g.cm/hr.m2 cmHg
Check for possible condensation of moisture.
Solution See Fig. 18.20.

Table 18.16 Permeabilities and permeance coefficient of material
Material Permeability, m Permeance coefficient, M

g ⋅ cm g
hr ⋅ m cm Hg
2
hr ⋅ m ⋅ cm Hg
2
Construction materials
Concrete 2.2 —
Brick (10 cm) 2.2 0.22
Asbestos cement board — 0.15
Plaster (1.25 cm) — 4.0
Gypsum — 12.6
Wood 0.28–0.38 —
Insulating materials
Still air 83 —
Mineral wool 80 —
Thermocole 1.38–4.0 —
Expanded
Polyurethane 0.28–1.1 —
Foils
Aluminium (1 mil) — 0
Polyethylene (2 mil) — 0.43
(4 mil) — 0.022
(6 mil) — 0.017
Psychrometric properties obtained by calculations are as follows:

DB T WB T RH ps p¢L pL
Condition °C °C % cm Hg cm Hg cm Hg
Outside 39.5 28 – 53.9 2.835 2.267 (Eq. 14.49)
Inside –18 – 80 19.83 – 1.586
Overall heat-transfer coefficient assuming fo = 20, and fi = 7 W/m2.K

1 1 0.0125 0.225 0.1 1
= + + + + = 3.189
U 20 8.65 0.77 0.037 7
Þ U = 0.314 W/m2.K
Heat flux
q = UD t = 0.314 (39.5 + 18) = 18.055 W/m2
k k
= fo(to – t1) = 12 (t1 – t2) = 23 (t2 – t3)
D x12 D x23
k
= 34 (t3 – t4) = fi (t4 – ti)
D x34
Solving, we get the temperatures as shown in Fig. 18.20
t1 = 38.6°C, t2 = 38.57°C, t3 = 33.3°C, t4 = – 15.5°C
i
t0 = 39.5°C
38.57°C
pv0 = pv1
33.3° C
2.254 cm Hg
= 2.267 cmHg
Insulation
Inside
ti, pvi
Brick
Outside
t0, pv0
Plaster
1.717 cmHg
pv 4 = pv
i
= 1.586 cmHg
x12
x23 –15.5°C
ti = –18°C
x34
Outside
Film Inside
Film
Fig. 18.20 Temperature and water vapour pressure distribution

inside wall for Example 18.8
Similarly, we have for overall permeance coefficient

1 1 D x23 D x34 1 22.5 10
= + + = + +
M M12 m 23 m 34 4 2.2 4
Þ M = 0.0771 g/hr.m2.cm Hg
Moisture transfer/mass flux (Given: pL1 = pL0 = 2.267, pL4 = pLi = 1.586 cm Hg)
m L
= M D pL = 0.0771 (2.267 – 1.586) = 0.0525 g/hr.m2
A
m m
= M12 (pL1 – pL2) = 23 (pL2 – pL3) = 34 (pL3 – pL4)
D x23 D x34
Þ pL2 = 2.254 cm.Hg, pL3 = 1.717 cm.Hg, pL4 = 1.586 cm Hg = pLi
The saturation pressures of water at t3 and t4 are:
(pLs)t3 = 33°C = 3.84 cm Hg, (pLs)t4 = – 15.5°C = 1.185 cm Hg
We see that pL3 < ( pLs ) 3 , but pL4 > ( pLs ) 4 . Hence, condensation will occur
between sections 3 and 4 inside insulation.
Note pLi = pL4 > FLI " . Hence, moisture will flow into insulation from inside room also
and condense.
18.8.2 Vapour Barriers

The migration of water vapour and its subsequent condensation poses a serious prob-
lem in summer, in cold storage structures where the outside vapour pressure is very
high and inside vapour pressure is very low, and in winter, in buildings where the
vapour pressure inside might be very high as compared to outside. Water vapour bar-
riers are, therefore, applied to thermal insulation on cold pipes and refrigerated spaces.
The effectiveness of vapour barriers depends on its permeance which should be
as low as possible. And it should be applied on the side of insulation exposed to
higher vapour pressure.
The vapour barriers are of the following types:
(i) Structural barriers, e.g., plastics, aluminium sheets, etc.
(ii) Membrane barriers, e.g., aluminium foils, plastic films, etc. These are often
bonded with insulation.
(iii) Coating barriers such as asphalts, resins, etc.
Note The vapour barriers must be perfectly sealed, so that there is no leakage path for
water vapour.
In Example 18.8, vapour barrier must be applied at section 3.
References
1. Alford J S, J E Ryan and F O, Urban ‘Effect of heat storage and variation in
outdoor temperature and solar intensity on heat transfer through walls’,
ASHVE Trans., Vol. 45, 1939, pp. 393–397.
4. Danter E, ‘Periodic heat flow characteristics of simple walls and roofs’, J.
IHVE, Vol. 28, 1960, pp. 136–146.
5. Dusinberre G H, Heat Transfer Calculations by Finite Differences, Interna-
tional Text Book Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1961.
6. Kadambi V and F W Hutchinson, Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Envi-
ronmental Control in India, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 1968.
7. Mackey C O and L T Sr Wright, ‘Periodic heat flow-homogeneous walls or
roofs’, ASHVE Trans., Vol. 50, 1944, p. 293.
8. Schmidt E, ‘Uber die auwendung der differenzenrechung aug technische
anheize and abkuhlungsprobleme’, Bietr. Tech. Mech. und Tech. Physik,
F’opple Festchrift, Berlin, 1924.
9. Threlkeld J L, Thermal Environmental Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1962.
Revision Exercises
18.1 A composite wall is made up of 10 cm of common brick against 15 cm of
concrete with 1.25 cm of plaster on the inside wall. Assume still air in room at
25°C. The outside air is at 40°C. The wind velocity is 25 kmph. Find:
(a) The thermal resistance of wall

(b) The overall heat-transfer coefficient
(c) The steady-state heat-transfer rate per unit area of wall
(d) The heat transfer if the outside and inside film resistances are disre-
garded.
Use Tables 18.1 and 18.2 for values of thermal conductivities and film
coefficients.
18.2 A controlled temperature test room is held at 25°C. The outside design
temperature is 40°C. The wall is constructed with 2.5 cm pine boards
(k = 0.12 Wm–1 K–1) on the inside and the outside with 10 cm mineral wool
block insulation (k = 0.05 Wm–1 K–1) in between. The pine boards are placed
in position over the insulation by 1.875 cm steel through-bolts placed at
30 cm centres. Compute the overall heat-transfer coefficient:
(i) Not considering the presence of bolts.
(ii) Considering the presence of bolts.
The film coefficient on both sides of the wall is 9.4 Wm–2 K–1.
18.3 A building wall consists of 25 cm concrete (k = 1.75 Wm–1 K–1) and 1.9 cm
plaster (k = 87 Wm–1 K–1) on the inside surface. The outside and inside surface
heat-transfer coefficients can be taken as 34 and 9.4 Wm–2K–1 respectively. The
outside temperature is –18°C. The room is held at 23.5°C DBT and 16.8°C
WBT.
(a) What is the temperature on the inside wall surface?
(b) Will the moisture condense on the wall?
(c) How many layers of 1.25 cm thick fibre-board insulation (k =
0.048 Wm–1 K–1) should be applied on the inside wall surface to prevent
moisture to condense on it?
18.4 A 35 cm thick building wall is constructed from a material with a thermal
conductivity of 0.87 Wm–1 K–1 and a thermal diffusivity of 0.564 ´ 10–6 m2/s.
The inside temperature of the building is maintained constant at 25°C, while
the outside air temperature varies sinusoidally with time, the maximum being
42°C and the minimum 28°C. The period of this temperature variation is
24 hours. The film coefficients on the inside and outside surfaces are respec-
tively 10 and 30 Wm–2 K–1. Using the finite-difference method, compute the
temperatures of the inside wall surface as a function of time, and find the time
at which this temperature becomes a maximum. Also, find the maximum cool-
ing load on the air conditioner per unit area of wall.
18.5 An air-conditioned room receives heat only from one wall which is 3 m wide
and 3 m high and is facing west. The wall also has a glazed window 1.5 m ´
1.5 m. The window is shaded internally by venetian blinds. Compute the heat
gain of the room from the wall at 4 p.m. in June. The following information is
given.
Outside state : 42°C DBT, 26°C WBT
Inside state : 25°C DBT, 50% RH
Solar intensity on glass : 690 W/m2
U-value of wall : 1.7 Wm–2 K–1
U-value of glass : 5.7 Wm–2 K–1
Transmissivity of glass : 0.8

Absorptivity of glass : 0.06
Outside wall surface
Heat-transfer coefficient : 30 Wm–2K–1
Absorptivity of wall surface : 0.9
Time lag for wall : 5.7 hours
Decrement factor
for wall : 0.62
Mean sol-air temperature
over 24 hours : 40°C
Variation of outside conditions:
Sun time, hours 9 10 11 Noon 13 14 15 16
Ambient tem-
perature, °C 33 35 37 39 40 41 42 43
Solar intensity,
W/m2 75 75 75 80 240 340 420 420
18.6 A building has 28 double-hung 1.5 m ´ 1 m wood-sash non-weatherstripped

windows of average construction. The windows are evenly distributed on all
the four walls. In addition, there are four 2 m ´ 1 m poorly fitting doors. The
wind velocity is 24 kmph NW. What are the sensible and latent heat gains of
the building due to infiltration? The outside conditions are 40°C DBT, 27°C
WBT, and the inside conditions are 24°C DBT, 50%RH. Also find the
amount of moisture to be evaporated per hour to maintain the inside relative
humidity at 50 per cent.
'
Load Calculations and
Applied Psychrometrics
19.1 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
The importance of accurate load calculations for air-conditioning design and select-
ion of equipment can never be overemphasized. In fact, it is on the precision and
care exercised by the designer in the calculations of the cooling load for summer and
the heating load for winter that a trouble-free successful operation of an air-condi-
tioning plant, after installation, would depend.
An important consideration in this exercise is the date and time for which these
calculations are made. The date would depend on the local climatic conditions.
Although the longest day in summer is June 21, the hottest and most humid day may
occur in July. Similarly, the coldest day may occur in January or even in February
instead of December 21. Again, though the maximum temperature may occur outside
at 1 or 2 p.m., the maximum heat gain of the room may occur at 3 or 4 p.m. due to the
direct solar radiation through glass on the west side, or even later due to the time lag
for the heat transfer through the structure. Further, the application for which the build-
ing is intended to be used would also govern the choice of time. For example, for an
office building in winter that is not used at night, the time for load calculations may be
taken during the early hours of the morning, although the maximum heating load may
occur at night. Similarly, an office building in summer may have the maximum cooling
load at 7 p.m. due to the time lag, but since no occupants would be present at that time,
the time for load calculations may be taken as 4 or 5 p.m.
The major components of load in buildings are due to the direct solar radiation
through the west glass, transmission through the building fabric or structure and
fresh air for ventilation. In the case of applications such as theatres and auditoriums,
the occupancy load is predominant.
A detailed discussion of the solar radiation incident on a surface and its transmis-
sion through glass has been given in Chapter 17. Further, in Chapter 18, we have
studied the methods of calculating heat transmission and infiltration through
structures. These form the components of load on the building from the external
environment. The internal and system heat gains or losses also form the major
components of other loads.
Thus, components that may cause colling loads include the followimg:
External : Walls, roof, windows, partitions, ceiling, and floor
Internal : Lights, people (occupancy), appliances, and equipment
Infiltration : Air leakage and moisture migration
System:Outside air (ventilation air), duct gain, reheat, fan and pump energy.
In this chapter, the methods for the evaluation of the above mentioned and other
individual loads are presented, followed by a summary of all loads at the end along
with an example and a calculation sheet illustrating the procedure that is followed by
practising engineers. In the first instance here, the cooling load estimation is given
followed by that of the heating load.
19.2 INTERNAL HEAT GAINS
The sensible and latent heat gains due to occupants, lights, appliances, machines,
piping, etc., within the conditional space, form the components of the internal heat
gains.
19.2.1 Occupancy Load

The occupants in a conditioned space give out heat at a metabolic rate that more or
less depends on their rate of working. The relative proportion of the sensible and
latent heats given out, however, depends on the ambient dry bulb temperature. The
lower the dry bulb temperature, the greater the heat given out as sensible heat.
Typical values of heat given out are given in Table 19.1. The values for restau-
rants include the heat given out by food as well. It will be seen that the sensible heat
(S) gain does not vary much with activity, more and more heat being liberated as
latent heat (L) thus making up for total heat.
Table 19.1 Heat liberated due to occupancy
Metabolic Heat Liberated, W

Activity Rate Room Dry Bulb Temperature, °C
W 20 22 24 26
S L S L S L S L
Seated at rest 115 90 25 80 35 75 40 65 50
Office work 140 100 40 90 50 80 60 70 70
Standing 150 105 45 95 55 82 68 72 78
Eating in
restaurant 160 110 50 100 60 85 75 75 85
Light work in
factory 235 130 105 115 120 100 135 80 155
Dancing 265 140 125 125 140 105 160 90 175
The usual problem in calculating the occupancy load lies in the estimation of the
exact number of people present.
Load Calculations and Applied Psychrometrics 623
19.2.2 Lighting Load

Electric lights generate sensible heat equal to the amount of the electric power
consumed. Most of the energy is liberated as heat, and the rest as light which also
eventually becomes heat after multiple reflections.
Lighting manufacturers give some guidance as to the requirement of power for
different fittings to produce varying standards of illumination. In connection with
fluorescent tubes, it may be stated that the electric power absorbed at the fitting is about
25 per cent more than necessary to produce the required lighting. Thus, a 60 W tube will
need 75 W at the fitting. The excess of 15 W is liberated at the control gear of the fitting.
As a rough calculation, one may use the lighting load equal to 33.5 W/m2 to pro-
duce a lighting standard of 540 lumens/m2 in an office space; 20 W/m2 is minimum.
After the wattage is known, the calculation of the heat gain is done as follows:
Fluorescent: Q = Total watts ´ 1.25
Incandescent: Q = Total watts
19.2.3 Appliances Load

Most appliances contribute both sensible and latent heats. The latent heat produced
depends on the function the appliances perform, such as drying, cooking, etc. Gas
appliances produce additional moisture as product of combustion. Such loads can be
considerably reduced by providing properly designed hoods with a positive exhaust
system or suction over the appliances.
The appliances in the conditioned space are a common feature in cafetarias.
Table 19.2 gives a general guidance about the sensible and latent heat loads of
unhooded common restaurant appliances.
Table 19.2 Appliance load, W
Appliance Sensible Latent Total

1
Coffee brewer 2 gal 265 65 329
1
Coffee warmer 2 gal 71 27 98
Egg boiler 353 235 60
Food warmer/m2 of plate 1150 1150 2300
Griddle frying with frying top
of 46 cm ´ 36 cm 912 500 1412
Toaster, 360 slices/h 1500 382 1882
Electric motors contribute sensible heat to the conditioned space. A part of the
power input is directly converted into heat due to the inefficiency of the motor and is
dissipated through the frame of the motor. This power is
(Input) (1 – Motor efficiency)
The rest of the power input is utilized by the driven mechanism for doing work
which may or may not result in heat gain to the space. This depends on whether the
energy input goes to the conditioned space or outside it.
19.2.4 Piping, Tanks, Evaporation of Water from a Free Surface

and Steam
Heat is added to the conditioned space from running pipes carrying hot fluids due to
heat transfer. On the other hand, cold pipes take away heat from the space. Open
tanks containing warm water contribute both sensible heat and latent heat to the
space due to evaporation. This can be calculated by knowing the rate of evaporation
and energy balance.
In industrial air conditioning, products have often to be dried. This involves both
the latent heat gain and the sensible heat gain to the space from the hot surfaces of
the dryer depending upon the drying rate. For these calculations, a knowledge of the
heat and mass transfer coefficients is essential.
When steam is entering the conditioned space, the sensible heat gain is very little.
It is equal to only the difference in the enthalpy of steam at the steam temperature
and the enthalpy of water vapour at the room dry-bulb temperature. The main load is
in the form of the latent heat gain. Thus
SHG = (kg/s) (tsteam – ti) (1.88) kW (19.1)
LHG = (kg/s) (2500) kW (19.2)
19.2.5 Product Load

In the case of cold storages, the enclosures are insulated with at least 10-15 cm of
thermocole and are almost completely sealed. Thus, many of the loads present in
buildings for comfort air conditioning are either absent or lessened in the case of
cold storages. However, in addition to the heat which is removed from products at
the time of initial loading, there is also the heat produced by the commodities during
storage. This heat of respiration forms a sizable product load even at a storage tem-
perature of 0°C. At higher temperatures, it is more. The approximate rate of evolu-
tion of heat by various products at different temperatures is given in Table 19.3.
Table 19.3 Heat of respiration of products in J/kg per 24 hours
Product Storage Temperature

0°C 4.4°C 15.6°C
Apples 312-1560 625-2810 2390-8215
Bananas — — —
Cabbage 1248 1770 4265
Carrots 2183 3640 8420
Cauliflower — 4680 10500
Cherries 1352-1871 — 11440-13725
Cucumbers — — 2290-6860
Grape fruit 416-1040 730-1350 2290-4160
Grapes, American 624 1250 3640
Grapes, European 312-416 — 2290-2705
Lemons 520-936 625-1975 2390-5200
Melons 1350 2080 8840
Mushrooms 6446 — —
Onions 728-1144 830 2495
Oranges 416-1040 1350-1665 3850-5405
Peaches 936-1456 1455-2080 7590-9670
Pears 728-936 — 9150-13,725
(Contd.)
Table 19.3 (Contd)
Product Storage Temperature

0°C 4.4°C 15.6°C
Peas 8526-8733 13,520-16,635 40,860-46,265
Plums 416-728 935-1560 2495-2910
Potatoes, immature — 2705 3015-7070
Potatoes, mature — 1350-1870 1560-2705
Strawberries 2807-3950 3745-7070 16,220-21,105
Tomatoes, green 625 1145 6445
Tomatoes, ripe 1040 1350 5820
Turnips 1975 2290 5510
19.2.6 Process Load

The procedure of calculating the cooling and heating load for various industrial
air-conditioning processes is specific for each process. The requirements for the
process may involve the control of one or more of the following factors:
(i) Regain of moisture content by hygroscopic materials, such as cotton silk,
tobacco, etc., and the accompanying heat liberated.
(ii) Drying load.
(iii) Rate of chemical and biochemical reactions.
(iv) Rate of crystallization, freezing, freeze-drying, etc.
(v) Sensible cooling load.
For details of these loads, one may refer to the ASHRAE Handbook.1
19.3 SYSTEM HEAT GAINS
The system heat gain is the heat gain (or loss) of an air-conditioning system compris-
ing its components, viz., ducts, piping, air-conditioning fan, pumps, etc. This heat
gain is to be initially estimated and included in the total heat load for the air-condi-
tioning plant. The same should be checked after the whole plant has been designed.
19.3.1 Supply Air Duct Heat Gain and Leakage Loss

The supply air, normally, has a temperature of 10 to 15°C. The duct may pass
through an unconditioned space having an ambient temperature of 40°C. This
results in a significant heat gain till the air reaches the conditioned space even though
the duct may be insulated.
The heat gain can be calculated using the following expression
Q = UA(ta – ts) (19.3)
where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, A is the surface area of the duct
system exposed to the ambient temperature ta and ts is the supply air temperature.
As a rough estimate, a value of the order of 5 per cent of the room sensible heat
may be added to the total sensible heat if the whole supply duct is outside the condi-
tioned space, and proportionately less if some of it is within the conditioned space.
It has been found that duct leakages are of the order of 5 to 30 per cent depend-
ing on the workmanship. Air leakages from supply ducts result in a serious loss of
the cooling capacity unless the leakages take place within the conditioned space.
If all ducts are outside the conditioned space which, normally, is strctly
avoided, a 10 per cent leakage is to be assumed which should be considered as a
complete loss. When only a part of the supply duct is outside the conditioned
space, then only the leakage loss of this portion is to be included. The fraction of
10 per cent, to be added in such a case, is equal to the ratio of the length outside
the conditioned space to the total length of the supply duct.
19.3.2 Heat Gain from Air-Conditioning Fan

The heat equivalent of an air-conditioning fan horsepower is added as the sensible
heat to the system. If the fan motor is outside the air stream, the energy lost due to
the inefficiency of the motor is not added to the air. There are two types of air
supply systems.
Draw-through System In the draw-through system, the fan is drawing air
through the cooling coil and supplying it to the conditioned space. This is the most
common system. In this system, the fan heat is in addition to the supply air heat
gain. The heat should, therefore, be added to the room sensible heat.
Blow-through System In the blow-through system, fan blows air through the
cooling coil before being supplied to the conditioned space. In this system, the fan
heat is added after the room to the return air. Thus the fan heat is a load on the
cooling coil. The heat should, therefore, be added to the grand total heat.
The fan efficiencies are of the order of 70 per cent for central air-conditioning
plant fans and about 50 per cent for package air-conditioner fans.
The fan horsepower depends on the quantity of air supplied and the pressure
rise, viz., the total pressure developed by the fan. The supply air quantity in turn
depends on the dehumidified rise, which is of the order of 8 to 14°C. The fan total
pressure depends on the system pressure loss which comprises the pressure drop
through the duct-work, grilles, filters, cooling coil, etc. The approximate values of
pressures to be developed by fans are given in Table 19.4.
Table 19.4 Fan pressure for different duct systems
Sl. No. Type of Duct Work Fan Pressure, cm H2O

1. No ductwork (package units) 1.25 to 2.5
2. Moderate ductwork, low velocity systems 1.9 to 3.75
3. Considerable ductwork, low velocity systems 3.0 to 5.0
4. Moderate ductwork, high velocity systems 5.0 to 10.0
5. Considerable dutwork, high velocity systems 7.5 to 15.0
Once the supply air-rate and pressure developed are known, the fan power can be
calculated. But these cannot be known until the load calculations have been
completed. Hence the procedure is to initially assume fan heat between 2.5 and 7.5
per cent of the room sensible heat and check the value after the design has been
completed. Designers usually take 5% of RSH as fan heat.
19.3.3 Return Air Duct Heat and Leakage Gain

The calculation of the heat gain for return air ducts is done in exactly the same way
as for supply air ducts. But the leakage in this case is that of the hot and humid
outside air into the duct because of suction within the duct. If the ducts are outside
the conditioned space, an inleakage up to 3 per cent may be assumed depending on
the length of the duct. If there is only a short connection between the conditioning
equipment and the space, this leakage may be neglected.
19.3.4 Heat Gain from Dehumidifier Pump and Piping

The horsepower required to pump water through the dehumidifier adds heat to the
system and is to be considered like that of other electric motors.
For this purpose, pump efficiencies may be assumed as 50 per cent for small
pumps and 70 per cent for large pumps.
The heat gain of dehumidifier piping may be calculated as a percentage of the
grand total heat as follows:
(i) Very little external piping: 1% of GTH.
(ii) Average external piping: 2% of GTH.
(iii) Extensive external piping: 4% of GTH.
Note It is to be noted that all heat gains after the room are not to be added to room heat
gains, but to the grand total heat load that directly falls on the conditioning equipment.
These include the return air duct heat and leakage gain, dehumidifier pump power,
dehumidifier and piping losses, as outlined above and the fan sensible heat in the case of
the blow-through system.
19.3.5 Safety Factor

Safety factor is strictly a factor of probable error in the estimation of the load. For
the purpose, additional 5 per cent heat should be added to the room sensible and
latent heats.
19.4 BREAK-UP OF VENTILATION LOAD AND

EFFECTIVE SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR
The ventilation-air requirements, depending on individual applications are given

in Table 16.2. The minimum requirement is taken as 0.2 cmm per person. This is
based on a population density of 5 to 7.5 m2 per person and a ceiling height of
2.4 m. When people are smoking, the minimum ventilation requirement is 0.4 to
0.7 cmm per person.
In Sec. 15.5.1, we have seen the calculation for the load due to ventilation air. It
was also pointed out in Sec. 15.5.2, that the bypass factor of the cooling equipment
affects the position of the grand sensible heat factor line. As a matter of fact, the
effect of the bypass factor is such as to add (X) (ma ) amount of the outside air
o
directly to the room, and to allow only (1 – X) (ma ) to pass through the apparatus.
o
Although the room air is also bypassed, this does not affect the break-up of the load
as the room air going to the room does not change the load situation. Thus, we can say
that a part of the ventilation load forms a component of the room load. This bypassed
outside air load is proportional to the bypass factor X. It has both sensible and latent
heat components. The other part-which is proportional to 1 – X, both sensible and
latent, which is bypassed around the apparatus—is added to the equipment load.
Thus the bypassed outside air loads on the room are:
SH = (OASH) (BPF) (19.4)
LH = (OALH) (BPF) (19.5)
These loads are imposed on the room in exactly the same manner as the infiltra-
tion load. Accordingly, the effective room loads are modified as follows:
Effective room sensible heat
ERSH = RSH + (OASH) (BPF) (19.6)
Effective room latent heat
ERLH = RLH + (OALH) (PBF) (19.7)
The effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) is the ratio of the effective room
sensible heat to the effective room total heat
ERSH ERSH
ESHF = =
ERSH + ERLH ERTH
The term is devised to relate the bypass factor, apparatus dew point, room sensi-
ble and latent heats and bypassed outside air loads and to permit a simplified calcu-
lation of the dehumidified air quantity as in Sec. 19.7.
The remaining outside air loads which are proportional to 1 – BPF are accounted in
the grand total heat which remains unaffected by the bypass factor.
19.5 COOLING LOAD ESTIMATE
The components of the cooling load for air-conditioning can now be summarized as
follows. The load is classified as the room load that falls on the room directly, and
the total load that falls on the apparatus.
Room Load A. Room Sensible Heat (RSH)
(i) Solar and transmission heat gain through walls, roof, etc.
(ii) Solar and transmission heat gain through glass.
(iii) Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor, etc.
(iv) Infiltration.
(v) Internal heat gain from people, power, lights, appliances, etc.
(vi) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(vii) Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan horsepower.
The sum of all the above gives the room sensible heat (RSH) load. For the
purpose of psychrometric analysis, the following component is also included
in the room sensible heat.
(viii) Bypassed outside air load.
The sum of items (i) to (viii) gives the effective room sensible heat (ERSH).
B. Room Latent Heat (RLH)

(i) Infiltration.
(ii) Internal heat gain from people, steam, appliances, etc.
(iii) Vapour transmission.
(iv) Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.
(v) Supply duct leakage loss.
The sum of these gives the room latent heat (RLH). The other latent heat gain
considered for psychrometric analysis is:
(vi) Bypass outside air load.
The sum of items (i) to (vi) above gives the effective room latent heat (ERLH).
The sum of items A and B above gives the effective room total heat (ERTH). But
the sum of items (i) to (vii) in A, and (i) to (v) in B gives the room total heat (RTH).
Grand Total Load on Air-Conditioning Apparatus A. Sensible Heat
(i) Effective room sensible heat (ERSH).
(ii) Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed.
(iii) Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horse-
power and dehumidifier and piping losses.
The sum of items (i) to (iii) gives the total sensible heat (TSH).
B. Latent Heat
(i) Effective room latent heat (ERLH).
(ii) Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed.
(iii) Return duct leakage gain.
The sum of items (i) to (iii) above gives the total latent heat (TLH). Finally, the
sum of A and B above gives the grand total heat (GTH).
19.5.1 Heat Balance (HB) Method

Heat balance method is a rigourous approch to cooling load calculations. It requires
the use of computers. The method is described in Ashrae Transactions pp. 459–502.
The HB methos considers four distinct processes.
1. Outside-face heat balance.
2. Wall conduction process.
3. Inside-face heat balance.
4. Room-air heat balance.
The heat balance on outside surface considers solar radiation, convective exchange,
and conductive heat flux. Numerical methods are used for wall conduction process.
The heat balance on inside surface considers heat fluxes from wall to air. Air heat
balance takes into account internal loads, infiltration and ventilation air, system
loads. etc.
19.6 HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE
An estimate of the heating load is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat
loss of the room or space to be heated. Thus the plant for the heating system is to be
so designed that it has a capacity just sufficient to meet the heating load requirement
which develops when most severe weather conditions occur. In this respect very
brief periods of severe weather need not be taken into account.
Accordingly, the following points in heating-load calculations are noteworthy.

(i) Transmission Heat Loss: The transmission heat loss from walls, roof, etc., is
calculated on the basis of just the design outside and inside air temperature
difference.
Q = U A (ti – to) (19.8)
Thus, no allowances need be made for the walls and roof being exposed to
sun. Also, the time lag and decrement factor are to be ignored.
(ii) Solar Radiation: There is generally no solar radiation present and hence, there
is no solar heat gain at the time of the peak load which normally occurs in the
early hours of the morning.
(iii) Internal Heat Gains: Internal heat gains from occupants, lights, motors and
machinery, etc., diminish the heating requirement. These negative loads
should be accounted for in applications, such as theatres, assembly halls,
stores, office buildings, etc., where these loads are constantly present. But
allowance for these loads must be made only after careful consideration. An
important aspect to keep in mind is the use of the space at night, week-ends or
other unoccupied periods.
Also, the heating plant should have sufficient capacity to bring up the inside
temperature to the design value before the occupants come in.
Example 19.1 For the air conditioning of a 4 m high single-story office

building located at 30°N latitude, the plan of which is shown in Fig. 19.1, the
following data are given.
2 m 1.5 m 2 m 1.5 m 2 m 1.5 m 2 m 1.5 m

2 m 1.5 m
2 m 1.5 m
W
10 m
S N
1.5 m 2 m
1.5 m 2 m
E
2 m 1.5 m
7m
27 m
Adjoining Building
(Conditioned) 1.5 m 2 m
Fig. 19.1 Plan of building for Example 19.1
Plaster on inside wall : 1 14 cm

Outside wall construction : 20 cm concrete block
: 10 cm brick veneer
Partition wall construction : 33 cm brick
Roof construction : 20 cm RCC slab with

4 cm asbestos cement board
Floor construction : 20 cm concrete
Densities, brick : 2000 kg/m3
concrete : 1900 kg/m3
plaster : 1885 kg/m3
asbestos board : 520 kg/m3
Fenestration (Weather-stripped, : 2 m ´ 1 12 m glass
Loose fit) U = 5.9 Wm–2 K –1
Doors : 1 12 m ´ 2 m wood panels
U = 0.63 Wm–2 K–1
Outdoor-design conditions : 43°C DBT, 27°C WBT
Indoor-design conditions : 25°C DBT, 50% RH
Daily range : 31°C to 43°C = 12°C
Occupancy : 100
Lights : 15,000 W fluorescent
Assumed bypass factor of cooling coil 0.15
Find the room sensible and latent heat loads, and also the grand total heat load.
Solution Thermal conductivities from Table 18.1

kglass = 0.78 W m–1 K–1
kconcrete = 1.73 W m–1 K–1
kbrick = 1.32 W m–1 K–1
kplaster = 8.65 W m–1 K–1
kasbestos = 0.154 W m–1 K–1
Assumed film coefficients
f0 = 23 W m–2 K–1
fi = 7 W m–2 K–1
1 1 0.1 0.2 1 0.0125
Outside wall = + + + +
U 23 1.32 1.73 7 8.65
U = 3.5 W m–2 K–1
Partition wall
1
=
1
+
0.33
+
1
+
b
2 0.0125 g
U 7 1.32 7 8.65
U = 1.86 W m–2 K–1
1 1 0.2 0.04 0.0125 1
Roof = + + + +
U 23 9 0.154 8.65 7
U = 2.13 W m–2 K–1
1 1 0.2
Floor = +
U 7 9
U = 6.05 W m–2 K–1
Area and volume of space A = (27) (17) = 459 m2

V = (459) (4) = 1836 m3
Ventilation rate for office
QL /person = 0.28 cmm (from Table 16.2)
o
Q Lo = 0.28 (100) = 28 cmm
Number of air-changes of ventilation air =

a28fa60f = 0.92 (Satisfactory)
1836
Mass of wall per unit area
Outside wall: 0.2 (1900) + 0.1 (2000) + 0.0125 (1885)
= 604 kg/m2
Partition wall: 0.33 (2000) + 2(0.0125) (1885) = 707 kg/m2
Roof: 0.2 (1900) + 0.04 (520) = 401 kg/m2
Correction for equivalent temperature differentials
12 - 111 .
For daily range of 12°C = = 0.45°C
2
For (to – ti) of 18°C = 18 – 8.3 = 9.7°C
Total correction = – 0.45 + 9.7 = 9.25°C
Equivalent temperature differentials in °C, from Tables 18.9 and 18.10, and
incorporating corrections:
2 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m. 6 p.m. 7 p.m.

West wall 14.4 14.8 15.2 16.5 17.5
North wall 9.6 10.2 9.6 11.3 11.7
South wall 13.1 14.7 16.0 17.4 17.8
Roof (exposed) 24.0 25.8 28.0 29.7 30.5 30.2
Rates of solar gains through glass on June 21 in W/m2 from Table 17.8(d)
2 p.m. 3 p.m. 4 p.m. 5 p.m.
West glass 309 451 508 492
North glass 44 44 51 91
South glass 47 44 38 32
Door area = 1 12 ´ 2 = 3 m2
Glass areas West glass = 4 (2 ´ 1 12 ) = 12 m2
North glass = 2 ´ 1 12 = 3 m2
South glass = 2 (2 ´ 1 12 ) = 6 m2
Outside wall areas West wall = (27) (4) – 12 = 96 m2
North wall = (10) (4) – 3 – 3 = 34 m2
South wall = (17) (4) – 3 – 6 = 59 m2
Partition wall areas East wall = (27) (4) – 3 = 105 m2
North wall = (7) (4) = 28 m2
Estimated time of maximum cooling load:

From the above calculations, it is obvious that the major components of the variable
cooling loads are solar and transmission heat gains through the west wall and glass,
and the roof. Of these, glass and roof loads are the predominant loads. The roof load is
maximum at 6 p.m. when the equivalent temperature differential is 30.5°C. The solar
gain through the west glass has a maximum value of 508 W/m2 at 4 p.m. Thus the time
of maximum load is most likely to be near 5 p.m. Heat transfer through floor:
Assume a temperature difference of 2.5°C across the floor
Wind pressure
Assuming a wind velocity of 15 kmph, we have
D p = 0.00047 (15)2 = 0.11 cm H2O
Infiltration rate for windows, from Table 18.11 for 0.11 cm wind pressure
= 2.5 m3/h/m crack
Length of crack for 7 windows = 7[2 (2 + 1 12 )] = 49 m
Occupancy load, from Table 19.1
SHL = 75 W/person
LHL = 55 W/person
Other assumptions
(i) Only 10% of the supply duct outside the conditioned space.
(ii) No return duct outside the conditioned space.
(iii) Fan horsepower, 5 per cent of RSH.
The details of cooling load calculations are given on the calculation sheet in
Table 19.5.
Table 19.5 Calculation sheet for cooling load estimation for Example 19.1
SPACE USED FOR OFFICE

SIZE 27 ´ 17 = 459 m2 ´ 4 = 1836 m2
ESTIMATE FOR 5 p.m. LOCAL TIME
HOURS OF OPERATION DAY TIME
Conditions DB WB %RH DP h, kJ/kg w, kg/kg
OUTDOOR 43 27 29 21.3 85.0 0.016
ROOM 25 18 50 15.7 50.85 0.01
DIFFERENCE 18 34.15 0.006
100 PEOPLE ´ 0.28 cmm/PERSON = 28 cmm

VENTILATION cmm = 28
DOORS 3 DOORS ´ 3m2 1.9813 cmm/m2 = 17.8 cmm
CRACK 49 m ´ 2.5/60 cmm/m = 2.0 cm
INFILTRATION cmm = 17.8 + 2 = 19.8
(Contd)
SENSIBLE HEAT
SOLAR GAIN-GLASS
EAST GLASS m2 — — —
WEST GLASS 12 m2 492 — 5,900
NORTH GLASS 3 m2 91 — 270
SOUTH GLASS 6 m2 32 — 190
SKY LIGHT –m2 — — —
LOAD CALCULATIONS
ITEM AREA OR SUN GAIN OR FACTOR W
QUANTITY TEMP. DIFF. OR
HUMIDITY
DIFF.
SOLAR TRANSMISSION GAIN-WALLS AND ROOF
EAST WALL –m2 — — —
WEST WALL 96 m2 16.5 3.5 5,540
NORTH WALL 34 m2 11.3 3.5 1,345
SOUTH WALL 59 m2 17.4 3.5 3,590
ROOF-SUN 459 m2 29.7 2.13 29,035
ROOF-SHADED –m2 — — —
TRANSMISSION GAIN-OTHERS
DOORS 9 m2 18 0.63 100
ALL GLASS (12+3+6) m2 18 5.9 2,230
PARTITION (108+28) m2 15.5 1.86 3,930
CEILING –m2 — — —
FLOOR 459 m2 2.5 6.05 6,940
INFILTRATION 19.8 cmm 18 20.4 7,270
INTERNAL HEAT GAIN
PEOPLE 100 — 75 7,500
POWER — — — —
LIGHTS 15,000 — 1.25 18,750
APPLIANCES — — — —
ADDITIONAL — — — —
SUB TOTAL 92,690
STORAGE (Neglected) — — — —
SAFETY
FACTOR 5% 4,635
ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT 103,090
SUPPLY DUCT
SUPPLY DUCT
HEAT GAIN 0.5% + LEAKAGE 0.5% + Fan 5% 5,560
HP
OUTDOOR AIR
(Contd)
BYPASSED 28 cmm 18°C 20.4 ´ 0.15 1,540

EFFECTIVE ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT 104,425
LATENT HEAT
INFILTRATION 19.8 cmm 0.006 50,000 5,940
PEOPLE 100 — 55 5,500
STEAM — — — —
APPLIANCES — — — —
ADDITIONAL — — — —
VAPOUR TRANS — — — —
SUB TOTAL 11,440

SAFETY FACTOR 5% 570
ROOM LATENT HEAT 12,010
SUPPLY DUCT
LEAKAGE LOSS 0.5% 60
OUTDOOR AIR
BYPASSED 28 cmm 0.006 50,000 ´ 0.15 1,260
EFFECTIVE ROOM LATENT HEAT 13,330
EFFECTIVE ROOM TOTAL HEAT 117,755
OUTDOOR AIR TOTAL HEAT (On equipment)

SENSIBLE 28 cmm 18 20.4 ´ (1 – 0.15) 8,740
LATENT 28 cmm 0.006 50,000 ´ (1 – 0.15) 7,140
RETURN % + RETURN DUCT % + PUMP % + DEUH. % —
DUCT LEAKAGE GAIN PIPE
HEAT GAIN GAIN
GRAND TOTAL HEAT 133,635 (38TR)
Note Many designers do not take into account the infiltration load separately. It is
considered to be taken care of by ventilation air if the ventilation cmm is greater than
infiltration cmm. One such simplified load estimation calculation sheet for the ground, first
and third floors of a television studio building, without considering infiltration load, is
presented in Table 19.6. Note that in such a case, there is actually no infiltration as the
room is under positive pressure. There is, however, exfiltration which is equivalent to
exhaust of room air.
19.7 PSYCHROMETRIC CALCULATIONS FOR COOLING
Figure 19.2 shows the condition of the mixture of the recirculated room air and
ventilation air entering the apparatus at 1, and leaving the apparatus at 2 which is the
same as the supply air state s, the effective surface of the apparatus being at S. The
condition line 1–2 represents the psychrometric process in the air-conditioning
apparatus, and hence the GSHF line. Further, the leaving air state 2 is governed by the
BPF of the apparatus, although, at the same time, it must lie on the RSHF line i – 2*.
Accordingly, the dehumidified air quantity can be calculated either from room
sensible heat balance, viz., process s – i in the room
RSH
(cmm)d =
b
0.0204 ti - t s g (19.8)
1*
Line 1
2b G SHF 1
1
2
S*, 2* i
w
S 2,s RSHF Line
S
2a
BPF (1– BPF)
tADP t
Fig. 19.2 Effect of bypass factor
or from the total sensible heat balance, viz., process 1–2 in the apparatus.
TSH
(cmm)d =
0.0204 t1 - t2b g (19.9)
It can be seen that the two expressions give the same value of the cmmd.
Note Another simplified version of load calculation sheet for a studio building is given in
Table 19.6 below.
Table 19.6 Simplified load estimation sheet

FLOOR : GROUND, FIRST, THIRD
SIZE : 857.44 m2 ´ 4 m
SEASON : SUMMER
PEAK LOAD : AT 8:00 P.M.
CONDITIONS DBT WBT % RH SP. HU., g/kg
OUTSIDE 43.3° 23.9° 20 11.0
ROOM 25° — 50 10.0
DIFFERENCE 18.3° 1.0
DATA: Uwall = 1.78 W/m2 K,Uroof = 1.316 W/m2K

(1) SOLAR & TRANSMISSION HEAT GAIN
DIRECTION AREA DTe QS = UADTe
(m2) (°C) (kW)
N E Wall 65.76 16.4 1.920
E Wall 105.16 17.4 3.257
SE Wall 31.72 16.4 0.926
S Wall 125.68 17.4 3.893
W Wall 137.4 25.7 6.285
N W Wall 31.72 21.5 1.214
N Wall 61.44 14.1 1.542
ROOF — — —
Total 19.037
(Contd.)
2. TRANS. GAINS THROUGH PARTITION/DOOR

ITEM U AREA DT Q = UA DT
(W/m2K) (m2) (°C) (kW)
PARTITION-1 1.57 25.68 15.8 0.637
PARTITION-2 1.434 71.4 15.8 1.618
TOILET Doors 2.08 2.5 18.3 0.095
SWING Doors 2.08 2.5 18.3 0.095
F.C.C Doors 3.98 9.0 18.8 0.066
Total 2.511
3. OCCUPANCY HEAT GAIN

No. of FACTORS FACTORL QS QL
PEOPLE (kW) (kW)
30 65 75 195 225
4. ELECTRICAL LOAD (kW)

NORMAL 8
FLUORESCENT 25
5. VENTILATION
VOLUME NO. OF AIR (cmm)0
(m3) CHANGES
857.44 ´ 4 1.2 68.6
6. TOTAL ROOM HEAT GAINS

SAFETY FACTOR = 5%
RSH = 59.31 kW
RLH = 2.36 kW
RTH = 64.02 kW
7. EFFECTIVE ROOM HEAT GAINS
(a) FAN H.P. = 5% (b) DUCT LEAKAGE = 0.5%
(c) DUCT HEAT GAIN = 0.5%. (d) BPF = 0.15
OUTDOOR AIR BYPASSED LOADS
QS = 0.0204 ´ 18.3 ´ 68.6 ´ 0.15 = 3.84 kW
QL = 50 ´ 1 ´ 10–3 ´ 68.6 ´ 0.15 = 0.515 kW
ERSH = 66.94 kW ERLH = 3.05 kW
ESHF = 0.956 ADP = 13.5°C
8. DEHUMIDIFIED AIR QUANTITY
(cmm)d = ERSH/0.0204 ´ (ti – ADP) ´ (1 – BPF)
= 35.1
(Contd.)
9. RETURN AIR QUANTITY

(cmm)i = (cmm)d – (cmm)0 = 282.4
10. ENTERING AND LEAVING AIR TEMP.
t1 = 28.6°C, t2 = 15.8°C
11. OUTDOOR AIR HEAT (PART OF GTH)
QS = 0.0204 ´ 18.3 ´ 68.6 ´ (1 – 0.15) = 21.76 kW
QL = 50 ´ 1 ´ 10–3 ´ 68.6 ´ (1– 0.15) = 2.92 kW
12. GRAND TOTAL HEAT (i.e., LOAD)
TSH = 88.7 kW
TLH = 4.97 kW
GTH = 93.67 kW (26.64 TR)
GSHF = 0.9469
19.7.1 Effect of Bypass Factor

The effect of the bypass factor of the apparatus may now be analysed in detail. It is
to be noted that in the air conditioning of any building, the following two things are
fixed, irrespective of the bypass factor of the apparatus.
(i) Room sensible and latent heat gains.
(ii) Ventilation air quantity.
As a result of these two, the total sensible and latent heat gains, and hence the
grand sensible heat factor are also fixed. Hence the slope of the GSHF line cannot be
changed. Thus to satisfy the given conditions, the GHHF line will float parallel to
itself depending on the bypass factor of the apparatus, in such a manner that the
leaving air states 2, 2¢, 2¢¢, etc., lie on the RSHF line as shown in Fig. 19.2. Another
outcome of this is that the mixture state 1 must also correspondingly float in its
position along the line i – o.
Thus, when the bypass factor increases, the following observations can be made.
(i) The supply air state 2 moves towards the room state i.
(ii) Dehumidified rise (t1 – t2) is decreased.
(iii) Dehumidified air quantity (cmm)d is, therefore, increased.
(iv) The fresh air quantity remaining fixed, the recirculated room air quantity
(cmm)i must increase.
(v) The apparatus dew point S is lowered and hence the running cost of the refrig-
eration equipment is increased.
(vi) The cost of the cooling apparatus, however, is decreased (Less Cost with
Higher BPF).
(vii) The mixture state 1 moves towards i.
(viii) The recirculated room air quantity, therefore, increases
It is seen that when the BPF is zero, the ADP is at 2* and the process line is in
the limiting position 1* – 2*. This corresponds to minimum dehumidified and
supply air quantity.
19.7.2 Calculation by Iteration Procedure

An important point to note here is that point 2 or s in Fig. 19.2 is obtained simply by
the intersection of GSHF and RSHF lines so that the supply state at s satisfies both
the room sensible heat and total sensible heat requirements. In actual practice, howe-
ver, the supply air state may be obtained at point 2, 2a or 2b, depending on the
bypass factor of the apparatus for a fixed entering air state at 1.
Thus, for the leaving air state 2 to coincide with the supply air state s, it is possi-
ble to have two alternative conditions as follows:
(i) If point 1 is fixed, it is necessary to have an apparatus with a given bypass
factor X as shown in Fig. 19.2 so that 2 coincides with s, and does not fall at
2a or 2b.
(ii) If the BPF is fixed, the GSHF line 1 – 2 will float parallel to the solid line
as shown in Fig. 19.2. The GSHF line will assume a position depending on
the value of the BPF, the extreme position being 1* – 2* corresponding to the
case when the BPF is equal to zero. The RSHF line i – 2 – 2*, however, is
unchangeable.
Normally, the bypass factor of the apparatus is initially assumed depending on
the nature of application. In that case, alternative (ii) is applicable. Thus the GSHF
line is to be floated until point 2 is located, which divides 1 – S in the ratio of BPF
and 1 – BPF, as shown in Fig. 19.4. In other words, the dehumidified air quantity
cannot be calculated unless point 2, and therefore, point 1 is known, from where the
GSHF line is to be drawn. At the same time, point 1 cannot be known unless the
dehumidified air quantity is calculated, from which the recirculated room air quan-
tity is determined by taking the difference
(cmm)i = (cmm)d – (cmm)o
and then applying the mixing rule to locate point 1.
Thus, the calculation procedure involves iteration, and is cumbersome and time-
consuming. To simplify the procedure, the concept of the effective sensible heat
factor as outlined in Sec. 19.5 is used.
19.7.3 Use of Effective Sensible Heat Factor to Determine Apparatus

Dew Point and Dehumidified Air Quantity3
Figure 19.3 shows an equivalent system in which the bypassed outside air is shown
separately. Thus, if the air leaving the apparatus did not contain the bypassed out-
side air, its state would be at 2¢ as shown in Fig. 19.4. On mixing with the bypassed
outside air at 0, one obtains the conditioned air at 2. Thus point 2¢ lies on the
extended line 0 – 2 – 2.¢
The physical significance of the points 2 and 2¢ may now be assessed. The condi-
tioned air at 2 is able to balance RSH and RLH, and state 2 lies on the RSHF line.
The conditioned air at 2¢ is able to balance the bypassed OASH and OALH in
addition to the room loads, and hence state 2¢ lies on ESHF line.
To locate point 2¢, first the ESHF line is to be drawn from i. Its intersection with the
saturation curve also determines S, the coil ADP. Now, an approximation can be made
by considering triangles S – 2 – 2¢ and S – 1 – i as similar, so that
2−S 2′ − S
BPF = =
1−S i−S
Bypassed Outside Air

0 Conditioned
Air to Room
(cmm)0 0
2
(cmm)i i
A/C Apparatus
Fig. 19.3 Equivalent circuit for bypassed outside air
Line 1
tADP Room HF
GS
e
F Lin i
2 RSH
Line
S ESHF
BPF (1 – BPF)
BPF (1 – BPF)
tADP Coil t
Fig. 19.4 Psychrometric process with bypassed outside air and effective
sensible heat factor
The assumption is not exactly correct since 2 – 2¢ is not parallel to o – i. How-

ever, in practice, the points 2 and 2¢ are so close to each other, and the point o which
lies on both these lines is so far away, that for all practical purposes the approxima-
tion is valid. Accordingly, the dehumidified air quantity can be calculated using
state 2¢ and ERSH as follows
ERSH
(cmm)d =
0.0204 ( ti - t ¢2)
ERSH
=
b gb
0.0204 ti - t ADP 1 - BPF g (19.10)
Equation (19.10) is normally used instead of Eqs (19.8) and (19.9).
19.8 SELECTION OF AIR-CONDITIONING APPARATUS

FOR COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
After calculating the dehumidified air quantity, the air conditioning apparatus may
be selected from the manufacturer’s performance tables/charts. The necessary data
required for this selection are the following:
(i) Grand total heat.

(ii) Dehumidified air quantity.
(iii) Apparatus dew point.
These will determine the size of the apparatus, and the refrigerant temperature.
The performance data also give the bypass factor of the apparatus.
If the BPF of the selected apparatus is not the same as the originally assumed BPF,
the portion of the load estimation form involving BPF is to be adjusted accordingly.
Once the apparatus has been selected from ESHF, ADP, BPF and GTH, the
entering and leaving air conditions are easily determined.
There are two types of cooling and dehumidifying apparatuses:
(i) Coil equipment.
(ii) Air washer or Spray equipment.
Normally, a coil consists of a series of tubes through which brine, chilled water or
expanded refrigerant flows. Air is drawn over the tubes by a fan. The coil may also
be in the form of rows of tubes in a number of circuits.
Thus Fig. 19.5 shows a 4-row coil with 7 rows of tubes in series in just one circuit.
Tubes in Series
Air Out Air In
Tubes in Rows
Fig. 19.5 Configuration of 4-row coil with 7 lengths of tubes
As the air passes over the coil, it is cooled and dehumidified or heated depending
on the temperature of the fluid inside. The medium inside the coil is correspondingly
required to be heated or cooled, external to the apparatus.
The amount of the coil surface not only affects the heat transfer but also the
bypass factor. The BPF also depends on the number of rows. The larger the number
of rows, the closer is the leaving air temperature to the cooling medium temperature.
Table 19.7 gives typical values of bypass factors for finned coils. These values
apply to coils with 1.6 cm OD tubes spaced approximately at 3 cm centres. For
other coils, data should be obtained from the manufacturer. Laboratory tests reveal
that if the BPF of a single row coil is X, then the BPF of a coil n rows deep is Xn.
Values in Table 19.7 conform to this result. Typical cooling coils in air condition-
ing have 6 fins/cm. Values of bypass factors for the same as a function of air
velocity, also termed face velocity (FV), are presented in Fig. 19.6.
Air washers with chilled-water sprays can also be used for cooling and dehumidi-
fication in place of coils. Air washers are rather more versatile than coils in the sense
that they can be used in addition for heating and humidifying as well as for
evaporative cooling.
Table 19.7 Typical bypass factors for finned coils3
Rows Deep 3 fins/cm 6 fins/cm

or Air Velocity (m/min)
Depth of Coils
90 210 90 120 150 180 210
1 .65 .74 .47 .61
2 .42 .55 .22 .274 .314 .346 .38
3 .27 .40 .10 .143 .176 .204 .23
4 .19 .30 .05 .076 .099 .12 .14
5 .12 .23 .02 .04 .056 .071 .09
6 .08 .18 .01 .022 .032 .042 .06
8 .03 .08
Note The importance of BPF lies in the fact that the outside air which gets bypassed
becomes a part of the room load. The bypassed room air does not affect the load situation.
The details of spray equipment are discussed in Chapter 20. Air washers
with chilled-water sprays behave in much the same way as cooling coils, having an
effective surface temperature equal to the required apparatus dew point.
The effect of the bypass factor on apparatus dew point has been illustrated in
Fig. 19.2. The relationship between BPF and ADP and the considerations involved
may be summarised as follows:
Smaller bypass factor:
(i) Higher ADP and higher refrigerant or brine or chilled-water temperature
needed. Consequently a smaller refrigerating machine with a higher coeffi-
cient of performance is required.
(ii) More heat-transfer surface since more rows are necessary for a smaller BPF
and also since the ADP is higher. Larger coil is, therefore, required.
Larger bypass factor:
(i) A lower ADP and lower refrigerant or brine or chilled-water temperature
needed. Consequently a larger refrigerating machine with a lower coefficient
of performance is required.
(ii) Less heat-transfer surface since less rows are necessary for a larger BPF and
also since the ADP is lower.
Factors (i) and (ii) represent the operating and first costs respectively and are con-
tradictory to each other. It is necessary to optimize for minimum total cost. As a guide,
values of coil bypass factors from Table 19.8 for typical applications may be used.
Table 19.8 Typical bypass factors of finned coils for various applications
Coil BPF Type of Application Example

0.3 to 0.5 Small total load Residence
0.2 to 0.3 Low SHF and large total Residence, small retail
load shop, factory
0.1 to 0.2 Typical comfort Department store, bank,
application factory
0.05 to 0.1 Higher latent loads or Department store,
large outdoor-air load restaurant
0 to 0.1 All outdoor-air applications Hospital, operation rooms
Note (i) In high SHF applications, the ADP is high. So we can use high BPF apparatus.
(ii) In low SHF applications, the ADP is low. Hence we have to use low BPF
apparatus.
.36
.32
il
Co
w
Ro
2
.28
.24
Air By-Pass Factor
.20
il
Co
ow
.16 3R
.12
il
w Co
4 Ro
.08
oil
o wC
5R
.04 il
w Co
6 Ro
0
60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Coil Face Velocity, MPM
Fig. 19.6 Figure showing dependence of air bypass factor on face velocity and
depth of rows for 6 fins/cm coils
Example 19.2 A retail shop located in a city at 30°N latitude has the follow-
ing loads.
Room sensible heat: 58.15 kW
Room latent heat: 14.54 kW
The summer outside and inside design conditions are:

Outside: 40°C DB, 27°C WB
Inside: 25°C DB, 50% RH
70 cmm of ventilation air is used. Determine the following:
(i) Ventilation load. (ii) Grand total heat.
(iii) Effective sensible heat factor. (iv) Apparatus dew point.
(v) Dehumidified air quantity.
(vi) Condition of air entering and leaving apparatus.
Assume a suitable bypass factor of the cooling coil.
Solution
Table 19.9 Design conditions for Example 19.2
Condition DBT WBT RH M h L

3
°C °C % kg/kg kJ/kg d.a. m /kg d.a.
Outside 40 27 0.0175 85.0 0.912
Inside 25 50 0.01 50.8 0.858
27°C
21.9°C
13.4°C 1
HF
GS
2 RSHF i
S
ESHF
11°C 14.6°C 25°C 29.1°C 40°C

t
Fig. 19.7 Psychrometric processes for Example 19.2
Refer to Fig. 19.7.

(i) Outside air sensible heat
OASH = 0.0204(70) (40 – 25) = 21.42 kW
Outside air latent heat
OALH = 50(70) (0.0175 – 0.01) = 26.25 kW
Outside air total heat or ventilation load
OATH = OASH + OALH = 21.42 + 26.25 = 47.67 kW
(ii) Total sensible heat

TSH = RSH + OASH = 58.15 + 21.42 = 79.57 kW
Total latent heat
TLH = RLH + OALH = 14.54 + 26.25 = 40.79 kW
Grand total heat
GTH = TSH + TLH = 79.57 + 40.79 = 120.36 kW
(iii) Assume a bypass factor of 0.15 (Table 19.7)
Effective room sensible heat
ERSH = 58.15 + 0.15 (21.42) = 61.36 kW
ERLH = 14.54 + 0.15 (26.25) = 18.48 kW
Effective sensible heat factor
61.36
ESHF = = 0.77
61.36 + 18.48
(iv) Draw a 0.77 SHF line from inside conditions as shown in Fig. 19.7. The inter-
section with the saturation curve gives the ADP as 11°C.
(v) Dehumidified air quantity
ERSH
(cmm)d =
( 0.0204 ) ( ti − t ADP ) (1 − BPF )
61.36
= = 253 cmm
( 0.0204) ( 25 − 11) (1 − 0.15)
(vi) Recirculated room air
(cmm)i = (cmm)d – (cmm)o = 253 – 70 = 183 cmm
Basing calculations on cmm instead of mass flow rates as all the other calcula-
tions are based on the standard density of air, we obtain the following results.
Entering air dry bulb temperature
183( 25) + 70(40)
t1 = = 29.1°C
253
Entering air wet-bulb temperature, on the line joining i to 0 and at the above
temperature
t1¢ = 21.9°C
Leaving air dry bulb temperature
t2 = tADP + (t1 – tADP)BPF = 11 + (29.1 – 11) (0.15) = 13.7°C
Leaving air wet-bulb temperature is obtained by locating point 2 at the above
temperature on the line joining 1 to S. Thus
t ¢2 = 13.2°C
19.8.1 High Latent Cooling Load Application

Sometimes, a situation may arise when the GSHF line does not intersect the satura-
tion curve, or even when it does intersect, an absurdly low value of the apparatus
dew point is obtained. In the former case it is not possible to design a cooling coil
which would satisfy the SHF of the room and in the latter, an extremely uneconomi-
cal refrigerating machine would result with a very low suction pressure and high
power consumption.
Such a situation arises when the latent heat load is very high in comparison with
the total heat load due to the very humid outdoor design conditions or when very
high internal latent loads are present.
In all such applications, an appropriate apparatus dew point tS is selected and the
air is reheated to the RSHF line after leaving the cooling coil as shown in
Fig. 19.8. For the purpose, the following procedure is followed.
1
F
GSH
2 s i
S
RSHF
Reheat ( t i – t s)
tADP t
Fig. 19.8 Psychrometric processes with reheat
(i) Select a maximum allowable temperature difference (ti – ts) between the room
and supply air conditions.
(ii) Draw the RSHF line.
(iii) Locate the supply air point s.
(iv) Then the leaving air state 2 lies on the horizontal from s.
(v) Select a suitable coil with ADP so that 2 lies on this horizontal.
(vi) Calculate the reheat from t2 to ts.
(vii) Calculate the air quantity to take up the RSH from ts to ti or the sensible heat
including reheat from t2 to ti.
There are two other alternatives to reheat. They are:
(i) Alter the room design condition to a condition of higher humidity. This will
make the GSHF line intersect the saturation curve.
(ii) Use a coil of a lower bypass factor so that ESHF is increased and a higher
ADP is obtained.
Even though these methods may not eliminate the need for reheat completely,
they can at least reduce the reheat requirement. Thus the above methods can be used
simultaneously with reheat.
Example 19.3 A laboratory having an unusually large latent heat gain is

required to be air conditioned. The design conditions and loads are as follows:
Summer design conditions : 40°C DBT, 27°C WBT
Inside design conditions : 25°C DBT, 50% RH
Room sensible heat : 34.9 kW
Room latent heat : 18.6 kW
The ventilation air requirement is 85 cmm. Determine the following:
(i) Ventilation load.
(ii) Room and effective sensible heat factors.
(iii) Apparatus dew point and amount of reheat for economical design.
(iv) Supply air quantity.
(v) Condition of air entering and leaving coil and supply air temperature.
(vi) Grand total heat.
Assume a suitable bypass factor.
Solution The design conditions are the same as those given in Table 19.9. Refer
to Fig. 19.9.
23.7
1
HF
11.6 GS
i
s
2 RSHF
S
ADP
10.8 11.8 17.4 25 30.7 40

t, °C
Fig. 19.9 Psychrometric processes for Example 19.3
(i) Outside air sensible heat

OASH = 0.0204 (85) (40 – 25) = 26.0 kW
Outside air latent heat
OALH = 50 (85) (0.0175 – 0.01) = 30.6 kW
Ventilation load or outside air total heat
OATH = 26.0 + 30.6 = 56.6 kW
(ii) Room sensible heat factor
34.9
RSHF = = 0.65
34.9 + 18.6
As it is a low sensible heat-factor application, we choose a coil with a low

bypass factor of 0.05 for economical design. Effective room sensible heat
ERSH = 34.9 + (0.05) (26.0) = 36.2 kW
ERLH = 18.6 + (0.05) (30.6) = 20.63 kW
Effective sensible heat factor
36.2
ESHF = = 0.64
36.2 + 20.1
Note The room sensible heat factor is very low. The effect of choosing a low BPF coil is to
keep ESHF close to RSHF itself.
(iii) The ESHF line intersected the saturation curve. But the ADP is as low as 3°C.
If we had not selected a low BPF coil, the ESHF line would not have inter-
sected at all. For economical design, let us select an ESHF of 0.75. Drawing
this line from i, we get
ADP = 10.8°C
For calculating the required reheat, we write the expression for the modified
ESHF
ERSH + Reheat
Modified ESHF =
ERSH + ERLH + Reheat
36.2 + Reheat
0.75 =
36.2 + 20.1 + Reheat
Þ Reheat = 24.1 kW
(iv) Dehumidified air quantity
ERSH + Reheat
(cmm)d =
0.0204(ti - tADP ) (1 - BPF)
36.2 + 24.1
= = 220
0.0204 (25 - 10.8) (1 - 0.05)
Note The supply air quantity is the same as the dehumidified air quantity.
(v) Recirculated room air
(cmm)i = (cmm)s – (cmm)0 = 220 – 85 = 135
Entering air dry-bulb temperature
139(25) + 85(40)
t1 = = 30.7°C
220
Entering air wet-bulb temperature, from the psychrometric chart
t¢1 = 23.7°C
Leaving air dry-bulb temperature
t2 = tADP + (t1 – tADP) BPF
= 10.8 – (30.7 – 10.8) (0.05) = 11.8°C
Leaving air wet-bulb temperature on the line 1-S from the psychrometric chart
t¢2 = 11.6°C
Supply air temperature

RSH 34.9
ts = ti – = 25 – = 17.4°C
0.0204 (cmm) s 0.0204(220)
(vi) Grand total heat
GTH = Room load + Ventilation load + Reheat
= (34.9 + 18.6) + 56.6 + 24.1 = 134.2 kW
19.8.2 All Outdoor Air Application

Most all outdoor air applications also imply high latent heat load applications. A
typical application of this kind is a hospital operation theatre. After doing the neces-
sary load calculations, and determining the apparatus dew point and dehumidified
air quantity, we may come across the following three situations for which the proce-
dures are also given.
Case I Dehumidified air quantity is equal to the ventilation air requirement.
The solution in this case is simple as shown in Fig. 19.10. The fresh air is directly
taken through the air-conditioning apparatus and is then supplied to the room.
HF
GS
s RSHF i
S
tADP Room DBT

t
Fig. 19.10 Psychrometric processes for all outdoor air applications—
dehumidified air quantity equal to ventilation air requirement
Case II Dehumidified air quantity is less than the ventilation air requirement.
There are two alternatives:
(a) If the difference in air quantities is very small, then a coil with a larger bypass
factor may possibly be used. The effect of this will be to raise the temperature
of the air leaving the coil and hence to increase the necessary supply air
quantity to make it equal to ventilation air. However, leaving air state s¢
(Fig. 19.10) would not, then lie on RSHF line. Hence, inside condition would
shift from i to i¢, viz., to a state of higher humidity if room DBT is to be
maintained the same as before.
(b) If the difference in air quantities is large, it will be necessary to first condition
the necessary outdoor air and then to reheat to artificially increase the
room sensible heat load so that a larger quantity of supply air is required. The
processes are illustrated in Fig. 19.11. It is to be seen that a suitable ADP and
BPF have to be selected. Also, the method is wasteful of energy.
2 s i
S
F Line
Reheat RSH
tADP t
Fig. 19.11 Psychrometric processes for all outdoor air applications—

dehumidified air quantity less than ventilation air requirement
Case III Dehumidified air quantity is more than the ventilation air requirement.
In this case, calculations have to be repeated by taking the outdoor air equal to the
calculated dehumidified air quantity, as illustrated in Example 19.4.
Example 19.4 A laboratory is to be air conditioned with outside and inside

design conditions as in Example 19.2. It is specified that all outdoor air must be
used. The room sensible and latent heat loads are 14.5 and 3.2 kW respectively.
The minimum fresh air requirement is 50 cmm. Determine:
(i) Ventilation load.
(ii) Effective sensible heat factor and apparatus dew point.
(iii) Dehumidified air quantity.
Assume a suitable bypass factor.
Solution As the ventilation load is large, the effective sensible heat factor is
likely to be very low unless a very low bypass factor is chosen. Hence, choose a coil
with a BPF of 0.05. Then
OASH = 0.0204 (50) (40 – 25) = 15.3 kW
OALH = 50 (50) (0.0175 – 0.01) = 18.75 kW
OATH = 15.3 + 18.75 = 34.05 kW
ERSH = 14.5 + (0.05) (15.3) = 15.31 kW
ERLH = 3.2 + (0.05) (18.75) = 4.14 kW
15.31
ESHF = = 0.784
15.31 + 4.14
ADP = 11.3° (from psychrometric chart)
15.31
(cmm)d = = 57.5
(0.0204) (25 - 11.3) (1 - 0.05)
Note The dehumidified air quantity is more than the minimum fresh air requirement.
The calculations are to be repeated with the ventilation air equal to 57.5 cmm. The results
are as follows:
(i) Ventilation load OATH = 39.16 kW
(ii) Effective sensible heat factor ESHF = 0.782
Apparatus dew point ADP = 11.3°C
(iii) Dehumidified air quantity (cmm)d = 57.9
The calculations are to be repeated, again with a ventilation air of 57.9 cmm until
agreement is reached between assumed and calculated values.
19.9 EVAPORATIVE COOLING
As discussed in Chapter 15, evaporative cooling is obtained during the process of

adiabatic saturation. It is a process of the removal of sensible heat from air and an
equivalent addition of latent heat to it in the form of added water vapour.
Evaporative cooling is a process in which heat is neither added to nor it is
removed from the water outside the air washer. Water is simply recirculated by
a pump.
Evaporative cooling is commonly used when the outdoor conditions are very dry.
This means that the wet-bulb depression of air is very large. In a dry climate,
evaporative cooling can give some relief by removing the sensible heat from the
room. But the humidity cannot be controlled.
Another defect of the evaporative cooling system is the large quantity of air that
must be supplied to meet the room sensible heat load as the temperature difference
between the room and supply air is generally small. Thus, whereas in air condition-
ing, the supply air quantity may be of the order of 8–10 air changes per hour, in the
case of evaporative cooling, the same may be of the order of 20 air changes. This
quantity increases rapidly as the humidifying efficiency of the air washer decreases
as illustrated in Example 19.5.
Example 19.5 In an industrial evaporative cooling application with outside

conditions as in Example 19.2, the inside is to be maintained at a maximum
relative humidity of 55 per cent. The room sensible heat is 581.5 kW. All outdoor
air must be used. Find the room dry-bulb temperature and supply air quantity as
a function of humidifying efficiencies of 80, 85, 90, 95 and 100 per cent.
Solution (i) Room dry-bulb temperature:

To maintain 55 per cent RH in the room, it can be seen from Fig. 19.12 that
the room DBT varies along 55 per cent RH line, depending on the humidifying
efficiency DH.
Also, as the room DBT is lowered with decreasing saturation efficiency, the
supply air quantity increases.
Room
Condition i
55% RH
Saturation
RSHF Lines Efficiency
s
100%
s 90%
s 80%
t0 t0
t
Fig. 19.12 Evaporative cooling—processes for Example 19.5
Thus to maintain an acceptable room DBT and supply air quantity, the following
equation may be used.
ts = t0 – DH (t0 – t¢0) = 40 – DH (40 – 27) = 40 – 13 DH
After finding ts, the room DBT ti can be found by moving along the horizontal
from ts up to the 55% RH line. The values are given in Table 19.10.
Table 19.10 Room DBT and supply air quantity variation with humidifying efficiency
DH ts ti ti – ts (cmm)s
100 27 37.8 10.8 2640
95 27.7 37.5 9.8 2910
90 28.3 37.1 8.6 3240
85 29.0 36.9 7.9 3610
80 30.0 36.7 6.7 4250
Table 19.10 also gives the supply air temperature rise (ti – ts). It may be noted
that the supply air temperature rise decreases more rapidly than the room DBT.
Correspondingly, the supply air quantity increases rapidly.
(ii) Supply air quantity:
The supply air quantity can be calculated for various temperature rises using the
equation
5815.
(cmm)s =
(0.0204) (ti - t s )
The calculated values of (cmm)s are also given in Table 19.10. The increase in
the quantity of supply air with a slightly lower room DBT may create a feeling of
discomfort due to the air blast. Also, the fan size and fan power will increase, though
the size of the spray chamber will be reduced.
19.9.1 Limitations of Evaporative Cooling

These can now be listed as follows:
(i) The lowest possible DBT of air off the cooler is at 100% efficiency. It is then
equal to WBT of ambient air. It is conceded that evaporative cooling is satisfac-
tory only in areas where the DBT exceeds 32°C, and the WBT is below 21°C.
(ii) Evaporative cooling removes only sensible heat. Even though a satisfactory
DBT may be obtained in the room, the relative humidity off the cooler and in
the room is very high.
(iii) Supply air quantity is very large leading to conditions of draft.
(iv) The cooler is to be kept in good repair to obtain high efficiency, otherwise the
DBT of air off the cooler will not be sufficiently low to cool the space.
19.10 BUILDING REQUIREMENTS AND ENERGY

CONSERVATION IN AIR CONDITIONED BUILDINGS
The total amount of energy consumption in air conditioning is quite substantial.

It is known that one ton of refrigeration in central air-conditioning plants requires
1.25 kW of power approximately. This is on the basis of roof not exposed to sun,
and not too much glass areas in the walls. This one TR is sufficient for office space
of 18–22.5 m2, or 12–14 seats in a theatre. Thus, for an office of approximately
1850 m2 or a theatre of 1250 seating capacity, the A/C load is 100 TR, requiring a
power consumption of about 125 kW. This shows that the power consumption is
sizable and there is need to minimize it. Further, the cost of air conditioning consti-
tutes about 60% of the cost of building. Hence, the need to cut cooling loads to
minimize the size of the plant.
Energy conservation in the air conditioning of buildings can be achieved by
adopting the following measures:
(i) Minimisation of solar gain.
(ii) Other building design features and thermal properties of construction materials.
(iii) Minimizing infiltration and ventilation load.
(iv) Use of natural ventilation for cooling.
(v) Use of thermal storage.
(vi) Plant selection.
(vii) Plant maintenance.
(viii) Permitting drift in room design conditions.
19.10.1 Minimisation of Solar Gain

Solar radiation accounts for 40–70% of cooling load in many buildings. Factors
affecting are; orientation of the building, fenestration, preventive measures to inter-
cept solar heat, etc. It is conceded that maximum area of exposed walls and windows
should be in North-South direction as against East-West direction. This means the
longer side of the building to face N-S directions.
Further, the following design features will considerably decrease the cooling load
due to fenestration:
(a) Reduction in glass areas on the western side The W-glass adds about
510 W/m2 during the hot afternoon. Thus, 6.9 m2 of unshaded W-glass con-
tributes 1 TR. The same glass area on the N-side contributes only 1/15 TR.
(b) Direct sunlight on W, N-W and S-W should be avoided This can be done by
suitable sunshades which will permit just enough light but limit direct solar
radiation. The amount of overhang can be calculated from
Overhang = Factor ´ Shadow height
where the factor recommended for the period April-September for various latitudes
is given in Table 19.11.
Table 19.11 Shadow factors of overhangs
Latitude 25° 30° 35° 40° 45° 50°

Factor 0.37 0.48 0.59 0.71 0.85 1.02
(c) Using curtains/venetian blinds on windows inside the space However,

external shading is more effective than internal shading.
(d) Indium oxide (In2O3) coated on the external side reflecting glass surfaces
can be used.
(e) Heat absorbing/tinted glass can be used.
A comparison of various methods of cutting heat gain through glass is given in
Table 19.12.
Table 19.12 Heat gain through glass with various devices
Device Heat Gain

External shading 0.15–0.35
Reflecting glass 0.3–0.4
Internal shading 0.4–1.0
Heat absorbing glass 0.65 approx.
19.10.2 Other Building Design Features and Thermal Properties of

Construction Materials
The measures include the following:
(a) Air is a good insulator. Hollow tiles with air trapped in them are most
ideally suited for walls. Similarly, roofs and floors can be cast with hollow
space full of air. A double-wall construction with hollow bricks and air-gap is
commonly used in hot desert areas.
(b) Roof exposed to sun must be insulated with a minimum of 5 cm thick
expanded polysterene or equivalent insulation. This will reduce the roof load
from 3 TR to 0.1 TR in case of 100 m2 of concrete slab.
(c) Roof can be painted with aluminium paint to reflect solar radiation.
(d) Spraying the roofs with water during sun periods.
(e) Use of small surface to volume (A/V) ratio. Division of a building like
blocks A and B separated as shown in Fig. 19.13 increases the surface area
and hence transmission gain. In the same way, it could be seen that buildings
of larger aspect ratio will have more transmission heat gain.
(f) Wall transmission gains can also be minimised by applying insulation on

exposed walls.
A B A B
(a) Less Area with Blocks (b) More Area with Blocks
A and B Joined A and B Separated
Fig. 19.13 Division of a building with blocks A and B separated thus
increasing surface area
19.10.3 Minimizing Infiltration and Ventilation Load

Infiltration load is generally very heavy. If, however, infiltration cannot be reduced
then no ventilation air need be taken separately with the recirculated room air before
the A/C apparatus. It must be noted that every 5 cmm of fresh air requires about 1 TR.
It is recommended to keep the outside air dampers closed at all times unless the
building is completely occupied. Infiltration is expected to take care of the fresh air
requirement when the dampers are closed.
An interesting method to conserve energy is to cool the ventilation air
regeneratively with the help of exhaust room air using a heat-pipe heat exchanger.
Figure 19.14 shows the construction of heat pipes (a) without a wick and (b) with
a wick. A number of such heat pipes are employed to form a regenerative heat
exchanger as shown in Fig. 19.15.
Cooling Heating
Wick
Vapour Flow
Vapour Flow
Liquid Return
Liquid Flow
through
Capillaries
Heating Cooling
(a) Without Wick (b) With Wick
Fig. 19.14 Heat-pipe construction

Cold Air Out

(to Exhaust)
Hot Air in
(from Ambient)
Heat Pipes
(Finned)
Cold Air in
(from Room)
Hot Air Out
(to A/C Apparatus)
Fig. 19.15 Heat-pipe regenerative heat exchanger
19.10.4 Use of Natural Ventilation for Cooling

When the outside WBT is lower than room WBT of 18-20°C corresponding to room
design conditions of 25°C DBT and 50 ± 5% RH, the air conditioning plant can be
shut down, and only natural ventilation employed instead. For the purpose, larger
fresh air intakes have to be provided at plant inlet.
Such a condition occurs for many days during March-April and September-
October, and also at night. If it is resorted to, it will result in considerable power
saving and longer life of plant.
19.10.5 Use of Thermal Storage

The method involves the use of properly sized and heavily insulated chilled water
tanks which are charged at night storing surplus refrigeration when cooling load
demand is low, and outside WBT is also low. This chilled water can be used during the
day at the peak load period. The method mainly enables the plant to operate at higher
COP thus decreasing power consumption. Although it also decreases the size of the
plant, the capital cost is not reduced as the cost of the tanks and insulation is added.
This sensible heat storage is not really the best as it requires very large-sized
chilled water tanks. Latent heat storage employing change of phase of materials is a
better method. One such material is sodium-sulphate decahydrate (Na2 SO4:
10 H2O) which freezes at 7–10°C. This will require only 10% volume as compared
to chilled water.
19.10.6 Plant Selection

(a) Selecting high efficiency compressors: Power consumption of reciprocating com-
pressors in central A/C plants is in the range of 0.75–1.25 kW/TR. Hence, one with
lowest kW/TR should be selected. This could mean a saving of as much as 40 kW

for a 100 TR theatre A/C plant. Energy saving is thus quite enormous.
(b) Capacity control of reciprocating compressors: Suction pressure operated
cylinder unloaders enable reduction in power proportional to capacity at part loads.
External controls with solenoid valves and hot gas bypass do not offer any reduction
in power consumption.
(c) Multistage compression in centrifugal compressors: Two-stage compression
has high efficiency than single-stage compression. It consumes less kW/TR. For
example, we find:
Single-stage requires: 0.8 kW/TR approx.
Two-stage requires: 0.71 kW/TR approx.
Thus, 11.5% saving in power can be achieved with 2-stage. Still higher efficiency
can be achieved by providing an economiser/flash intercooler. In a single 500 TR
centrifugal compressor, the saving during the life of the plant would be substantial.
(d) Multi-evaporators with individual or multistage compressors: In very large
A/C installations, it is possible to consider cooling of air in two stages, first with
chilled water at 15.5°C, and then with chilled water at 7°C; to achieve final supply
air temperature of 14-15°C. Power requirement to cool water to 15.5°C is less than
that for chilling to 7°C by about 30%. Hence, for a 500 TR air-conditioning plant,
the saving is of the order of 55 kW.
(e) Optimal design of refrigeration and air conditioning equipment: The design
of condenser and particularly the evaporator are crucial. The cost of equipment can
be reduced by selecting tubes and augmentation devices to increase heat-transfer
coefficients. However, these may result in increased refrigerant-side pressure drop,
and hence higher running cost. The two cost factors have to be balanced to obtain
total minimum cost.
Similarly, chillers should be operated at the highest possible leaving water tem-
perature (LWT). Again, the overall cost has to be minimised.
(f) Most designers oversize the equipment: This results not only in more capital
cost, but also more energy consumption.
(g) Thermostat construction and adjustment: Its influence is very great in room
air conditioners and refrigerators. Thermostats with a differential of 5°C in the mid-
dle position have a rather short cut-in time. This often results in re-starting of the
compressor even before the pressures have equalized. This causes frequent overload
trippings. The result is—increase in energy consumption of the order of 4 kWH in
one-ton air conditioners and 0.5 kWH in refrigerators in a day. This energy loss can
be easily avoided by setting the thermostat saturated suction temperature differential
for ‘on’-‘off’ at an increased value of 8 ± 1°C.
19.10.7 Plant Maintenance

The need for proper maintenance of R and A/C equipment cannot be over emphasized.
(a) Cooling tower maintenance: One of the most vulnerable part is the cooling
tower. The pipes and nozzles may easily get clogged due to algae, muck, leaves,
dust, etc., resulting in poor cooling of water. If temperature of water returned to
condenser is increased by 1°C, a 6% increase in power consumption is inevitable.
And if the amount of water circulated is also reduced, a further increase in energy
consumption will result. Proper maintenance of cooling towers, therefore, is an

absolute necessity.
Performance of existing cooling towers can also be upgraded. A cellular fill is
found to be better. PVC pipes could be used in place of GI ones. These will be
non-corrosive. Similarly, ceramic non-corroding nozzles can be used.
Location of cooling towers is important. No high temperature flue gases, and
exhausts from boiler, kitchen, laundry, etc., be permitted to enter cooling tower intake.
(b) Removing fouling from condenser and chiller tubes: This is another impor-
tant source of deterioration of plant performance. Fouling results in high condenser
and low evaporator pressures, and thus reduced capacity as well as high energy
consumption. Dirty surfaces of air-cooled condenses also have the same effect. This
overloading may also reduce the life of the plant. Hence, descaling of condensers
and chillers must be done at intervals depending upon the hardness of water to
reduce temperature gradient across the surface for heat transfer.
Descaling can keep down the energy consumption by approximately 20 per cent.
Water treatment may be necessary to prevent scaling and fouling of heat
exchangers.
(c) Cleaning of air filters: Choking of air filters results in reduced flow of air
through the cooling coil. At the same time, fan power consumption is increased.
Due to less air flowing over the coil, the evaporator pressure continually drops.
Once again, the capacity of the air conditioner is reduced and the power consump-
tion is increased. Even though the evaporator temperature and the temperature of air
leaving coil are lowered, there is not enough cooling as the dehumidified air quantity
is reduced. Very often, the cause for complaints in room air conditioners is simply
unclean filters, and not the system which is mostly working satisfactorily. Air filters
must, therefore, be frequently cleaned.
(d) Overhauling of compressors: Timely overhauling is necessary. Due to wear-
ing out of valve reeds and piston rings, the volumetric efficiency is considerably
reduced. There is, thus, a loss of refrigerating capacity. The friction losses remain-
ing unchanged, there is simply a wastage of power.
19.10.8 Permitting Drift in Room Design Conditions

Most of the air conditioning equipment is governed by bypass control which
maintains a constant DBT in room. The system and its psychrometry are illustrated
in Figs 23.16 and 23.17 respectively. In this, the entering recirculated room air and
outdoor air mixture is purposely diverted around the cooling coil. As against the
inherent coil bypass, this is referred to as system bypass.
This method lacks humidity control as described in Sec. 23.6.2. In addition, there-
fore, one can provide controls allowing for the space temperature swing to 26°C in
summer and 16°C in winter at the time of peak cooling and heating loads, thus
reducing the size and energy consumption of the A/C system for the building. It has
now been found that small drifts in temperature and humidity from the recommended
steady-state conditions do not result in decline in comfort level. An acceptable level
of change in temperature is £ 0.6°C per hour from a 25°C base, and in humidity is
£ 16 torr with normal summer clothing and sedentary activity. The controls can be
devised accordingly.
Note Other energy conservation measures include the following:

(i) Winter heating by heat pump. It will provide 3.4 kW of heating for 1 kW of power
consumption.
(ii) Providing air locks in all major entrances to minimise infiltration.
(iii) Shading of the building by trees blooming in summer. The trees provide shade,
and also act as evaporative coolers.
(iv) Replacing all resistance type regulators, dimmers, etc., with electronic ones.
(v) Installing timers, controls, etc., to automatically switch off lights, and air handling
units (AHUs) when the space is not in use.
(vi) Preferring central A/C plants which employ water-cooled condensers in place of a
number of window-type A/Cs which employ air-cooled condensers.
References
1. ASHRAE Guide and Data-book, ‘Applications Volume’, 1964.
3. Carrier W H, R E, Cherne, W A Grant and W H Roberts, Modern Air
Conditioning, Heating and Ventilating, Pitman, New York, 1959.
Revision Exercises
19.1 Calculate the total heat gain of a restaurant at its peak occupancy load at
about 1 p.m. when 100 diners and 15 employees are present. Given:
Heat gain through walls and roof : 2500 kJ/h
Heat gain through glass areas : 500 kJ/h
Number of fluorescent tube lights : 60
Rating of each tube light : 40 W
Rating of toasters inside space : 2650 W
Sensible heat gain per diner : 250 kJ/h
Latent heat gain per diner : 260 kJ/h
Sensible heat gain per employee : 305 kJ/h
Latent heat gain per employee : 545 kJ/h
Inside design conditions : 25°C DB, 19°C WB
Outside design conditions : 40°C DB, 27°C WB
Ventilation requirement : 0.4 cmm/person
19.2 A space to be conditioned has the following data.
Size of space : 30 m ´ 30 m ´ 4 m high
West glass : 15 m2
South glass : 15 m2
Solar gain through west glass : 508 W/m2 at 4 p.m
Solar gain through south glass : 38 W/m2 at 4 p.m.
Overall heat-transfer
coefficient of roof : 2.5 W/m2K
coefficient of wall : 3.5 W/m2K
coefficient of glass : 6 W/m2K
Door in E-wall : 3 m ´ 2.5 m
coefficient of door : 1.5 W/m2K
Equivalent temperature differentials at 4 p.m.
E-wall : 15°C
W-wall : 10.5°C
N-wall : 6.1°C
S-wall : 10.5°C
Roof : 17.8°C
Infiltration through window cracks : 5.3 m2/h/m
Infiltration through door openings : 3 cmm/m2
Occupancy : 100
Sensible heat gain per occupant : 75 W
Latent heat gain per occupant : 55 W
Lighting : 33.5 W/m2 fluorescent
Inside design conditions : 25°C DB, 50% RH
Ventilation air : 0.24 cmm/person.
Assume a suitable fan heat and bypass factor of the air-conditioning appara-
tus. Calculate:
(i) Room sensible heat gain.
(ii) Room latent heat gain.
(iii) Outside air sensible, latent and total heat gains.
(iv) Grand total cooling load on apparatus.
(v) Effective sensible heat factor and apparatus dew point.
(vi) Dehumidified and recirculated room air quantities.
19.3 A laboratory has the following heat gains:
Sensible heat : 35 kW
Latent heat : 20 kW
The design conditions are as follows:
Outside : 40°C DB, 27°C WB
Inside : 22°C DB, 50% RH
The ventilation air requirement is 80 cmm. A cooling coil with a bypass
factor of 0.05 must be used. An apparatus dew point of 10°C must be main-
tained. Determine:
(i) Amount of reheat required.
(ii) Supply air quantity.
(iii) Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of air entering apparatus.
(iv) Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of air leaving apparatus.
(v) Supply air temperature.
19.4 The following are determined for an office building:
Outside design conditions : 35°C DBT, 28°C WBT
Inside design conditions : 25°C DBT, 50% RH
Room sensible heat gain : 46.5 kW
Room latent heat gain : 8.1 kW

Ventilation air : 60 cmm
A 4-row D-X coil (BPF = 0.1) is to be used. Determine:
(i) Room ADP.
(ii) DBT of air off the coil.
(iii) Total quantity of supply air required.
(iv) Coil ADP and refrigerant temperature.
(v) Refrigerating capacity of the coil.
(vi) Effect of coil BPF.
19.5 A conditioned space with partial recirculation (Fig. 16.2) is to be maintained
at 24°C DB, 17°CWB. The local outside conditions are 34.5°C DB, 25.6°C
WB. The sensible heat gain of space is 44.5 kW. The latent heat gain from
occupants and infiltration, but excluding ventilation, is 5.4 kW. Based on
occupancy, 36 cmm of ventilation are required. Find:
(a) Temperature of supply air entering the conditioned space.
(b) Volume of air passing through the space.
(c) State of air entering the conditioner.
(d) Required ADP.
(e) Coil BPF.
(f) System bypass ratio.

Design of Air -Conditioning
Apparatus
20.1 AIR-CONDITIONING APPARATUS
Air-conditioning apparatuses have been generally classified into two major types,
viz., coil equipment and washer or spray equipment.
In the coil equipment, air comes in contact with a surface and not the condition-
ing medium which may be either a refrigerant or water (chilled or heated), brine,
steam, etc.
In the washer equipment or spray equipment, air comes in direct contact with the
conditioning water (chilled, recirculated or heated) or hygroscopic fluids.
In either case the air comes in contact with a surface; which is wet in the case of
the washer or spray equipment, and dry in the case of the coil equipment. However,
in the case of the coil equipment also, if the temperature of the surface is below the
dew point temperature of air, condensation of moisture from the air on to the surface
will take place, and the surface eventually becomes wet.
20.2 HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER IN

AIR-CONDITIONING APPARATUS
When heat is transferred between unsaturated air and a dry surface, the driving force
is the difference in the dry-bulb temperature of the air and the temperature of the
surface. This driving force is also termed temperature potential and the heat transfer
is termed sensible heat transfer.
But when heat is transferred between unsaturated air and a wetted surface,
another driving force other than temperature difference results. This driving force is
the difference in the vapour pressure in the unsaturated air and the saturation vapour
pressure at the temperature of the wetted surface. The force causes a transfer of
moisture resulting either in its condensation or evaporation. This driving force may
be termed vapour pressure potential and the accompanying heat transfer as latent
heat transfer.
Design of Air-Conditioning Apparatus 663
When both the driving forces are present, we find that both sensible and latent
heats are transferred resulting in total heat transfer, such that
dQT = dQS + dQL
The combined driving force in this case may be termed enthalpy potential as
outlined below.
20.2.1 Enthalpy Potential6

Consider an elementary wetted surface at temperature t S as shown in Fig. 20.1.
Above the wetted surface, there exists a film of air through which temperature and
vapour pressure gradients exist. In the immediate vicinity of the wetted surface, the
air is saturated at tS, wS and hS. Under equilibrium conditions, the rate of diffusion of
water vapour through the air film will equal the rate of condensation or evaporation
of water on the wetted surface.
Unsaturated Air
t, , h
Wetted
Surface Air Film
t S, S, hS
Water Film
Surface
dA
Fig. 20.1 Conditions with unsaturated air flowing over a wetted surface
Thus if fg is the film coefficient of heat transfer through the air film, we have for
the sensible heat transfer between the air and the wetted surface
d Q& S = fg (t – tS) dA (20.1)
Also, if kw is the diffusion coefficient of water vapour through the air film, and if
hfg is the latent heat at tS, we have for latent heat transfer between unsaturated air
S
and wetted surface
d Q& L = hfg d m
&L (20.2)
S
where dm & L = kw (w – wS)dA (20.3)

so that d Q& L = kw (w – wS) hfg dA (20.4)
S
As already stated in Chapter 15 according to Lewis, we have
fg fg
kw = @ for Le = 1
Le C p Cp
Combining Eqs (20.1) and (20.2) we have for total heat transfer
fg
d Q& T = fg (t – tS) d A + hfg (w – wS) d A
Le C p S
fg h fg S
= [Cp (t – tS) + (w – wS)] d A (20.5)
Cp Le
where hfg = hL – hf .
S S
Rearranging
fg h fg S h fg S
d Q& T = [(Cpt + w) – (Cp tS +
wS)] d A (20.6)
Cp Le Le
Taking average values of the humid specific heat Cp and latent heat as hfgo, we
may write
fg fg FG 1 - 1IJ h
d Q& T =
Cp
(h – hS) d A +
Cp H Le K fg S (w – wS) d A
fg
= (h – hS) d A, for Le = 1 (20.7)
Cp
The quantity (h – hS) is the enthalpy potential. Thus, the driving force for the
total heat transfer is the difference in the enthalpy h of unsaturated air and the
enthalpy hS of saturated air at the temperature of the wetted surface. And the coeffi-
cient determining this heat transfer is equal to fg/Cp = kw.
20.2.2 Surface Temperature and Direction of Process6

The following examples illustrate the usefulness of the concept of enthalpy poten-
tial. Depending on the wetted surface temperature, and the state of the unsaturated
air in contact with the wetted surface, the direction of the process can be explained.
Let the air being conditioned be at state 1 as shown in Fig. 20.2, with the dry bulb,
wet bulb and dew point temperatures of t, t¢ and td respectively. Then the cases arise
as follows:
Case I Cooling and Dehumidification (Process 1 – S1)
The surface temperature is lower than dew point temperature of air.
tS1 < t dQS is from air to surface
w S1 < w dQL is from air to surface
hS 1 < h dQT is from air to surface
Case II Simple Cooling (Process 1 – S2)
The surface temperature is equal to the dew point temperature.
tS2 = td < t dQS is from air to surface
w S2 = w dQL is zero
dQT = dQS
S7
S6
S5
VI VII
h = const. S4
V
IV
S3
III
S2 II 1
S1 I
td t t
t
Fig. 20.2 Wetted surface temperatures and directions of processes
Case III Cooling and Humidification (Process 1 – S3)

The surface temperature is higher than the dew point temperature, but lower than the
wet bulb temperature of air.
td < tS3 < t dQS is from air to surface
w S3 > w dQL is from surface to air
The air is, on the whole, losing energy to the surface.
Case IV Adiabatic Saturation (Process 1 – S4)
The surface temperature is equal to wet bulb temperature of air.
t¢ = tS4 < t dQS is from air to surface
w¢= wS4 > w dQL is from surface to air
h¢ = hS4 = h dQT is zero
dQS = dQL
Case V Cooling and Humidification (Process 1 – S5)
The surface temperature is higher than the wet bulb temperature, but lower than the
dry bulb temperature of air.
t¢ < tS5 < t dQS is from air to surface
wS5 > w dQL is from surface to air
hS 5 > h dQT is from surface to air
The air is, on the whole, gaining energy from the surface.
Case VI Simple Humidification (Process 1 – S6)
The surface temperature is equal to the dry bulb temperature of air.
tS6 = t dQS is zero
dQT = dQL
Case VII: Heating and Humidification (Process 1 – S7)

The surface temperature is higher than the dry bulb temperature of air.
tS7 > t dQS is from surface to air
Note It may be seen that in Cases III to V, there will be no latent heat transfer if the surface
is dry. On the other hand, in Case I there will be condensation of moisture from the air on
the surface, irrespective of the surface being either dry initially or wet. Latent heat transfer
is always present in sprayed coils.
20.2.3 Effective Surface Temperature7

The surface temperature in air-conditioning equipment varies from one end of the
apparatus to the other end. Nevertheless, the effective surface temperature tS can be
considered as the uniform surface temperature that would produce the same leaving
air state as the varying surface temperature. In the case of a cooling and dehumidify-
ing equipment, it is equal to the apparatus dew point.
As an illustration Fig. 20.3 shows the entering and leaving states for air and
chilled water in a counterflow cooling and dehumidifying apparatus.
The wet bulb temperature of air decreases from t¢1 to t¢2, whereas the chilled water
temperature rises from tw2 to tw1. The temperature of the surface changes from tS1 to
tS2 from one end to the other end of the heat exchanger. The effective surface tem-
perature tS would lie between tS1 and tS2 and would correspond to the same entering
and leaving states of both fluids.
The selection of the air-conditioning equipment is usually based on the concept
of the effective surface temperature and bypass factor. However, the actual design
of such an equipment would involve the basic principles of heat and mass transfer
between the air and the heating or cooling media through the air-conditioning
apparatus.
Note In the case of a direct-expansion cooling coil, the chilled water is replaced by the
evaporating refrigerant so that tw1 = tw 2 = t r. In the case of a spray equipment with chilled
water which itself forms the surface, the temperature of water is the same as the surface
temperature, so that tw = tS, tw1 = tS1, tw2 = t S2, and so on.
20.2.4 Numerical Procedure for Heat and Mass Transfer

Calculations between Unsaturated Air and Wetted Surface2
Consider a process of heat and mass transfer between unsaturated air and a wetted
surface of area dA at temperature t S. Then, referring to Fig. 20.1 we may write for
&v
the moisture transfer d m
d m& L = m& adw = kw dA (ws – w) (20.8)
where m& a is the mass flow rate of dry air.
Equation (20.8) may be written as
dw k dA
= w (20.9)
wS - w m& a
t1
Ai
r, m
tS1 a
Su
Temperatures
rfac
e
dt
tS Effective
t2
tw1 surface
Chil
led w tS 2
ater,
mw
dtw
tw2
dA
or
dV
1 Area/Volume of Heat Exchanger 2
Fig. 20.3 Entering and leaving states of air and chilled water in a cooling
and dehumidifying apparatus
The integration of Eq. (20.9) between the two ends of the exchanger gives
z
2
dw k A
= w (20.10)
1
w S - w m& a
The dimensionless term kw A / m& a is called the number of transfer units (NTU).
Again, writing for the total heat transfer between air and the wetted surface,
we have
fg
d Q& T = m& a dh = dA (hS – h)
Cp
= kw dA (hS – h) (20.11)
The integration of Eq. (20.11) gives
z
2
dh k A
= w (20.12)
1
hS - h m& a
Combining Eqs (20.9) and (20.11), we obtain
dh h -h dh dw k dA
= S or = = w (20.13)
dw wS - w hS - h w S - w m& a
Thus, for an actual apparatus, the value of k w A / m& a may be experimentally
obtained by plotting either 1/(hS – h) against h or 1/(wS – w) against w along the
process, and subsequently integrating the curve by numerical integration, e.g., by

applying Simpson’s rule according to which
z
b
(b - a )
yd x = [y0 + yN + 4 (y1 + y3 + K + yN – 1)
a
3N
+ 2 (y2 + y4 + K + yN – 2)] (20.14)
where a and b are the limits of integration.
The range (b – a) is divided into N equal parts where N is an even number. The
ordinates of the curve are y0, y1, y2, K , yN – 2, yN – 1, yN.
Once the value of the number of transfer units kw A / m& a is obtained, the heat
and mass transfer process can be established along the exchanger for any given
operating conditions.
20.3 COIL EQUIPMENT—DESIGN OF COOLING AND

DEHUMIDIFYING COILS
The design of coils for only sensible heating and cooling is simple and follows the
procedure prescribed for any heat exchanger. Coils for simultaneous cooling and
dehumidification involve sensible as well as latent heat transfer and since they have
major applications in air conditioning, their design procedure is outlined here.
A section of a cooling and dehumidifying coil with just one illustrative fin is
shown in Fig. 20.4. The temperatures of air, wetted surface, outside and inside metal
wall and refrigerant at any section are t, tS, t mo, tmi and tr respectively. The thermal
resistances to heat transfer consist of those due to the air film, condensate water
layer, metal wall and refrigerant film. In addition, there is a mass-transfer resistance
between the air and the wetted surface.
Air Side
At
Air Film
Condensate
t,
Metal tS, S
Wall
tm o
tr tm i
Refrigerant Ai Refrigerant Side

Film
Fig. 20.4 Section of finned cooling and dehumidifying coil:
thermal resistances
The resistances can be divided into two sections5 which are given below.
Section I: This section is that of the air film. In this section both sensible and latent
heats are transferred. The sensible heat QS is transferred from the air to the surface
by virtue of the temperature difference (t – tS). Also, the latent heat QL is transferred
by virtue of the partial pressure difference (pL – pLS) or the specific humidity differ-
ence (w – wS), where pLS is the water vapour pressure and wS is the specific humidity
at temperature tS of the wetted surface.
Let us consider that the coil is a finned-type. The total heat transfer through
section I with the inside tube surface area dAi is
d Q& T = d Q& S + d Q& L = d Q& T
fg
= (h – hs) hf R dAi (20.15)
Cp
where hf is the fin efficiency and
At
R= = Ratio of the total fin-side surface area At to the inside surface area Ai
Ai
Section II: This section comprises the three thermal resistances due to the conden-
sate film, metal wall and refrigerant film. The heat is transferred as sensible heat
only by virtue of the temperature difference (tS – tr). Then, if Ui represents the over-
all heat-transfer coefficient for the three resistances based on the inside tube surface
area, the heat transfer through the section is given by
d Q& II = Ui(tS – tr) dAi (20.16)
By energy balance
d Q& I = d Q& II
so that we have from Eqs (20.15) and (20.16)
fg
Ui (tS – tr) dAi = (h – hS) hf R dAi
Cp
t S - tr h f fgR k
or = = w hf R (20.17)
h - hs Ui Cp Ui
The right-hand side is constant in case fg and Ui are assumed to be constant.
Equation (20.17) can be used for design by dividing the coil into a number of
segments since tS is varying.
Equation (20.17) can be written in another simplified manner. Writing the total
and sensible heat transfers separately, we have for Section I
fg
d Q& T = d Q& I = (h – hS) hf R dAi (20.15)
Cp
d Q& S = fg (t – tS) hf R dAi (20.18)
Taking the ratio of the total heat to the sensible heat transfer we have
TH dQ& T h - hS 1
= = =
SH dQ& S C p (t - t S ) GSHF
where GSHF is the required grand sensible heat factor of the apparatus. Thus
1
(h – hS) = Cp (t – tS) (20.19)
GSHF
Substituting from Eq. (20.19) into Eq. (20.15), we obtain for the total heat
transfer
fg
d Q& T = (t – tS) hf R dAi
GSHF
= fg¢ (t – tS) hf R dAi (20.20)
where
fg
fg¢ = (20.21)
GSHF
Thus f g¢ can be taken as the total heat-transfer coefficient on the air side, when
the sensible heat-transfer coefficient is fg. Putting dQII in Eq. (20.16) equal to dQI in
Eq. (20.20), we obtain the energy balance relation in the form
t S - tr f g¢
= hf R (20.22)
t - tS Ui
The overall heat-transfer coefficient Ui can be calculated employing the usual
relation for thermal resistances in series, viz.,
1 1 Dx 1
= + + (20.23)
U i Ai f r Ai k Am f ch f RAi
where
fr = Refrigerant side heat-transfer coefficient
Dx = Thickness of metal wall
k = Thermal conductivity of metal wall
fc = Conductance of condensate layer
Ai, Am, At = Inside, mean and outside tube surface areas.
Table 20.1 gives the representative values of the air-side film heat-transfer
coefficients fg for different coil-face velocities. The following simple equation can
be fitted into these values.
fg = 38 (FV)0.5.
Table 20.2 similarly gives the approximate values of the refrigerant-side heat-
transfer coefficients fr for direct expansion R22 coils as a function of tube diameter
and refrigerant flow.
Table 20.1 Air side film conductance2 (with half of face area as free area and
staggard tubes)
Coil Face Velocity, FV , m/s Conductance, fg , Wm–2 K–1

0.508 23.3
1.016 35.8
1.524 45.4
2.032 54.5
2.54 62.5
3.048 69.8
Table 20.2 Boiling refrigerant conductance for R22 D-X coil
Refrigerant Flow Tube OD, cm

TR/Circuit 1.27 1.5875 1.905
0.5 1420
0.7 2129
0.8 1420
1.2 2271 1420
1.5 2839
1.7 2129
For a precise estimation of fr, well-known boiling heat transfer correlations given
in Chapter 9 may be used. For chilled-water coils, the water-side coefficient can be
found by using the Dittus-Boelter equation.
Alternatively, we express the overall heat-transfer coefficient U¢t for Sections I
and II together for which the overall temperature difference is t – tr, and base it on
the total fin-side surface area At = RAi,
d Q& T = U¢t (t – tr) dAt
= f g¢ (t – tS) hf dAt
= Ui (tS – tr) dAi (20.24)
Then the overall resistance based on the temperature potential (t – tr) is
1 1 1
= +
U t¢d At f g¢h f d At U i d Ai
1 1 R
Þ = + (20.25)
U t¢ f g¢h f Ui
Substituting the complete expression for Ui, we have
1 1 R ∆xRAi 1
= + + + (20.26)
U t¢ fg′η f fr kAm fc η f
It may be noted that the design of a cooling coil involves the selection of number
of circuits, face velocity, refrigerant or chilled-water temperature, number of rows
along with parameters such as fin and tube spacing, arrangement of fins, etc.
Examples 20.1 and 20.2 illustrate the design procedure for a direct-expansion
cooling coil. Whereas in Example 20.1, a stepped approach is used and Simpson’s
rule is employed, in Example 20.2, the coil is not divided into sections, but an over-
all design is given.
20.3.1 Air-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient

Exact calculation of heat-transfer coefficient on the air side is based on the correla-
tions of Elmahdy and Biggs3 for flow of dry air over finned tubes as given below
JGC p
fg = (20.27)
Pr 2 / 3
where J is the Colburn j-factor given by
J = C1 ReC2 (20.28)
in which C1 and C2 are constants which are functions of geometric parameters of the
finned tubes. These can be expressed as
FG F IJ 0.141
FG D IJ 0.065
HF K HF K
T h
C1 = 0.159 (20.29)
H T
= – 0.323 G
F F IJ 0.049
FG F IJ FG F IJ
0.077 0.549
HF K HF K H S K
T s D
C2 (20.30)
H T 2
wherein we have:
FT = Fin thickness
LM
1 S1 + S2 OP
FH = Fin height = r2 – r1 = r2 – r0 @
2 2N - D0
Q
Fs = Fin spacing
FG S S IJ 0.5
S1 + S2
H 4p K @
1 2
FD = Fin diameter = 2r2 = 2
2
S1 = Tube spacing in a row
S2 = Row spacing
The hydraulic diameter Dh is given by
A
Dh = 4S2 C (20.31)
At
where Ac is the minimum/clear flow area and At is the total air-side area of the coil.
The coefficient for wetted surface is then
fg
f¢g =
GSHF
The parameter for fin efficiency becomes
2 f g¢
m= (20.32)
k fin FH
so that the fin efficiency can be evaluated from
tanh mFH
hf = (20.33)
mFH
and the air-side thermal resistance from the expression
1
(20.34)
h f f g¢ At
20.3.2 Diffusion Coefficient D and Mass-transfer Coefficient kM

For sensible heat transfer per unit area on the air side
Q& S ¶t FG IJ
A
= fg(t – tS) = k
H K
¶y y = 0, at wetted surface
The solution of the above equation has the form
fg L FG Lur IJ FG C m IJ
b c
HmKH k K
p
Nu = = f (Re, Pr) = a (20.35)
k
For moisture transfer per unit area, we have in terms of diffusion coefficient D
m& L ¶w FG IJ
A
= – Dr
¶y H K y = 0
We have also defined mass-transfer coefficient kw by
m& L
= kw(wS – w)
A
Thus, we have
FG ¶w IJ
kw (wS – wair) = – Dr
H ¶y K y = 0
The solution of the above equation has the form
kw L Lur FG IJ FG m IJ
b c
rD
= f (Re, Sc) = a
m H K H rD K (20.36)
where Sc = m/rD is the Schmidt number.

Comparing Eqs (20.35) and (20.36), we get
fg k FG a IJ 1- C
Le =
C p kw
=
rC p D
=
H DK
where a = k/r Cp is the thermal diffusivity. The following correlations are
recommended for Lewis number.
For forced convection of air
FG a IJ 2/ 3
Le =
H DK (20.37)
For natural convection of air
FG a IJ 0.48
Le =
H DK (20.38)
For forced convection of air the values of a, D and Le have been compiled and
are given in Table 20.3 for various temperatures. The evaluation of properties has
been done at the wetted surface temperature:
Table 20.3 Thermal diffusivity, diffusion coefficient and Lewis number for forced
convection of dry and saturated moist air
Temp. Degree of = D
2
°C Saturation m /s m2/s Le
0 1.987 0.901
10 2.325
1 1.985 0.9
0 2.077 0.9
20 2.433
1 2.072 0.898
(Contd)
Table 20.3 (Contd)
Temp. Degree of = D
°C Saturation m2/s m2/s Le

0 2.245 0.898
30 2.637
1 2.234 0.895
0 2.418 0.896
40 2.849
1 2.393 0.89
0 2.596 0.895
50 3.066
1 2.531 0.88
0 2.694 0.894
60 3.187
1 2.588 0.87
Note It is seen that Le does not change very much. Average value of Le for dry air is
0.897, and that for saturated air is 0.889. The average of both is 0.893, which can be
accepted as its value in general.
Example 20.1 Design of Chilled-Water Coil-Overall LMTD Method

Design a chilled-water cooling coil for each of the ground, first and third floors
of the studio building calculations of which are given in the load estimation
sheet in Table 19.6. The coil has to conform to some of the specifications given
by the manufacturer which are as follows:
5/8 in Cu tubes : OD = Do= 15.8 mm
ID = Di = 14.4 mm
No. of tubes/row : 34
No. of circuits : 34
Frontal pitch (Tube spacing) : S1 = 38.1 mm
Back pitch (Row spacing) : S2 = 43.2 mm
Al fins :
Fin thickness : FT = 0.233 mm
Fin density : 50/m
1
Fin spacing : Fs = = 0.002 m = 2 mm
50
Thermal conductivity of fin : kAl = 201W/m.K
Fouling factor (inside) : 0.00009 m2 K/W
With these construction features, the area parameters are:
Total outside finned surface area A
= t = 10.567
Inside tube surface area Ai
Total outside finned surface area A
= t = 15.55
Face area FA
Clear free flow area AC
= = 0.5
Face area FA
Estimate the size and rows of coil. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution Coil Face Area Assume coil face velocity, FV = 2.54 m/s
cmms 351
Coil face area FA = = = 2.303 m2
FV 2.54 ´ 6
Air-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient Air enters at 28.6°C, and leaves at 15.8°C. The
properties of air at the mean temperature of 22°C are:
r = 1.205 kg/m3
m = 1.82 ´ 10–5 Ns/m2
Cp = 1.0057 kJ/kg.K Pr = 0.71
Hydraulic diameter
S2 0.5FG IJ
Dh = 4 Ac
At
= 4
15.55H K
(43.2 mm) = 5.564 mm
Fin diameter and fin height

S1 + S2 38.1 + 43.2
FD @ = = 40.65 mm
2 2
FG
1 S1 + S2 1 IJ
FH @
2 H
2
- D0 =
2 K
(40.65 – 15.8) = 12.425 mm
Constants of Eq. (20.28)

FG F IJ 0 .141
FG D IJ 0 .065
HF K HF K
T h
C1 = 0.159
H T
= 0.159 G
F 0.233 IJ 0.141
FG 5.564 IJ 0.065
H 12.425K H 0.233K = 0.11155
FG F IJ 0 . 049
FG F IJ FG F IJ
0 . 077 0. 549
HF K HF K HS K
C2 = – 0.323 T s D
H T 2
FG 0.233 IJ FG 2 IJ FG 40.65IJ
0.049 0.077 0.549
= – 0.323
H 12.425K H 0.233K H 43.2 K = – 0.3034
Mass velocity based on clear minimum flow area Ac = 0.5 (FA)

cmm s r 1 351 (1.205)
Gmax = ´ = = 6.096 kg/m2.s
60 0.5( FA) 60 (0.5) (2.303)
Reynolds number
Gmax Do 6.096 (0.0158)
Re = = = 5292
m 1.82 ´ 10-5
Colburn J-factor
J = C1 ReC 2 = 0.11155 (5292)– 0.3034 = 0.008274
Dry air-side heat-transfer coefficient
fg = J Gmax Cp Pr–2/3
= 0.008274 (6.096) (1005.7) (0.71)–2/3 = 63.74 W/m2.K
Wet air-side heat-transfer coefficient

fg 63.74
f ¢g = = = 67.31 W/m2.K
GSHF 0.9469
Fin parameter
2 f g¢ 67.31 ´ 2
m= = = 53.3
k Al FH 201 ( 0.233 ´ 10 -3 )
Fin efficiency
tanh m FH tanh [(53.3) (12.425 ´ 10-3 )]
hf = = = 0.92
m FH 53.3 (12.425 ´ 10-3 )
Water-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient Assume entering water temperature,
EWT = 7.8°C, and leaving water temperature, LWT = 13.3°C. Thus, DTW = LWT –
EWT = 5.5°C.
Properties of water at the mean temperature of 10.6°C are:
kw = 0.588 W/m.K, m w = 1.31 ´ 10–3 Ns/m2, Prw = 9.12
Mass flow rate of chilled water and water velocity
Q& 93.67
m& w = = = 4.068 kg/s
Cp 4.1868 (5.5)
m& w 4.068
uw = = = 0.735 m/s
p Di 2 p
r N 1000 (34) (0.0144) 2
4 4
Note This water velocity is low. It will result in low heat-transfer coefficient, and hence
more rows and high capital cost. A very high water velocity will, however, cause erosion
of tubes.
Reynolds number
Di u w r w (0.0144) (0.735) (1000)
Rew = = = 6814
mw 1.31 ´ 10-3
Water-side heat-transfer coefficient
FG k IJ 0.023 Re Pr
HDK
w 0.8 0.4
fi =
i
= G
F 0.588 IJ 0.023 (6814)
H 0.0144 K
0.8
(9.12)0.4 = 2651 W/m2.K
Overall heat-transfer coefficient (neglecting Cu-tube resistance)

1 1 1 At 1 At
= + +
Ut h f f g¢ fi A i f fouling A i
1 1
= + (10.567) + 0.00009 (10.567)
0.92 (67.31) 2651
Þ Ut = 47.4 W/m2.K

(28.6 - 13.3) - (15.8 - 7.8)
DTm = LMTD = = 11.26°C
28.6 - 13.3
ln
15.8 - 7.8
Total fin-side surface area
Q& 98.67 ´ 103
At = = = 175.5 m2
U t D Tm 47.4 (11.26)
Number of rows
At 175.5
n=
FG IJ
At
=
(15.5) (2.303)
= 4.92 (» 5 rows)
H K
FA
FA
Note This is a high sensible heat factor application, (GSHF = 0.946). BPF assumed is
0.15. For such an application number of rows calculated, 5, is too high. Area calculated,
175.5 m2, is very large. The coil will have high capital cost. The manufacturer’s specifica-
tion, and assumed design values need modifications. The following points emerge.
(i) From Table 19.7 and Fig. 19.6, it is seen that for a BPF of 0.14, one needs only a
4-row coil with 6 fins with a face velocity of 210 mpm (3.5 m/s).
(ii) The manufacturer is making coils with a fin density of only 50 fins per metre. This
comes to 0.5 fin/cm. It has resulted in a large coil. Hence, the fin density must be
increased to about 5-6 fins/cm.
(iii) The present face velocity assumed is 2.54 m/s. It is giving low air-side, and hence
low overall heat-transfer coefficient. The air velocity could be increased to 3 to
3.5 m/s.
(iv) Water velocity assumed/calculated is 0.735 m/s. It can be raised to at least 1 m/s.
This will increase water-side heat-transfer coefficient.
(v) The air-side coefficient is, however, the controlling coefficient. The overall coeffi-
cient U is lower than air-side coefficient. Hence, increase in water-side coefficient
will not have much effect. Nevertheless, it will affect LWT.
(vi) Further, the effect of changing EWT, and hence the refrigerant evaporation
temperature on total cost should also be studied. All this is best done on a digital
computer.
Ramachandran and Arora 4 have developed detailed computer programs for
the simulation, design and optimization of both direct-expansion and chilled-water
cooling coils.
Example 20.2 Design of Direct-Expansion Coil: Heat-Transfer

Coefficient Given
4.717 m3/s of air at 32.2°C DBT and 50 per cent RH enters a finned-coil direct-
expansion dehumidifier with the coil surface area per row of 42.02 m2. The
refrigerant temperature is 4.4°C. The air-side heat-transfer coefficient may be
taken as 83 W/m2K. The overall heat-transfer coefficient from the air-water
interface to the refrigerant bulk based on the fin-side surface area is 275 W/m2K.
Calculate the required number of coil rows for the leaving air state at 9.7°C WBT.
Air inlet conditions

t1 = 32.2°C; RH1 = 50 %; h1 = 71.94 kJ/kg;
L1 = 0.901 m3/kg
Mass flow rate of air
4.717
m& a = = 5.235 kg/s
0.901
At 4.4°C and 100 per cent RH
hA = 17.69 kJ/kg
Mass-transfer coefficient
83
kw = fg /Cp Le = = 0.09 kg/s.m2
(1021.6) ( 0.893)
Enthalpy of air at the exit at 9.7°C WBT
h2 = 28.54 kJ/kg
Enthalpy difference between inlet and outlet air conditions
h1 – h2 = 71.94 – 28.54 = 43.4 kJ/kg
Let the difference be divided into six equal increments of 7.23 kJ/kg each. Now
Ut At = Ui Ai
Ui
so that = Ut = 275 W/m2K (given)
R
Hence, taking hf = 1
h - hS Ui U 275 / 1000
= = t = = 3.1 kJ/kg.K
t S - tr kw R kw 0.09
The above equation can also be solved graphically for each increment as shown in
Fig. 20.5. The 4.4°C DBT line cuts the h1 line at X. A line of slope Dh/Dt =
D (h - hS )
= 3.1 may now be drawn from point X to cut the saturation line at S1.
D (t S - t r )
Point S1 on the saturation line satisfies this condition of slope of 3.1. The interface
temperature at this section tS1 is then found to be 14.4°C. Join point 1 to point S1 and
where it cuts the ha = h1 – 7.23 = 64.71 kJ/kg line, gives point a on the process line.
Now, the enthalpy line ha cuts the 4.4°C vertical at Y. Again, draw a line of slope
3.1 from Y, to cut the saturation line at Sa. Join a to Sa. This cuts the hb = 64.71 – 7.23
= 57.48 kJ/kg line at b. In a similar manner, the remaining points c, d, e and 2 may be
located and the process line completed.
Table 20.4 may thus be drawn up. The same may be established numerically as
well. Using the above equation for calculation of hS by trial and error for finding
suitable values of tS, we obtain Table 20.4.
Table 20.4 Stepped calculations for Example 20.2
h, kJ/kg h1 = 71.94 64.71 57.48 50.25 43.02 35.79 h2 = 28.54

hS , kJ/kg hS1 = 39.58 36.32 33.52 30.50 27.70 24.68 hS2 = 22.12
1/(h – hS) 0.0309 0.0352 0.0417 0.0506 0.0653 0.0900 0.158
Then from Simpson’s rule
z
71.94
dh 71.94 - 28.54
= [0.0309 + 0.1558 + 4(0.0352
28.54
h - hS 3´ 6
+ 0.0506 + 0.09) + 2(0.0417 + 0.0653)] = 2.66
kw A
=
m& a
2.66 (5.235)
Þ A= = 154.7 m2
0.09
Required number of rows
154.7
n= = 3.7 = 4 (Select)
42.02
Example 20.3 D – X Coil Design: Heat Transfer Coefficients Appropriately

Selected
0.472 m3/s of air are cooled from 26.7°C DBT and 21.1°C WBT to 12.8°C DBT
and 12.2°C WBT. Design a suitable direct-expansion cooling coil.
Select 1.5875 cm OD tubes at 3.81 cm centres staggered and 0.71 mm wall
thickness. The total fin-side surface area per row is 22 m2 for each m2 of face
area. The inside surface area per row is 1.2 m2 per m2 of face area. Assume the
resistance of the metal wall as 0.0044 W–1 m2K.
Solution Extended surface to inside tube surface area ratio

Finned surface/ row/ m2 FA 22
R= 2
= = 18.3
Inside tube surface/ row/ m FA 1.2
Figure 20.6 shows the path of the conditioning process. If the entering and
leaving air states are joined, and the line extended to intersect the saturation curve,
we obtain the apparatus dew point of the coil
tADP = 10.4°C
61.1
/kg
kJ
h,
th
al Pa
Actu 1
34.5
Line
S SHF
2
tADP = 10.4 12.8 26.7

t, °C
This represents the average temperature tS of the coil. But the surface temperature tS
will be higher on the air-entering side and lower on the air-leaving side. The coil
bypass factor can also be found.
t - t ADP 12.8 - 10.4
X= 2 = = 0.147
t1 - t ADP 26.7 - 10.4
The total and sensible heat-transfer rates are as follows:
TH = Q& T = Q& L r (h1 – h2)
= (0.472) (1.2) (61.1 – 34.5) = 15.0 kW
SH = Q& S = Q& L r Cp (t1 – t 2 )
= (0.472) (1.2) (1.0216) (26.7 – 12.8) = 8.04 kW
Q&T 1 15
Ratio = = = = 1.866
&
QS SHF 8.04
Since the surface temperature is not the same throughout the coil, this ratio will
actually not be the same. However, the assumption of a constant ratio leads to only a
small error and results in a slight oversizing of the coil (see the actual path in
Fig. 20.6).
Take a face velocity of 2.54 m/s.
Face area
Q& 0.472
FA = L = = 0.186 m2
FV 2.54
Air-side film conductance (from Table 20.1)
fg = 62.5 W m–2 K–1
Total heat-transfer coefficient
TH
f g¢ = fg = 1.866 (62.5) = 116.53 W m–2 K–1
SH
Assume a coil loading of 1 TR per circuit.
Boiling heat-transfer coefficient (from Table 20.2)
fr = 1704 W m–2 K–1
Assuming the fin efficiency to be equal to unity and neglecting the resistance of
the thin condensate layer, we have for the overall heat-transfer coefficient
1 1 At Dx At 1
= + +
U t¢ fr Ai k Am f g¢
18.3 1
= + 0.0044 +
1704 116.63
U t¢ = 42.17 W m–2 K–1
First approximation:
Assume a refrigerant temperature of tr = – 1°C. Then the temperature differentials at
the two ends of the cooling coil are
D t1 = t1 – tr = 26.7 – (– 1) = 27.7°C
D t2 = t2 – tr = 12.8 – (–1) = 13.8°C
Log mean temperature difference
27.7 - 13.8
D tm = = 19.95°C
27.7
ln
13.8
Total fin side surface area
Q& 15 ´ 103
At = = = 17.83 m2
U t¢ D t m (42.17) (19.95)
If n is the number of rows, then
At = n(FA) (surface area/row/m2 FA)
17.83 = n(0.186) (22)
whence n = 4.4 rows
Surface temperatures, from Eq. (20.24)

U 42.17
tS1 = t1 – t (t1 – tr) = 26.7 – (26.7 + 1) = 16.7°C
f g¢ 116.63
U t¢ 42.17
tS2 = t2 – (t2 – tr) = 12.8 – (12.8 + 1) = 7.8°C
f g¢ 116.63
Note As the number of rows is 4.4, it is not a whole number. Hence, further approxima-
tion is necessary.
20.4 OPTIMAL DESIGN OF COOLING AND

DEHUMIDIFYING COILS
It will be seen from Example 20.3 that for the given construction of the cooling coil,
two choices are available, viz., to select a 6-row coil or a 4-row coil in lieu of the
calculated result of 4.4 rows. Let us see the effect of selecting 6 or 4 rows on other
parameters.
20.4.1 6-Row Coil

It can be seen that if a 6-row coil is selected, it will result in the following changes:
(i) Higher refrigerant temperature tr can be used and hence a higher surface
temperature tS is maintained.
(ii) Leaving conditions at a lower temperature as a result of lower BPF:
Back calculations show that the leaving air conditions are:
DBT = t2 = 12.2°C
WBT = t 2¢ = 11.7°C
h2 = 33.5 kJ/kg
(iii) Increased total heat removal
Q& T = Q& L r D h = (0.472) (1.2) (61.1 – 33.5) = 15.63 kW
Required mean temperature difference
15.63
D tm = = 15.3°C
(42.17) (6) (0.186) (22)
Refrigerant temperature required
tr = 2.8°C (As against – 1°C selected in Example 20.3)
20.4.2 4-Row Coil

A smaller number of rows will result in the following:
(i) Lower refrigerant temperature
t r = – 2.8°C
and a lower mean surface temperature.
(ii) Leaving conditions at a higher temperature as a result of higher BPF.
(iii) Decreased heat removal
Q& T = 14.95 kW
A comparison will thus show that a 6-row coil will cost more. However, for the
same condensing temperature, say t k = 37°C although a 4-row coil would cost less
but other costs will increase as follows:
(i) It will require 14 per cent more compressor displacement. As a result of lower
saturated suction temperature.
(ii) It will require 10 per cent more power for a capacity of 14.95 kW at tr =
–2.8°C, as against a capacity of 15.63 kW at tr = + 2.8°C for a 6-row coil.
Obviously, for an optimal design, an analysis of costs is required. It may be
pointed out here that other choices are also available. These include:
(i) Lower face velocity: This will result in a lower surface temperature and bring
the outlet condition nearer to 2. Again, the face area and hence the cost of
cooling coil will increase.
(ii) Higher tons refrigeration per circuit: This can be adopted only if it is practi-
cal without excessive pressure drop. This will give a higher conductance f r on
the refrigerant side, which will lower the surface temperature tS and allow the
use of a 4-row coil at the same refrigerant temperature of tr = – 1°C.
(iii) Another type coil: A coil of different construction may be used, i.e., a coil
with a lower metal resistance and a lower or higher area ratio R.
All the alternatives can be compared for the optimal design of the cooling coil.
Note Usually, a refrigerant temperature 3 to 5°C below the coil ADP provides an
economical selection.
20.5 SPRAY EQUIPMENT—DESIGN OF AIR WASHERS

AND COOLING TOWERS
In a spray chamber, air is brought in direct contact with a dense spray of water. The
schematic diagram of an air-spray equipment is shown in Fig. 20.7.
Spray Nozzles
Air In Air Washer Air Out Water Heater

or Chiller If
Required
Eliminator Plates
Circulating Pump
Fig. 20.7 Spray equipment
The air washer and cooling tower are two common types of spray equipment used
in air conditioning. In spray equipment, there is direct contact between air and the
sprayed water. Consider such a heat and mass exchanger in which the mass flow
rates of the dry air and water are m& a and m& w respectively. The processes undergone
by air and water are similar to those shown in Fig. 20.3. Equations derived in
Sec. 20.2 can be applied to the process. However, in the case of spray equipment, the
wetted-surface area is not clearly known as it is formed by the surfaces of individual
droplets in the total volume of the equipment. We, therefore, denote the interfacial
contact area of the surface of water droplets per unit volume of the equipment by a,
so that the contact area in a differential volume dV is dA = adV, and the total area A
= aV. Also, the temperature of water tw in the equations replaces the temperature tS
of the surface.
The energy balance equation for the process can be written using Eq. (20.7) as
d Q& = – m& w Cw dt w = m& a dh = kw (adV) (hS – h) (20.39)
where Cw is the specific heat of water. Equation (20.39) on integration gives
z
2
Cw d t w k aV
– = w (20.40)
1
hS − h m& w
Equation (20.40) can be used in conjunction with Eq. (20.12). Comparing the
two, we have
dh m&
=– w (20.41)
Cw d t w m& a
Hence, if the properties of moist air are taken in the form of an enthalpy-
temperature chart, which is another form of the psychrometric chart shown in
Fig. 20.8, a line AB of constant slope given by Cw m& w / m& a can be drawn for any
process provided the initial state of water tw1 and that of air at 1, and their mass flow
rates are known. Such a line is called the energy balance line. The line AB is drawn
from A, the point where the horizontal line corresponding to h1 cuts the vertical line
corresponding to tw1, upto the point B which is on the vertical corresponding to the
water inlet temperature tw2. Thus the enthalpy h of air varies along the line AB at any
section according to the water temperature tw. The vertical distance between the
saturation line and the line AB represents the enthalpy potential (hS – h) at any
section at the water temperature tw. See how the driving potential changes from
(hS1 – h1) at one end to (hS2 – h2) at the other end.
To determine the value of the dimensionless performance coefficient termed
NTU, viz., kw aV/ m & w , for any equipment from the performance curve as in Fig. 20.3,
one can also plot a graph between 1/(hS – h) against tw, and evaluate the area of the
curve for substitution in Eq. (20.40).
In the case of pumped recirculation or evaporative cooling, wS is constant, and
hence Eq. (20.9) can be integrated directly, so that
w - w2 aV
– ln S = – kw
w S - w1 m& a
wS - w2
= e–Z (20.42)
w S - w1
k aV
where Z= w
m& a
hS 2
e
Lin
hs2 – h2
on
hs
ati
tur
Sa
Energy Balance Line
hs – h
B h2 Cw mw
hS 1 Slope =
ma
hs1 – h1
h
h
h1
1 A
t1 tw1 tw2
t
Fig. 20.8 Process line for air washer on h-t chart
The process is shown in Fig. 20.9. It will be seen that the air washer humidifying
efficiency and bypass factor are given in terms of Z by the following expression
w 2 - w1
hH = (1 – X) = = 1 – e–Z
w S - w1
hS
h2
h1
S
2
2
w
1
1
X (1 – X)
t
Fig. 20.9 Process line for air washer on psychrometric chart
Example 20.4 illustrates the design procedure for a spray dehumidifier. The same
procedure is adopted in respect of air washers in general (humidifier and evaporative
cooler) and cooling towers.
Example 20.4 Sprayed Coil

Air at 32.2°C DBT and 50 per cent RH, enters a spray-type dehumidifier at the rate
of 4.717 m3/s. Chilled water enters at 4.4°C and leaves at 11.2°C. The ratio of
water to air mass flow rate is 1.2. The face velocity of air is 2.032 m/s. The value
of the product kw a may be taken as 1.334 kg/sm3. Calculate the length of the
dehumidifier and the state of air at the exit assuming parallel flow.
Solution Refer to Figs 20.10 and 20.11

Section 1
32.2
Air,
ma
Section 2
Temperature, °C
11.2
mw
ter,
Wa
4.4
Length
Fig. 20.10 Air and water temperatures for Example 20.4
h1
ha
hb
1
hc
a
h2 b
2
S2
Sc
Sb
Sa
S1
4.4 t, °C 32.2
Fig. 20.11 State changes of air and water for Example 20.4
Air inlet conditions

t1 = 32.2°C, RH1 = 50%, h1 = 71.94 kJ/kg d.a.,
L1 = 0.901 m3/kg d.a.
Now
dh m&
= – w = – 1.2
Cw d t w m& a
Note The negative sign is taken for parallel flow.

Also, we have
z z
2 11. 2
dt w k aV dt w k aV
– Cw = ω or Cw = ω
1
hS − h m& w 4. 4
h − hS m& w
Divide 6.8°C temperature interval into four equal parts with ordinates at 4.4, 6.1,
7.8, 9.5 and 11.2°C. Table 20.5 can be prepared by calculating h by energy balance
for each increment, i.e.,
Dh = – 1.2 Cw D tw = – 1.2 (4.187) (1.7) = – 8.54 kJ/kg d.a.
Table 20.5 Stepped calculations for Example 20.4
Section 1 a b c 2
tw °C 4.4 6.1 7.8 9.5 11.2
h kJ/kg 71.94 63.40 54.86 46.32 37.78
hS kJ/kg 17.72 21.07 24.58 28.31 32.24
h – hS kJ/kg 54.22 42.33 30.28 18.01 5.54
1/(h – hS) 0.0184 0.0236 0.0330 0.0555 0.1805
Using Simpson’s rule
z
11. 2
dt w (11.2 - 4.4)
= [0.0184 + 0.1805 + 4(0.0236 + 0.555)
4. 4
h − hS 3´ 4
+ 2(0.033)]
= 0.3294
Hence
kw aV
= 0.3294 (4.187) = 1.3792
m& w
Mass flow rate of dry air
Q& 4.717
m& a = L = = 5.235 kg/s
L 0.901
Mass flow rate of water
m& w = 5.235 ´ 1.2 = 6.282 kg/s
Voume of dehumidifier
1.3792 m& w 6.282 (1.3792)
V= = = 6.495 m3
kw a 1.334
4.717
Face area FA = = 2.322 m2
2.032
Length of dehumidifier
V 6.495
L= = = 2.8 m
FA 2.322
In order to find the state of air at exit, the process can be plotted on the
psychrometric chart as shown in Fig. 20.11. Joining 1 and S1, we get a, joining a and
Sa, we get b, and so on. Finally joining c and Sc we get the leaving air state 2, for
which the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are
t2 = 15°C and t¢2 = 13.6°C
20.5.1 Significance of Performance Coefficient kM aV/mw in Cooling

Tower Selection
To obtain the value of kw aV/ m& w , the integral on the left hand side of Eq. (20.40)
must be evaluated.
The value of the integral cannot be obtained directly. For the purpose, the cooling
tower is subdivided into “N” sections, and the integral is replaced by a summation of
values prevailing in each section.
Thus, Eq. (20.40) takes the form
kw aV N
( D t w )i
= Cw å (20.43)
m& w i =1 ( hs - h ) i
This gives the value of the coefficient as a function of m& w / m& a .
If the summation is done for specified values of
(i) WBT of air t ¢1 at inlet
(ii) Water inlet temperature tw1
(iii) Water outlet temperature tw2
then the summation gives required value of the coefficient. A plot of the same
as a function of m & w / m& a represents the thermal demand as shown by curve A in
Fig. 20.12. The cooling tower must fulfil this condition. According to the curve, the
larger the value of m& w / m& a , the larger is the coefficient and hence the demand on the
cooling tower in terms of size/volume ‘V’ and the wetted surface area ratio ‘a’ which
means smaller droplet size/atomization, number of stacks, packing, etc.
On the other hand, if the summation is done, by actual measurements in an
experiment on the cooling tower, we get available value of the coefficient for that
cooling tower. It is found that entering WBT of air t ¢1 and inlet water temperature tw1
do not affect the coefficient. However, the values of m& w and m& a do influence water
cooling, and hence affect the coefficient. The variation of the coefficient for a cool-
ing tower as a function of m& w/ m& a can be expressed by
kw aV LM OP
m& w
-y
m& w
=x
N Q
m& a
(20.44a)
where x and y are determined experimentally. Taking logarithms, this relation takes
the form of a straight line
FG k aV IJ FG m& IJ
H m& K H m& K
w w
ln = ln x – y ln (20.44b)
w a
A typical relation for a cooling tower

kw aV FG m& IJ - 0.72
H m& K
w
= 0.79 (20.44 c)
m& w a
is shown by line B in Fig. 20.12.
2.0
Thermal Demand Curve
Required Coefficient
1.5
A
k aV
1.0 C
mw
0.8
Coefficient
0.6 B
Experimental Relation
Available Coefficient
0.4
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0
mw
Ratio mw
ma C ma
kw aV &w
m
Fig. 20.12 as a function of : experimental and thermal demand curves
&w
m m&a
Note & a.
kw = f g/Le Cp depends mainly on fg and hence on m
The intersection of curve A and line B, viz., the operating point C, represents a
complete match between the capacity of the cooling tower and the required cooling
of water at the rate ( m& w / m& a )C for given t ¢1, tw1 and tw2. At a lower value of m& w / m& a ,
the cooling capacity of the tower is greater than required, while at a higher value of
m& w / m& a the capacity is less than required.
Example 20.5 Experimental Determination of Performance Coefficient

A test is performed on an induced draft counterflow cooling tower. The following
observations are made:
Water flow rate : 12.62 kg/s
Air flow rate : 11.9 kg/s
Entering water temperature : 36.3°C
Leaving water temperature : 32.1°C
Ambient air conditions : 43.3°C DBT, 25.6°C WBT
Determine the value of the performance coefficient kw aV/ m& w . If the dimensions of
the tower are length L = 3.9624 m, width W = 2.616 m and height H = 2.438 m,
what is the value of kw a?
Solution Let the cooling tower be considered as divided into 6 sections as shown
in Fig. 20.13 with the water temperature dropping by 0.7°C in each section. The
values of tw and hS = f(tS = tw) are given in Table 20.6 for each section. The values
of enthalpy of air for each section are calculated from the change in enthalpy
corresponding to m & w / m& a = 12.62/11.9 = 1.06 given by
m& w
Dh = Cpw D t w = (1.06) (4.1868) (0.1) = 3.9 kJ/kg
m& a
Air Out
kJ tw = 36.3°C– – – –
6 h = 102.5
kg d.a.
5 – – – 98.5 – – – – 35.6 – – – –
4 – – – 94.6 – – – – 34.9 – – – –
3 – – – 90.7 – – – – 34.2 – – – –
Condenser
Load
2 – – – 86.8 – – – – 33.5 – – – –
1 – – – 82.9 – – – – 32.8 – – – –
0 – – – h = 79 kJ tw = 32.1°C – –
Air In kg d.a.
43.3°C DBT
25.6°C WBT
Fig. 20.13 Induced draft cooling tower: figure showing sections for Example 20.5
The values are also given in Table 20.6.

Table 20.6 Values of properties at sections for Example 20.5
Section 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
tS = tw, °C 32.1 32.8 33.5 34.2 34.9 35.6 36.3

hS, kJ/kg 111.2 115.1 119.5 123.6 128.4 133.0 137.8
h, kJ/kg 79.0 82.9 86.8 90.7 94.6 98.5 102.4
1
.03106 .03106 .03058 .0304 .02959 .02899 .02825
hS − h
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6
Using Simpson’s rule
z d tw
hS - h
=
D tw
3N
[y0 + y6 + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5) + 2 (y2 + y4)]
4.2
= [.03106 + .02825 + 4 (.03106 + .0304 + .02899)
3´ 6
+ 2 (.03058 + .02959)]
= 0.12634
Performance coefficient
kw aV
m& w
= Cw z d tw
hS - h
= 4.1868 (0.12634) = 0.529
Cross-sectional area of flow of air and volume of cooling tower

A = WL = 2.616 ´ 3.9624 = 10.366 m2
V = AH = 10.366 ´ 2.438 = 25.27 m3
Value of coefficient kw a
m& w (12.62)
kw a = 0.529 = 0.529 = 0.2642 kg/s.m3
V 25.27
Note (i) This value of performance coefficient is much below the value given by line B in
Fig. 20.12.
(ii) More the number of sections taken, better is the accuracy.
(iii) Calculations can also be done by using Eq. (20.43) for summation, instead of
Simpson’s rule, taking mean values for sections 0-1, 1-2, etc.
20.5.2 Crossflow Cooling Tower

Cooling towers without fans are known as atmospheric cooling towers in which the
air velocity depends on wind velocity. The flow of air and water in them is crossflow.
Some forced or induced draft cooling lowers are also designed as crossflow towers.
This reduces the height of the tower. Such towers are convenient for installation on
the roofs of high-rise buildings.
Calculations in crossflow towers can be done by dividing the tower in N number
of horizontal and vertical sections. The volume of each section is thus reduced to
V/N. Similarly, the area A = aV as well as the performance coefficient are reduced
accordingly. Example 20.6 illustrates the procedure by dividing an atmospheric
cooling tower into 4 horizontal sections.
Example 20.6 Atmospheric Cooling Tower

Water enters an atmospheric cooling tower at 7.57 kg/s at 36.4°C. The dimen-
sions of the tower are W = 1.853 m, L = 2.134 m, H = 3.886 km. The wind
velocity can be taken as minimum/normal equal to 3 miles per hour. The per-
&w
formance coefficient for the cooling tower as a whole can be taken as kw aV/ m
= 0.8. Find the temperature of water leaving cooling tower, and the heat
removed, if the WBT of ambient air is 28.3°C.
Solution Volume of the tower

V = WLH = 1.853 (2.134) (3.886) = 15.366 m3
Face area of the tower
FA = WH = 1.853 (3.886) = 7.2 m2
Wind velocity
3 ´ 1760 ´ 3 ´ 0.3048
C= = 1.341 m/s
3600
Divide the tower into 4 sections horizontally as shown in Fig. 20.14.
mw = 7.57 kg/s
tw1 = 36.4°C
ha hb1
ma = 2.9 kg/s
tw2
ha hb2
ma = 2.9 kg/s
tw3
Wind
ha hb3
ma = 2.9 kg/s
tw4
ha
h4b
ma = 2.9 kg/s
tw5
Fig. 20.14 Atmospheric cooling tower divided into 4 sections for Example 20.6
Flow rate of air through the whole tower

m& a = (FA) (C) r = (7.2) (1.341) (1.2) = 11.59 kg/s
Flow rate of air through each section
1159
.
m& a /4 = = 2.9 kg/s
4
Coefficient kw a for each section
FG k aV IJ m& 0.8 (7.57)
H m& K V
w w
kw a = = = 0.394 kg/s.m3
w 15.366
Let the temperature of water leaving sections be tw2, tw3, tw4 and tw5. The enthalpy
of air entering is ha = 92 kJ/kg d.a. at the given WBT of 28.3°C. Let the enthalpy of
air leaving sections be hb1, hb2, hb3 and h4b. Volume of each section is 15.366/4 =
3.8415 m3. Calculations for sections are then done as follows:
Section 1:
twin = tw1 = tS1 = 36.4°C
hS = hS1 = 116.5 kJ/kg d.a.
ha = 92 kJ/kg d.a.
D Q& = (kw a) (V) (hS – h)
= (0.394) (3.8415) (116.5 – 92) = 37.08 kW
D Q1 37.08
Dh = = = 12.8 kJ/kg d.a.
m& a
1
2.9
D Q1 37.08
D tw = = = 1.17°C
m& w Cw 7.57 (4.1868)
hb1 = 92 + 12.8 = 104.8 kJ/kg d.a.
twout = tw2 = 36.4 – 1.17 = 35.23°C
Values similarly calculated for all section are given in Table 20.7.
Table 20.7 Section-wise calculations for crossflow atmospheric cooling tower in

Example 20.6, Fig. 20.14
twin = tS hS 1 ha , Q& ,h , tw hb twout

Section
°C kJ/kg d.a kJ/kg d.a. kW kJ/kg d.a. °C kJ/kg d.a. °C
1-2 36.4 116.5 92 37.08 12.8 1.17 104.8 35.23
2-3 35.23 115.0 92 34.8 13.54 1.09 105.5 34.15
3-4 34.15 114.0 92 33.3 12.96 1.05 105.0 33.1
4-5 33.1 113.0 92 31.77 12.36 1.0 104.4 32.09
Note that the wetted surface temperature for each section has been taken as equal
to the temperature of water at inlet to the section. For example, for section
1-2, tS = tw1. Results can be improved if we take
t w + tw 2 36.4 + 35.23
tS = 1 = = 35.82°C
2 2
for section 1-2, and similar average values for all the sections. Doing accordingly, in
the second approximation, we find the heat-transfer rates, and the temperatures of
water leaving sections are as follows:
D Q& , kW 36.1 34.2 32.8 31.3

tw , °C 35.26 34.18 33.14 32.2
Thus, the temperature drop of water is 36.4 –32.2 = 4.2°C. Wet bulb approach is
32.2 – 28.3 = 3.9°C.
Note The cooling tower efficiency is found as follows:

Temperature drop of water
htower =
Maximum possible temperature drop
36.4 - 32.2 4.2

= = = 0.52 (52%)
36.4 - 28.3 8.1
Total heat-transfer capacity of the tower is 35.26 + 34.18 + 33.14 + 32.2 = 134.8 kW = Q&k,
equal to the heat rejected in condenser.
Note (i) If the COP of the refrigerating machine is taken as 3, this will correspond to a
refrigerating capacity of [3/(1+3)] 134.8 = 101 kW (28.8 TR).
(ii) Heat transfer can also be found as Q& k = m
& w Cw Dtw .
References
1. Arora C P, Heat and Mass Transfer, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1979.
2. Eastop, T D and J M Gasiorek, Air Conditioning Through Worked
Examples, Longmans, London, 1968.
3. Elmahdy A H and R C Biggs, ‘Performance simulation of multirow dry (and/
or wet) heat exchangers’, Proc. Sixth International Heat Transfer Conf.,
Toronto, pp. 327-332, 1978.
4. Ramachandran P V and C P Arora, ‘Computer aided design of cooling coils’,
Proc. 16th International Congress of Refrigeration, Paris, 1983.
5. Ramsey M A, Design Problems in Air Conditioning and Refrigeration,
Industrial Press, New York, 1966.
1958.
7. Stoecker W F, Principles for Air Conditioning Practice, Industrial Press,
New York, 1968.
8. Treybal R E, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1955.
Revision Exercises
20.1 (a) 30 cmm of air is to be cooled from 25°C DBT and 50 per cent RH to
12°C DBT and 11°C WBT using a direct-expansion coil with 1.27 cm
O.D. tubes with 0.71 mm wall thickness and staggered at 3.81 cm cen-
tres. Determine the total fin-side surface area per row per m2 of face area,
and also per m2 of the inside-tube surface area. The coil has 5 fins/cm.
(b) Assume the air-side heat-transfer coefficient as 62.5 W/m2K and the
refrigerant-side coefficient as 1500 W/m2K. The thermal conductivity
of copper is 385 W/m.K. Assuming the fin efficiency to be 95 per cent,
and neglecting the thermal resistance of the condensate layer, find the
value of the coefficient for total heat transfer based on the fin-side
surface area.
(c) If the coil contains four rows, determine the evaporating temperature of
the refrigerant.
20.2 Water at the rate of 1 kg/s is to be cooled in a cooling tower from 32°C to
28°C. The ambient dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are 40°C and 26°C
respectively. Taking the ratio of rates of the mass flow of water to mass flow
of air as 0.75, calculate:
(a) Required tower volume
(b) Condition of air at exit
(c) Height of tower if the air velocity at the exit is 1.5 m/s.
The mean value of the product of the coefficient of diffusion of water vapour
into air based on the specific humidity and surface area of water droplets per
unit volume of equipment, viz., kwa, may be taken as 0.5 kg/sm3.
20.3 Air enters an evaporative cooler at the rate of 4.5 m3/s at 40°C DBT and
26°C WBT. The required relative humidity at exit is limited to 60 per cent.
Calculate:
(a) The dry bulb temperature of air at exit.
(b) The length of air washer if the face velocity at the inlet is 2 m/s.
(c) The required humidifying efficiency of the air washer.
Take the mean value of the product kwa for the apparatus as 1.3 kg/s m3.

Transmission and
Distribution of Air
The air-handling system consists of:

(i) The air distribution system comprising various inlets for recirculated air and
outlets for the supply air.
(ii) The duct system including the return duct, supply duct, and air-conditioning
apparatus comprising of dampers, filters, coil/air washer, etc.
(iii) The fan which provides the necessary energy to move the air.
Figure 21.1 shows how air is handled in a simple air-conditioning system. It is
seen that a closed loop is formed for the circulation of air. The reference point in this
loop is the room itself which can be considered at atmospheric pressure. The air
enters the return duct through the inlets from the room and continues to drop in
pressure until it reaches the fan. The fan raises the pressure. Thereafter, the pressure
starts dropping in the supply duct until the air is released to the space. Therefore,
the pressure on the suction side of the fan is negative, and on the discharge side,
positive. The pressure in the room is atmospheric, i.e., zero gauge.
Negative Pressure Side
Room at
Return Duct Inlets Atmospheric
Pressure
Outlets
Dampers
A/C Apparatus
Fresh Supply Duct

Air
Positive Pressure Side
Fan
Filters Face and
Bypass
Dampers
Fig. 21.1 Schematic air-flow diagram for an air-conditioning system
In this chapter, we shall concern ourselves with the distribution aspects of the
system, design of ducts and the pressure required to be developed by the fan. The
aspects pertaining to fans are discussed in Chapter 22.
Transmission and Distribution of Air 697
21.1 ROOM AIR DISTRIBUTION
The requirement of good room air distribution is to create a proper combination

of temperature, humidity and air motion in the occupied zone which is normally
at 1.8 m above the floor level. The maximum variation in temperature in a single
room should not be more than 1°C. The desirable air velocity is 9.1 mpm at the
occupancy level.
Draft is defined as any localized feeling of coolness or warmth of any portion of
the body due to both air movement and air temperature, with humidity and radiation
considered constant. The warmth or coolness of a draft is measured above or below
the controlled room condition of 24.4°C DBT at the centre of the room and air
moving at approximately 9.1 mpm velocity. To define the difference Dt in effective
temperature for comfort, Rydberg and Norback3 use the following equation
Dt = (t – 24.4) – 0.1276 (C – 9.1) (21.1)
where t is the local temperature in °C and C is the local velocity in mpm. It will be
seen that a 1°C difference in temperature is equivalent to 9.1 mpm difference in
velocity. It may be noted that proper air distribution calls for entrainment of room air
by supply air to bring the velocity to 9.1 mpm in the entire space.
The most desirable direction of cooled supply air is from the front side towards
the face of a person. Cold air directed towards the feet or from the back is undesir-
able while warm air directed towards the feet is comfortable and directed towards
the face is undesirable.
From the considerations of permissible limits of sound levels, the maximum
recommended velocities from air outlets are given in Table 21.1.
Table 21.1 Recommended outlet velocities
Application Outlet velocity, mpm

Broadcasting studios 90–150
Residences, U|
Private offices, V| 150–225
Theatres W
Cinema theatres 300
General offices 330–375
Stores, upper floors 450
Main floor 600
The principles of air distribution involve the following factors.

Blow or Throw: Blow or throw L is the distance travelled by the supply air stream
in the horizontal direction on leaving the air outlet and reaching a velocity of
15 mpm. The velocity is measured in the occupied zone at 1.8 m above the floor
level. The localized condition just at the end-point of blow will not be comfortable
due to lower temperature than 24.4°C, and higher velocity of 15 mpm compared to a
velocity of 9 mpm after diffusion of supply air in room.
The desirable length of blow is up to three-fourths of the distance to the opposite
side of wall.
Drop: Drop is the vertical distance the air moves after it leaves the outlet and
reaches the end of the blow.
Induction Ratio or Entrainment Ratio: The air leaving the outlet is primary air. This
supply air entrains some room air, called the secondary air. The sum of primary and
secondary air is called total air. The induction ratio R is defined as the ratio of total air
to primary air. The induction is governed by the momentum equation
m1C1 + m2C2 = (m1 + m2) C3 (21.2)
where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 refer to primary, secondary and total air respectively.
Blow depends on the initial supply air velocity, temperature difference
between the supply and room air and induction ratio. Induction, in turn, depends on
the primary air velocity and perimeter of primary air stream.
In addition to the primary and secondary air streams, air motion also develops in
the room as a result of natural convection due to the density difference between the
room air and the colder or hotter supply air.
The induction ratio at distance x from the outlet is
m C
R= x = K 1 (21.3)
m1 Cx
where Cx is the velocity at distance x, and K is the entrainment coefficient @ 2 for
round ducts.
Spread: Spread is the angle of divergence of an air stream after it leaves the outlet.
The spread can be both horizontal and vertical.
Air outlets can have three types of vanes, viz., straight, converging or diverging
vanes. Outlets with straight vanes produce a spread of 14 to 24° (approximately 19°)
in both the vertical and horizontal planes. Outlets
with converging vanes have approximately the 45°
same spread as straight vanes but the blow is about
15 per cent longer. Outlets with diverging vanes
60°
give a fanning effect and have a marked effect on
the direction and blow. Figure 21.2 shows an
outlet with vertical vanes. The end vanes are
turned at an angle of 45° and intermediate vanes
are turned by progressively smaller angles. Such
an outlet has a horizontal spread of 60°. The blow 45°
is reduced by about 50 per cent as compared to Fig. 21.2 Spread in a
that of a straight-vane outlet. 45° outlet
21.1.1 Types of Supply Air Outlets

The outlets may be classified as high sidewall, low sidewall, ceiling and floor outlets
according to their location. There are also numerous outlet designs which are
described by their construction features. Accordingly, there are four basic types of
outlets.
(i) Grille outlets.
(ii) Slot diffuser outlets.
(iii) Ceiling diffuser outlets.
(iv) Perforated ceiling panels.
Grille outlets may have adjustable bar grilles which are the most common types
with vertical and horizontal vanes. They may have fixed bar grilles in which case
vanes are not adjustable, but they are fixed either straight or at an angle. The appli-
cation of grille outlets is in a high sidewall location. They are not acceptable in
ceiling location for comfort application as they may cause draft conditions. The
accessories to grille outlets are shown in Fig. 21.3. These help in the uniform
distribution of air over the whole grille area. A combination of a grille and a damper
is called a register.
(a) Opposed Blade Dampers (b) Multishutter Damper
Branch Branch
Duct Duct
Collar Collar
(c) Gang-Operated Turning Vanes (d) Individually Adjustable
Turning Vanes
Fig. 21.3 Accessories to grille outlets
A slot diffuser is an elongated outlet with an aspect ratio of 25 : 1 and a maximum

width of 7.5 cm. Their application is in high sidewall locations or perimeter
installations in floors. They should not be installed in ceilings. Accessories to slot
diffusers are dampers normally available as integral equipment.
Ceiling diffusers are mounted in the ceilings. Multi-passage round, square or
rectangular are the most common types. They consist of a series of flaring rings or
louvers, which may be of adjustable pattern or variable area type. They may also be
fitted with dampers.
Perforated ceiling panels use the confined space above the ceiling as a supply
plenum. Air is delivered to the room through holes or slots. The upper and lower
limits of the plenum pressure are 3.5 mm and 0.025 mm H2O respectively. The
recommended supply air rates are 0.3 to 4.5 cmm/m2 of the floor area. Perforated
ceiling panels are suited to large zones of uniform room temperature.
21.1.2 Mechanism of Flow through Outlet

The mechanism of flow of air from the duct and through the outlet to the room is
shown in Fig. 21.4. Ac is the core area or the area of grille opening in which the air
flows with a velocity Cc. Afa is the free area of the grille through which air can pass.
The ratio Afa/Ac is Rfa so that Cfa = Cc/Rfa. A0 is the area at the vena contracta formed
outside the grille. If Cd is the discharge coefficient of the outlet, and C0 is the veloc-
ity at the vena contracta.
A A0
Cd = 0 = (21.4)
A fa Ac R fa
Cc Ac Cc
C0 = = (21.5)
A0 Cd R fa
A fa
Ac Cc Cfa A0 C0 Primary Air
Secondary Air
V.C.
X
Fig. 21.4 Mechanism of flow of air through a duct outlet
The zone of interest is at 25 to 100 times the diameter or width of the outlet in the
x direction. In this zone, the velocity at any x is given by
Cx KD0 K ¢ A0
= =
C0 x x
K ¢C0 A0 K ¢Q L K ¢QL
Cx = = = (21.6)
x x A0 x Ac Cd R fa
where Q L is the volume delivered by the outlet and K ¢ = 1.13 K.
The tested values of K are given in Table 21.2. Equation (21.6) can also be used
to calculate the throw L by putting Cx = 15 mpm = 0.25 m/s.
K¢ QL
L=x= (21.7)
0.25 AcCd R fa
As far as the entrainment ratio R is concerned, it is given by the following empiri-
cal relations in which Q x represents the volume of the total air at any distance x from
the outlet and Q L is the volume of primary air.
For circular jets
Q 2 x C0
R = x = = 2 (21.8)
QL K¢ A0 Cx
For long slots of width H0
Q x 2 x C0
R= = = 2 (21.9)
QL K¢ H0 Cx
Table 21.2 Recommended values of K
Type of Outlet K
C0 = 25 to 50 m/s C0 = 100 to 500 m/s
Free openings,
round or square 5.0 6.2
rectangular, AR < 40 4.3 5.3
Grilles, Rfa ³ 0.4 4.1 5.0
Perforated panels
Rfa = 0.03 to 0.05 2.7 3.3
Rfa = 0.1 to 0.2 3.5 4.3
Example 21.1 A grille has a core area of 0.3 m ´ 0.5 m. The free flow area is
90 per cent. The discharge coefficient may be taken as 0.8. The recommended
value of coefficient K¢ is 5.0. Find the core velocity, and cmm of air delivered, so
that the air velocity is 0.25 m/s for a throw of 15 m.
Solution Core area, and area at vena contracta

Ac = (0.3) (0.5) = 0.15 m2
A0 = Ac Rfa Cd = (0.15) (0.9) (0.8) = 0.108 m2
Cx K ¢ A0 5 0.108
Now = = = 0.1095
C0 x 15
Cx Cx 0.1095
= = = 0.1521
Cc C0Cd R fa (0.8) (0.9)
Core velocity and volume delivered
Cx 0.25
Cc = = = 1.644 m/s
0.1521 0.1521
Q = C A = (1.644) (0.15) = 0.247 m3/s
L c c
21.1.3 Considerations for Selection and Location of Outlets

The selection and location of supply air outlets is governed by the following
considerations:
(i) The amount of air to be delivered by the outlet should be proportional to the
load of the part of the space for which it is installed.
(ii) The selection of the type of outlet is governed by the ceiling height, nature of
room occupancy, etc.
(iii) The location of the outlet should be governed by the condition of uniform air
distribution and rapid temperature equalization.
(iv) The selection of size of the outlet can be made from the manufacturer’s cata-
logue data according to the air delivery, core velocity, distribution pattern,
sound levels, throw, drop, spread, etc.
As a corollary to this, the outlets should be located so as to neutralize the concen-
trated loads, such as those that result from exterior windows, electronic equipment,
etc. In buildings in which the lighting load is heavy, i.e., more than 55 W/m2, and the
ceiling height is more than 4.5 m, it is desirable to locate the outlets below the light-
ing load.
In such and similar cases of concentrated loads, the return grilles or inlets can be
located adjacent to these loads so that warm air (in the case of cooling) is withdrawn
from the source instead of being dissipated in the conditioned space. This
arrangement is also suitable to remove the fumes, pollutants, etc., from their sources
in the space.
In their distribution pattern, the outlets may have characteristics in between the
behaviour at the two extremes.
At one extreme are ceiling diffusers with radial flow. As a result of the large
perimeter area of the primary air, they will have high entrainment rate and rapid
temperature equalization in room. The air will, however, quickly slow down and will
have a short throw.
At the other extreme are slot diffusers. They have low entrainment rate and slow
temperature equalization. But they have a long throw.
Thus, generally speaking, ceiling diffusers can deliver more air to a space than
grilles and slot diffusers. Because of their high entrainment, ceiling diffusers may
also be used in systems with low supply air temperatures. In spite of the low supply
air temperature, induction will result in rapid temperature equalization.
The same cannot be done in the case of slot diffusers and grilles. In their case, this
temperature difference may not exceed 11°C. They are used only when the throw
required is very long.
21.1.4 Distribution Patterns of Outlets1

The general distribution patterns of various types of supply air outlets will now be
described. The representation for primary air, total air, natural convection air and
stagnant zone will be as shown in Fig. 21.5. It will be seen that the distribution
patterns follow differently for cooling and heating. The best distribution pattern is
one in which the whole room air is set in motion, and there are neither any stagnation
zones nor zones of draft at the occupancy level.
(a) Primary Air (b) Total Air (c) Natural Convection (d) Stagnant Zone
Fig. 21.5 Representation of primary, total and natural convection air and
stagnation zone
A. High Sidewall Grilles/Ceiling Diffusers Discharging Air Horizon

tally Figure 21.6 (a) and (b) shows the distribution patterns for cooling and
heating respectively for a high sidewall grille. The variation of the vane setting may
affect the flow to some extent but the general pattern will be the same.
It is seen that during cooling, the total air drops on the occupied zone at some
distance from the outlet, depending on Q L, Cc, (ti – ts), deflection setting, ceiling
effect and type of loading in space. It may be noted that the throw is about three-
fourths of the room width, and in no case should the air overthrow otherwise draft
conditions will result.
(a) Cooling (b) Heating

Fig. 21.6 Distribution patterns for high sidewall grille
During heating, the total warm air tends to rise. This results in a large stagnation
zone. A degree of over-blow may be helpful in minimizing the stagnation zone.
The general pattern for ceiling diffusers projecting air horizontally is similar
though symmetrical on the two sides as shown in Fig. 21.7(a) and (b). There is hardly
any stagnation zone for cooling application though the same cannot be said for the
case of heating. During heating, cold air from the walls tends to drop but warm air
tends to remain near the ceiling. A large stagnation zone results. An
attempt must be made to direct the air towards the cold walls.

Fig. 21.7 Distribution patterns for ceiling diffusers projecting air horizontally
These outlets with high location are practically suited for cooling with a large
dehumidified rise, of the order of 13 to 17°C. They are selected on the basis of drop
and throw.
B. Floor Registers Discharging Air Vertically Floor registers normally
discharge primary air in a straight vertical jet as shown in Fig. 21.8. Ultimately the
total air, after reaching the ceiling, fans out. In the case of cooling, it falls out soon
after travelling a short distance.

Fig. 21.8 Distribution patterns for flow registers
The cooling diagram shows stagnation region above the terminal point of the
total air. In a large space, this stagnation zone may extend much farther and to a
lower level. In the case of heating, the total air follows the ceiling and then descends
down if flowing along the cold exterior walls.
There is a better temperature equalization for heating than for cooling. In these
outlets, generally, an increase of the supply air velocity will improve the air distribu-
tion. These outlets are more suited for heating only.
C. Floor Diffusers Discharging Air in a Spreading Jet Floor diffusers are
similar to floor registers. The only difference is in the nature of the jet which is
spreading in this case, instead of being nonspreading as seen from Fig. 21.9.
Although the characteristics are similar, the stagnation zone is much larger during
cooling but smaller during heating.

Fig. 21.9 Distribution patterns for floor diffusers
These outlets are suitable when the heating requirement is severe and primary,
and the cooling requirement moderate and secondary.
Floor outlets are not permissible when people are seated such as in theatres. But
where people are moving, as in stores, they are quite permissible. However, a very
low dehumidified rise, say, not more than 8°C should be used. This will require a
large volume flow. One disadvantage of floor outlets is that they become dust
collectors.
D. Low Sidewall Outlets Discharging Air Horizontally As is seen from
Fig. 21.10, the total air during cooling remains near the floor level resulting in low
temperature in the occupied zone and a large stagnation zone above. During heating,
the warm air rises and temperature equalization takes place except in the region of
total air.

Fig. 21.10 Distribution patterns for low sidewall diffusers
These outlets discharge air directly into the occupied zone with high velocity.
They are not recommended for comfort air conditioning.
E. Ceiling Diffusers Discharging Air Vertically These are ceiling diffusers
which do not project air horizontally, but vertically as shown in Fig. 21.11. During
cooling, the total air drops to the floor and then fans out, finally rising along the
walls. The stagnation region is near the ceiling. During heating, the total air, after
reaching the floor, returns back towards the ceiling. There is no stagnation zone.
These outlets have completely different distribution patterns for cooling and heat-
ing because of the different throws obtained. They are, therefore, used either for
cooling or for heating, but seldom for both. For cooling, we require low values of
supply air volume, velocity and temperature difference, whereas for heating, the
same should be high to get proper throw.
Nevertheless, ceiling diffusers can be conveniently applied to ducts or plenums in
the ceiling in large spaces and halls/auditoriums.

Fig. 21.11 Distribution patterns for ceiling diffusers projecting
air vertically
21.1.5 Locating Return Air Openings

While a great deal has been written about supply air outlets, not enough is known
about locating return air openings. The most important considerations involved in
the location of inlets are the following:
(i) There should not be any short-circuiting of air between the supply outlet
and return inlet. The return air opening should be complementary to the flow
pattern generated by the supply air.
(ii) The return air which is either too cool in winter or too warm in summer or
contains dirt, gases or odours, should be removed without causing any drafts
or stratification in the conditioned space by making the undesirable product
to move in its natural direction of flow. For example, to remove tobacco
smoke, return air openings located high in the room will be most effective.
But if the air contains cotton lint as in textile mills, returns located in the floor
will do a better job.
(iii) The velocity of air decreases rapidly as one moves away from the inlet.
Thus draft conditions near the inlets are rare. However, the recommended
velocities are approximately 240 mpm for inlets above the occupied zone and
180 mpm within the occupied zone.
(iv) The consideration of noise is a little more severe in the case of return inlets as
they are normally located near the ear-level. In that case the velocity in the
return inlet should not exceed 75 per cent of the velocity in the supply air outlet.
From the point of view of location, a wall return near the floor is the best. A
ceiling return may short-circuit the cold air. A wall return near the ceiling is as unde-
sirable as a ceiling return.
Floor returns should be avoided because they act as dust collectors. Whenever
floor returns are used, it is necessary to provide a low velocity settling chamber.
Also, as stated earlier, in the case of concentrated load, the return opening should
be located near the load.
21.2 TOTAL, STATIC AND VELOCITY PRESSURES
The terminology used pertaining to the flow of air will now be described. For this
purpose, we begin with the steady-flow energy equation for flow through a pipe or
duct which can be written as
F C I + dh + gdz = dq – dw
GH 2 JK
2
d (21.10)
where the various terms denote changes in kinetic energy, enthalpy and potential
energy on the left-hand side and the heat added and work done on the right-hand side
respectively. Since no external work is done and the heat transfer is negligible, and
the enthalpy change, in a reversible adiabatic process, is given by
1
dh = Ldp = dp (21.11)
r
Equation (21.10) becomes
F C I + 1 dp + gdz = 0
GH 2 JK r
2
d (21.12)
Further, in the case of the flow of air through ducts, the pressure changes are so
small that the density change is negligible. Equation (21.12) can, then, be integrated to
give the well-known Bernoulli’s equation for the flow of incompressible fluids, viz.,
p C2
+ + gz = constant (21.13)
r 2
where r is the density of air. Equation (21.13) is in terms of the head of the fluid,
commonly used in hydraulics. However, in air conditioning, Eq. (21.13) is rewritten
in the following form
rC 2
p+ + rgz = constant (21.14)
2
which is in terms of the pressure of the fluid. In Eq. (21.14), the three terms repre-
sent the static pressure (SP) ps, velocity pressure (VP) pL, and pressure pz due to the
datum head respectively. Equation (21.14) can, therefore, be written as
pS + pV + pZ = constant = pT (21.15)
where pT is termed as the total pressure (TP).
In the absence of changes of datum head, we can take
pS + pV = PT = constant (21.16)
Thus, if air flowing with a velocity C is brought to a state of rest or stagnation,
there will be a conversion of velocity pressure pV into static pressure. The static
pressure pS will then rise to a value equal to that of the total pressure pT. The velocity
pressure in turn is then given by
pV = pT – pS (21.17)
Both static and total pressures may be taken as gauge pressures. Equation (21.17)
is the basic equation governing the operation of a Pitot tube used for the measure-
ment of velocity of air by measuring the static and total pressures.
If the velocity pressure is measured in mm H2O, and velocity in m/s, and r equal
to 1.2 kg/m3 is taken as the standard density of air, the velocity pressure is given by
C2
pV (9.81) = (1.2)
2
FG C IJ 2
Þ pV =
H 4.04 K mm H2O (21.18)
If pV is measured in N/m2, and the velocity remains in m/s, then

1 1
pV = rC 2 = (1.2) C 2 = 0.6 C2 (21.19)
2 2
and expressing the velocity in terms of the velocity pressure, we have
C = 1.291 pV (21.20)
The expression used for wind pressure in Sec. 18.6.2 can also be derived. Thus
if wind velocity is measured in kilometres per hour, and wind pressure, i.e., the
corresponding velocity pressure, in centimetres of water, we have
FG
1.2 C ´ 1000 IJ 2
pV (98.1) =
2 H
3600 K
Þ pV = 0.00047 C2 cm H2O (21.21)
Note 1 mm H 2O = 9.81 Pa, and in inch units, 1 in H 2O = 249 Pa
21.2.1 Flow through a Duct

Consider now the flow of air between two sections 1 and 2 of an insulated duct as
shown in Fig. 21.12. By mass balance between the two sections, we have
m = r1 A1 C1 = r2 A2 C2 (21.22)
1
2
A1
A2
C1 C2
PL
Fig. 21.12 Flow of air through a duct with drop in total pressure
Assuming constant density of air, we have for the volume flow rate
Q L = A1C1 = A2C2 (21.23)
Further, by energy balance, assuming frictionless flow and no pressure drop, we
have from Eq. (21.16)
pS 1 + pV1 = pS 2 + pV 2 = p T (21.24)
i.e., the total pressures at the two sections are equal. However, pressure drop may
take place along the duct due to friction and other causes such as sudden changes in
area and direction. An increase in the datum head also results in a drop in static
pressure, which is not accounted for in Eq. (21.24). As a result of pressure drop, the
energy due to static pressure will be converted into heat and appear in the form of
internal energy or temperature rise of air which is normally insignificantly small.
However, to account for the drop in static and total pressures, Eq. (21.24) is
modified to
pS1 + pV1 = pS2 + pV2 + D pL (21.25)
where DpL represents the total pressure drop or loss between the two sections. The
changes in pressure due to changes in datum may also be included in the numerical
value of DpL.
Further, if between the two sections a fan or blower is introduced as shown in
Fig. 21.13 which will do work on the gas and will have the effect of raising its total
pressure, Eq. (21.25) is further modified to
pS1 + pV1 + FTP = pS2 + pV2 + DpL (21.26)
where FTP is the pressure rise due to the fan work and is called the fan total pressure.
1
2
FTP
Fan
PL
Fig. 21.13 Flow of air through a duct with fan
Writing in terms of energy, Eq. (21.26) becomes

pS1 C2 W pS C2 L
+ 1 + = 2 + 2 + (21.27)
r1 2 m r2 2 m
where W represents the fan work and L represents the losses or increase in internal
energy.
Example 21.2 The main supply air duct of an air-conditioning system is

100 cm ´ 90 cm in cross-section and carries 10 m3/s of air. It branches off into
two ducts, one 80 cm ´ 80 cm and the other 80 cm ´ 60 cm. If the mean velocity
in the larger branch is 9 m/s, find the mean velocities in the main duct and
smaller branch.

Duct areas A1 = (1.0) (0.9) = 0.9 m2
A2 = (0.8) (0.8) = 0.64 m2
A3 = (0.8) (0.6) = 0.48 m2
Flow rates Q L1 = 10 m3/s
Q L2 = A2C2 = (0.64) (9) = 5.76 m3/s
Q L3 = Q L1 – Q L2 = 10 – 5.76 = 4.24 m3/s
2 6 m3/s
1
10 m3/s
4 m3
/s
QL1 10
Air velocities C1 = = = 11.1 m/s
A1 0.9
QL 4.24
C3 = 2
= = 8.83 m/s
A2 0.48
21.2.2 Pressure Drop in Ducts

As flow continues in a duct, the static pressure of air drops. This drop in pressure
takes place due to two factors:
(i) Duct friction, and
(ii) Change of direction and/or velocity.
While the former is called the frictional pressure drop or friction loss, the latter is
termed the momentum pressure drop or dynamic loss. If the cross-sectional area of
the duct remains constant, the mean velocity also remains constant. The changes in
velocity are only due to area changes.
As a result of pressure drop, the gas actually expands. But the change in volume
is negligible. Hence, for all practical purposes, the density of air can be considered
as constant.
21.3 FRICTION LOSS IN DUCTS
Frictional losses are usually expressed by means of D’ Arcy’s formula or the

Fanning equation.
D pf fLC 2
= gHf = (21.28)
r 2 Dm
where Dpf = frictional pressure drop
Hf = friction head or loss in metres of air
r = Density of air
f = Friction factor
L = Length of duct
C = Mean duct velocity

Dm = Hydraulic mean diameter
Cross-sectional area A
= =
Perimeter P
For a circular duct,
p D2
A= and P = p D
4
D
so that Dm =
4
Equation (21.28) for a circular duct is, therefore, written as
F I
Dpf = rg Hf =
4 f L rC2
D GH
2 JK
=
4 fL
D
pV (21.29)
Thus, the frictional pressure drop is proportional to the dynamic head or

velocity pressure rC2/2. It is directly proportional to the length L and inversely
proportional to the diameter D of the duct. It is also proportional to the friction
factor f, which in turn depends on Reynolds number. In ducts, the flow is normally
turbulent for which the Colebrook-White2 relation can be used for the evaluation of
the friction factor, viz.,
F I
1
f
= – 4 log10 GH ks
3.7 D
+
1.255
Re f
JK (21.30)
where ks = Absolute roughness of the duct wall in metres.

The value of ks may be taken as 0.00015 m for ducts of sheet-metal construction.
Rearranging of Fanning equation (21.29) with the help of Equation (21.30) and sub-
stitution of properties of air yields the following simplified relation for frictional
pressure drop which is due to Fritzsche2
0.01422 C1.852 L
Dpf = (21.31)
D1.269
in which Dpf is in N/m2 for standard air at 0°C and 1.01325 bar (specific volume
equal to 0.778 m3/kg), C is in m/s and L and D are in m.
Replacing the velocity by the volume flow rate, i.e.,
Q 4 QL
C= L = (21.32)
A p D2
in Eq. (21.31), we can express Dpf as a function of Q L instead of C
0.022243 Q L1.852 L
Dpf = N/m2
D 4 .973
0.002268 Q L1.852 L
= mm H2O (21.33a)
D 4 .973
or in terms of C and Q L, by eliminating D,
0.012199 C 2 .4865 L
Dpf = N/m2 (21.34)
QL0.6343
where Q L is in m3/s.
For calculating D, Eq. (21.33a) can also be written as

0.4652 QL0.372
D= , if Dpf is in N/m2
( D p f / L) 0 .2
0.294 Q L0.372
= , if D pf is in mm H2O (21.33 b)
(D p f / L ) 0. 2
Equations (21.31), (21.33) and (21.34) are three different forms of Fritzsche’s
formula which give quite accurate results. The expressions are used to develop duct
friction charts as drawn in Figs 21.15 and 21.16 for low and high velocities respec-
tively. These charts are plotted for the volume flow rate Q L in m3/s as a function of the
friction rate, i.e., the friction pressure drop per unit length Dpf /L in N/m3. The other
parameters are the duct diameter D, and mean duct velocity C. The charts are valid for
air at 20°C and 1.01325 bar and clean galvanized iron (GI) ducts with joints and seams
having good commercial practice for which ks = 0.00015 m.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.60.81 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
0.8 0.8
4
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
3
,m
Vel
0.6 er 6 0.6
et 0.1
o
0.5 0 0.5
city
0.5 iam
D 4
,m
0.4 ct 0.1 0.4
Du
/s
0.3 0 0.3
0.4 2
0.1
0.2 5 0.2
0.3
0
0.15 0.1 0.15
0 9
0.3 0.0
0.10 0.10
Flow Rate, m3/s
8
0.0
0.08 5 0.08
0.2
0.06 7 0.06
0.0
0.05 0.05
0.20 6
0.04 0.0 0.04
0.03 0.03
6 5
0.1 0.0
0.02 0.02
4
0.015 0.1 4 0.015
0.0
2
0.1
0.010 0.010
0.008 9 0.008
0 3
0.1 6 7
8 0.0
0.006 2 3 4 5 0.006
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.60.81 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
Friction Loss, Pa/m
Fig. 21.15 Duct friction chart: low flow rates
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.60.81 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100

100 100
80 80
2
3.
10
35
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
80
90
8
60 . 0 60
0
3
50 2 . 8 50
6
40 2. 40
Vel
4
2.
oci
30 30
2
ty, m
2.
0
2.
/s
20 20
. 9
18
1. 55
15 15
7
1. 50
Flow Rate, m3/s
6
1.
10 5 10
1. 45
8 4 8
1.
. 3 40
1
6 6
. 2
5 1 35 5
1
4 1. 4
. 0
1 30
3 5 3
.9
0
.9
5
.8 m 25
2 0 r, 2
.8 e
5 et
1.5 .7
Diam 1.5
0
. 7 ct
.6
5 Du 20
1.0 1.0
0
.6
0.8 5 0.8
.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12
0.6 0 0.6
.5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.60.81 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
Friction Loss, Pa/m
Fig. 21.16 Duct friction chart: high flow rates
The following are the limitations of these charts:

(i) If the duct is made of other materials, e.g., plastics, expanded polystyrene,
fibre glass, concrete, wood, etc., they do not apply.
(ii) The charts apply to air only.
(iii) The charts are based on standard air density.
For ducts of other materials, correction factors have to be applied. For small
differences in the density of air, correction can be applied according to
D pf µ r
For air at other temperatures, the correction can be made according to
1
Dpf µ 0 .857
T
21.3.1 Rectangular Equivalents of Circular Ducts
Air ducts are usually sized first for round sections. Then if rectangular ducts are
required, ducts are sized to provide the same flow rates and to have the same rate of
pressure drop as for round ducts. From Eq. (21.28),
F rC I
D pf rC2
GH 2 JK
2
P
= f = f (21.35)
L 2 Dm A
Substituting Q L /A for C and transposing, we obtain from Eq. (21.35)
2 FG D p IJ A3
H LK
f
Q L = rf P (21.36)
Consider two ducts each handling the same Q L, one circular and one rectangular.
The friction rate Dpf /L is the same and r and f are fixed. Hence, for both ducts A3/P
is the same.
Then if D is the diameter of the round duct, and a and b are the large and small
dimensions of the rectangular duct, we have
F p D I ´ 1 = (ab)
2 3 3
GH 4 JK p D 2(a + b)
D= G
F 32 ´ a b I 3 3 1/ 5
whence
H p a + b JK
2
L (ab) OP = 1.265 (ab)

= 1.265 M
3 1/ 5 0. 6
N (a + b) Q
(21.37)
(a + b) 0. 2
It may be noted that the velocities will not be the same in the two ducts, thus,
affecting the value of the friction factor. The mean velocity in a rectangular duct will
be less than that in its circular equivalent. The normal expression used for equiva-
lence is, therefore, modified to
(ab) 0.625
D = 1.3 (21.38)
(a + b) 0.25
Equation (21.38) or Table 21.3 may be used to determine one dimension of a
rectangular duct, if the other is assumed, as equivalent to a circular duct whose
diameter is known. Although round ducts require the least metal to carry a given
quantity of air, rectangular ducts are used often because of the following reasons:
(i) Space considerations: as they fit easily in building construction and occupy
less building space without being conspicuous.
(ii) Ease of fabrication.
Square ducts are closest to round ducts. They require less material than rectangular
ducts. The material required for the rectangular duct increases with the aspect ratio,
viz., a/b. Hence, the attempt is always made to keep the aspect ratio close to unity.
21.4 DYNAMIC LOSSES IN DUCTS
In flow through ducts, whenever direction or velocity changes, the pressure loss is
greater than if there had been uninterrupted flow. The additional loss, in excess of
Table 21.3 Circular equivalents of rectangular ducts for equal friction and flow rate
714
Side 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0
Recta-
ngular
Duct
3.0 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0
3.5 4.1 4.3 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6
4.0 4.4 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.4 6.8 7.1 7.3 7.6 7.8 8.1 8.3
4.5 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.9 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.9 7.2 7.5 7.8 8.1 8.4 8.6 8.9
5.0 4.9 5.2 5.5 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.7 6.9 7.3 7.6 8.0 8.3 8.6 8.9 9.1 9.4
5.5 5.1 5.4 5.7 6.0 6.3 6.5 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.6 8.0 8.4 8.7 9.0 9.4 9.6 9.8
Side 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 Side
Recta- Recta-
ngular ngular
Duct Duct
6 6.6 6
7 7.1 7.7 7
8 7.4 8.2 8.8 8
9 8.0 8.6 9.3 9.9 9
10 8.4 9.1 9.8 10.4 10.9 10
11 8.8 9.5 10.2 10.8 11.4 12.0 11
12 9.1 9.9 10.7 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.1 12
13 9.5 10.3 11.1 11.8 12.4 13.0 13.6 14.2 13
14 9.8 10.7 11.5 12.2 12.9 13.5 14.2 14.7 15.3 14
15 10.1 11.0 11.8 12.6 13.3 14.0 14.6 15.3 15.8 16.4 15
16 10.4 11.4 12.2 13.0 13.7 14.4 15.1 15.7 16.3 16.9 17.5 16
17 10.7 11.7 12.5 13.4 14.1 14.9 14.5 16.1 16.8 17.4 18.0 18.6 17
18 11.0 11.9 12.9 13.7 14.5 15.3 16.0 16.6 17.3 17.9 18.5 19.1 19.7 18
19 11.2 12.2 13.2 14.1 14.9 15.6 16.4 17.1 17.8 18.4 19.0 19.6 20.2 20.8 19
(Contd)
Side 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 Side
Recta- Recta-
ngular ngular
Duct Duct
20 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.4 15.2 15.9 16.8 17.5 18.2 18.8 19.5 20.1 20.7 21.3 21.9 20
22 12.0 13.1 14.1 15.0 15.9 16.7 17.6 18.3 19.1 19.7 20.4 21.0 21.7 22.3 22.9 24.1 22
24 12.4 13.6 14.6 15.6 16.6 17.5 18.3 19.1 19.8 20.6 21.3 21.9 22.6 23.2 23.9 25.1 26.2 24
26 12.8 14.1 15.2 16.2 17.2 18.1 19.0 19.8 20.6 21.4 22.1 22.8 23.5 24.1 24.8 26.1 27.2 28.4 26
28 13.2 14.5 15.6 16.7 17.7 18.7 19.6 20.5 21.3 22.1 22.9 23.6 24.4 25.0 25.7 27.1 28.2 29.5 30.6 28
30 13.6 14.9 16.1 17.2 18.3 19.3 20.2 21.1 22.0 22.9 23.7 24.4 25.2 25.9 26.7 28.0 29.3 30.5 31.6 32.8 30
32 14.0 15.3 16.5 17.7 18.8 19.8 20.8 21.8 22.7 23.6 24.4 25.2 26.0 26.7 27.5 28.9 30.1 31.4 32.6 33.8 32
34 14.4 15.7 17.0 18.2 19.3 20.4 21.4 22.4 23.3 24.2 25.1 25.9 26.7 27.5 28.3 29.7 31.0 32.3 33.6 34.8 34
36 14.7 16.1 17.4 18.6 19.8 20.9 21.9 23.0 23.9 24.8 25.8 26.6 27.4 28.3 29.0 30.5 32.0 33.0 34.6 35.8 36
38 15.0 16.4 17.8 19.0 20.3 21.4 22.5 23.5 24.5 25.4 26.4 27.3 28.1 29.0 29.8 31.4 32.8 34.2 35.5 36.7 38
40 15.3 16.8 18.2 19.4 20.7 21.9 23.0 24.0 25.1 26.0 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.7 30.5 32.1 33.6 35.1 36.4 37.6 40
42 15.6 17.1 18.5 19.8 21.1 22.3 23.4 24.5 25.6 26.6 27.6 28.5 29.4 30.4 31.2 32.8 34.4 35.9 37.3 38.6 42
44 15.9 17.5 18.9 20.2 21.5 22.7 23.9 25.0 26.1 27.2 28.2 29.1 30.0 31.0 31.9 33.5 35.2 36.7 38.1 39.5 44
46 16.4 17.8 19.2 20.6 21.9 23.2 24.3 25.5 26.7 27.7 28.7 29.7 30.6 31.6 32.5 34.2 35.9 37.4 38.9 40.3 46
48 16.5 18.1 19.6 20.9 22.3 23.6 24.8 26.0 27.2 28.2 29.2 30.2 31.2 32.2 33.1 34.9 36.6 38.2 39.7 41.2 48
50 16.8 18.4 19.9 21.3 22.7 24.0 25.2 26.4 27.6 28.7 29.8 30.8 31.8 32.8 33.7 35.5 37.3 38.9 40.4 42.0 50
52 17.0 18.7 20.2 21.6 23.1 24.4 25.6 26.8 28.1 29.2 30.3 31.4 32.4 33.4 34.3 36.2 38.0 39.6 41.2 42.8 52
54 17.3 19.0 20.5 22.0 23.4 24.8 26.1 27.3 28.5 29.7 30.8 31.9 32.9 33.9 34.9 36.8 38.7 40.3 42.0 43.6 54
56 17.6 19.3 20.9 22.4 23.8 25.2 26.5 27.7 28.9 30.1 31.2 32.4 33.4 34.5 35.5 37.4 39.3 41.0 42.7 44.3 56
58 17.8 19.5 21.1 22.7 24.2 25.5 26.9 28.2 29.3 30.5 31.7 32.9 33.9 35.0 36.0 38.0 39.8 41.7 43.4 45.0 58
60 18.1 19.8 21.4 23.0 24.5 25.8 27.3 28.7 29.8 31.0 32.2 33.4 34.5 35.5 36.5 38.6 40.4 42.3 44.0 45.8 60
62 18.3 20.1 21.7 23.3 24.8 26.2 27.6 29.0 30.2 31.4 32.6 33.8 35.0 36.0 37.1 39.2 41.0 42.9 44.7 46.5 62
64 18.6 20.3 22.0 23.6 25.2 26.5 27.9 29.3 30.6 31.8 33.1 34.2 35.5 36.5 37.6 39.7 41.6 43.5 45.4 47.2 64
66 18.8 20.6 22.3 23.9 25.5 26.9 28.3 29.7 31.0 32.2 33.5 34.7 35.9 37.0 38.1 40.2 42.2 44.1 46.0 47.8 66
Transmission and Distribution of Air
68 19.0 20.8 22.5 24.2 25.8 27.3 28.7 30.1 31.4 32.6 33.9 35.1 36.3 37.5 38.6 40.7 42.8 44.7 46.6 48.4 68
70 19.2 21.0 22.8 24.5 26.1 27.6 29.1 30.4 31.8 33.1 34.3 35.6 36.8 37.9 39.1 41.3 43.3 45.3 47.2 49.0 70
(Contd)
715
Side 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 Side
716
Recta- Recta-
ngular ngular
Duct Duct
72 39.6 41.8 43.8 45.9 47.8 49.7 72
74 40.0 42.3 44.4 46.4 48.4 50.3 74
76 40.5 42.8 44.9 47.0 49.0 50.8 76
78 40.9 43.3 45.5 47.5 49.5 51.5 78
80 41.3 43.8 46.0 48.0 50.1 52.0 80
82 41.8 44.2 46.4 48.6 50.6 52.6 82
84 42.2 44.6 46.9 49.2 51.1 53.2 84
86 42.6 45.0 47.4 49.6 51.6 53.7 86
88 43.0 45.4 47.9 50.1 52.2 54.3 88
90 43.4 45.9 48.3 50.6 52.8 54.8 90
92 43.8 46.3 48.7 51.1 53.4 55.4 92
96 44.6 47.2 49.5 52.0 54.4 56.3 96

Side 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 Side
Recta- Recta-
ngular ngular
Duct Duct
32 35.0 32
34 36.0 37.2 34
36 37.0 39.4 36
38 38.0 39.2 40.4 41.6 38
40 39.0 40.2 41.4 42.6 43.8 40
42 39.9 41.1 42.4 43.6 44.8 45.9 42
44 40.8 42.0 43.4 44.6 45.8 46.9 48.1 44
46 41.7 43.0 44.3 45.6 46.8 47.9 49.1 50.3 46
48 42.6 43.9 45.2 46.5 47.8 48.9 50.2 51.3 52.6 48
(Contd)
Side 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 Side
Recta- Recta-
ngular ngular
Duct Duct
50 43.5 44.8 46.1 47.4 48.8 49.8 51.2 52.3 53.6 54.7 50
52 44.3 45.7 47.1 48.3 49.7 50.8 52.2 53.3 54.6 55.8 56.9 52
54 45.0 46.5 48.0 49.2 50.6 51.8 53.2 54.3 55.6 56.8 57.9 54
56 45.8 47.3 48.8 50.1 51.5 52.7 54.1 55.3 56.5 57.8 58.9 61.3 56
58 46.6 48.1 49.6 51.0 52.4 53.7 55.0 56.2 57.5 58.8 60.0 62.3 58
60 47.3 48.9 50.4 51.8 53.3 54.6 55.9 57.1 58.5 59.8 61.0 63.3 65.7 60
62 48.0 49.7 51.2 52.6 54.2 55.5 56.8 58.0 59.4 60.7 62.0 64.3 66.7 62
64 48.7 50.4 52.0 53.4 55.0 56.4 57.7 59.0 60.3 61.6 62.9 65.3 67.7 70.0 64
66 49.5 51.1 52.8 54.2 55.8 57.2 58.6 59.9 61.2 62.5 63.9 66.3 68.7 71.1 66
68 50.2 51.8 53.5 55.0 56.6 58.0 59.5 60.8 62.1 63.4 64.8 67.3 69.7 72.1 74.4 68
70 50.9 52.5 54.2 55.8 57.3 58.8 60.3 61.7 63.0 64.3 65.7 68.3 70.7 73.1 75.4 70
72 51.5 53.2 54.9 56.5 58.0 59.6 61.1 62.6 63.9 65.2 66.6 69.2 71.7 74.1 76.4 78.8 72
74 52.1 53.9 55.6 57.2 58.8 60.4 61.9 63.3 64.8 66.1 67.5 70.1 72.7 75.1 77.4 79.9 83.2 74
76 52.7 54.6 56.3 57.9 59.5 61.2 62.7 64.1 65.6 67.0 68.4 71.0 73.6 76.1 78.4 80.9 84.2 76
78 53.3 55.2 57.0 58.6 60.3 62.0 63.4 64.9 66.4 67.9 69.3 71.8 74.5 77.1 79.4 81.8 84.2 78
80 53.9 55.8 57.6 59.3 61.0 62.7 64.1 65.7 67.2 68.7 70.1 72.7 75.4 78.1 80.4 82.6 85.2 87.5 80
82 54.5 56.4 58.2 60.0 61.7 63.4 64.9 66.5 68.0 69.5 71.0 73.6 76.3 79.0 81.4 83.8 86.2 88.6 82
84 55.1 57.0 58.9 60.7 62.4 64.1 65.7 67.3 68.8 70.3 71.3 74.5 77.2 79.9 82.4 84.8 87.2 89.6 91.9 84
86 55.7 57.6 59.5 61.3 63.0 64.8 66.4 68.0 69.5 71.1 72.6 75.4 78.1 80.8 83.3 85.8 88.2 90.6 92.9 86
88 56.3 58.2 60.1 62.0 63.7 65.4 67.0 68.7 70.3 71.8 73.4 76.3 79.0 81.6 84.2 86.8 89.2 91.6 93.9 96.3 88
90 56.9 58.8 60.7 62.6 64.4 66.0 67.8 69.4 71.1 72.6 74.2 77.1 79.9 82.5 85.1 87.8 90.2 92.6 94.9 97.3 90
92 57.4 59.4 61.3 63.2 65.0 66.8 68.5 70.1 71.8 73.3 74.9 77.9 80.8 83.4 86.0 88.7 91.2 93.6 95.9 98.3 92
Transmission and Distribution of Air
94 57.9 60.0 61.9 63.8 65.6 67.5 69.2 70.8 72.5 74.1 75.6 78.7 81.7 84.3 86.9 89.6 92.1 94.6 96.9 99.3 94
96 58.4 60.5 62.4 64.4 66.2 68.2 69.8 71.5 73.2 74.3 76.3 79.4 82.6 85.2 87.8 90.5 93.0 95.6 97.9 100.3 96
717
the straight-duct friction loss, is the dynamic one. The dynamic losses in ducts are
caused by the following:
(i) Changes in direction, i.e., due to elbows, bends, etc.
(ii) Changes in area or velocity, i.e., due to enlargement, contraction, suction and
discharge openings, dampers, etc.
Normally, the dynamic pressure loss Dpd is proportional to the velocity pressure,
and is, therefore, expressed as a product of the downstream velocity pressure pV and
a dynamic loss coefficient K found experimentally. Thus
F rC I 2
Dpd = KpV = K GH 2 JK (21.39)
where C is normally the downstream velocity.

The losses in elbows, fittings, etc., are also expressed in terms of an equivalent
length Le of the duct, so that
4 f Le p8
Dpd = KpV = (21.40)
D
and the relationship between the dynamic loss coefficient and the equivalent length is
4 f Le
K= (21.41)
D
21.4.1 Pressure Losses in Elbows, Bends and Tees
The values of the dynamic loss coefficient K and/or equivalent length Le for differ-
ent types of elbows bends and tees as shown in Fig. 21.17 are tabulated in the
ASHRAE handbook1 and are given here in Table 21.4. The coefficients are found
nearly independent of the air velocity and are affected by the geometry and rough-
ness of duct walls only.
D b
90° a 90°
R R
(a) - Deg (b) 90 - Deg Round (c) 90 - Deg Rectangular
(d) Miter with Turning Vanes (e) Miter Tee with Vanes
a
b
R1
R
2
R
(f) Radius Tee (g) 90 - Degree Square Section

with Splitter Vanes
Fig. 21.17 Duct elbows, bends and tees
Table 21.4 Pressure losses due to elbows, bends and tees 1
Reference Type Conditions Pressure loss

in Fig. 21.17 K Le / D Le / b
q
(a) q-deg Rectangular times value for similar
90
or round; with or without 90-deg elbow
vanes
(b) Miter 1.3 65
90-deg R/D = 0.5 0.9
round 1.0 0.33 17
section 1.5 0.24 12
2.0 0.19 10
R|
a/b R/b
Miter 1.25 25
0.25 S|
0.5
0.75
1.25
0.6
25
12
(c) 90-deg
rectangular
section
T
1.0
1.5
0.37
0.19
7
4
Miter 1.47 49
R| 0.5 1.1 40
0.5 S
0.75 0.5 16
|T 1.0 0.28 9
R|
1.5 0.13 4
Miter 1.5 75
S|
0.5 1.0 50
1.0 0.75 0.41 21
T 1.0 0.22 11
R|
1.5 0.09 45
Miter 1.38 110
4.0 S| 0.5
0.75
0.96
0.37
65
43
(d) Miter with

T 1.0
1.51
0.19
0.07
17
6
turning vanes K = 0.1 to 0.35 depending on manufacture

(e) Miter tee Consider equal to a similar elbow, base
with vanes loss on upstream velocity
(f) Radius tee As above
(g) 90-deg section R/b R1/b R2/b K Le/b
with Miter 0.5 28
splitter 0.5 0.4 0.7 19
vanes 0.7 0.6
1.0 1.0 0.13 7.2
1.5 0.12
Miter 0.3 0.5 22
0.5 0.2 0.4 0.45 16
0.75 0.4 0.7 0.12
1.0 0.7 1.0 0.1
1.5 1.3 1.6 0.15
To minimise the pressure loss in bends, midfeathers or splitters are used when
the aspect ratio is small. They are placed nearer to the throat where the flow is accel-
erating. Experiments show that it is the curve ratio (Fig. 21.18)
Throat radius R R Rn
CR = = 0 = 1 =L=
Heal radius R1 R2 Rn + 1
which determines the pressure loss. Here
R
R1 = 0
CR
R R0
R2 = 1 = , and so on.
CR (CR) 2
R0
Rn+1 =
(CR) n +1
F R I
1
n +1 1
CR = G
Þ
H R JK = k n +1 (21.42)
0 R0
n +1 R1
R0 Rn + 1
where k= = Overall curve ratio
Rn +1 Fig. 21.18 Splitters in duct
In the case of larger aspect ratios, the use of turning vanes is recommended
instead of splitters.
Example 21.3 A bend for a duct is 1500 mm wide and 250 mm high. The
centre line radius to width ratio is unity. Determine the best position for the
insertion of one splitter.
Solution Centre line radius, width and ratio

Rc = 0.5 (R0 + Rn+1)
W = Rn+1 – R0
Rc 0.5 ( Rn + 1 + R0 ) 0.5 (1 + k )
= = =1
W ( Rn + 1 - R0 ) (1 - k )
1
Þ k=
3
Curve ratio for number of splitters n = 1
F 1I
1
= G J
1
1+ 1
CR = ( k ) n +1
H 3K = 0.577
Throat and heal radii

R0 1
Rn+1 – R0 = 1500, =
Rn + 1 3
Þ R0 = 750 mm and Rn+1 = 2250 mm
Radius of splitter
R0 750
R1 = = = 130 mm
CR 0.577
21.4.2 Loss due to Enlargement and Static Regain

An enlargement in a duct-run results in a decrease in velocity, and hence in the
conversion of the velocity pressure into static pressure. The increase in static pres-
sure, as a result of the conversion from velocity pressure, is termed static regain,
denoted by SR. If the enlargement is not accompanied with pressure loss, there is
full conversion of the velocity pressure into static pressure. If, however, the enlarge-
ment is accompanied with pressure loss, the increase in the static pressure or static
regain is reduced by the amount of the pressure loss.
Consider the case of a gradual enlargement as shown by continuous lines in
Fig. 21.19 in which the velocity changes gradually from C1 to C2. The figure also
shows a gradual reduction of the velocity pressure along the length with its
simultaneous conversion into static pressure. Since there is no loss of pressure
pT 1 = pS 1 + pV1 = pS 2 + pV 2 = pT 2
and we have for maximum static regain
(SR)max = pS2 – pS1 = pV1 – pV2 (21.43)
Thus in the case of gradual enlargement, there is 100 per cent static regain.
A gradual enlargement represents an idealized case. In the case of an actual
enlargement, the total pressure decreases from pT1 to pT2 because of friction and
turbulence. The pressure loss is
DpL = pT1 – pT2 = (pS1 + pV1) – (pS2 + pV2)
Sudden Enlargement
2
Gradual Enlargement
C1 C2
pT1 pT2 = pT1

pT2
pS2 = pS1 + ( p V1 – pV2)
Pressure
pS2
pS1
pV1
pV2
0
Fig. 21.19 Pressure variation in gradual and sudden enlargements
Hence, the static regain in the actual case is given by

SR = (pS2 – pS1) = (pV1 – pV2) – DpL
= R(pV1 – pV2) (21.44a)
where R is termed the static regain factor. Thus
DpL = (1 – R) (pV1 – pV2) (21.44b)
Now consider the case of a sudden or abrupt enlargement of a duct section as
shown in Fig. 21.20 which corresponds to the case of maximum pressure drop. Apply-
ing momentum equations at sections 1 and 2, we obtain
(pS1 – pS2) A2 = m& (C2 – C1) (21.45)
&
where the mass flow rate m is given by the continuity equation
m& = rC1A1 = rC2A2 (21.46)
Combining Eqs (21.45) and (21.46), we obtain for static regain
SR = pS2 – pS1 = r(C1C2 – C22) (21.47)
Eddies
1 2
Fig. 21.20 Sudden enlargement
Equating (pS2 – pS1) from Eqs (21.44) and (21.47) we obtain for pressure drop
through a sudden enlargement
1
(DpL)max = r (C1 – C2)2
2
FG C IJ FG 1 r C IJ
2
HC -1
K H2 K
1 2
= 2
F1 I
2
– 1) G rC J = (K )
H2 K
2 2
= (A2/A1 2 2 max pV (21.48)
2
where
(K2)max = (A2/A1 – 1)2 is the maximum value of the dynamic loss coefficient.
The above expression represents the maximum possible loss due to an enlargement,
and hence corresponds to a minimum value of static regain, which is
(SR)min = (pV1 – pV2) – (DpL)max
1 1
= r(C21 – C22) – r (C1 – C2)2
2 2
FG C IJ FG 1 r C IJ
HC -1
K H2 K
1 2
=2 2
2
FG A IJ FG 1 r C IJ
HA -1
K H2 K
2 2
=2 2
1
= 2 (l – 1)pV2 (21.49)
where l is the area ratio. In Fig. 21.19 the broken lines show the pressure changes
due to an abrupt expander.
For the case of actual enlargements, DpL = K2 pV2. Table 21.5 gives the values of
a coefficient ratio Kr as a function of the included angle q of the sides. Here Kr is the
ratio of the actual loss to the maximum possible loss, viz.,
D pL K2
Kr = =
( D p L ) max ( K2 ) max
Table 21.5 Loss coefficients Kr for expansion and K2 for contraction1
Case Conditions Loss Coefficient

Expansion q, deg Kr
5 0.17
7 0.22
10 0.28
20 0.45
30 0.59
40 0.73
Contraction q, deg K2
30 0.02
45 0.04
60 0.07
21.4.3 Loss due to Contraction

Consider now a sudden or abrupt contraction as shown in Fig. 21.21. It may be
noted that turbulence occurs at two places, viz., at the shoulders of the contraction
in the large section, and at a section shortly after the vena contracta. It may be
observed that the major source of pressure loss is at the neck. Thus, the loss corre-
sponds to that of sudden expansion from the velocity C0 at the vena contracta to the
downstream velocity C2, i.e.,
1
DpL = r(C0 – C2)2 (21.50)
2
1
0 2
C1 C0 C2
Fig. 21.21 Sudden contraction

Putting the area coefficient

A0 C
Cc = = 2
A2 C0
we have
1 1 FG IJ 2
DpL »
2
rC22
Cc H-1
K (21.51)
For circular orifices and for the flow of water, Cc is taken as 0.62. This gives
1 FG
1 IJ 2
DpL =
2
rC22
H
0.62
−1
K
FG 1 rC IJ = 0.375 p
H2 K
2
= 0.375 2 V2
Thus the dynamic loss coefficient K2 is equal to 0.375. Experimental results show
that a more accurate value of the dynamic loss coefficient for air flow in ducts is 0.5
for an abruptly reducing duct section. Table 21.5 gives the values of K2 for different
included angles q of the sides of the duct contraction.
Example 21.4 (a) In a duct enlargement, the velocity reduces from 20 to 5 m/s.
(i) If it is a 20°-angle gradual enlargement, the pressure loss is given by
D pL = 0.45 ( pV1 – pV2)
Calculate the static regain.
(ii) What will be the static regain in an abrupt enlargement?
(b) A 10 cm diameter duct converges gradually to 7.5 cm diameter. The static
pressure and velocity just upstream of the reducer are 3 cm H2O and 7.6 m/s
respectively. The dynamic loss coefficient of the reducer is 0.1.
Calculate:
(i) The flow rate.
(ii) The pressure loss in the reducer.
(iii) The pressure indicated by a U-tube water manometer connected to
pressure tappings at the upstream and downstream of the reducer.
Solution (a) (i) Gradual enlargement:

Pressure drop (1 – R = 0.45)
D pL = 0.45 (pV1 – pV2)
= 0.45 (0.6 ´ 202 – 0.6 ´ 52)
= 0.45 (225) = 101.3 N/m2
Static regain
SR = (pV1 – pV2) – DpL
= 225 – 101.3 = 123.7 N/m2
(ii) Abrupt enlargement:
Dynamic loss coefficient
FG A IJ 2
FG C IJ 2
FG 20 - 1IJ 2
HA -1
K =
HC -1
K =
H5 K = 9
2 1
(K2)max =
1 2
Pressure drop
(DpL)max = (K2)max pV2 = 9 (0.6 ´ 52) = 135 N/m2
Static regain
SR = ( pV1 – pV2) – DpL = 225 – 135 = 90 N/m2
(b) Gradual reducer:
(i) Flow rate
p ( 0.1) 2
Q& L = A1C1 = (7.6) = 0.0597 m3/s
4
(ii) Downstream velocity
Q& L (0.0597) 4
C2 = = = 13.5 m/s
A2 p (0.075) 2
Velocity pressures
FG 7.6 IJ 2
pV1 =
H 4.04 K = 3.54 mm H2O
= G
F 13.5 IJ 2
pV2
H 4.04 K = 11.17 mm H2O
Pressure loss
DpL = K2 pV2 = (0.1) (11.17) = 1.12 mm H2O
(iii) Upstream total pressure
pT1 = pS1 + pV1 = 30 + 3.54 = 33.54 mm H2O
Downstream total pressure
pT2 = pT1 – DpL = 33.54 – 1.12 = 32.42 mm H2O
Downstream static pressure
pS2 = pT2 – pV2 = 32.42 – 11.17 = 21.25 mm H2O
Pressure indicated by the manometer
Dp = pS1 – pS2 = 30 – 21.25 = 8.75 mm H2O
21.4.4 Losses at Suction and Discharge Openings

In an abrupt suction opening, the air is accelerated as it approaches the opening,
forming a vena contracta inside the duct. The area changes from infinity to the duct
area. In such a case the dynamic loss coefficient is 0.85. By making a formed entrance
of bell-mouth shape, the loss coefficient can be reduced to 0.03 (Fig. 21.22).
Duct Duct
Air Flow
Area =
V.C.
(a) Abrupt Suction (b) Formed Entrance
Fig. 21.22 Suction openings
At the discharge opening, the air is virtually at atmospheric pressure. After

discharge, all the velocity pressure at the exit is completely dissipated.
21.4.5 Pressure Loss in Divided Flow Fittings

Whenever air is diverted to a branch as in Fig. 21.23, there is a velocity reduction
in the straight-through section. If there is no loss, the change in the velocity pres-
sure is completely converted into regain in static pressure. However, due to the
dynamic loss, the actual static pressure regain is reduced by the static regain factor
R. The value of R is 0.9 for well-designed and constructed round ducts with no
reducing section immediately after take off. In less ideal conditions, e.g., in rec-
tangular ducts of high-aspect ratio, or take-offs closely following an upstream
disturbance, the regain coefficient can be as low as 0.5. The total pressure loss is
given by Eq. (21.44 b)
DpL = (1 – R) (pV1 – pV2)
Straight-through
1 Duct Section
2
Qv1 , C1 Qv2 , C2
Branch
L2
Fig. 21.23 Straight-through section and branch in a duct-run
An approximate value of R = 0.75 may be taken for a straight-through duct sec-

tion. For branch take-offs, the values of the dynamic loss coefficients based on
branch velocities are given in Table 21.6.
Table 21.6 Dynamic loss coefficients for branch take-offs
Take-off Ratio of Velocity in Branch to Velocity in Main Duct

Angle,Deg.
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
90 6.5 3.1 2.0 1.5 0.95 0.74 0.62
60 5.0 2.2 1.3 0.77 0.47 0.47 0.58
45 3.5 1.3 0.64 0.43 0.4 0.45 0.54
21.5 AIR FLOW THROUGH A SIMPLE DUCT SYSTEM2
Consider the flow of air through a simple duct system for example as shown in
Fig. 21.26. The overall pressure distribution for such a duct system is shown in
Fig. 21.24. Section 1 is just after suction opening and section 4 is just before
discharge opening. Air is sucked in from conditioned space at zero gauge pressure,
through the suction-side duct 1-2, by a fan. The fan raises the total pressure from pT2
to pT3, and drives the air in the discharge-side duct 3-4, before it enters the condi-
tioned space, finally reaching zero gauge pressure again.
Figure 21.24 also shows the distribution of static, velocity and total pressures
through the system. Let us consider the variation of these pressures.
Suction-side Let the pressure loss at entry of the suction opening and due to friction
of the inlet grille be DpE. Then the total pressure at 1 is given by Bernoulli’s equation
0 = pT1 + DpE
pT1 = – DpE
Static pressure at 1
pS1 = pT1 – pV1 = – (DpE – pV1)
Thus the static pressure at 1 is negative. We define static depression or vacuum if
the pressure is negative as follows:
Static depression = 0 – pS
Hence the static depression at 1 is equal to (DpE + pV1).
Let Dp1–2 be the pressure loss in the suction-side duct 1-2. Then the total pressure
at 2 is given by
pT 2 = pT1 – Dp1–2 = – (DpE + Dp1–2)
pS2 = pT2 – pV2 = – (DpE + Dp1–2 + pV2)
Static depression at 2 is
D pE + Dp1–2 + pV2
Discharge-side Let the pressure loss at the outlet in the discharge grille be Dp0.
Then total pressure at 4
pT4 = Dp0 + pV4
pS4 = pT4 – pV4 = Dp0
Let Dp3–4 be the pressure loss of the discharge side duct 3-4. Then the total pres-
sure at 3 is given by
pT3 = pT4 + Dp3–4 = Dp3–4 + Dp0 + pV4
pS3 = pT3 – pV3 = Dp3–4 + Dp0 + pV4 – pV3
Finally, the pressure developed by the fan, called the fan total pressure, FTP, is
given by
FTP = pT3 – pT2
= DpE + Dp1–2 + Dp3–4 + Dp0 + pV4 (21.52)
Thus the fan total pressure consists of the following:
(i) The pressure loss of suction opening and friction past the inlet grille.
(ii) The pressure loss of the return duct and air-conditioning apparatus.
(iii) The pressure loss of the supply duct.
(iv) The friction past the outlet grille.
(v) The velocity pressure at the outlet.
728
3
pT3
pV3
pT
D p3 – 4
D p3 – 4 + D p0 + pV4 – pV3 = pS3
pS
p T4
From pV1 pV
Conditioned pV pS4 = p0
p0
p0
Space
pV3
FTP
p0
pV2
pV4
0 0
pE
pE
pT1 p V4
Zero Gauge Pressure Line To
Conditioned
pV1
pT Space
– pE – pV1 = pS1
p1 – 2
pS
pT2
pV2
– pE – p1 – 2 – pV2 = pS2
Fig. 21.24 Pressure variation in a duct system

In brief, it is equal to the total pressure drop plus the velocity pressure at the outlet.
It may be pointed out that the pressure loss Dp1–2 of the return duct and air-condition-
ing apparatus may include pressure drops in air filters, dampers, cooling coil or air
washer, heater, etc., which may form a part of the air-conditioning equipment.
We may also define fan static pressure, FSP, as the fan total pressure minus the
velocity pressure at fan outlet, i.e.,
FSP = FTP – pV3
Also, the fan velocity pressure, FVP, is the dynamic head at the fan outlet
FVP = pV3
The theoretical power requirement of the fan, normally referred to as air horse-
power is given by
W& = Q& L (FTP)
where Q& L is in m /s and FTP is in N/m2, which can be converted into hp. W is in watts
3
21.6 AIR-DUCT DESIGN
The essential economics of an air transmission system is achieved by a proper

balance between the initial or first cost and operating cost for the given flow rate of
air. The first cost is determined by the cost of the duct system which depends on duct
sizes. The operating cost is determined by the fan power consumption which
depends on the pressure drop in the air-handling equipment and the duct system. The
pressure drop can be reduced by increasing the size of the ducts but it will increase
the first cost. Hence the need for a proper balance.
A few general rules are stated below which should be followed in the design of
ducts.
(i) Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to economise on power,
material and space.
(ii) Sudden changes in direction should be avoided. When bends are essential,
turning vanes should be used to minimise the pressure loss.
(iii) Air velocities in ducts should be within permissible limits to minimise noise.
(iv) Diverging sections should be made gradual. The angle of divergence should
not exceed 20°.
(v) Rectangular ducts should be made as nearly square as possible. This will
ensure minimum duct surface, and hence cost, for the same air-carrying
capacity. An aspect ratio of less than 4 : 1 should be maintained.
(vi) Ducts should be made of smooth materials such as galvanized iron (GI) or
aluminium sheet metals. Whenever other materials are used, allowance
should be made for the roughness of the material.
(vii) Dampers should be provided in each branch outlet for balancing the system.
(viii) Avoid duct obstructions.
21.6.1 Duct Construction

The most commonly used duct material is GI sheet metal. Aluminium sheet metal
may be used where there are benefits to be derived due to its lighter weight and
resistance to moisture. Heavy gauge black-steel may be used for a kitchen exhaust.
Cement asbestos may be used for underground air distribution and for exhausting
corrosive materials. Fibre glass ducts are in use in low velocity applications where
thermal insulation or accoustic treatment is required.
Duct reinforcing is done by sheet metal itself or by steel or extruded aluminium
angles.
21.6.2 Pressure Classifications

Air imposes two types of loads on a duct structure:
(i) The static load due to the mean static pressure differential across the duct
wall. This is the dominating load.
(ii) The pulsating load due to turbulent air flow. This load is comparatively small.
Accordingly, the ducts are classified as follows:
(i) Low-pressure system
Velocities < 600 mpm and static pressure £ 5 cm H2O gauge.
(ii) Medium-pressure system
Velocities < 600 mpm or static pressure up to 15 cm H2O gauge.
(iii) High-pressure system
Velocities > 600 mpm or static pressure over 15 cm and up to 25 cm H2O
gauge.
The low-pressure system permits the use of simple forming methods. A majority
of duct construction belongs to the low-pressure type. The gauge of the sheet metal
depends on the dimension of the longest side as given in Table 21.7.
The recommended maximum duct velocities for the low-velocity system are given
in Table 21.8.
Medium and high pressure rectangular ducts may be used to meet the space
limitations. It is generally a more expensive construction. Tie rods as well as trans-
verse reinforcements are used. Recommended GI gauges for the two systems are
also given in Table 21.7.
Table 21.7 Recommended GI gauges
Longest side in cm GI Sheet Metal Gauge

Low Pressure Medium Pressure High Pressure
Upto 30 — — 26
30–75 Upto 45 — 24
75–135 45–120 Upto 120 22
135–210 120–180 120–180 20
Above 210 Above 180 180–240 18
— — Above 240 16
21.6.3 Duct Design Procedures

There are three common methods for the sizing of ducts. They are:
(i) Equal friction method
(ii) Velocity reduction method
(iii) Static regain method
Equal Friction (EF) Method In the equal friction method, the frictional pressure
drop per unit length of the duct is maintained constant throughout the duct system.
The procedure is to select a suitable velocity in the main duct from sound level
considerations as given in Table 21.8. Knowing the air flow rate and the velocity in
the main duct, the size and friction loss are determined from the chart. The remain-
ing ducts are then sized, maintaining the friction loss per unit length at this value for
their respective air-flow rates.
This method of sizing ducts, automatically, reduces the air velocity in the
direction of flow. The method is generally recommended because of its simplicity.
Moreover, the use of a calculator, called the ductulator, speeds up the design work.
If an equal friction design has a mixture of short and long runs of duct, the short-
est duct will need a considerable amount of dampering. This is a drawback of the
equal friction design.
To determine the total friction loss in the duct system, it is necessary to calculate
the loss in the duct run that has the highest resistance.
Velocity Reduction Method In this method, the main duct is designed in the same
manner as in the equal friction method. Thereafter, arbitrary reductions are made in
the air velocity as we go down the duct run. Equivalent diameters are found, as
before, from the friction chart.
Though the method allows safe velocities, it is not normally adopted unless the
person using it has considerable practical experience and knowledge to design within
reasonable accuracy.
The starting velocities should not exceed those recommended in Table 21.8.
Note High velocity duct/pipe system, with velocity approaching 1800 mpm, are used for
air conditioning in ships and aircraft to economise on spaces.
Table 21.8 Recommended maximum duct velocity for low-velocity system (mpm)
Application Controlling Controlling Factor:Friction

factor:Noise Main Ducts Branch Ducts
Main Ducts Supply Return Supply Return
Residences 180 300 240 180 180
Apartments.
Hotel bed rooms
Hospital bed rooms 300 450 390 360 300
Offices. Libraries 360 600 450 480 360
Theatres 240 390 330 300 240
Stores. Banks
Restaurants 450 600 450 480 360
Cafetarias 540 600 450 480 360
Static Regain (SR) Method The principle of the static regain method is to main-
tain a constant static pressure before each terminal and each branch. This is achieved
by sizing the duct in such a manner that after each branch or outlet, the static pres-
sure gain—due to reduction in velocity—exactly balances the pressure drop in the
succeeding duct section.
Figure 21.23 shows the section of the duct under consideration for sizing
between two branch take-offs. Let Dpf and Dpd represent the friction and dynamic
pressure losses of this section. The velocity at 2 is less than the velocity at 1. The static
pressure regain is given by Eq. (21.44a). Equating the losses to regain, we have
Dpf2 + Dpd2 = R(pV1 – pV2) (21.53)
The above equation can be solved for C2, and thus the duct diameter may be
found from the air flow and velocity. The procedure, however, involves iteration as
the equation is not explicit in C2.
The method meets the essential requirement of maintaining uniform static pres-
sure at all branches and outlets. Thus it is a balanced system and the duct work
designed accordingly does not require the use of dampers anywhere.
Note The SP more or less remains constant throughout the duct system designed by SR
method. The friction and dynamic pressure losses in total pressure, therefore, come from
decrease in VP.
Example 21.5 An air duct system is provided as shown in Fig. 21.25.

(i) Determine the dimensions of AB, BC, CD using the equal friction method.
Choose a friction rate of 0.08 mm H2O/m length of duct. Use the following formula
for friction rate:
Dpf /L = 2.268 ´ 10–3 Q& L1.852/D4.973 mm H2O/m
where Q& L is in m3/s and D is in m.
(ii) Determine the total and static pressures at point A. Assume free exit at each
outlet.
Losses are given by:
For elbow: 0.25 pV2
For branch: 0.2 pV2 + Elbow loss
For straight-through section: 0.25 ´ Difference of velocity pressures
(iii) Find the diameter of BE so that no dampering is required in the section.
1 m3/s
E
4 m3/s
30 m D
15 m
A B C
Fan
30 m 15 m 60 m
3 m3/s
Fig. 21.25 Duct layout for Example 21.5
Solution (1) Air flow at A

Q& LA = 1 + 4 + 3 = 8 m3/s
Rearranging the friction rate Eq. (21.33)
D pf 0.002268 Q&L1.852
=
L D 4 .973
gives for the duct diameter
0.2948 Q& L0.372
D=
( D pf / L ) 0. 2
Substituting for the friction rate, we get
0.2948 Q&L0.372
D= = 0.4886 Q& L0.372
(0.08) 0.2
Using the above equation, the diameters are calculated for different sections for
the given air-flow rates, and are given in Table 21.9 along with the length, area,
velocity, velocity pressure and frictional pressure drop of the section.
Table 21.9 Calculations for Example 21.5
Section L Q& L D A C pV , pf = 0.08 L

3 2
m m /s m m m/s mm H2O mm H2O
AB 30 8 1.06 0.882 9.7 5.76 2.4
BC 15 7 1.01 0.8 8.75 4.72 1.2
CD 75 4 0.82 0.528 7.6 3.54 6.0
Frictional pressure drop from A to D 9.6
(ii) Dynamic losses between A and D

Loss in discharge opening
Dp = pV = 3.54 mm H2O
Elbow loss
Dp = 0.25 ( pV)CD
= 0.25 (3.54) = 0.88 mm H2O
Fitting losses
Dp = (1 – R) (pV1 – pV2)
DpB = 0.25 (5.76 – 4.72) = 0.26 mm H2O
DpC = 0.25 (4.72 – 3.54) = 0.3 mm H2O
Total dynamic losses, with DpO pressure drop at the outlet
Dpd = 3.54 + 0.88 + 0.26 + 0.3 = 5 mm H2O + DpO
Total frictional and dynamic losses between A and D
Dp = Dpf + Dpd
= 9.6 + 5.76 + DpO = 15.4 mm H2O + DpO
Total pressure at A ( pT)A = 15.4 mm H2O gauge + DpO
Static pressure at A (pS)A = PT – pV

= 15.4 + DpO – 5.76 = 9.6 mm H2O gauge + DpO
(iii) Total pressure at B (pT)B = (pT)A – (DpL)AB
= 15.4 + DpO – 2.4 = 13 mm H2O + DpO
Pressure loss in BE (Dp)BE = (0.25 + 0.2 + 1) pV + Dpf + DpO
= 1.45 pV + D pf + DpO
The first term on the right-hand side represents the sum of the dynamic losses in
the elbow at B, the area change in the branch and the velocity pressure at discharge.
Equating it to the total pressure at B for complete balancing, we obtain
DpC + 1.45 pV + Dpf = 13 + DpO
The above equation can only be solved by trial and error.
Assume D = 0.4 m for BE
D pf 0.002268 (1)1.825
Friction rate = = 0.216
L (0.4) 4.973
Friction loss Dpf = (0.216) (30) = 6.5 mm H2O
Q&L 1
Velocity C= = = 7.96 m/s
A p
(0.4) 2
4
FG 7.96 IJ 2
Velocity pressure pV =
H 4.04 K = 4 mm H2O
Thus, the pressure loss in BE

(Dp)BE = (1.45) 4 + 6.5 + DpO = 12.3 + DpO
which is approximately equal to the total pressure at B. Hence an assumed diameter
of 0.4 m for section BE is satisfactory.
Note The above example illustrates the design of ducts mainly by the equal friction
method. However, the design of branch BE has been done on the basis of static regain
method. This approach provides for the complete balancing of the flow in branches with-
out introducing an additional resistance by way of dampering, and at the same time re-
duces the duct size. On the basis of the equal friction method, the diameter of section BE
would have been 0.48 m instead of 0.4 m. If the diameter is further reduced to 0.39 m, the
pressure drop will increase to 13.6 mm H2O.
Example 21.6 A centrifugal fan with 90 cm ´ 70 cm outlet is moving stand-

ard air at a rate of 11.5 m3/s through a system which consists of straight inlet and
outlet ducts. The inlet duct is 90 cm in diameter and 15 m long. The outlet duct is
100 cm in diameter and 60 m long. There is a fan diffuser between the fan dis-
charge and the 100 cm diameter duct for which the pressure loss is one-third the
difference in velocity pressures. The pressure drop at the filter, damper and cool-
ing coil in the inlet duct is 15 mm H2O. The loss at the entry to the inlet is 0.5 ´
velocity pressure. The friction factor for the outlet duct is 0.0035, and that for
the inlet duct is 0.004.
(i) Determine the fan total pressure.

(ii) Determine the static pressures at fan inlet and outlet.
(iii) Plot the variation of the total pressure and static pressure along the duct
system.
The air is sucked in by the inlet duct and delivered by the outlet at atmos-
pheric pressure.

(i) Area, velocity and velocity pressure in the inlet duct
p
A1 = A2 = (0.9)2 = 0.636 m2
4
Q& L
C1 = C2 =
A1
115
.
= = 18.1 m/s
0.636
pV1 = pV2 = (C1/4.04)2
FG 18.1 IJ 2
=
H 4.04 K = 20.1 mm H2O
Area, velocity and velocity pressure at fan discharge

A3 = (0.9) (0.7) = 0.63 m2
115
.
C3 = = 18.25 m/s
0.63
FG 18.25IJ 2
pV3 =
H 4.04 K = 20.4 mm H2O
Area, velocity and velocity pressure in the outlet duct

p
A¢3 = A4 = (1)2 = 0.785 m2
4
115
.
C¢3 = C4 = = 14.64 m/s.
0.785
FG 14.65IJ 2
p¢V3 = pV4 =
H 0.04 K = 13.14 mm H2O
The various pressure losses will now be calculated.

Inlet loss
DpE = 0.5 pV1 = 0.5 (20.1) = 10.05 mm H2O
Inlet duct friction loss
4 f1 L1- 2
Dpf1–2 = pV1
D1
4(0.004) (15) (20.1)
= = 5.36 mm H2O
0.9
Loss at the filter, damper and cooling coil
Dpd1–2 = 15 mm H2O (given)
Loss in the fan diffuser

1
Dp = (pV3 – p¢V3) (say, given)
3
1
= (20.4 – 13.14) = 2.42 mm H2O
3
Outlet duct friction loss
4 f 3 L3 - 4
Dpf3–4 = pV 3
D3
4(0.0035) (60) (1314
. )
= = 11.04 mm H2O
1
3 0
0 2 3 4
1 2
From
Atmosphere/ To Atmosphere/
Conditioned Conditioned
Space Space
Fan
Inlet Duct A/C Outlet Duct

Apparatus
Diffuser
L1–- 2 = 15 m L3 – 4 = 60 m
26.6 24.18
pV pT
20.1 20.4
p, mm H2O Gauge
13.14
pV 13.14
11.04
6.2 pS
0 0
– 10.05 pT
–15.41
– 30.15 pS –30.41
–35.51
– 50.51
By adding all the pressure drops we get the total duct loss as 43.87 mm H2O. Note
that DpO has not been included.
Fan total pressure
FTP = Pressure loss in duct system + outlet velocity pressure
= 43.87 + 13.14 = 57.01 mm H2O
(ii) Equating total pressures in the atmosphere and fan inlet
0 = Dp0–2 + pV2 + pS2
whence the static pressure at the fan inlet is

pS2 = – Dp0–2 – pV2
= – (10.05 + 5.36 + 15) – 20.1
= – 30.41 – 20.1 = – 50.51 mm H2O (Negative)
Energy balance of fan from Eq. (21.52)
pS3 + pV3 = pS2 + pV2 + FTP
whence the static pressure at the fan outlet is
pS3 = pS2 + pV2 + FTP – pV3
= – 50.51 + 20.1 + 57.01 – 20.4 = 6.2 mm H2O (Positive)
(iii) The total pressures and static pressures at the other sections are as follows:
Section 1:
pT1 = pT0 – Inlet loss
= 0 – 10.05 = – 10.05 mm H2O
p S 1 = pT 1 – pV1
= – 10.05 – 20.1 = – 30.15 mm H2O
Section 2¢:
p¢T2 = pT1 – Inlet duct friction loss
= – 10.05 – 5.36 = – 15.41 mm H2O
p¢S2 = p¢T2 – p¢V2
= – 15.41 – 20.1 = – 35.51 m H2O
Section 2:
pT2 = p¢T2 – Loss in A/C apparatus
= – 15.41 – 15 = – 30.41 mm H2O
pS2 = – 50.51 mm H2O
Section 3:
pT3 = pT2 + FTP
= – 30.41 + 57.01 = 26.6 mm H2O
pS3 = 6.2 mm H2O
Section 3¢:
p¢T3 = pT3 – Loss in fan diffuser
= 26.6 – 2.42 = 24.18 mm H2O
p¢S3 = p¢T3 – p¢V3
= 24.18 – 13.14 = 11.04 mm H2O
Section 4:
pT4 = p¢T3 – Outlet duct friction loss
= 24.18 – 11.04 = 13.14 mm H2O
p S 4 = pT 4 – pV4
= 13.14 – 13.14 = 0
Note The values are plotted in Fig. 21.26. The variation within the A/C apparatus
between sections 2¢ and 2 has been taken on an aggregate basis.
Example 21.7 Determine the duct sizes of sections A to G of the duct system
in Fig. 21.27, and total pressure at fan outlet for the following three designs:
(i) Equal friction (EF) method.

(ii) Static regain (SR) method.
(iii) EF method in section B, and SR in the rest.
Assume velocity in main duct A as 450 mpm (» 1500 fpm). Also assume
dynamic loss coefficient in elbow K = 0.22, and static regain factor in fitting
R = 0.75 (1 – R = 0.25). Static pressure at each outlet is 3 mm H2O.
6 0.5 m3/s
(3 m) G
5 0.5 m3/s
(3 m) F
pT
A B C (2 m) D
Fan 1 2
(12 m) (11 m) (5 m)
(2 m)
0.75 m3/s 0.75 m3/s
3 0.75 m3/s
(5 m) E
4 0.75 m3/s
Fig. 21.27 Duct system for Example 21.7
Solution Volume flow rate, velocity, area, diameter, friction rate and VP in A
( Q& ) = 4(0.75) + 2(0.5) = 4 m3/s
L A
450
CA = = 7.5 m/s
60
Q& 4
AA = L = = 0.5333 m2 (5333 cm2)
C 7.5
4A 4(0.5333)
DA = = = 0.824 m (82.4 cm)
p p
D pf 0.002268 Q&L1.852 0.002268 (4)1.852
= = = 0.0774 mm H2O/m
L D 4.973 (0.824) 4.973
FG C IJ 2
FG 7.5 IJ 2
pVA =
H 4.04 K =
H 4.04 K = 3.45 mm H2O
(i) Equal Friction Method: EF method diameters for sections along with their
lengths, flow rates and velocity pressures are given in Table 21.10.
Table 21.10 EF method duct diameters for Example 21.7
Section A B C D E F G
Q& L, m3/s 4 3 2.25 1.5 0.75 1 0.5
L, m 12 11 5 4 5 3 5
D, cm 82.4 73.7 66 57 44 49 31
pV, mm H2O 3.45 2.98 2.65 2.12 1.49 1.72 2.69
Friction pressure drop in the longest duct-run A to E

FG D p IJ L = (0.0774) (37) = 2.864 mm H O
H LK
f
D pf = 2
Dynamic pressure drops in A to E

A(Fitting)B = 0.25 (3.45 – 2.8) = 0.118
B(Fitting)C = 0.25 (2.8 – 2.65) = 0.083
C(Fitting)D = 0.25 (2.65 – 2.12) = 0.133
D(Fitting) E = 0.25 (2.12 –1.49) = 0.158
ElbowD = 0.22 (2.12) = 0.466
Total = 0.958
+ VP at outlet E = 1.49
+ SP at outlet E = 3.0
Total = 5.448 mm H2O
Total pressure at fan outlet
pT = Dpf + Dpd = 2.864 + 5.448 = 8.312 mm H2O
(ii) Static Regain Method:
Sample calculations for section B
Assume DB = 0.78 m. Then
AB = 0.4776 m2, CB = 6.282 m/s, pVB = 2.417 mm H2O
A(Dp Fitting) B = 0.25 (3.45 – 2.417) = 0.258
0.002268 (3)1.852 (11)
Dpf = = 0.781
(0.78) 4 .973
Loss, DpL = 0.258 + 0.781 = 1.039
Regain, DpR = 0.75 (3.45 – 2.417) = 0.774 < DpL
Hence, increase the diameter to increase regain. We find that at DB = 0.8 m,
DpL = 0.895, DpR = 0.948 just exceeds DpL. Therefore, take DB = 0.8 m
Calculations are done similarly for all sections. Results are given in Table 21.11.
Table 21.11 SR method duct diameters for Example 21.7
D, cm 82.4 80 72 67 52 48 39
pV, mm H2O 3.45 2.185 1.873 1.11 0.765 1.873 1.074
DpL, mm H2O 0.895 0.13 0.558 0.258 1.072 0.539
D pR, mm H2O 0.948 0.234 0.572 0.258 1.182 0.6
Friction pressure drop in A

FG D p IJ L = 0.0774 (12) = 0.929 mm H O
H LK
f
(Dpf)A = 2
Friction and dynamic pressure loss in sections B to E (Table 21.11)

B(DpL)E = 0.895 + 0.13 + 0.558 + 0.258 + 1.072 + 0.539
= 3.452 mm H2O
pT = (Dpf)A + B(DpL)E + (VP + SP) at outlet E
= 0.929 + 3.452 + 0.765 + 3.0 = 8.146 mm H2O
Note Total pressure at fan outlet in SR method is nearly the same as in EF method. But,
comparing the diameters in Tables 21.10 and 21.11, we find that SR diameters are much
larger. Capital cost of ducts of SR design is, thus, higher. However, the operation of duct
system is very satisfactory. Since no dampering is required at outlets, the volumes deliv-
ered are not affected by damper adjustments.
(iii) EF Method in Section B, SR Method in the Rest: As seen above, SR method

increases the overall cost of the duct system. A compromise can be made by extend-
ing EF method to the first section B in the longest duct-run. This will reduce dimen-
sions of sections. However, provision will have to be made in the design of section F
for additional drop in pressure equal to the friction loss in B. So, the diameter of B is
taken as DB = 73.7 cm from Table 21.10 with pvB = 2.98 mm H2O. The diameters of
C, D and E that are found using the SR method are given in Table 21.12.
Table 21.12 Diameters: EF method in B, SR method in rest for Example 21.7
D, cm 82.4 73.7 69 65 51 46 37
pV, mm H2O 3.45 2.98 2.221 1.253 0.827 2.221 1.326
DpL, mm H2O 0.512 0.682 0.296 0.665
D pR, mm H2O 0.577 0.726 0.32 0.672
Friction pressure drop in B, and pressure drop in fitting AB

(Dpf )B = (0.0774)11 = 0.851 mmH2O
A(D p fitting)B = 0.25 (3.45 – 2.98) = 0.3 mm H2O
pT = (Dpf )A + (D pf)B + A(Dpfitting)B + C(DpL)E + (VP + SP) at outlet E
= 0.929 + 0.851 + 0.3 + (0.512 + 0.682 + 0.296) + 0.827 + 3.0
= 7.397 mm H2O
Static pressure available at inlet to section F
= pT – (Dpf)A = 7.397 – 0.929 = 6.468 mm H2O
Hence, for section F, we must have
A(Dpfitting) F + Dp elbow + (Dpf) F + (VP + SP) at outlet F = 6.468
By iteration, we find that D F = 0.46 m, when pVF = 2.221, and

(Dpfitting)F = 0.25 (3.45 – 2.221) = 0.307
Dpelbow = 0.22 (2.221) = 0.489
0.002268 (1)1.852
(Dpfriction)F = = 0.324
(0.4) 4 .973
Substituting values in the above equation
LHS = 0.307 + 0.489 + 0.324 + 2.221 + 3.0 = 6.341 » RHS = 6.468
Finally diameter of G, by SR method, is found to be 0.37 m.
21.7 PROCESSING, TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION OF AIR IN CLEAN ROOMS
In a clean room, particles within the room are removed and controlled by
(i) preventing the entry of particles by using HEPA filters,
(ii) purging the room of particles generated by changing the air in the room,
(iii) prohibiting the generation of particles by proper selection of construction
materials, clothing, personnel, etc.,
(iv) protecting the product from direct impact and settling of particles, and
(v) providing support for cleaning of material and personnel before entry into the
clean room.
Cleanliness levels have been defined in Chap. 16. The two major developments
in clean room design are HEPA filters, and the concept of laminar flow.
21.7.1 Filters
Filters use the principles of straining, impingement, and interception.
There are three grades of filters, viz., roughing filters, pre-filters and HEPA filters.
Roughing filters use the principle of straining. Roughing filters used in clean
rooms have a number of layers of nets, with a layer provided with resin impregnated
synthetic media, all stitched together. Pre-filters use the method of impingement
which depends on the inertia force of the filtered particles. HEPA filters use a com-
bination of impingement and interception.
The filtration media in HEPA filters is made of submicronic glass fibres. It is a
continuous sheet formed into accordion pleats. The glass fibres are heat resistant,
retaining their strength upto 320°C. Aluminium separators are inserted between
glass fibre sheet folds to form a filter pack. The filter pack is then sealed into an
aluminium frame using suitable adhesive, and also provided with rubber gaskets on
the sealing faces.
HEPA filters are tested both before installation, and once again, at site after instal-
lation to ensure that there are no leakages. The filter efficiency is computed as below:
No. of particles before filter – No. of particles after filter
h=
No. of particles before filter
The tests are conducted with a uniform velocity of 0.46 m/s (90 fpm). Disctyl
phthalate (DOP) smoke is introduced upstream of the filters. The entire filter bank is
then scanned using a properly sized aerosol photometer probe.
HEPA filters should have a filtration efficiency of 99.97% down to 0.3 micron
size particles. They can handle their rated capacities at an initial pressure drop of
25 mm H2O, and are normally operated to a final pressure drop of 75 mm H2O
before being discarded. The life of HEPA filters can be enhanced by using roughing
filters, and microfine pre-filters, particularly in the make-up/ventilation air circuit,
prior to them.
21.7.2 Conventional Flow Clean Rooms

Conditioned air in the clean rooms should be directed to obtain the cleanest air at
the most critical work areas. Thereafter, as the particles are entrained, they are led
to the less critical areas. These criteria require introduction of large quantities of air
at low velocities.
Further, all rooms should be maintained at positive pressure, i.e.—at a static pres-
sure sufficiently above atmospheric pressure—so as to prevent infiltration of
contaminated outside air and permit only exfiltration.
Conventional flow patterns of air are described in Sec. 21.1.4. A conventional flow
clean room A/C system (cooling and dehumidification) is illustrated in Fig. 21.28.
Return Air Fan
Exhaust
Air From
Recirculated Room
Air Room
Make-up
Air
Supply Air To
Fan Room
Cooling
Roughing Coil Fine HEPA
Filter Pre-filter Filter
Fig. 21.28 Conventional flow clean room A/C systems
Major design features of the conventional flow clean rooms are 20 air changes
per hour, positive pressure, final filters to be HEPA filters, installed only on dis-
charge side of the fan, and to be preferably terminally mounted, people/particle
generating activities near air exit, etc. The building materials used should not chip
off or flake. All surfaces should be flush finished. Surface finish is done by apoxy
paint, etc. Special lint free garments and clothing are to be used. Further, support
areas are provided for air showers and air locks, restricting entry of personnel and
introducing clean room discipline.
21.7.3 Laminar Flow Clean Rooms

It was found that even after taking all the measures described above, cleanliness
levels could not be improved any further in conventional flow rooms. Major draw-
back is the build-up of smaller size particles. This method also does not prevent
cross-contamination from one work area to another.
There was a major breakthrough in this respect with the application of laminar
flow to clean rooms. It was realized that, instead of providing multiple outlets, if the
entire ceiling or one wall were to be made of HEPA filters and used as supply panel,
and the entire flooring or opposite wall were to be made up of return air grilles with
prefilters installed, then the air distribution system would be the most effective. The
advantages of laminar flow could be listed as follows:
(i) Air flows in parallel stream lines.
(ii) No cross-contamination of stream lines.
(iii) Predictable air path.
(iv) Independent of operation/activity/personnel.
(v) HEPA filters give lowest contamination.
(vi) No build-up of particles.
(vii) Isolating operations possible.
There are two versions of laminar flow; downflow in which the air is supplied from
the ceiling and return is taken from the floor, and crossflow in which the air is supplied
from one wall and return is taken from the opposite wall. The processing, transmission
and distribution of the two is shown in Figs 21.29 and 21.30 respectively.
Final HEPA
Supply Plenum
Filter
Make-up Supply
Make-up Air Fan Fan
Air HEPA Cooling
Damper Roughing Fine
Filter Pre-filter Pre-filter Coil
Room
Exhaust Air Pre-filter

Return
Floor Return Plenum
Fig. 21.29 Downflow laminar flow clean room A/C system
Make-up
Make-up Air Fan Ceiling Return Plenum
Air
Damper Roughing Fine HEPA Cooling
Filter Pre-filter Pre-filter Coil Supply
Pre-filter Return Wall
Fan
Room
Exhaust Air
Supply Final
Wall HEPA
Filter
Exhaust Air
Fig. 21.30 Crossflow laminar flow clean room A/C system
In downflow, since the floor is made of open grilles, it is not possible to place
heavy machinery on the floor. In crossflow, the disadvantage is that the downstream
contamination is higher than upstream.
The clean room make-up/ventilation air dampers and exhaust air dampers are
inter-connected. The exhaust air ducts should be carefully routed so that the laminar
flow is maintained.
Figures 21.29 and 21.30 show that only make-up air is processed in the A/C
central equipment. However, pre-filtered return air may also be recirculated depend-
ing upon SHF, ADP and other requirements.
21.8 AIR LOCKS, AIR CURTAINS AND AIR SHOWERS
Air locks are simply the interlocking spaces between conditioned and unconditioned/
outside spaces. Provision of such air locks at the entrance to buildings minimises
heat gain and infiltration of outdoor air directly into conditioned space.
Air curtains also serve the same purpose in more critical situations such as the
entrances where the doors keep on opening too frequently. An air curtain is a layer
of air which is blown across a door, parallel to the wall, in order to inhibit infiltration
of unconditioned/outdoor air into conditioned space. This layer of air moves at such
a velocity and angle that the air which tries to infiltrate/penetrate this curtain will be
opposed by it. The air curtains have either vertical downward flow or horizontal
flow. The flow may have either ducted or non-ducted return. The effectiveness of an
air curtain to prevent heat flux or infiltration of air is to the extent of 60–80%. Note
that the air curtain will maintain higher pressure in the layer as compared to the
infiltrating air.
One of the major sources of particle contamination in clean room is personnel.
Particles generated per person while carrying out various activities can range from
105 per minute for a standing/sitting person to 3 ´ 107 per minute for a person
involved in vigorous activity. One of the steps that can be taken to control the con-
tamination from personnel is to have air shower at entrance. Air shower can be
installed in air locks. The air supplied in air shower can be separately processed.
References
1. ‘Fundamentals and equipment’, ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, 1963.
2. Jones W P, Air Conditioning Engineering, Edward Arnold, London, 1973.
3. Rydberg J. and P. Norback, ‘Air distribution and draft’, ASHVE Transac-
tions, Vol. 55, 1949, p. 225.
Revision Exercises
21.1 In the duct layout shown in Fig. 21.31, outlets 1 and 2 deliver 20 cmm each
and outlet 3 delivers 28 cmm. Select a velocity of 8 m/s in section A. Size the
duct system using the equal friction method and determine its static pressure
requirement.
21.2 Size the duct system of Fig. 21.31, using the static regain method, and deter-
mine its static pressure requirement.
E (3 m)
A (6 m) B (3 m) C (5 m)
Fan
D (3 m) F (5 m)
3
Fig. 21.31 Figure for Problems 21.1 and 21.2
21.3 (a) For the system shown in Fig. 21.32, size the ducts on a rate of pressure
drop of 0.1 mm H2O/m length.
(b) Modify the diameter of branch duct to outlet 1 so that no dampering is
required at the outlet.
(c) Calculate the fan total and static pressures. The pressure drops in equip-
ment are as follows:
Filter: 10 mm H2O
Damper: 5 mm H2O
Cooling coil: 15 mm H2O
Mixing section: 5 mm H2O
B
A C D H
E
G
30 m
60 m 60 m
Damper Mixing
Filter Section
Cooling
Coil
1.5 m3/s 1.5 m3/s

Fig. 21.32 Figure for Problem 21.3
The dynamic loss coefficients K for all expanders are to be taken as applying
to the difference between the upstream and downstream velocity pressures,
and for all reducers as applying to the downstream velocity pressure only.
The values are given in the following table.
Section K Condition
Inlet 1.4 Mean face velocity = 4 m/s
Expander AB 0.35 Mean face velocity at filter
= 1.5 m/s
Reducer BC 0.02 Mean face velocity at damper
= 3 m/s.
Reducer EF
to fan suction 0.02
Reducer
at fan discharge 0.3
Straight-through
duct suction 0.25
Elbow 0.23
Grille 0.5
Fans
22.1 TYPES OF FANS
Ultimately it is the fan which moves the air through the entire duct system and
conditioned space. Two types of fans can be used for the transmission of air:
(i) Centrifugal fans
(ii) Axial-flow fans
Whenever a system has duct-work, centrifugal fans have to be used as the static
pressure drop is considerable. But when there is no duct-work, propellers or axial-
flow fans can be used. Nevertheless, in window-type and package units, simple
drum-type centrifugal fans are used, whereas most exhaust fans are of the axial type,
as they occupy less space, and can handle large volumes.
The centrifugal fan has the advantage of quiet and efficient operation at high
pressures. Another advantage is the ease with which the centrifugal fan inlet can be
connected to larger apparatus sections and its outlet to smaller supply duct sections.
Axial-flow fans are suitable for handling large air volumes and can be used where
noise-level considerations are not important. They are, therefore, used in industrial
ventilation and air-conditioning systems. The majority of fans are of the centrifugal
or radial-flow type.
22.2 FAN CHARACTERISTICS

The required fan work can be calculated by knowing the flow rate and fan total
pressure using Eq. (21.57) and including the fan efficiency in it. Thus
Q& ( FTP)
W& = L (22.1)
D
Typical fan-characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 22.1. Point A on the fan total
pressure-volume flow curve represents the condition of the open inlet and outlet. At
this point
FSP = 0
FTP = FVP
It is seen that as Q& L decreases, FTP increases.
FT
P
FS
P
P
FV
Qv A
Fig. 22.1 Typical characteristic curves for fans
In terms of the diameter D and speed N of the fan, it is seen that the fan total
pressure, FTP or , pT is proportional to the density and square of the velocity, which
in turn is proportional to the product DN. Thus
FTP = D pT µ H D 2 N 2 (22.2)
Such a relation can also be obtained by dimensional analysis. The volume flow
rate is proportional to the fan area and velocity, so that
Q& L µ D 2 (DN) µ D 3N (22.3)
Thus, there are different D pT – Q& L characteristics, similar to the one shown in
Fig. 22.1, for different speeds. Accordingly, the fan total pressure decreases as
flow increases. Proceeding from above, we obtain a similarity relation for fan power
consumption as follows:
W& = ( Q& L) (DpT )
µ (D 3N) (H D 2 N 2) (22.4)
µ HD 5 N 3
22.3 CENTRIFUGAL FANS
A centrifugal or a radial-flow fan consists of an impeller running in a casing, nor-

mally of volute shape. The air enters axially and is discharged at the periphery. The
work done on the air by the blades primarily depends on the tip speed (diameter and
rpm) of the impeller and blade angles. The thermodynamic analysis and design of
centrifugal fan is identical to that of a centrifugal compressor. The work done and
the head and pressure developed are given by
D pT
= g H = w = Cu 2 u 2 – Cu 1 u1
H
u 2 - u12 C 2 - C12
2
Crel - Crel
2
= 2 + 2 + 1 2
(22.5)
2 2 2
Fans 749
w
H= (22.6)
g
D pT = H w
= H (Cu2u2 – Cu1u1) (22.7)
The nomenclature used is the same as in Chapter 6. In the case of radial entry,
Cu1 = 0. Then
D pT = HC u 2u2 (22.8)
Three forms of blade designs and their respective outlet velocity triangles are
shown in Fig. 22.2. They differ according to the outlet blade angle >2.
Cu 2
C rel 2 C2
u2 C u 2 = u2
Cr2 Crel2 = Cr2
2
C2
2 = 90°
u2
(a) Backward curved (b) Radial

Radial
Cu2
90°
C rel 2
C2
2 Cr 2
Tangent
u2
(c) Forward curved

Fig. 22.2 Blade profiles and outlet velocity triangles for centrifugal fans
(i) Backward curved blades, > 2 < 90°

Cu2 = (u2 – Cr2 cot >2 ) < u2
(i) Radial blades, >2 = 90°
Cu 2 = u 2
(iii) Forward curved blades, > 2 > 90°
C u 2 = (u 2 + Cr2 cot > 2 ) > u2
It is thus seen that the pressure developed for a given tip speed u2 is greatest for
forward-curved fans.
The volume flow through the fan is given by
Q& L = FD2 b2 Cr2 = FD1 b1 Cr1 (22.9)
where D is the impeller diameter, b is the width of the shrouds and Cr is the radial
velocity:
In practice, the radial velocities at the inlet and outlet of impeller are kept the
same, and are of the order of
Cr1 = Cr2 » 0.2 u2
The relationship between the pressure developed and flow from Eqs (22.8) and
(22.9) and the expression for Cu2 is obtained as follows:
Q& L
D pT = H u 22 ± H u 2 cot >2 (22.10)
F D2 b2
Dp
Putting, Head coefficient O = 1 T2 (22.11)
2 Hu 2
Q& L
Flow coefficient B = 1 2 (22.12)
4 F D2 u2
FG D2 IJ
we get O=2 1± B
H 4b2
cot > 2
K (22.13)
For radial blades, cot >2 = 0

D pT = H u22 (22.14)
O=2 (22.15)
For backward-curved blades, the second term in Eq. (22.13) is negative, whereas
for forward-curved blades, it is positive. Thus, forward-curved fans have a rising
characteristic for D pT vs. Q& L, backward-curved have a droping characteristic and
radial fans develop constant pressure. The actual characteristics are different from
these to the extent of losses as in the case of centrifugal compressors. In general, the
pressure developed decreases with the volume flow for all the three types. Further,
both the pressure developed and volume flow tend to increase with >2.
22.3.1 Comparison of Characteristics of Backward and Forward Curved

Blade Fans
Figure 22.3 compares the head developed by the three types of fans having the same
diameter and speed. It may be noted that forward-curved fans develop highest pressure
for a given diameter and speed. They are also available as high volume flow fans.
Dip
Forward
Curved
Radial
Backward
Curved
Fig. 22.3 Comparison of head-flow characteristics of forward-curved,

radial and backward-curved blade fans
Fans 751
Figures 22.4 and 22.5 show the performance characteristics of the forward- and
backward-curved blade fans respectively. The performance of the radial blade is
similar to that of the forward-curved blade except that there is no dip in the static
pressure curve.
Max Power W
Max. Effy.
Power
Change
Volume
Change
PT
Qv
Fig. 22.4 Performance characteristics of forward-curved fans
Max. Effy.
W
Max.
Power Power
Change
Volume
Change
PT
Qv
Fig. 22.5 Performance characteristics of backward-curved fans
Forward-curved and radial fans rarely have efficiencies higher than 75 per cent.
Backward-curved fans of sheet metal construction have an efficiency up to 80 per
cent and those with aerofoil section have even up to 90 per cent.
The important characteristic features of forward-curved and radial fans may be

summarised as follows:
(i) The D pT – Q& L characteristic is flatter. Thus a small change in D pT, viz., the
resistance of the duct system, filter, etc., greatly affects the volume delivered.
(ii) The point of maximum efficiency for forward-curved fans is at a volume flow
rate corresponding to the very flat part of the D pT – Q& L curve. Thus, if a fan
is selected to operate at maximum efficiency, as is desirable, a slight change
in the system resistance not only changes the volume delivered, but also drops
the efficiency correspondingly.
(iii) The W& – Q& L characteristic is steeper. Thus a small increase in the volume
delivered causes a considerable increase in the power consumption. This may
overload the electric motor since it is selected for design duty rather than
maximum possible fan power. Thus, the motor has to be oversized by 25 to
30 per cent.
(iv) Finally, they have lower efficiencies.
As against the above, the characteristics of backward-curved fans are briefly as
follows:
(i) The DpT – Q& L characteristic is steeper. Even with change in resistance of the
duct system, therefore, the volume delivered remains fairly constant.
(ii) The D- Q& L characteristic is such that the peak efficiency occurs at a steeper
part of the Dp – Q& L curve. Thus a change in the system resistance does not
T
significantly affect Q& L , and hence the efficiency.
(iii) The W& – Q& L characteristic is flatter. It is often referred to as the non-over-
loading characteristic. The maximum power required is only a little in excess
of the design power consumption.
(iv) Efficiencies are generally higher.
For these reasons, backward-curved fans are commonly used in air conditioning.
However, a backward-curved fan must run at a higher speed to develop the same
pressure as a forward-curved fan. Accordingly, forward-curved fans are smaller and
slower running. Thus they tend to be quieter and cheaper for FTP up to 750 N/m2
(7.6 mm H2O).
22.4 AXIAL-FLOW FANS
Figure 22.6 shows the schematic representation of an axial-flow fan. The flow of air
is substantially parallel to the axis of the impeller. Blades are of aerofoil section. The
tips run with as fine a clearance as practicable in a cylindrical casing.
Air enters in the axial direction and leaves with a rotational component due to the
work done. The absolute velocity of the leaving air is higher than the axial velocity.
Recent designs have guide vanes downstream which remove the rotational compo-
nent, converting some excess velocity into more useful static pressure. Another
method is to use pre-rotation vanes (upstream of the impeller). These rotate the air in
Fans 753
a direction opposite to that of the impeller. The air, then, leaves axially. True axial
discharge from either is only possible for a single-operating condition.
Impeller Guide vanes
Fig. 22.6 Axial-flow fan
22.5 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
A duct system may be designed for a certain air flow and the pressure drop of the
system may then be calculated. The particular design flow and pressure drop repre-
sent one point of the system characteristic curve. If the volume flow is altered, the
pressure drop will also be affected.
Consider a duct system in which the total pressure drop is calculated by adding
the pressure drops of different sections, which are in turn proportional to their
respective velocity pressures, as follows:
1
D p = K1 HC12 + K2 12 H C22 + L
2
1 Q& L
2
FG IJ 1 Q& L FG IJ 2
= K1 H
2 A1 H K
+ K2
2
H
A2 H K +L
Kρ
= Q& 2L ∑ 2 A2 (22.16)
We thus obtain an expression similar to Eq. (22.16). However, once a system is

designed and is in operation, the parameters K, H and A are constant. Then
D p µ Q& 2L = R Q& 2L (22.17)
Thus, the pressure drop has a parabolic variation with flow. The nature of system
characteristic OA is shown in Fig. 22.7. The curve must pass through the origin, as
the pressure drop through the system is zero when there is no flow.
By analogy with electricity, we can derive the concept of the resistance R of
the duct system. Here the pressure drop D p is equivalent to voltage. Comparing
Eq. (22.17) to the corresponding equation in electricity,
V = Re I
Dp
we have R= (22.18a)
Q& 2L
Also, d
D p2 = D p1 Q& L 2 Q& L 1 i 2
(22.18b)
Dirty
FT fillers
P
B Clean
fillers
p
p
System
0
Qv
Fig. 22.7 Fan-system interaction
Accordingly, if one point is given, say, Dp = 531 N/m2, Q& L = 3 m3/s then one can
draw the table for system characteristic
Q& L
2
FG IJ
= 59 Q& L
H K
2
D p = 531
3
as follows:
Q& , m3/s
L 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
D p, N/m2 14.75 59 133 236 369 531
22.5.1 Systems in Series and in Parallel3

This concept of systems is useful in solving complex problems such as in mine
ventilation, clean rooms, etc. The resistances may be in series as in Fig. 22.8(a), or
in parallel as in Fig. 22.8(b). If the resistances are in series, the flow is the same
through each resistance, but the pressure drop is different. The total pressure drop is
obtained by adding the individual pressure drops. Thus:
D p = Dp1 + Dp2 + D p3 + L
Expressing the pressure drop from Eq. (22.17), we have
Q& 2L R = Q& 2L R1 + Q& 2L R2 + Q& 2L R3 + L
whence
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + L (22.19)
Thus the overall resistance in series is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
If the resistances are in parallel, the pressure drop through each is the same. The
overall air flow is equal to the sum of individual flows. Accordingly:
Q& L = Q&L + Q&L + Q&L + L
1 2 3
Fans 755
Qv R1 R2 R3 Qv
p1 p2 p3
(a) Resistance in series
R1 Qv1
Qv R2
Qv2 Qv
R3
Qv3
(b) Resistances in parallel

Fig. 22.8 Flow resistances in series and in parallel
Again, making use of Eq. (22.17) as before, we have

Dp Dp Dp Dp
= + + +L
R R1 R2 R3
whence
1 1 1 1
= + + +L (22.20)
R R1 R2 R3
Equation (22.20) can be used to evaluate the overall resistance of flow circuits in
parallel.
22.5.2 Fan-System Interaction2

Figure 22.7 shows the fan and system characteristics superimposed on each other.
For a fixed system, the system resistance is constant, and the system characteristic
from Eq. (22.18) is of the parabolic form
D p µ Q& 2L
Thus for a given system of duct-work, space, etc., the pressure drop is propor-
tional to the square root of the volume handled. The intersection of the fan and
system characteristics gives the point of operation A. This is the only single operating
point for the combined fan-duct work system.
Now, if the system resistance changes, say due to unclean filters, the system char-
acteristic will move to curve O–B. The operating point will then shift to B resulting
in decreased flow.
22.5.3 Effect of Change in Fan Speed

The effect of change in the fan speed is shown in Fig. 22.9. For the same fan, i.e., for
the same diameter, it is seen from Eqs (22.2) and (22.3) that
D pT µ N 2 and Q& L µ N.
Note Pressure increases more rapidly than 3& L with speed, as also shown in Fig. 22.9.
Accordingly, the variation in power consumption is given by
W& µ ( Q& L ) (D p ) T
µ N3
FTP
,N
tem
2
s
Sy
B
FTP,
N1 Fan W, N2
B
A
Fan W, N1
p
W
Qv
Fig. 22.9 Effect of change in fan speed
By increasing the fan speed from N1 to N2, the point of operation shifts from A to
B for FTP and from A¢ to B¢ for fan power .
22.5.4 Effect of Change in Air Density

Both the fan total pressure and system pressure loss are directly proportional to
density while the volume handled remains unchanged. The fan power is also propor-
tional to density. Thus, as shown in Fig. 22.10, due to the increase in the density of
air from H1 to H2, the operating point shifts from A to B for FTP and from A¢ to B¢ for
W& . Accordingly, the fan pressure, system pressure drop and fan power, all increase
with an increase in density. But whether the volume and mass handled would also
increase or not has to be seen from the actual characteristics.
FTP System, 2
, 2
FTP, System, 1
1 B
A
B Fan W, 2
Fan W,
p
1
W
Qv
Fig. 22.10 Effect of change in gas density
Fans 757
22.5.5 Simple Fan and System Network

Conventional air-conditioning systems have air-transmission and distribution
system as shown in Fig. 22.11.
Consider the parallel branches, B, C and D for which the required volume flows
Q& * , Q& C and Q& D are known. The pressure losses in them, D pB, D pC and D pD can be
calculated. It is unlikely that all losses will be equal. But under operating conditions,
they must be the same, say D p. Then the flow rates will change to Q& * , Q& C and Q& D
according to Eq. (22.18), viz.,
D p¢
Q& B¢ = Q& *
D pB
D p¢
Q& C¢ = Q& C
D pC
D p¢
and Q& D¢ = Q& D
D pD
Distribution Branches
RB QB
Main Duct RA RC QC
From Space Fan To Space
QA QD
A/C RD
Apparatus
Fig. 22.11 Simple fan-system network
Example 22.1 A system has a total pressure loss of 531 N/m2 when handling
3 m3/s of standard air. The characteristics of the fan installed on the system when
running at 480 rpm are given in Table 22.1.
Table 22.1 Characteristics of fan in Example 22.1
Flow, m3/s 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

FTP, N/m2 350 385 410 427 433 424 400 343
Power, kW 1.185 1.354 1.537 1.715
Efficiency, % 54 64 69 70
(i) Calculate the quantity of air handled, FTP developed, power consumption
and efficiency of the fan when operating on the system.
(ii) If the output of the fan-duct system is reduced to 2 m3/s by partly closing a
damper, calculate the power wasted across the damper.
(iii) State if this fan is suitable or not to deliver 3 m3/s of air through the system.
Calculate the speed at which this fan must be run if it is to deliver 3 m3/s
of air.
tem
531
D N/m2
Sys
500
450
B 433 N/m2
417 N/m2 A
400 N
400 TP E m2
F
p, N/m2
8.0
350
pdamper
1.595 kW 1.6
W, kW
300
69.6% 1.4 70
250 W
236 N/m2 1.2 60
,%
C
200 1.0 50
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.67 3.0 3.5
Qv, m3/s
(i) From Eq. (22.18), system resistance

Dp 531
R= = = 59 kg m–7
Q& 2L (3) 2
System pressure drop for various flow rates from D p = R Q& 2L

Q&L , m3/s 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
D p, N/m 2
0 14.75 59 132.75 236 368.75 531 722.75
The fan and system D p vs. Q& L characteristics are plotted in Fig. 22.12. The
point of intersection is obtained at A. The following can be read from the
graph.
Air handled, Q& L = 2.67 m3/s
FTP developed, D pT = 417 N/m2
Fan characteristics for the power consumption W& and efficiency are also plot-
ted in Fig. 22.12. Their values at 2.67 m3/s volume handled are as follows:
Fans 759
Power consumption, W& = 1.595 kW

Efficiency, D = 69.6%
(ii) At 2 m3/s volume handled, the point of intersection is at B. The pressure
developed by the fan at this point is 433 N/m2. Thus
Pressure loss of the system with the damper
D pB = 433 N/m2
Pressure loss of the system if the damper had not been there
D pC = 236 N/m2
Pressure drop in the damper
D pdamper = D pB – D pC
= 433 – 236 = 197 N/m2
Power wasted across the damper
D W& = Q& L (Dpdamper)
= 2 (197) = 394 W
(iii) The fan is not suitable to deliver 3 m3/s of air through the system since the
pressure loss of the system at this flow rate at D is 531 N/m2, whereas the
total pressure developed by the fan at E is only 400 N/m2. To develop the
required pressure, the rpm must be increased according to
D p2 N 22
=
D p1 N 12
D p2
whence N2 = N1
D p1
531
= 480 = 553 rpm
400
22.6 FAN ARRANGEMENTS
The fan arrangements are standardized for the drive, rotation, motor position, suc-
tion and discharge. Thus, there can be a belt or direct drive and bearings on one side
with the wheel overhung or bearings on both sides. The rotation may be clockwise or
counter-clockwise. The discharge may be top horizontal or bottom horizontal,
upblast or downblast, top angular down or up, or bottom angular down or up. The
suction is commonly from one side but may be from both sides also.
Further, a multiple number of fans may be used. The arrangement for the purpose
will be either in series or in parallel. The processing, transmission and distribution
of air in clean rooms using a number of filters as discussed in Sec. 21.7 is an
illustration of the use of a multiple number of fans.
22.6.1 Fans in Series

When two fans are employed in series,
(i) The flow rate Q& L through each fan is the same, and
(ii) The overall fan total pressure D pT is equal to the sum of individual FTPs
minus the losses in the connections.
The combined characteristic of two fans in series can, therefore, be drawn by
adding the FTP of each fan for each Q& L as shown in Fig. 22.13. To obtain the com-
bined characteristic, it is assumed that the characteristic of each fan is known for
volumes greater than those which are achieved by fans when running with suction
and discharge unconnected to the system. This information is rarely available. The
characteristic in this region may be extrapolated as shown in Fig. 22.13.
Further, it is preferable to use identical fan units in series as it is unlikely that
efficient operation would result otherwise.
R
Qv
p1 p2
pT
p T = p 1 + p2
pT
p1
p2
p T = p2
( p1 = 0)
Extrapolated
Qv
Fig. 22.13 Combined characteristic of fans in series
22.6.2 Fans in Parallel

When two fans are employed in parallel,
(i) The total pressure D pT across each fan is the same, and
(ii) The total volume handled Q& L is equal to the sum of the volumes handled by
individual fans.
The combined characteristic of two fans in parallel can, therefore, be drawn by
adding Q& L of each fan for the same D pT as shown in Fig. 22.14. Again, in order to
draw this combined characteristic in full, it is necessary to know the reverse-flow
characteristic of one of the fans with the impeller running in the normal direction
which is normally not known.
Fans 761
As with series operation, identical fans should normally be used in parallel.
Qv1
Extrapolated
R
Qv
Qv2
pT
pT
Qv = Qv1
(Qv2 = 0)
Qv1 Qv2 Qv = Qv 1 + Qv2
Qv
Fig. 22.14 Combined characteristic of fans in parallel
Example 22.2 A large workshop is ventilated by a supply fan and duct

system, the pressure loss through which is 30.5 mm H2O when the flow
is 3 m3/s. There is also an exhaust fan with another duct system for which the
pressure loss is 43.2 mm H2O when the flow is 2.5 m3/s.
(a) Determine the pressure of air in the workshop and volume of ventilation air.
(b) If there is loss of air by leakage, determine the pressure in the space, supply
air volume flow and exhaust air volume flow. The characteristic of the leak-
age system is such that the leakage rate is 0.5 m3/s for a pressure difference
of 12.5 mm H2O.
The two fans are identical and their characteristics are given in Table 22.2.
Table 22.2 Characteristics of fans in Example 22.2
Q&L , m3/s 0 1 2 3 4
FTP, mm H2O 76 77 74.2 59.9 27.9
HP 0.83 1.43 2.23 2.9 2.9

(a) Supply system resistance
D p1 30.5
R1 = = = 3.39
& 2
QL 1 (3) 2
(FTP2 – p2)
(FTP1 – p1)
120 Qv2
Qv1 Workshop Qv3
100
p3
p3
(FTP1 – p1)
80 (FTP2 – p2)
60
40 Qv2 = 3.1
Qv2 + Qv3
p = 18.5
20 A
p=7
C
D B
p, mm H2O
0 Qv
Qv3= 0.375 1 2 3 4
Qv2 m3/s
Qv1 = Qv2 = 3.25
Qv1 = Qv2 + Qv3 = 3.475

– 20
– 40
– 60
– 80
Supply system characteristic from D p1 = R1 Q& L21:
Q& L1 , m3/s 0 1 2 3 4
D p1, mm H2O 0 3.39 13.56 30.5 54.2
Resultant pressure in the room due to the supply fan-duct system is FTP1 – D p1, as
plotted in Fig. 22.15, which is positive:
Q& L1 , m2/s 0 1 2 3 4
(FTP1 – D p1), mm H2O 76 73.6 60.6 29.4 – 26.3
The pressure is plotted in Fig. 22.15.

Exhaust system resistance
D p2 43.2
R2 = 2 = = 6.912
&
Q L2 ( 2.5) 2
Fans 763
Exhaust system characteristic, Dp2 = R2 Q& 2L2:

Q& L 2 , m3/s 0 1 2 3 4
D p2, mm H2O 0 6.912 27.6 62.2 110.6
Resultant pressure in the room due to the exhaust fan-duct system is (FTP2 – D p2),
which is negative.
Q& L 2 , m3/s 0 1 2 3 4
(FTP2 – Dp2), mm H2O – 76 – 70.1 – 46.6 – 2.3 82.7
This pressure is also plotted in Fig. 22.15. The final resultant pressure in the
room corresponds to the point A at the intersection of the two curves which gives the
following :
Pressure developed by the supply system
= Pressure drop of the exhaust system
= Pressure in the workshop (gauge)
= 18.5 mm H2O
Ventilation rate Q& L 1 = Q& L 2 = 3.25 m3/s
(b) Leakage system resistance
D p3 12.5
R3 = = = 50
Q& 2L 3 ( 0.5) 2
Leakage system characteristic, D p3 = R3 Q& L 3
2
Q& L , m3/s 0 0.5 1.0 1.5

3
Dp3, mm H2O 0 12.5 50.0 112.5
The Leakage system characteristic is also plotted in Fig. 22.15.
Note The leakage system and exhaust duct plus exhaust fan system are in parallel. The
& and 3& for the same pressure drop, i.e., for
resultant of the two is obtained by adding 3L L !
(FTP2 – Dp2) = – D p3
The resultant of the two parallel systems of leakage and exhaust is also plotted
in Fig. 22.15. Its intersection with the supply system characteristic at B gives the
following:
Pressure in the workshop = 7 mm H2O gauge
Ventilation rate Q& L = Q& L + Q& L = 3.475 m3/s
1 2 3
Reading for the characteristic of the exhaust system and leakage system for the
same pressure drop of 7 mm H2O, we obtain the following:
Volume handled by exhaust system (Point C) Q& L 2 = 3.1 m3/s
Leakage volume (Point D) Q& L = 0.375 m3/s.
3
References
1. Church, A H, The Centrifugal Pumps and Blowers, John Wiley, New York,
1994.
2. Jones, W P, Air Conditioning Engineering, Edward Arnold, London, 1973.
3. Osborne, W C, Fans, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966.
Revision Exercises
22.1 A fan with characteristics as in Table 22.2 supplies air to a system for which
the total pressure loss is 61 mm H2O for a volume flow rate of air of 2.5 m3/s.
Find the flow rate of air and fan total efficiency.
22.2 A fan with characteristics as given in Table 22.2 delivers air to a system
at a temperature of 18°C and 760 mm Hg barometric pressure at a rate of
2.5 m3/s. To obtain the same flow of air at 20°C and 610 mm Hg barometric
pressure, two such fans are used in series. Show that the arrangement will
supply the same mass flow rate of air.
22.3 The total pressure drop through a heat exchanger is 56 mm H2O for a volume
flow rate of air of 2.5 m3/s at 18°C. A fan with characteristics as in Table 22.2
is used to supply air at 15°C which leaves the exchanger at 93°C to the atmo-
sphere through an area of 0.09 m2. Show where the fan should be placed to
obtain a greater mass flow of air.
22.4 The performance figures for a centrifugal fan driven by a constant speed
motor are tabulated below. Plot these and superimpose a shaft-power curve.
From this determine the shaft power at the design output of 50 m3/s and also
the power if the output is reduced to 30 m3/s by damper regulation.
If, instead of using damper regulation, the fan speed is reduced by a
hydraulic coupling of constant torque, calculate the reduction in the power
input to the fan shaft.
Output SP Efficiency
m3/s mm H2O %
0 85 0
10 92.5 46
20 95 66
30 90 70
40 80 67
50 65 60
60 47.5 48
70 25 32
22.5 The characteristics of a supply fan installed on a system are given in Table
22.1. The system has a total pressure loss of 450 N/m2 when handling 3 m3/s
of air.
(a) Calculate the quantity of air handled, total pressure developed, power
consumption and efficiency of the fan.
Fans 765
(b) The filter in the above fan-duct system offers a pressure drop of 90 N/m2
for an air flow of 3 m3/s when it is clean. Find the fan power consumed
in the clean filter.
(c) The fan delivers only 2.3 m3/s of air when the filters have become dirty.
Find the pressure drop in dirty filters and the fan power wasted due to
the filters being dirty.
22.6 A fan supplies air to a space through a duct system in which the pressure drop
is 30.5 mm H2O for a flow rate of 3 m3/s. Another fan also supplies air to the
space through another duct system in which the pressure drop is 43.2 mm
H2O for a flow rate of 2.5 m3/s. Both the fans are identical and have charac-
teristics as given in Table 22.2. From the conditioned space, the air is sucked
in by both the fans, (which are in parallel) through a return duct-and-appara-
tus system in which the pressure drop is 30.5 mm H2O for a flow rate of
5.5 m3/s. Determine the volume handled and power consumption of each fan.
!
Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioning Control
If the refrigeration load and capacity of a plant remained constant, there would not
be any need to have any control. However, in practice, both do fluctuate. The cool-
ing load changes due to input conditions and changes in the outside conditions. The
plant capacity also changes due to the changes in the outside conditions. Also, since
the plant is designed for peak load, its capacity is usually greater than the immediate
demand, resulting in a trend to establish a suction pressure and temperature that are
lower than those necessary to fulfil the peak demand.
Automatic control makes the plant independent of skilled supervision. It also
achieves a higher degree of accuracy in maintaining the required temperatures, pres-
sures and humidities. Further, it offers flexibility in the operation of complicated
plants on various impulses from different parts of the system ensuring overall
control and protection.
23.1 BASIC ELEMENTS OF CONTROL
In every control device, there is a controlled variable or controlled condition such

as the temperature of the conditioned space. Figure 23.1 shows the basic elements of
a control system in the form of a block diagram. The detecting element feeds a signal
to the controlling unit, when any deviation from the desired value of the controlled
condition, i.e., from the set value, occurs. The measuring element of the control unit
then measures the extent of this deviation and triggers the actuating element. The
positioner is responsible for setting the value of the controlled variable. In case, the
force from the measuring element is not strong enough to actuate the regulating unit,
servomotors or relays can be used. The transmitting element is at times necessary
between the actuating and regulating elements. It is a part of the control unit proper.
Often, the functions of the various elements are combined in one unit. The reader
may refer to the construction of expansion valves given in Chapter 8 and try to
identify the various elements.
It may be noted that the response of the control unit to an impulse is subject to
lags and retards of different kinds which are due to friction between parts, heat
capacities of walls, etc.
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Control 767
Positioner
2, 3
Actuating Transmitting Regulating Detecting

Element Element Element Plant Element
4 1 7 8 9
Measuring
Element
Fig. 23.1 Block diagram of basic elements of a control unit
The common items of control involved here are given below.

(i) Expansion devices:
(a) Automatic expansion valve
(b) Thermostatic expansion valve
The capillary tube does not do any control function.
(ii) Cut-outs for refrigeration units:
(a) High pressure cut-out
(b) Low pressure cut-out
(iii) Back pressure valves
(vi) Liquid level regulating devices:
(a) High-side float valve
(b) Low-side float valve
(v) Flow-regulating devices:
(a) Solenoid valves
(b) Check valves
(c) Water and brine valves
(vi) Thermostats:
(a) Evaporator thermostat
(b) Room thermostat
(vii) Humidity controls (Humidstats)
(viii) Motor controls
(ix) Modulating motors.
These are the general ones. There are many others. A detailed discussion of
these and other controls is, however, outside the scope of this book. Only the
salient features of some pertaining to refrigeration and air-conditioning control are
given here.
23.2 DETECTING ELEMENTS1
These are sensing devices, often having the measuring device and positioner built
into them. The common types of detecting elements are bimetallic, bulb-and-bellow,
temperature sensitive electric resistance, electromagnetic and humidity sensitive.
23.2.1 Bimetallic Elements

A bimetallic element comprises of two strips of dissimilar materials with different
coefficients of thermal expansion, joined together and fixed at one end. Any change
in temperature results in non-uniform expansion of the two strips and consequent
bending as shown in Fig. 23.2. These elements are used in thermostats. Two well-
known materials used as a pair and their coefficients of expansion are:
Brass : 17.5 ´ 10–6 per°C
Invar (36% Ni + Steel) : 0.9 ´ 10–6 per°C
Before Expansion After Expansion

(a) (b)
Fig. 23.2 Bimetallic element
It is seen that the magnitude of movement of the element depends on the length of
the strip. Hence a greater length is required for increased sensitiveness. Often, the
bimetallic elements are bent in U-form or wound in different shapes.
23.2.2 Bulb-and-Bellow Elements

The typical construction of a bulb-and-bellow element is shown in Fig. 23.3.
The control spring provided acts as a positioner to preset the value of the control
variable. It is seen that the control variable is the temperature, but with the bulb
removed, the element can be connected to a system and this be used to control pres-
sure. Its use has already been explained in the case of the two expansion valves, both
as temperature-sensitive and pressure-sensitive elements. Simple bellows are used
in low pressure cut-outs provided in all condensing units. By regulating the tension
of the spring, one can select a vapour pressure (and hence temperature) at which the
assembly will actuate the switch or valve.
The bellow and bulb can be either liquid-charged or gas-charged. In the liquid-
charged type, the vapour pressure in the element will increase with increasing
temperature of the bulb according to the vapour pressure curve ABC in Fig. 23.4. It
may be noted that the vapours tend to condense on the coldest part. Thus if the
bellows are cooler than the bulb, the liquid will accumulate in the bellows and no
liquid may remain in the bulb which will effectively become gas-charged and, there-
fore, insensitive to temperature charge. Hence, it is required that the element should
have sufficient charge so as to leave some liquid in the bulb even if the bellows and
capillary tube are completely filled with the liquid.
Control
Spring
Bellow
id
qu
Li
Gas D
B
p
uid
Bulb Liq
A
T
Fig. 23.3 Bulb-and-bellow Fig. 23.4 Variation of pressure with
element temperature in liquid and gas
charged bulbs
As stated above, the gas-charged types are the ones with a small liquid charge at
low temperature of operation, so that, at higher temperatures, the element is com-
pletely filled with gas, and the pressure variation is along the constant-volume line
BD in Fig. 23.4. Such elements are used for low-temperature operation, and when
the bulbs are exposed to high temperatures, they go out of operation. They are called
fade-out elements. The fade-out principle limits the maximum pressure of operation
and prevents excessive pressures.
23.2.3 Electric Resistance Elements

The electric resistance of elements changes with temperature. Whereas copper has a
positive temperature coefficient of 0.004 per°C and constantan (60% Cu + 40% Ni)
has a resistance more or less independent of temperature, there are semiconductors
which have negative coefficients of about 0.04 per °C. The latter are well-suited in
automatic control because of their numerical high-temperature dependence. They
are called negative temperature coefficient or NTC resistors, and are made by the
ceramic process from mixtures of metal oxides, such as NiO, Mn2O3, Co2O3, etc.
They can be made in small sizes to minimise time lag.
Figure 23.5 shows the detecting element forming a part of the Wheatstone bridge.
R2
R3
+ –
R1
Potential
Difference to R4
Measuring
Element
Detecting
Element
Fig. 23.5 Wheatstone bridge for electric resistance elements
23.2.4 Electromagnetic Elements

The magnetic field in a solenoid can be influenced by an iron armature in a coil. By
moving the armature up or down actuated by a sensing element, a change in current
will occur, and by means of an amplifier, this change can be made strong enough to
actuate a control device, e.g., liquid level regulating devices. On the other hand,
solenoid valves are used as two-position controls in the liquid lines of refrigerant
circuits. A typical construction of a solenoid operating a valve is shown in Fig. 23.6.
Spring
Iron Core
Wire Coil
Solenoid Plunger
Valve Plug
Fig. 23.6 Solenoid
Note The solenoid falls down by its own weight when not energised. When it is
energised, it is lifted up.
23.2.5 Humidity Sensitive Elements

Two temperature sensitive elements may be used to measure the dry bulb and wet
bulb temperatures and, hence, the humidity. Figure 23.7 shows one such arrange-
ment using bellow elements. Two thermistors can also be similarly used, coupled
into a Wheatstone bridge. Such a device will operate on the basis of increase/
decrease in the difference (DBT – WBT) of air for the control of humidity.
Control Control
Spring Lever
Knob
DBT WBT
Fig. 23.7 Using bellow elements for humidity control
In addition to the above, hygroscopic elements, such as a strand of hair, can be

used for humidity control. A simple arrangement is shown in Fig. 23.8. Elongation
of the hair due to an increase in relative humidity results in a clockwise turning of the
roller, moving lever to the left, which may operate a switch.
Strand of Hair
Roller
Lever
Control
Spring
Fig. 23.8 Hair as a humidity-sensitive element
Recently, the hygroscopic nature of some salts, e.g., CaCl2, LiCl2, etc., has also
been used in humidity measurement and control devices. It is found that their
electric resistance changes with change in humidity.
23.2.6 Some Pressure Sensitive Elements

In addition to bellows, other pressure sensitive elements are diaphragms, bourdon
tubes and piezo-electric crystals.
23.3 ACTUATING ELEMENTS3
In response to impulses from detecting elements, the actuating elements bring

about adjustment in plants. They may operate directly or indirectly. In the latter
case, additional transmitting elements are used to transfer the actuating impulse to
the regulating unit.
The actuating elements can be categorised as follows:
(i) Electric switches
(ii) Relays
(iii) Solenoids
(iv) Electric or pneumatic motors.
There are a variety of electric switches with considerable difference in their me-
chanical and electrical construction.
A relay is a device which, by a weak pilot current from the detecting and measur-
ing element assembly, actuates switches for heavy-duty circuits. An illustration of a
single-phase relay is shown in Fig. 23.9 in combination with a solenoid.
Solenoid
Spring
Armature
Pitot Contact Member

Current
Fig. 23.9 A single phase relay
In another construction, the spring is omitted and it becomes a simple solenoid.

The solenoid, if in vertical position, falls by its own weight when not energised.
When it is energised, it is lifted up. Such a relay is used as starting relay for operat-
ing switches in hermetically sealed units for changing over from starting winding to
running winding, after rated speed is attained.
Electric or pneumatic motors are used for operating dampers or valves which are
required to open or close more slowly than a solenoid coil will permit. According to
their mode of operation, motors are of the following two essential types:
(i) Two-position motors
(ii) Modulating motors.
A spring-return motor, shown in Fig. 23.10, is an illustration of a two-position
motor. When the controller element closes the switch, the motor winding is ener-
gised from A to B. This starts the motor which drives a linkage to open or close a
valve or damper. A cam, also mounted on the motor shaft, rotates and at the proper
time throws the limit switch from B to C. The whole winding is now energised from
A to C. This added coil resistance reduces the current to a holding level. The motor
then stops and is held in this position. Later, when the switch opens, a spring returns
the motor to its original position.
Modulating motors are used for proportional or floating control. They are
reversible and capable of stopping and holding at any position in the cycle. They are
either reversible two-phase induction type or shaded pole type.
Motor
C Limit Switch
B
Sensor Switch
Cam
Power
Source
Field Coil
Fig. 23.10 Circuit diagram of a spring-return motor
The principle of operation of a reversible two-phase induction motor can be

explained with the help of Fig. 23.11. In this motor, there are two field windings,
I and II. Power may be supplied either at A or at B. The other power connection
is made at C.
A B
Supply Field
Windings
I II
C
Fig. 23.11 Reversible two-phase motor
If A and C are connected, coil I is directly powered, while coil II is indirectly

powered through a capacitor which introduces a phase difference. Thus a rotary
motion is imparted to the motor armature to open or close dampers, or operate any
other device.
On the other hand, if B and C are connected, the motion of the motor is in the
reverse direction.
A fully-modulating control would, however, require negative feedback at the
motor. The complete modulating system is shown in Fig. 23.12. The operating prin-
ciple is explained in Fig. 23.13.
In the balanced position, the wiper arms of both the controller and feedback
potentiometers A and B, and relay arm C are centred as in Fig. 23.13 (a). The current
through the two coils of the balancing relay is equal.
With sensor action in response to pressure or temperature changes, the controller
potentiometer arm is deflected, resulting in an unbalanced condition. The current dif-
ference in the two coils of the relay causes the relay arm to swing to one contact as
shown in Fig. 23.13 (b). This starts the motor and causes it to actuate a valve or damper.
The movement of the motor also moves the feedback potentiometer wiper which
brings in added resistance and offsets the effect of the controller. A new balanced
condition for the relay is obtained as shown in Fig. 23.13 (c). Again, the relay coil
currents are equal, the relay arm is centred, and the motor stops.
Motor Balancing
Driven
Potentiometer
I relay
by Motor ng
ndi
Potentiometer
i Sensor
Feedback
W
Limit Action
Controller
B W Switches
ind
ing A
II C
Power
Supply
Fig. 23.12 Circuit diagram of a fully modulating control unit
Relay
Feedback B C A Controller
Potentiometer Potentiometer
(a) Balanced Position
A
B
(b) Unbalanced Position Showing

Movement of Relay Arm
A
C
B
(c) New Balanced Position

Fig. 23.13 Operation of a feedback modulating controller
Limit switches are used to stop the motor at the end of the desirable maximum
stroke. Sensor action in the opposite direction reverses the motion.
23.4 ELECTRIC MOTORS AND CONTROLS2
Both single-phase and three-phase alternating current motors are used to drive
pumps, fans and compressors. Single-phase motors range from 35 W to 7.5 kW.
Three-phase motors are employed in sizes upwards of 1 kW. Motors are designed to
operate at temperatures of about 40°C above the ambient temperature in open-type
compressors, and about 55°C above the ambient in hermetically-sealed compres-
sors. The motors are also designed to take a small percentage of the overload over a
period of time. But continuous operation under overload conditions will result in the
overheating of windings and consequent burn-out. It is, therefore, necessary to pro-
vide adequate safety control on all motors.
In refrigeration and air-conditioning practice, induction motors are commonly
used as they can take up a high-starting torque. The name is derived from the fact
that the magnetic field in the rotor is induced by the current flowing in the stator
windings. Low starting torque (LST) motors are used in a compressor meant for use
in conjunction with a capillary tube because the system is expected to equalise the
pressures between the suction and discharge sides during the off-cycle period.
Higher starting torque (HST) motors are meant for systems which are controlled by
expansion valves.
23.4.1 Three-phase Induction Motors

There are two types of three-phase induction motors:
(i) Squirrel cage
(ii) Wound rotor.
In the squirrel-cage motor, the rotor is in the form of a simple squirrel cage. In the
wound-rotor motor, the rotor also has a three-phase variable resistance windings.
Both the types have three-phase stator windings alternately distributed around
the stators. There is a pole for each of the phases. A two-pole, three-phase motor in
fact has six poles.
The rotor in an induction motor always lags behind the stator winding in speed. It
rotates at a speed that is slightly less than the speed of the rotating stator field. The
difference in speed is called the magnetic or rotor slip. The speed of the stator is
determined by the frequency of the current and the number of poles as follows:
(Frequency) 120
rpm =
Number of poles
A four-pole, 50-cycle A.C. motor will have a stator speed of
(50) (120)
rpm = = 1500
4
This is synchronous speed of the rotor. However, for such a motor, the rotor
speed is normally 1440 rpm. Thus the rotor slip, expressed as a percentage of the
synchronous speed is
1500 – 1440
= 4%
1500
The slip also implies a loss of power of the motor due to the generation of heat. In
this case, 4 per cent of the motor power input is converted into heat. Hence the motor
efficiency is 96 per cent.
In the case of wound-rotor motors, the slip and hence the speed can be varied by
varying the resistance of the rotor windings. But this would result in inefficient
operation. By far, the simpler squirrel-cage motors are most commonly used.
23.4.2 Single-phase Induction Motors

In the case of a single-phase motor, when the stator winding is energised, there is
only one stator pole and no rotating field. The magnetic field set-up in the rotor is in
line with that of the stator. Therefore, no starting torque is developed and the rotor
does not move.
If, however, the rotor is started somehow, the current induced in the rotor will lag
behind the current in the stator, and the motor will continue to run.
All single-phase motors have squirrel-cage type rotors, but they differ only in the
method employed to produce the necessary starting torque as discussed above.
Accordingly, they are of the following types:
(i) Split phase
(ii) Capacitor start and induction run
(iii) Capacitor start and capacitor run
(iv) Permanent capacitor
(v) Shaded pole.
The difference in their construction is shown in Fig. 23.14. All the types have two
stator windings, called the starting and running windings, connected in parallel.
In the split-phase type the starting winding, which is of thinner wire, has a high
resistance and low inductance. The running winding, on the other hand, has a low
resistance and high inductance. The relatively higher resistance in the starting wind-
ing can only withstand the main voltage for a very short period, otherwise it burns
out. As a result, of the difference in inductances, when the two are energised, the
current in the running winding lags behind the current in the starting winding by
about 30°, thereby implying that the single phase is split. In effect a phase difference
is created, a rotating field is formed and the motor starts. When the rotor reaches a
speed of 70–75 per cent of the rated speed, a shaft mounted centrifugal switch or a
starting relay in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig. 23.14 (a), opens
and cuts off the starting winding. The motor then runs on the running winding only.
These motors are available only in 35-350 W sizes.
Running Winding
Centrifugal Switch
or Starting Relay
Output Shaft
Starting Winding
Supply
Squirrel-cage
Rotor
Fig. 23.14(a) Split-phase
The windings of the capacitor-start-induction-run motor are similar to those of

the split-phase motor. This motor has a capacitor in addition to the centrifugal switch
in series with the starting winding as shown in Fig. 23.14 (b). With this, the phase
difference between the two windings can be increased to 90°. As a result, this motor
can develop a higher-starting torque. They are available in sizes up to 560 W.
Capacitor
Starting
Supply
Running Winding
Winding
Fig. 23.14(b) Capacitor-start-Induction-run
Example 23.1 Conversion of Split-phase Motor into Capacitor-Start Motor

A 5.48 cm3 displacement volume R12 compressor is used in a refrigerator. It has
a 120 W split-phase motor. When used with R134a and R152a, it was found that
the motor was tripping due to inadequate starting torque.
(a) A capacitor was introduced in the starting winding in order to increase
the starting torque by increasing the phase difference between the starting and
running windings from 33.3° to 90°. What is the ratio of new starting torque to
original starting torque?
(b) Cheque if the new starting torque is adequate.
Solution (a) Original starting torque

60 = K (sin 33.3°)
where K is the constant of motor depending on size, winding material, etc. New
starting torque
6 = K (sin 90°)
Ratio
6 Torque with capacitor sin 90° 1

= = = = 1.82
60 Torque without capacitor sin 33.3° 0.55
(b) Pressures for standard cycle for refrigerator, in bar
R 12 R134a R152a
Condenser at 55°C 13.61 14.92 13.32
Evaporator at –25°C 1.24 1.0685 0.9765
Torque available in motor (from R12 values)

1 1
612 = Vp (pk – po) = (5.48 ´ 10–6) (13.61 – 1.24)105 = 3.38 Nm
2 2
Torque required with R 134a and R 152a
1
6134a =
(5.48 ´ 10–6) (14.92 – 1.0685)105 = 3.8 Nm
2
1
6152a = (5.48 ´ 10–6) (13.32 – 0.9765)105 = 3.4 Nm
2
Torque provided by introducing capacitor
6 = 1.82 612 = 1.82 (3.38) = 6.1 Nm
It is greater than t134a and t152a. Hence, it is adequate.
Note The phase difference of 90° was created by introducing capacitor of 40 mF in the
starting winding.
The capacitor-start-capacitor-run motor has two capacitors as shown in
Fig. 23.14 (c). In this case, the centrifugal switch merely cuts off the starting capaci-
tor from the circuit. The motor operates with both the windings in the circuit. The
running capacitor is employed to correct the power factor. As a result, this motor has
a higher starting torque as well as a higher efficiency. These motors are employed in
sizes ranging from 375 W to 7.5 kW.
Running Starting
Capacitor Capacitor
Starting
Supply
Winding
Running
Winding
Fig. 23.14(c) Capacitor-start-capacitor-run
The permanent-capacitor motor shown in Fig. 23.14(d) does not have either a
starting capacitor or a starting switch. A small capacitor permanently remains in the
circuit creating the phase difference between the starting and running windings. It
also serves the purpose of power-factor correction. The starting torque of these
motors is very low. These are used in small fans only.
Supply
Fig. 23.14(d) Permanent capacitor
The construction of the shaded-pole motor shown in Fig. 23.14(e) is quite differ-
ent. In this, the main stator winding is arranged to form two poles. Also, there is a
shading coil covering a portion of each pole in the form of a few short-circuited
coils of copper wire. The shading coil acts as a starting winding by distorting
the magnetic field and thus producing a small starting torque. These motors are used
in applications requiring extremely small-sized motors such as modulating motors
for control.
Stator
Winding
Shading
Coil
Supply
Fig. 23.14(e) Shaded Pole
23.4.3 Hermetically-sealed Units

A hermetically-sealed unit consists of a compressor and its motor coupled
together and enclosed in a hermetically-sealed dome. The discharge line muffler,
necessary for attenuating vibration and noise, is also enclosed within the dome. Also,
the suction line is installed in such a way that cold suction vapour passes over the
motor windings, thus enabling them to cool, before being led to the compressor-
suction valve. A separate charging line is provided which communicates with the
suction space in the dome.
The application range of a conventional motor is from idling to full-load torque
because its winding temperature increases with increasing load. In the case of a
hermetic motor, the temperature of the windings is reduced on increasing load, to
an extent, as a result of greater cooling by the increased mass of the high-density

suction vapour entering the compressor. The hermetic motor can, therefore, be
utilized quite close to its breakdown torque without being thermally overloaded.
However, if the load decreases, there is a risk of its overheating. This results from a
decreased evaporator pressure at reduced load, and hence a lower density of the
suction vapour which may seriously affect the dissipation of heat from the windings.
Another important feature of hermetic motors is the winding insulation. Due to
recent developments of a new type of polyester-enamel material for winding wire,
the compressor windings can withstand temperatures as high as 130°C. The life of
such motors is more than 10,000 hours.
The presence of air is detrimental to the system. It increases the pressure ratio and
discharge temperature. In the presence of moisture and oxygen, acids are formed in
the system contributing to the dissolution of copper, i.e., copper crystals are formed
on the sliding surfaces, such as bearings, pistons and crank shafts. From this it is
clear that in a hermetic system a drier is essential since it ensures trouble-free opera-
tion during the entire life-span of the system.
23.4.4 Thermal Overload Protection for Hermetically-Sealed Units

Although refrigerant vapour and lubricating oil are used for the cooling of windings
in hermetically-sealed units, it is absolutely essential that a protection is provided
for the thermal overloading of these units. A thermal overload with a temperature
sensitive element fastened directly to the motor parts is, therefore, installed in these
units. The overload operates through a starting relay which is normally employed to
replace the shaft-mounted centrifugal switch. In a compressor, although the starting
winding is designed to take a relatively large current, but under locked rotor condi-
tions—which could arise due to many factors, such as poor supply voltage, unbal-
anced pressure conditions, etc.—the starting winding temperature rise is very fast
and may damage the insulation of starting windings eventually leading to burn-out.
This is avoided by the use of the overload-cum-starting relay. The overload is a
combination of a bi-metal and heater element. It is very precisely calibrated to oper-
ate under specific current and temperature conditions. The bimetallic strip must cut
out at a particular fixed temperature and cut in again when the temperature is
dropped from 70 to 84°C.
23.5 CONTROLS IN REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
A few common controls are described below.
23.5.1 High and Low Pressure Cut-outs

Refrigerant compressors are provided with high pressure (HP) and low pressure
(LP) cut-outs. Their designs are similar. The high pressure cut-out is merely a safety
control. When the head pressure increases beyond a set-point, the HP cut-out cycles
off the compressor in order to ward off the possible damage to the compressor.
When the head pressure subsequently drops, the circuit is once again closed and the
compressor starts. Some cutouts, however, require manual resetting. Because of the
possibility of scale formation in condenser tubes, and more important, the failure of
water supply, high pressure cut-outs are essential in systems with water-cooled
condensers.
A low pressure cut-out is used both as a safety control as well as temperature
control. Since the suction pressure is governed by the evaporator temperature, a low
pressure cut-out actuated by changes in suction pressure can be used to indirectly
control the evaporator temperature. It is suitable as a temperature controller in
remote installations in which the compressor is located quite some distance away
from the evaporator.
23.5.2 Capacity Control of Reciprocating Compressors

The methods of capacity control of reciprocating compressors have been described
in Chapter 6. The simplest method is that of the on-off control operated by the room
or chilled-water thermostat.
A commonly used method known as the pump-down cycle method involves the
use of both a thermostat and a low pressure cut-out as shown in Fig. 23.15. In this
cycle, the room thermostat, instead of starting and stopping the compressor, oper-
ates a solenoid valve installed in the liquid line of the refrigerant. With a rise in the
temperature of the room or chilled water, the thermostat closes the circuit, energis-
ing the solenoid valve which is lifted up, and allows the refrigerant to enter the
evaporator. The flow of the refrigerant into the evaporator raises the suction pres-
sure, closes the low pressure cut-out and starts the compressor. With a drop in the
temperature of the controlled medium, the thermostat operates the solenoid valve
and stops the flow of the liquid refrigerant to the evaporator. As the compressor
continues to run, the suction pressure and evaporator temperature continue to drop
until the low pressure cut-out opens and stops the compressor.
Power line
L.P. Cut-out
Solenoid
Liquid
Evaporator line
Motor
Compressor
Thermostat
Fig. 23.15 Pump-down cycle
There are many advantages of the pump-down cycle. It provides a dual control
and eliminates hunting of the compressor. An important advantage is the elimination
of crank case oil dilution by the absorption of the refrigerant which results in inad-
equate lubrication, excessive carry-over of the oil into the discharge line due to
foaming at low pressure and possible damage to the compressor due to the formation
of slugs of refrigerant and oil.
Large reciprocating compressors have a stepped-capacity control, achieved by

the loading and unloading of compressor cylinders by the lifting of suction valves
controlled by a thermostat or low pressure control.
23.5.3 Electrical Disturbances

Some of the faults in refrigeration plants along with their symptoms, mainly appear-
ing as electrical disturbances, are summarised below in Table 23.1.
Table 23.1 Electrical disturbances
Projector trips Compressor Compressor Compressor

during operation starts, but tries to start will
projector trips without not
immediately success, start,
after start projector no projector
trips trip
1 2 3 4
A. Faults in Electrical Components
Wrong motor projector ´ ´ ´
Defective motor projector ´
Wrong start relay ´ ´ ´
Defective start relay ´ ´
Wrong start capacitor ´
Defective start capacitor ´
Defective fan ´
Defective thermostat ´
Open circuit in compressor,
electrical equipment or leads ´
Earthing ´
B. Faults in Electrical Circuit
Extreme overvoltage ´ ´
Extreme under voltage or
weak line ´ ´ ´
Wrong rated voltage ´ ´ ´
Mains disconnected (fuses blown) ´
C. Defective Compressor or Wrong
Application of Compressor
Mechanical defects ´
Wrong application range
(evaporating temp.) ´ ´
Wrong application
(ambient temp). ´
Wrong voltage range ´ ´ ´
D. Defects in Refrigeration System
Dirty condenser ´
Capillary tube partly or
completely blocked ´
System overcharged ´ ´
System or Cabinet
(Contd.)
Table 23.1 (Contd.)

E. Wrong Design of Refrigeration
System or Cabinet
Condenser too small ´
Wrong condenser design ´
Wrong evaporator design (too
large volume) ´
Too high equalizing pressure ´
Wrong capillary tube ´
Bad mounting conditions for
compressor or condenser ´
Wrong thermostat differential ´
F. Other Conditions
Very low compressor temperature ´
23.6 CONTROLLING ROOM CONDITIONS

AT PARTIAL LOAD
An air-conditioning plant is selected for design peak load conditions. But most of
the time the plant operates under partial load which is either due to change in the
outside conditions or due to withdrawal of load. The control of room conditions
under part load is, therefore, very important. For this purpose, one or more of the
following methods may be employed:
(i) On-off control of the air-handling unit or refrigeration unit.
(ii) Controlled bypass of the air-entering apparatus.
(iii) Varying water flow in the chilled-water coil.
(iv) Reheating the supply air.
(v) Controlling the volume of the supply air.
23.6.1 On-off Control
In the on-off control of the air-handling unit or fan-coil unit, the fan motor is operated
intermittently by the room thermostat, the bulb of which is installed in the return air. In
this, the refrigerant or chilled water continues to flow through the cooling coil. This
results in fluctuating room temperature. In the on-off control of the refrigeration unit,
the compressor operates intermittently. The air continues to flow over the cooling coil
and in the room. This method also causes fluctuations in room conditions but ensures
continuous air movement and is quite convenient in small air conditioners.
23.6.2 Bypass Control Using Face and Bypass Dampers

The bypass control maintains a constant DBT in the room by bypassing a part of the
return air entering the cooling coil from the apparatus and thus increasing the supply
air temperature. The schematic diagram of a bypass control with a typical D-X coil
is shown in Fig. 23.16. The method is employed on chilled water coils as well. Its
psychrometrics is illustrated in Fig. 23.17. As distinct from the inherent bypass of
the air due to the bypass factor of the cooling coil, in bypass control the entering air
is purposely diverted around the cooling coil. By far, this is the most common
method of control adopted by the industry.
Return Air Duct
Dampers
Bypass
Coil Bypassed
Air
Mixed
Air Filters To Supply Air Fan
Conditioned
Dampers
Air
Face
Solenoid
Modulating Valve Room
Motor Thermostat
Liquid
Fresh Air Inlet Suction Line Line
Fig. 23.16 Face and bypass control
o¢
1
i
s 1
i¢
S s¢
i
s
S¢
tS ti
t
Fig. 23.17 Psychrometry of bypass control
The method of bypassing the mixture rather than the room air is inferior
because in this case the outside air is also bypassed and is introduced into the room,
thus causing an increase in relative humidity of the room. Why the return air alone
should be bypassed in preference to the mixture or outside air, is explained below.
Referring to Fig. 23.17, let S at ADP of the coil represent the supply air state at
full load, assuming the BPF of the coil as zero. Now consider a case when the RSH
load decreases to 50 per cent and the RLH load remains the same. This may coincide
with a reduction in the outside air dry bulb temperature. Assume, therefore, that the
outside air condition changes from o to o¢. At this reduced 50 per cent RSH load, the
condition of the supply air should be at s as shown in Fig. 23.17, where
i−s
= 0.5
i−S
Presuming that the ADP of the coil is unaffected, a bypass of the mixture at 1
around the coil would result in a condition of the supply air slightly above s, viz., at s¢
on the line joining 1 to S. Since the change in the condition of the supply air would
occur along a new RSHF line, which is steeper due to the RLH load remaining the
same, the condition of the room air achieved by this controlled bypass by a thermostat
will be at i¢. The space condition will thus be at a higher moisture content than state i.
A bypass of the outside air at o around the coil would result in the supply air
condition little more above s, and at a still higher humidity in the room.
If the change in the outside air condition from o to o¢ is also considered, then the
bypass of the mixture at 1¢ would result in a supply air condition at s², and the room
condition at a further higher humidity at i².
Thus when any outside air is bypassed, the effect is to raise the room humidity.
Hence the bypass should be normally that of recirculated room air and should be
arranged as in Fig. 23.18 in preference to the arrangement in Fig. 23.16.
Outside
Filter Air
Face Damper
Fan
Coil
Bypass
Damper Recirculated Air
Fig. 23.18 Arrangement with bypass of return air only
Even if no outside air is bypassed, the entering air state will be above 1 and the
room humidity will again be higher. This leads to a lack of humidity control.
However, the decrease in the flow of air over the cooling apparatus decreases the
load on the cooling coil. As a result, the ADP drops from S to S¢ and the air leaves at
a lower temperature. The supply air state, therefore, is closer to s than to s¢ and s²
and the change in the room humidity is not to the extent as shown. Nevertheless, coil
icing may result at higher bypass rates. This may be eliminated by using a pump-
down cycle by installing a solenoid valve as shown in Fig. 23.15.
A bypass control can be used in chilled water coils also. The method is conven-
iently employed in single zone as well as multizone units for the air conditioning of
large spaces.
Example 23.2 (a) Given for the air conditioning of a plant:

Outside desing conditions : 40°C DB, 25°C WB
Room sensible heat : 40 kW
Room latent heat : 10 kW
Ventilation air : 25% of supply air.
Calculate the state and rate of supply air, and the design duty of the cooling
coil. Assume the bypass factor of the coil as zero.
(b) A thermostat is employed to maintain the room temperature in the above
plant using face and bypass dampers. The outside air dry bulb temperature
changes to 34°C, the wet bulb temperature remaining the same, and thereby the
room sensible heat load is reduced to half while the latent heat load remains the
same. Determine to the first approximation:
(i) The amount of air bypassed by the control.
(ii) The relative humidity maintained in the room.

(a) At full load: Room sensible heat factor
40
RSHF = = 0.8
40 + 10
o
27.3 °C
0.67 RSHF 1
Line
i
s 1
HF i
S
s 0.8 RS
Line
Controlled room
temperature
11°C 17.5°C 24°C

t
Apparatus dew point from psychrometric chart (Room ADP, BPF = 0)

tS = 11°C
Dehumidified or supply air quantity
RSH 40
(cmm)d = = = 150.8
0.0204 (ti - t S ) 0.0204 (24 - 11)
Ventilation air (cmm)0= 0.25 (cmm)d = 0.25 (150.8) = 37.7

Recirculated room air (cmm)i = (cmm)d – (cmm)0 = 150.8 – 37.7 = 113.1
Ventilation load
OATH = 0.02 (cmm)0 (ho – hi)
= 0.02 (37.7) (76.2 – 48.1) = 21.2 kW
Design duty of cooling coil
GTH = RTH + OATH
= (40 + 10) + 21.2 = 71.2 kW
(b) At part load:
Supply air temperature at 50 per cent RSH
1
ts = (ti + tS)
2
1
= (24 + 11) = 17.5°C
2
Bypassed room air
ti - t s
(cmm)i, bypassed = (cmm)d
ti - t S
1
=
(cmm)d
2
1
= (150.8) = 75.4
2
Recirculated air through apparatus
(cmm)i, apparatus = 150.8 – 75.4 = 75.4
The ventilation air through the coil remains the same.
Dry bulb temperature of the entering air through the coil
(cmm)i , apparatus ti + (cmm) 0 t 0¢
t¢2 =
(cmm)i , apparatus + (cmm) 0
75.4 (24) + 37.7(34)

= = 27.3°C
75.4 + 37.7
Join the entering air state 1¢ to the apparatus dew point S. The new supply air
condition lies at s¢ on the line 1¢ – S at a DBT of 17.5°C. New room sensible heat factor
20
RSHF¢ = = 0.67
20 + 10
Draw a 0.67 RSHF line from s¢ to the controlled DBT line of 24°C. This locates
the controlled room conditions at i¢. The relative humidity at this point read from the
psychrometric chart is 60%.
Note A more elaborate calculation would show that the coil ADP is lowered and the
actual relative humidity maintained in the room is not so high.
23.6.3 Varying Flow of Water in Chilled-Water (C-W) Coil

In this case the room thermostat operates a three-way or straight-through valve, sup-
plying chilled water to the cooling coil through a modulating motor or a two-position
control. The valve throttles the water thereby varying the flow rate. The three way
valve mixes fresh chilled water with return chilled water, and this varies the entering
water temperature (EWT). The temperature of water does not remain constant in C-W
coil. It is essential in the case of a chilled-water coil, therefore, to have a counterflow
arrangement between air and water as shown in Fig. 23.20.
Chilled
Water
Supply
Return
Room
Thermostat
Modulating
Motor
Mixed
Air
Cooling Coil
Fig. 23.20 Control by varying chilled water flow and/or temperature
Since the water temperature rise will be greater than the design rise due to smaller
flow rate, or the mixed water temperature will be higher at part load, the surface
temperature of the coil and hence the ADP will normally increase. Thus dehumidifica-
tion of air will be reduced, and the supply air state will be above s¢ or s¢ in Fig. 23.17.
Consequently, this method would maintain a higher humidity in the room than the
method of controlled bypass of air. Nevertheless, the method is conveniently applied
in the air conditioning of multistoreyed buildings with a large number of rooms, each
having its individual fan-coil unit (FCU) and chilled-water supply. Varying C-W
flow is another common FCU method of control, along with bypass control, pre-
ferred by the industry.
Note If it is desired that the relative humidity does not alter, a return-air humidstat can
control the water flow rate, while the thermostat can control the bypass of air. Such a
combination offers the possibility of maintaining both temperature and humidity,
simultaneously, in the conditioned space.
23.6.4 Reheat Control

Any increase in the latent heat load and decrease in the sensible heat load of the
room can be handled by employing reheat of the supply air. Reheat thus provides an
artificial load on the room as illustrated in Fig. 19.8 and maintains a constant dry
bulb temperature. But there is no control on the room relative humidity.
The psychrometrics of reheat control is explained in Fig. 23.21. The broken lines
in the figure represent the processes at part load. The room thermostat senses the
temperature of the room air. As soon as the temperature drops below the design
value, the thermostat operates the reheat coil. The leaving air at 2 is reheated to s and
then supplied to the room along the part-load sensible-heat-factor line s–i. The posi-
tion of the point s can be located on the intersection of the horizontal from 2 with the
line of minimum RSHF drawn from i.
HF F
GS RSH i
2 3
S
s
Reheat RSHF
Line at
Part Load
tADP ti
t
Fig. 23.21 Psychrometrics of reheat control
If the plant is operating under part-load conditions, the latent-heat load may also
reduce along with the sensible heat load. Then, the resulting room condition will be
at 3 and the RSHF line will be s–3.
As reheat adds to the requirement of refrigerating capacity, it is wasteful of
energy, and is, therefore, not commonly used in air conditioning except for high
latent-load applications.
23.6.5 Volume Control

The control of the quantity of the supply air to room essentially provides the same
type of control as obtained by bypassing the recirculated room air. A problem
encountered with volume control is the non-uniform distribution of air within the
conditioned space. It is, therefore, desirable to see that the supply air quantity at
partial load is sufficient for satisfactory distribution.
23.7 INDUCTION SYSTEM
In the constant-volume induction system, the central plant conditions only fresh air.
The supply air is maintained at a constant temperature of about 10°C. A constant
volume of this primary air is led to the room through an induction unit as shown in
Fig. 23.22. This primary air induces a stream of secondary room air. The mixture
can be further treated in the coil installed in the unit.
Conditioned Air
Mixing
Chamber
Coil
2
Secondary
Room Air i Nozzle
Section
1 Attenuating
Plenum
Primary
Air Inlet
Fig. 23.22 Induction unit
The all-air-constant-volume induction system is particularly suitable for spaces

having a large ratio of the floor area to height, requiring horizontal duct-work and
piping. The treated fresh-air duct in this case is designed as a high-pressure system.
Example 23.3 The air-conditioning system of a building has a central plant

which processes fresh air from 43°C DB and 24°C WB to 12°C DB and 11°C
WB. The rooms have induction units with individual thermostat control to main-
tain the room at 24°C by modulating the supply of chilled water through the
room coil in which only sensible cooling takes place. The induction ratio is 4 by
volume. The room sensible and latent heat gains are 5 and 1 kW respectively.
The primary air delivered to the room is 8 cmm. Calculate:
(a) The relative humidity in the room.
(b) The cooling loads on the central plant and room induction unit.
(c) The grand total heat.
Solution Refer to Fig. 23.23. The fresh air is treated from o to 1. The primary air
is at 1. The secondary room air at i is sensibly cooled to 2 in the induction unit. The
supply state s is obtained by the mixing of 2 and 1 in the given ratio.
Secondary room-air quantity
(cmm)2 = 4 (cmm)1 = 4(8) = 32 cmm
Supply air quantity
(cmm)s = 8 + 32 = 40 cmm
2
0.0102
s i
0.0077
1
t

RSH
ts = ti –
0.0204 (cmm) s
5
= 24 – = 17.9°C
0.0204 ( 40)
(a) Room latent-heat balance:
RLH = 50(cmm)s (wi – ws)
FG 4 wi + w1 IJ
= 50 (cmm)s w i -
H 5 K
FG 4 wi + 0.0077 I
JK
1 = 50(40) w i -
H 5
whence wi = 0.0102 kg/kg
The room relative humidity from the psychrometric chart at ti = 24°C and
wi = 0.0102 kg/kg is found to be 53.5%.
(b) Specific humidity of air after cooling in the induction unit:
w2 = wi = 0.0102 kg/kg
Dry bulb temperature at 2
(cmm) s t s - (cmm)1 t1
t2 =
(cmm) 2
40(17.9) - 8(12)
= = 19.4°C
32
Enthalpies at, o, i, 1 and 2 from the psychrometric chart
ho = 68.0 kJ/kg
hi = 50.0 kJ/kg
h2 = 45.0 kJ/kg
h1 = 31.5 kJ/kg
Cooling load on the room-induction unit

Q = 0.02 (cmm)2 (hi – h2)
= 0.02(32) (50 – 40) = 6.4 kW
Cooling load on the central plant
OATH = 0.02 (cmm)1 (ho – h1)
= 0.02 (8) (68 – 31.5) = 5.84 kW
(c) Grand total heat
GTH = 6.4 + 5.84 = 12.24 kW
Example 23.4 Year-round A/C System with Sprayed Coil and Induction
Unit.
Figure 23.24 shows the schematic arrangement of the central plant of an year-
round A/C system with induction unit. The room units have individual
thermostats controlling water flow in coils. The induction ratio (IR) is 4.
The system is designed for sprayed coil with C-W spray in summer, and
pumped recirculation in winter.
(a) Summer design conditions are:
Outside air : 43.3°C DBT, 28.3°C WBT
Air off cooling coil : 11.7°C DBT, 10.6°C WBT
Primary air : 15.6°C DBT
RSH gain : 4.5 kW
RLH gain : 0.5 kW
Design room temperature: 22.2°C
Calculate:
(i) Primary air quantity. Mixed supply air temperature is limited to 13.3°C.
(ii) Cooling load on room coil in induction unit, and condition of air leaving
room coil.
(iii) Relative humidity in the room.
(b) Winter design conditions are:
Outside air : –1.1°C DBT, 80% RH
Air off pre-heater : 26.7°C
Humidifying efficiency : 80% (of sprayed coil)
RSH loss : 3.3 kW
RLH gain : 0.5 kW
Assuming the unit handles the same supply air volume, and the room is still to
be maintained at 22.2°C, calculate:
(i) Primary air temperature.
(ii) Temperature of mixed supply air.
(iii) Relative humidity in the room.
Solution (a) Summer Air Conditioning: (Fig. 23.25)

(i) Mixed supply air quantity
RSH 4.5
m as = = = 0.5 kg/s
C p (ti - t s ) 1.0216 (22.2 - 13.3)
Supply Air from

Induction Unit
Room
s
Room
Exhaust i Cooling Coil
Air
Secondary
4 i Air
Primary 3
Air
Nozzle
Pre-heater Re-heater Fan 3
Fresh
Air
0 1 2
Sprayed Coil
Fig. 23.24 Schematic arrangement of year-round A/C system for Example 23.4
28
.3°
C
W
BT
0, 1
Sprayed C-W
Coil
, g/kg
44.9 kJ/kg Room
Coil
34.8 kJ/kg i
4
s
7.56
2 3
10.6 °C
11.7 13.3 15.6 22.2 43.3
t , °C
Fig. 23.25 Summer A/C psychrometrics for Example 23.4
Primary air quantity

1
m a3 = m as = 0.1 kg/s
5
Secondary air quantity
4
m a4 =
m as = 0.4 kg/s
5
(ii) Condition of air off sprayed coil
t2 = 11.7°C, t¢2 = 10.6°C, w2 = 7.56 g/kg d.a., h2 = 44.9 kJ/kg d.a.
Moisture balance of room gives
RLH
wi = w3 +
m a3 (h fg ) 22.2°C
FG
0.5 1000 IJ
= 7.56 +
0.1 2561H K
= 9.51 g w.v./kg d.a.
Þ hi = 47.0 kJ/kg d.a. (As a function of ti, wi)

Cooling load on room cooling coil, by energy balance of room
m a (hi – h3) = RSH + RLH – Q Coil
3
Þ Q Coil = RSH + RLH – m a3 (hi – h3)

= 4.5 + 0.5 – 0.1 (47 – 34.8) = 3.78 kW
Condition of air leaving room coil
Q 3.78
h4 = hi – Coil = 47 – = 37.6 kJ/kg
m a4 0.4
w4 = wi = 9.51 g.w.v./kg d.a.
Þ t4 = 15°C
(iii) Relative humidity in room
(RH)room = 58% (As a function of ti, wi)
(b) Winter Air Conditioning: (Fig. 23.26)
Volumes handled in summer (L3 @ L4 @ Ls = 0.83 m3/kg d.a.)
Q Ls = 0.5 (0.83) = 0.415 m3/s, Q L3 = 0.081 m3/s,
Q L4 = 0.324 m3/s
Assume Ls @ L3 @ L4 = 0.85 m3/kg d.a. for winter.
Mass flow rates in winter, with volume flow rates same as in summer
QLs 0.415
m as = = a3 = 0.098 kg/s, m a4 = 0.392 kg/s
= 0.49 kg/s, m
Ls 0.85
Humidity off air washer
w3 = w2 = w1 + hH (w¢1 – w) = 2.8 + 0.8 (8.8 – 2.8) = 7.6 g/kg d.a.
34 kJ/kg 4, i
2 s 8.8
1 2
6 kJ/kg 3 7.6
Air
, g/kg
80% Washer Reheater

Pre-heater
2.8
0 1
–1.1 22.2 26.7

0.85
0.78
DBT, °C
m/
m/
3 kg
2 kg
Fig. 23.26 Winter A/C psychrometrics for Example 23.4

Moisture balance of room gives

0.5 1000 FG IJ
wi = 7.6 +
0.098 2561 H K
= 9.59 w.v./kg d.a.
Þ hi = 47.5 kJ/kg d.a. (As a function of ti, wi)

Energy balance of room gives
RSH + RLH 3.3 + 0.5
h 3 = hi + = 47.5 + = 76.1 kJ/kg d.a.
m as 0.098
(i) Primary air temperature
t3 = 56°C (As a function of w3, h3)
(ii) Room sensible heat balance gives
RSH 3.3
hs = hi + = 47.5 + = 54.2 kJ/kg d.a.
m a s
0.49
Temperature of mixed supply air
4 ti + t 3 4(22.2) + 56
ts = = = 29°C
5 5
Note Check vs. The assumption is found to be satisfactory.
References
1. Andersen, S A, Automatic Refrigeration, MacLaren, Nordborg, Denmark,
1959.
2. Dossat, R I, Principles of refrigeration, John Wiley, New York, 1961.
3. Haines R W, Control Systems for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1977.
Revision Exercises
23.1 (a) An air-conditioning plant with face and bypass control by a room ther-
mostat is designed to maintain the conditioned space at 25°C DB and 50
per cent RH, when the outside design conditions are 43°C DB and 24°C
WB, and the room sensible and latent heat gains are 80 and 20 kW
respectively. The ventilation air is 75 cmm. Calculate the state and rate
of the supply air and design duty of the cooling coil. Assume the bypass
factor of the apparatus as zero.
(b) If the room total heat is reduced to half when the outside-design condi-
tions change to 34°C DB and 24°C WB, determine the amount of
mixture of the recirculated room air and ventilation air bypassed and
the relative humidity maintained in the conditioned space.
23.2 (a) The inside design conditions in a space are 21°C DB and 0.0078 kg/kg
moisture content. The outside design conditions are 30°C DB and
0.011 kg/kg moisture content. The room sensible and latent heat gains
are 17.5 and 3.5 kW respectively. The design supply air temperature is
15.5°C. The ventilation air is 25% of supply air.
The air-conditioning plant comprises a mixing chamber, an air washer
with chilled-water circulation and a reheater. A room thermostat con-
trols the reheater and a room humidstat controls the chilled-water flow
in the air washer. Calculate, under the design conditions, the state and
rate of supply air, cooling load on the air washer and amount of reheat.
(b) If the room sensible and latent heat gains change to 20.5 and 5.5 kW
respectively when the outside condition changes to 33°C DB and 22°C
WB, determine approximately the conditions maintained in the room
and the amount of reheat.
Assume that the supply air rate and cooling duty of the air washer
remain the same.
23.3 The peak cooling load requirements for a large banquet hall are as follows:
Space sensible heat : 380,000 kJ/hr
Space latent heat : 250,000 kJ/hr
Ventilation air : 190 cmm
Determine the space cooling load, the reheat load and the total refrigerating
capacity. Make suitable assumptions.
If the space sensible heat load decreases by 10%, what will be the condition
maintained in the room with coil bypass control?
"
Applications in Food
Refrigeration/Processing and
Industrial Air Conditioning
Air conditioning for comfort is one of the most common application of refrigeration,
and it has been dealt with at length in the preceding chapters. However, the most
significant application of refrigeration is in food preservation, whether it is by way
of processing or for storage. Processing is done by heating, heat drying, etc., and by
refrigeration such as in chilling, freezing or freeze-drying. Storage may be of either
chilled or frozen product. Some of the important products involved in processing are
candy, beverages, meat, poultry, fish, bakery and dairy products, fruits and vegeta-
bles, fruit-juice concentrates, precooked foods, etc. The common products preserved
by storage after chilling are fruits such as apples, pears, grapes, citrus fruits, etc.,
vegetables such as onions, potatoes, tomatoes, etc., and dry fruits, candies, milk,
eggs and their products. Storage under frozen conditions is resorted to for preserv-
ing the food value as well as to store perishable products over a long period. The
common items of frozen food are fish, meat, poultry, and some vegetables such
as peas, beans, carrots, cauliflower, etc. It may be noted that all products are not
amenable to freezing.
An interesting feature of the chilled and frozen food industry is the cold chain that
must be maintained from the farm to the consumer. An important link in this chain is
that of transport refrigeration.
In this chapter, a few problems in food refrigeration and dehydration have been
studied from the point of view of thermodynamic and heat transfer principles. It
must be stated here that processing by simple heat drying is a more economical way
of food preservation. However, with many products, it may involve loss of quality in
which case it is not considered suitable. The study of the drying process involves
psychrometric principles.
24.1 TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING

BY REFRIGERATION1 AND STORAGE
A few typical examples of food processing by refrigeration and the operating

conditions involved may be of interest to the readers.
24.1.1 Candy Manufacture

The proportion of various ingredients in candy manufacture may vary. The main
constituents are, however, sucrose and glucose and in some cases dextrose. These
and other ingredients used are sensitive to temperature and/or humidity. They change
readily to the liquid form depending on temperature and humidity. Accordingly,
temperatures must not be higher than 21°C and the relative humidity should be less
than 60 per cent.
Chocolate is the main item of candy, and cocoa butter is its principal ingredient.
For most practical purposes, 30°C may be considered as the freezing point of choco-
late. At usually encountered ambient temperatures of 45°C, the chocolate will
become soft and will deteriorate fast in quality. Its latent heat of fusion is approxi-
mately equal to 70–93 kJ/kg. The average values of specific heats before and after
freezing are 2.34 and 1.26 kJ/kg.K respectively. Chocolate bars are cast in metal
moulds which are pre-cooled to 15°C. The dew-point temperature of the cold room
in which solidification takes place and the packing room should be below 15°C so
that there is no condensation of moisture on the product. The usual temperature
maintained is between 4-10°C. In the case when solidification is carried out in a
tunnel, chilled air at 4°C is made to flow counter-current to the direction of move-
ment of the product.
24.1.2 Beverage Processing

The main items of manufacture are beers, wines and carbonated drinks.
Beer is manufactured from malted barley. Barley is first seeped in water at a
temperature of 10 to 15°C for 2–3 days until germination, after which it is spread
over, by draining off the water, for further germination. The grain is then malted in
slowly revolving or agitated drums in which the moisture content is reduced to 4 per
cent in a kiln. The malted dried sprouts are separated from the grain and stored for
future use. These contain starch and diastase.
This malt is then crushed and suspended into water and made into a mash.
Another portion is cooked separately with corn or rice. The two streams are mixed
so that the temperature is about 70°C. After a period of rest for the mash, the diastase
of the malt splits the starch of the grain into sugar maltose (C12H22O11) and to some
extent glucose (C6H12O6) by enzymatic action. The sweet wort thus produced is
transferred to a kettle where hops are added. After boiling, it is quickly cooled to
7 to 10°C and after adding yeast, is transferred to a cellar for fermentation under
refrigeration. Here maltose is converted into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide as
follows:
C12 H22 O11 + H2O ® 4 C2H5OH + 4 CO2
This is an exothermic reaction. The heat of reaction is 652 kJ/kg of maltose
which must be continuously removed. The temperature in the fermentation tank is
maintained at about 7-12°C by chilled wear or brine coils.
Refrigeration is also required in the stock cellar where the beer is retained from
3 weeks to 3 months for aging, and in the finishing cellar where it is polished by
filtration and carbonation. The carbon dioxide produced during fermentation
is liquified for use for carbonation later. Further, hops are stored at a temperature of
–2 to 0°C and at a relative humidity of 50 to 60 per cent.
Applications in Food Refrigeration/Processing and Industrial Air Conditioning 799
In wine-making also, refrigeration is required in three stages, viz.,

(i) for the control of temperature during fermentation,
(ii) for the removal of excess potassium tartrate by cold precipitation, and
(iii) for storage.
The quality of wine is greatly affected by the temperature of fermentation
which should not exceed 29°C for red wine and 15°C for white wine. The minimum
cooling requirement for fermentation is 31 kJ/kg of must. For grapes of high-
sugar content, it can be up to 52 kJ/kg. Often chilled-water cooling coils are used in
concrete fermentors.
For the cooling of wine for precipitating excess potassium bitartrate, the lowest
possible temperatures above the freezing point of wine are used. The freezing points
vary between–13 and – 6°C.
The quality of wine also depends on the temperature and length of storage. Some
wines require as low a temperature as 7°C for storage.
In carbonated-drink manufacturing plants, refrigeration is required to cool the
water, syrup or finished product.
24.1.3 Bakery Products

Bread is the most important bakery product. During the preparation of the mix for
the dough, the heat of hydration and heat of friction of the churner, equivalent to the
electrical input power, are generated. As the temperature of dough should not
exceed 24–25°C, the best way to keep the temperature low is to add chilled water at
2–4°C for the preparation of the mix. The mixer is jacketed with a direct-expansion
coil at a temperature of 0°C.
The doughs are then placed in troughs for fermentation for a period of 3 12 to
5 hours. During the process, the temperature may rise by 4-6°C. It is, therefore,
desirable to keep them in a room at a temperature of 26°C.
Refrigeration is needed in the manufacture of other bakery products also in order
to maintain uniformity of the product, prevent spoilage and for storage.
24.1.4 Meat Products

Ammonia-refrigeration systems are commonly used for the chilling of carcass and
for holding them in rooms. The cooling is by chilled-brine spray or sprayed coil.
In the case of brine, a 20 per cent solution of NaCl is chilled to a temperature –7
to –9°C. The brine absorbs heat and moisture from the air. The diluted brine leaving
the room must be strengthened regularly. The majority of installations these days
use a sprayed-coil system with air being cooled with brine sprayed over a direct-
expansion coil.
The average specific heat of carcass is 3.0 kJ/kg.K. The carcass should be
reduced to a temperature of 1.5°C in a short time after slaughter. The room tempera-
ture could be as low as – 3.5°C. Refrigeration is also required for chilling water for
washing the product.
More and more of meat products are, however, being preserved by freezing. The
processing steps before freezing involve cutting, chipping, grinding, forming, press-
ing and slicing. The recommended storage temperature is – 29°C for a storage life of
12 months or more for beef, lamb, pork, etc. At – 23°C, a reasonable length of
storage between 8 to 18 months is possible. The product quality is seriously
impaired if the temperature goes up to – 9°C at any stage.
24.1.5 Poultry Products

Poultry meat is preserved both by chilling and freezing. Chilling requires a lower
capital investment whereas freezing offers quality and flexibility of operation.
A major fraction of poultry meat is processed and transported by liquid chilling by
the use of flake ice. Air chilling results in a considerable amount of dehydration at the
surface. The approximate time required for chilling to 7°C is about 115 minutes for
dressed birds, 50 minutes for eviscerated birds and 25 minutes for cut-up ones.
As for freezing, the use of air-blast tunnels operating at air temperatures of –29 to
– 40°C and air velocities of 2.5 m/s or more is recommended. This ensures rapid
freezing which is essential to obtain good quality and appearance.
Cooling is also required in poultry farms. A temperature higher than 29°C results
in reduced egg production and weight and thinner shells. A temperature of 24°C is
recommended for poultry-keeping.
24.1.6 Fishery Products

Refrigeration is required in many ways in the processing, preservation and transport
of fresh and frozen fish and their products. Care starts from the stage of catching in
fishing boats and trawlers.
Icing of fish is first done to chill it to a temperature of 0°C. The melt-water also
helps to wash off the slime and bacteria. Often the fish are stored in tanks using
refrigerated sea water at –1°C. It is found that shrimp when stored with refrigerated
sea water is superior to that stored with ice. The storage life of chilled fish is
normally 10-15 days.
Again, more and more of fish are being frozen these days. The valued varieties of
fish that are frozen include salmon, shrimp, shell fish, etc. Individual quick freezing
(IQF) techniques are preferred for these products. Quick freezing has many advan-
tages. It prevents bacterial spoilage and ensures rapid handling, packaging and good
appearance of the product, and also makes optimum utilization of the freezer space.
Quick-freezing is achieved by using low refrigeration temperatures.
The common methods of freezing are described in Sec. 24.4.1. Contact plate
freezers are suitable with large size products. Blocks of fish are frozen in multilay-
ered plates in contact with primary or secondary refrigerant. For obtaining
individual freezing of small-sized fish, such as shrimp, two methods are employed.
Air-blast freezers use air at – 29 to – 40°C flowing at 2.5 m/s or more. Immersion
freezers make use of liquid freon or even liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure.
The freezing time depends on the water content and thermophysical properties of
fish. It also depends on the refrigeration temperature. Frozen fish is normally stored
at a temperature of –23°C or lower.
24.1.7 Fruits and Vegetables

Storage requirements of most fruits and vegetables are given in Chapter 16. It
may be stated here that rapid pre-cooling after harvesting increases the storage life
considerably. Further, controlled atmosphere (CA) storage greatly reduces the

respiration rate and retards the deterioration of the product, thus increasing its stor-
age life. It may otherwise raise the requirement of the storage temperature. A con-
trolled atmosphere aims at maintaining the oxygen level at a low value of 3-5 per
cent and the carbon dioxide level at a high concentration of 3-10 per cent.
A few vegetables, such as peas, beans, carrots and cauliflower are also found
suitable for freezing. These are partially cooked before freezing. Quick freezing is
not so critical in the case of vegetables. Nevertheless, airblast freezers are com-
monly used for individual quick freezing of these products. Indirect immersion
freezing is also being resorted to on a small scale for packaged products.
Dehydro-freezing is another process that has been found successful in the preser-
vation of some products, such as apples, apricots, peas, etc. This involves partial
dehydration, and then freezing. The process retains the advantages of both, without
the disadvantages of either. One clear advantage is the reduced refrigeration load
during freezing. Another is the reduced weight of the product for transport. In sim-
ple dehydration, there is a marked deterioration in quality during the last stages of
drying. This is eliminated in dehydro-freezing.
24.1.8 Mushroom Cultivation and Storage: A Case Study

Mushroom cultivation, processing, transportation and storage has increased mani-
fold in the last few years. It provides an interesting case study. The stages involved
are as follows:
Stage Area of Inside Method Remarks
Treatment Conditions
I Growth period 15.5°C DBT, A/C by chilled-
(1 Month) 90% RH water plant and
steam injection
II Pre-cooling 3°C DBT, D-X plant with Rapid
(45 min) 90% RH Sprayed-coil pre-cooling after
harvesting
(5 min) –1°C DBT, Slight Cool-down
90% RH from 3°C to –1°C
III Cold Storage –1°C DBT, D-X plant and To maintain room
(1-2 hours) 90% RH product cooler condition at 90%
RH, –1°C, dehumi-
dified rise is only
3.5°C approx. Air
flow, is, therefore,
very high
IV Packing Hall Normal
(5 – 10 min) A/C
V Cold Room –1°C DBT, D-X plant and As in Stage III
(1-2 days) 90% RH product coolers
VI Transportation and storage: Conditions of –1°C DBT and 90% RH will
have to be maintained throughout.
24.1.9 Dairy Products

Most dairy plants pre-cool milk to 2.5°C before processing for the separation of
cream and blending for producing standardized quality. There are hot as well as cold
milk separators. In the latter, the separation process takes place at a temperature of
4°C. After separation and blending, the milk is sent for pasteurization which is ac-
complished by heating followed by the chilling of milk. Heating is done either by hot
water or steam and holding the milk at 62°C for about 30 minutes. The milk is then
cooled first by water from a cooling tower and then by chilled water. The rate of
flow of chilled water should be such that its rise in temperature is not more than
5.5°C. When a direct-expansion system is used for cooling, the refrigerant flow is
controlled by an automatic expansion valve so that the temperature does not drop
below –2°C lest the milk may freeze. A water-chilling equipment normally consists
of an ice-bank type water chiller consisting of an insulated tank with water, direct-
expansion coil and pump. This system ensures a constant temperature of chilled
water of 0 – 1°C. Also, it takes care of load fluctuations by allowing excess refrig-
eration to be stored in the form of ice on immersed coils.
Refrigeration is also required for cooling the cream before churning and the
mechanical separation of butter. For the storage of butter, a temperature of 0 to
4°C is satisfactory. But for a storage for 6 months or more, a temperature of – 23 to
– 18°C must be used. This is the same as for some frozen products. Thus butter can
be kept in freezer compartment of refrigerators for storing beyond a period of six
months or more.
Ice-cream manufacture is another industry that makes great use of refrigeration.
The ice-cream freezer has to whip in a certain amount of air in the mix, simultane-
ously with freezing. The product is 0 to 100 per cent frozen between the temperature
range of – 2.5 to – 55°C approximately.
24.1.10 Cold Storage Design

Cold storage is a low temperature refrigeration application. To keep the size of the
refrigeration unit small, and power consumption low, it is necessary to construct the
storage such that the cooling load is minimized.
Accordingly, 10 to 15 cm thick insulation is applied on the walls and ceiling.
The common insulating materials are expanded polysterene (thermocole) and
poly-urethane foam (PUF). Their respective thermal conductivities are as follows:
Thermal Conductivity, Thermocole PUF

W/m°C 0.037 0.0173
It is seen that PUF has half the value of thermal conductivity of thermocole. PUF
is, therefore, preferable to thermocole. Manufacturers, these days, are making sand-
wich PUF panels also which are used to assemble pre-fabricated cold stores. These
panels are in the form of a sandwich consisting of two steel plates with core of a rigid
PUF in between. Foaming is performed in a hydraulic press. PUF is injected in
a mould under high pressure. The foaming agent is a CFC-free substance say,
propane. The value of overall heat-transfer coefficient of a 10 cm PUF panel is:
U = 0.2 W/m2°C
Note The flooring can also be provided with a PUF slab, and the requisite water-proofing
and RCC finish will have to be done.
The load calculation for a cold store is separated into the following main sources
of heat for a given 24-hour period.
(i) Transmission load.
(ii) Air change (infiltration) load.
(iii) Miscellaneous loads like electric motors, lighting, people, etc.
(iv) Product load, sensible.
(v) Product load, respiration.
The average air changes per 24 hours for storage rooms above 0°C due to the
door openings and infiltration may range from 10 for small cold room of 90 m3
volume to 1 for large cold storage of about 900 m3 volume.
Although most of the load in refrigerated room is due to transmission, air changes
and product, the loads due to lighting, motors and people working should not be
overlooked.
The product load consists of three separate components:
(a) Sensible: This is the amount of heat that must be removed to bring the product
to storage temperature. It depends on specific heat of the product.
(b) Latent: This is the amount of heat that must be removed to freeze the product.
It depends on latent heat of fusion. And it is applicable in the case of frozen
food storage. Example: 2500 kJ/kg of heat removal required for the harden-
ing of ice-cream.
(c) Respiration: Fresh fruits and vegetables are alive. They undergo changes even
when stored at low temperatures releasing heat of respiration. Typical values
of this sensible heat are given in Table 19.3.
Note (i) When product load is calculated on per hour basis then a correction factor for
taking into account pull-down time other than 24-hours must be applied as
follows:
24 hours
Pull - down time
(ii) A safety factor of 10% is also added to allow for any omissions and inaccuracies.
When load in kW has been determined, the-condensing unit is selected first to
give a capacity greater than the cooling/freezing load. The fan-coil unit is then
selected to balance the capacity of the condensing unit.
The nature of the product governs the choice of relative humidity to be main-
tained in the room. The relative humidity, in turn, determines the choice of refrigera-
tion temperature. Higher the humidity, higher the refrigeration temperature. The
table below gives recommended temperature differences between the air in the
storage room and the saturated suction temperature of the refrigerant in the forced
convection evaporator, depending on room relative humidity.
Product type RH Temp. Difference Remarks

Fruits, Vegetables, 90% 4 – 5°C Minimum moisture
flowers, etc. loss
General storage, 80–85% 6°C Products require
packed products. lower RH
Pharmaceuticals, 65–80% 7–9°C Products require
beer, potatoes, moderate RH
onions, tough-skin
fruits, etc.
Prep./cutting rooms, 50–65% 9–12°C Products not
candy, etc. affected by RH
Note In cold storage applications, it is recommended that load be divided into multiple
units to provide for some capacity control, since the refrigeration system has to be selected
for the worst (maximum load) conditions which may occur even for one day in the year.
Important considerations in the selection and location of fan-coil units are:
(i) Air should be directed to move where there is heat gain, e.g., towards walls
and ceiling.
(ii) Total supply of air is around 40-80 air changes per hour. This is so because
the dehumidified rise is very small.
Example 24.1 Cold Storage Psychrometrics

A small cold storage has the dimensions 8.5 m ´ 5 m ´ 2.5 m height. The design
conditions are:
Outside: 43°C DBT, 27°C WBT
Inside: 2°C DBT, 90% RH
The transmission load is estimated as 1.5 kW. The fan motor and lighting load
is assumed as 0.3 kW. The product loading is 2000 kg of fruits/vegetables
every day. Assume 6 air changes per day equivalent of infiltration due to door
openings. Determine:
(i) Refrigerating capacity required.
(ii) Approximate saturated suction temperature of refrigerant.
(iii) Number of air changes of supply air.

As the inside condition is very close to saturation curve, all psychrometric proper-
ties are found by calculation rather than by using psychrometric chart. The same are
as follows:
DBT,°C WBT,°C RH,% p¢L, mmHg ps, mmHg pL, mmHg DPT, °C w, g/kg h, kJ/kg
Outside 43 27 29 26.74 64.8 18.79 15.77 83.91
Inside 2 90 4.93 4.437 –0.39 3.653 11.16
Volume of space V = 8.5 ´ 5 ´ 2.5 = 106.25 m3

– 0.39 °C 90% RH
i g
i = 3.653
kg d.a.
s
S
0.03 =
X 0.97
=1–X
tADP = – 0.55 °C ti = 2 °C
Fig. 24.1 Psychrometric points for Example 24.1
(i) Product load (specific heat of fruits/vegetables = 3.77 kJ/kg.K)
Q& = 2000 ( 3.77) ( 43 - 2 ) = 3.58 kW

24 ´ 3600
106.25 ´ 6
Infiltration air Q& L = = 0.44 cmm
24 ´ 60
Air change load SH = 0.0204 (0.44) (43 – 2) = 0.37 kW
LH = 50 (0.44) (.01577 – .003653) = 0.267 kW
Total sensible and latent heats (with 10% safety factor)
TSH = (1.5 + 0.3 + 3.58 + 0.37) 1.1 = 6.33 kW
TLH = (0.267)1.1 = 0.29 kW
Grand total heat and sensible heat factor
GTH = 6.33 + 0.29 = 6.62 kW (1.9 TR)
6.33
SHF = = 0.956
6.62
(ii) Apparatus dew point (by calculation)
.0204(2 - tADP )
= 0.956
.0204(2 - t ADP ) + 50(.003653 - w ADP )
By iteration
tADP = – 0.55°C
Saturated suction temperature of refrigerant
t0 = tADP – DT for 90% RH @ – 0.55 – 5 = – 5.55°C
(iii) The room DPT is – 0.39°C. And coil ADP is –0.55°C. The supply air condi-
tion lies between 2°C and –0.55°C. It has to be rather close to –0.55°C, other-
wise the supply air quantity will be extremely large. Hence, one has to choose
a coil of almost zero BPF. For the purpose, a large number of rows have to be
taken, say, from 6 to 12. Let us choose a coil with BPF = 0.03.

ti - t s
= 1 – X = 1 – 0.03 = 0.97
ti - t ADP
Þ ts = 0.03 ti + 0.97 tADP
= 0.03 (2) + 0.97 (– 0.55) = – 0.47°C
Q& I 6.33
Supply air quantity cmm s = = = 125.6
.0204 (ti - t s ) .0204(2 + 0.47)
Air change of supply air quantity per hour
125.6 ´ 60
= = 71
106.25
It is seen that number of air changes of supply air is very large in a cold storage
application since the room condition at low temperature (2°C) and high humidity
(90%) is very close to the saturation curve. It implies that dehumidified rise is very
very small (2.47°C in this case) even after selecting a coil with large number of rows
and very low BPF (0.03 in this case). Even then, the number of air changes of 71 is
excessive. For vegetables/fruits, it should be between 30-60. Air changes in excess
of 60 would lead to abnormal moisture loss and deterioration of the product. The
supply air quantity, and hence the air changes can be reduced either by decreasing
the load, or by decreasing the supply air temperature. The following measures are,
therefore, recommended:
(i) Reduce transmission load by applying further insulation.
(ii) Reduce infiltration load by minimising door openings.
(iii) Limit daily loading of product, and hence cooling load.
(iv) Decrease coil BPF by increasing number of rows.
Another alternative is to have jacketed cold store if the supply air quantity is
large. The supply air can be made to flow in a jacket all around the store along
the walls. Thus, air velocity will not be large near the product to cause undesirable
moisture loss.
Note ADP is – 0.55°C, below zero. Hence, it is a frosted coil. Not only timely defrosting is
necessary, but the coil itself can not have more than 3 fins/cm, otherwise the flow will get
blocked too soon due to frosting.
24.2 TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION
Refrigerated transport is the main link of the cold food chain. Some salient features
of it are discussed in this section.
24.2.1 Refrigerated Trucks and Trailers

These vehicles are refrigerated to maintain temperatures of either 1.5 to 4°C for cold
foods or –18°C for frozen foods. The types of refrigeration systems used are given
below.
Product Subcooling With the use of improved insulating materials, it is possible

to drastically cut the transmission load of vehicles. In that case, use may be made of
the storage capacity of the product itself for cold by subcooling it to as low a
temperature as possible before transporting for short distances. Thus even after
reaching the destination, the temperature of the product is below the temperature of
the storage requirement. Examples are tankers for milk, orange juice, etc.
Using Water Ice The top of the product can be suitably iced. Again, it is a satis-
factory method for short distances and for some products only. The refrigerating
effect produced by the melting of ice is 335.4 kJ/kg.
Water Ice in Bunker with Forced Air Circulation Figure 24.2 shows the sketch
of an ice bunker that is fitted in front of an insulated vehicle. Air is sucked over ice
by the blower taking its drive from the engine. A 12 HP blower will add a heat
equivalent of 0.37 kW. A mixture of ice and salt can also be used for lower tempera-
tures up to – 9°C.
Using Dry Ice Dry ice is used in many small retail trucks for the delivery of frozen
food, such as ice-cream. The usual positioning of the dry-ice blocks is in the ceiling.
The cooling is by natural convection. When forced convection is employed, dry ice
may be placed in bunkers just like water ice. The refrigerating effect produced
by the sublimation of dry ice, which takes place at a temperature of – 78.5°C, is
605.5 kJ/kg. In the use of dry ice, care must be taken to avoid burns due to low
temperature, and suffocation due to lack of oxygen.
Using Liquid Nitrogen or Liquid Carbon Dioxide Spray In recent times, due to
the expansion of the industry for the manufacture of oxygen, by liquefaction of
atmospheric air, liquid nitrogen has become available almost as a by-product. It has,
therefore, come in use for the transport of frozen food. It may, however, be noted
that liquid nitrogen has a normal boiling point of –195.6°C. This is an extremely low
temperature from the point of view of COP and refrigeration economy. Liquid
nitrogen is, therefore, not recommended if it is not available as a by-product.
In both liquid nitrogen and liquid carbon dioxide cooling, the refrigerant is intro-
duced into the vehicle through nozzles, the flow being controlled by thermostats
and solenoid valves. The storage vessels for the refrigerants are kept within the
refrigerated space. Whereas a liquid nitrogen vessel need not be under pressure, a
liquid carbon dioxide vessel has to be under a pressure of about 5.2 bar as at atmos-
pheric pressure it cannot exist as a liquid. Spray nozzles for liquid carbon dioxide
should, therefore, be designed to avoid blockage due to snow formation during
pressure drop.
Eutectic Plates with Station Charging Eutectic plates forming channels are
placed all round the body of the vehicle. They contain an eutectic solution which can
be frozen by a refrigerant flowing in a coil immersed in the solution. The coil is
connected to a mechanical refrigeration system at the charging station. Cooling is
produced by the evaporation of the primary refrigerant in the coil. When the solution
is frozen, the truck loaded with the product for delivery is ready for departure.
Insulated Body
Cold Air
Blower
Drive Ice Bunker

from
Engine
Air In
Drain
Fig. 24.2 Ice bunker in transport refrigeration
Eutectic plates are made in many sizes varying from 45 to 90 cm in width. A

typical plate of 76 cm ´ 168 cm ´ 6.65 cm has a refrigerating capacity of 17935 kJ.
Standard plates operate at temperatures of – 51 to – 3.5°C.
Eutectic Plates with Vehicle-Mounted Condensing Unit This system is

becoming increasingly popular because of economy as well as reliability for the
transport of frozen foods. Eutectic plates are used for maintaining the product at the
required temperature. However, when the frozen eutectic has melted, the vehicle-
mounted condensing unit can be started. Further, the condensing unit has an auxil-
iary drive mounted on the vehicle when it is in use and an electric motor drive for use
at the charging station.
Mechanical Refrigeration with Independent Engine or Electric Motor The
mechanical-refrigeration system mounted on the vehicle has an independent engine.
Some are also equipped with an electric motor for stand-by operation at the charging
station. These units are available in two ranges:
(i) 5.86 to 10.3 kW capacity at 1.5°C.
(ii) 1.76 to 5.28 kW capacity at – 18°C in a 40°C environment.
By far, this is one of the most common methods.
Mechanical Refrigeration Deriving Power from Vehicle Engine or Trans-
mission There are many practical designs available. The refrigeration compres-
sor may be either directly coupled to the engine, or may take off the power through
transmission. In one design, the engine runs an alternator. The A.C. current is recti-
fied and is used to run D.C. motors for compressor and fans. The refrigeration is,
however, produced only when the vehicle engine is in operation.
24.2.2 Refrigerated Railway Cars

Most refrigerated railway cars use ice bunkers with water ice or ice-and-salt mix-
ture. The recharging of ice is required at intermediate stations on the route. Nowa-
days, the mechanical-refrigeration system is being increasingly adopted. It is provid-
ed with an independent diesel-generator set so that refrigeration is independent of
the car movement. The normal generator capacity is 20 kW.
24.2.3 Marine Refrigeration

A special feature of marine transport is the varying climate, ranging from extreme
hot to extreme cold, through which the ship has to pass during the course of its
journey. The insulation and fittings should be suitable both for warm and cold water
routes. Thus a vapour barrier for moisture should be provided on both sides of the
insulation. Corkboard continues to be favoured as an insulation because of its many
desirable characteristics, such as structural strength, fire-resistant property, low per-
meability for moisture, etc.
Refrigeration is used in ships for cargo and stores of passenger ships. It is also
used in trawlers for fishing.
In the case of cargo, the refrigeration system should be capable of providing any
temperature between – 23.5 and 12.5°C. R 12 with reciprocating compressors is
presently used as a refrigerant. R 22 is not recommended because of its problem of
critical oil miscibility. Compound compression is employed. Parallel operation is
not recommended with R 12 as there is a tendency for oil to migrate and flood one
compressor while starving another. Accordingly, each evaporator has an independ-
ent compressor. This involves the use of a large number of compressors. The system
can be made more economical by the use of parallel brine circuits in cooler coils and
fewer condensing units. Capacity control is obtained by speed variation or cylinder
cut-outs and cylinder unloading. Condensers are of the shell-and-tube type using sea
water for cooling. Corrosion-resistant cupro-nickel material is, therefore, used for
tubes and end covers. A receiver capable of holding 20 per cent more in addition to
the whole charge is essential. The liquid line should emerge from both ends of the
condenser, and later joining into one. This ensures continuous draining of the liquid
during roll or pitch of the ship.
In addition to the cargo, ships must have their own stores. These stores have to be
much bigger for passenger vessels. They also have a ventilated area for some of the
items, such as onions and potatoes.
Fishing vessels use ice for short distances from the shore, but deep-sea fishing
trawlers which remain away for months together must have mechanical refrigeration.
24.2.4 Refrigeration in Air Transport

Refrigerated air transport of some commodities can be justified on the basis of saving
in the time and preservation of quality. In some passenger aircraft, the cargo
compartments are cooled by the air-conditioning system itself. In cargo aircraft, the
perishables are pre-cooled before shipment. For transit refrigeration, if necessary,
refrigerant packages of water ice, dry ice or other substances are used.
24.3 COOLING AND HEATING OF FOODS
Several of the most interesting problems confronting the food technologist involve
unsteady state heat-transfer. The analytical solutions to differential equation
¶T ¶ 2T
=a
¶t ¶ x2
for certain unsteady state heat-transfer situations have been plotted in a series of
graphs called Gurnie-Lurie charts.
Figure 24.3 represents this solution expressing the temperature as a function of
time and position in an infinite slab being heated or cooled. Here:
T¥ = Ambient temperature
T = Temperature at time t
r = Distance from centre line to point under consideration
rm = 12 Thickness of infinite slab
fg = Heat transfer coefficient at slab surface
k = Thermal conductivity of slab
r = Density of slab
Cp = Specific heat of slab
t = Time of heating or cooling
X = r/rm
The figure gives a plot of the dimensionless temperature q against Fourier number
Fo with Biot number Bi as parameter. The dimensionless temperature q is defined by
T - T
q= ¥
T - Ti
where Ti is the initial uniform temperature of the slab. The dimensionless time, viz.,
the Fourier number Fo is defined as
kt at
Fo = = 2
r C p rm2 rm
where a = k/r Cp is the thermal diffusivity of the material. The parameters X and
Bi define respectively the dimensionless distance
r
X=
rm
and the ratio of the convective resistance to the conductive resistance, viz.,
f r
Bi = g m
k
known as the Biot number.
T
T rm
r
rm
Slab T
Bi = 0
0.8
0.4 Bi = 0.167
0.2
Bi = 0.5
T – Ti
T –T
0.08
0.04
q=
0.02 Bi = 1
Bi =
0.008
0.004
Bi = 2
0.002
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fo =
rm2
Fig. 24.3 Gurnie-lurie chart for cooling or heating of a slab
A numerical solution can also be found in the same manner as for heat transfer
through a building wall. In this respect, a knowledge of the precise values of
thermophysical properties of foods cannot be over-emphasized.
Example 24.2 Determine the time required for the centre of a thin slab of
meat to reach a temperature of 4°C. The temperature of the cooling medium
is 2°C. The initial temperature of the product is 35°C. The thickness of the slab
is 10 cm. The slab is cooled from both sides. The heat-transfer coefficient is
23 W/m2°C. The properties of meat are:
k = 0.6 W/m°C
Cp = 3.65 kJ/kg°C
r = 1040 kg/m3
Solution We have t ¥ = 2°C

ti = 35°C
t = 4°C
rm = 0.05 m
At the centre
r
X= =0
rm
2 -4
q = (t¥ – t)/(t¥ – ti) = = 0.06
2 - 35
1 k 0.6
= = = 0.52
Bi f g rm 23 (0.05)
Hence, from the Gurnie-Lurie chart
kt
Fo = = 2.94
r C p rm2
from which we get the required time as
(1040 ) ( 3.55 ´ 10 3 ) (0.05)2 (2.94 )
t= = 45227 s = (12.6 hours)
0.6
Example 24.3 A package of meat 1.83 m ´ 1.83 m ´ 7.8 cm, initially at 35°C,
is brought in contact with a cooling medium at 3°C. Determine, by numerical
method, the temperature distribution in the slab after an elapse of one hour.
Given for meat:
k = 0.606 W m–1 K–1
r = 1200 kg m–3
Cp = 3.3 kJ kg–1 K–1
Solution It is assumed that heat transfer through the faces with the 7.8 cm side is
negligible compared to that transferred through the two large faces. Now the thermal
diffusivity
k
a=
r Cp
0.602
= = 0.15 ´ 10–6 m2s–1
(1200) (3.3 ´ 103 )
Choose a space element of Dx = 1.3 cm (0.013 m) and a value of M = 2, so that
the time interval is
( D x) 2
Dt =
a M
(0.013) 2
= = 563 s (9.4 min or 0.156 h)
(0.15 ´ 10-6 ) (2)
The space grid is as shown in Fig. 24.4. Assuming a high heat-transfer coefficient
at the surface, the temperature at the surface may be considered to reach 3°C instan-
taneously, or in two steps, viz., initially (35 + 3)/2 = 19°C and then 3°C after the first
time interval of 563 s. The node 3 is at the centre line. The temperature at the various
nodes after 1 Dt are calculated as follows:
t + t2 19 + 35
t ¢1 = 0 = = 27°C
2 2
t + t3 35 + 35
t ¢2 = 1 = = 35°C
2 2
and so on. The complete set of calculations at various nodes and time intervals of
1 Dt, 2Dt, L , etc., are presented in Table 24.1. The graphical procedure is also
illustrated by broken lines in Fig. 24.4. Only half the thickness is shown in the figure
because of symmetry. The results for temperature distribution are presented up to
7 Dt as it is 341 s more than one hour.
C/ L
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q 35 Q
35 35 35
35 35 35 35 35
31
31
31
30
27 27
27 27
25
24 24
24
21 21
20 21
t, °C
19 18.8 18.8
18.8
17
16.5
16.5
15
10 12 13 15
.9 .6
10
5
3
0
0 1.3 2.6 3.9 5.2 6.5 7.8
x, cm
Fig. 24.4 Schmidt plot for Example 24.2
Table 24.1 Calculations of temperatures for Example 24.3
Number Time t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
of ,t s
0 0 19 35 35 35 35 35 19
1 563 3 27 35 35 35 27 3
2 1129 3 19 31 35 31 19 3
3 1689 3 17 27 31 27 17 3
4 2252 3 15 24 27 24 15 3
5 2815 3 13.5 21 24 21 13.5 3
6 3378 3 12 18.8 21 18.8 12 3
7 3941 3 10.9 16.5 18.8 16.5 10.9 3
24.4 FREEZING OF FOODS
Since properly frozen foods have a much longer storage life than cold-stored foods
and also retain better quality, the emphasis is on the development of frozen-food
storages and techniques of quick freezing. Among the common products that are
preserved by freezing are fish, meat, vegetables, such as beans, sprouts, carrots,
cauliflower, peas and spinach, various tissues and organs, etc. Frozen shrimp is one
of the most valuable foreign-currency earners for India.
Freezing requires the removal of heat, and the product from which heat is
removed falls in temperature in the manner shown in Fig. 24.5. The first stage
involves sensible cooling. The temperature drops rapidly to the freezing tempera-
ture below 0°C. The second stage involves the extraction of latent heat of fusion
during which the temperature changes very little. This stage is known as the period
of thermal arrest. When about 75 per cent of the water is converted into ice, the
temperature begins to fall again in the third stage in which the remaining water is
frozen. The unfrozen water has a higher concentration of salts and other compounds,
the effect of which is to depress the freezing point. Even at temperatures as low as –
30°C, a proportion of water in the product tissues remains in the unfrozen state.
In order to produce a good product, the freezing must be accomplished quickly so
that no change takes place in the product salt concentrations. Changes take place
during freezing as the salts tend to separate out. The product is altered from its
native state. The process is termed denaturation. Slow freezing is, therefore, detri-
mental as it means a longer time being spent in the zone of denaturation activity
which is in the region of –1 to – 2°C.
Table 24.2 gives the freezing rates for classification of the type of freezing. Thus,
freezing rates vary from 2 to 1000 mm/h of the product thickness.
Table 24.2 Freezing rates4
Thickness Frozen mm/h Type
2 Slow bulk freezing in a blast-room
5 to 30 Quick freezing in an air blast or plate freezer
50 to 100 Rapid freezing of small products
100 to 1000 Ultrarapid freezing in liquefied gases, such as liquid
nitrogen, liquid carbon dioxide or liquid freon
Stage 1
20
Temperature, °C
Stage 2
Stage 3
– 20
– 40
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time, hours
Fig 24.5 Temperature-time graph of a product during freezing
24.4.1 Types of Freezers

There are three basic types of freezers:
(i) Air-blast freezers in which cold air is blown over the product.
(ii) Contact or plate freezers in which the product is brought in direct contact
with a refrigerated surface.
(iii) Immersion or spray freezers in which the product is immersed in or sprayed
with a liquid refrigerant.
Air blast and contact-plate freezers are the two most common types used in
industry. Contact-plate freezers do not have the versatility of the air-blast freezers.
The former can only be used to freeze regularly shaped blocks. The latter can be
used for a variety of irregular shaped as well as small sized products such as peas,
french fries, shrimp, etc., which results in individual quick freezing (IQF) of each
piece. Air blast freezers can be freezing tunnel type, belt freezers or fluidized bed
type freezers. Immersion freezers use liquid freezants at atmospheric pressure, the
corresponding temperatures being – 196°C with N2 and –30°C with R 12.
To achieve quick freezing in air blast freezers, the air flow rates should be high.
Figure 24.6. Shows the influence of air velocity on freezing time. A high air velocity
will mean shorter freezing time but more fan power. An optimum air speed of 5 m/s
is recommended for most purposes. In continuous air-blast freezers, even higher
speeds, of the order of 10 to 15 m/s, could also be economically employed as that
would result in smaller freezer length and lower cost due to reduced freezing time.
Figure 24.7 shows the schematic diagram of an air-blast freezer in which a mov-
ing belt carries the product. The belt can also be replaced by trolleys and the product
stacked in multilayered trays. The air is handled by axial-flow fans developing a
pressure of about 14 cm H2O gauge. The air is in cross-flow to the product.

Likewise, there may be three or more fan-coil units along the length of the belt. To
minimise dehydration, the temperature of the air is kept close to that of the product.
The temperature rise of air is thus limited to about 2°C only. Accordingly, the fan
handles a large quantity of air. Also, the cooling coil is 12-16 rows deep to achieve
BPF @ 0, in order to obtain ADP as high as possible for higher COP in this low
refrigeration temperature application. As the frost formation is more in the front
rows, their spacing must be larger so as to maintain a certain free-flow area with
continuous operation without defrosting for at least 8 hours and without affecting
the fan-air flow.
Air Velocity
Optimum
Operation
10 m/s
5 m/s
Freezing Time
Fig. 24.6 Influence of air velocity on freezing time
Insulation Axial Flow Fan
Cooling
Coil
Product
Belt
Fig. 24.7 A continuous belt air-blast freezer with cross-flow of air

In well-designed freezers, the fan power is of the order of 25 to 30 per cent of the
refrigeration load. If the air-flow rate is very large, the fan power may be greater. As
a result of small dehumidified rise and high air flow the temperature rise of air over
the product will be very small. An average rise in air temperature of about 1.5-2°C is
permissible.
Air-blast freezers with batch operation use trolleys or shelves for loading the
product. Those with continuous operation make use of conveyors or belts. The latter
are used only if the product can be frozen quickly, the freezing time not exceeding
30 minutes, otherwise the length of the freezer will become very large. To reduce the
length, sometimes double, triple or spiral belts are used. The speed of the belt should
be kept variable to increase its versatility to accommodate the varying freezing time
requirements of various products and their thicknesses.
Example 24.4 200 kg/h of fish are to be frozen, the product requiring a resi-
dence time of 20 minutes, in an air-blast freezer with a 1 m wide stainless steel
belt. The possible belt loading density is 3 kg/m2. Find the length of the freezer.
20
Solution Belt loading = 200 ´ = 66.6 kg
60
3
Belt loading per unit length of belt = = 3 kg/m
1
66.6
Length of belt required = = 22.2 m
3
Note To allow for the loading and unloading of fish outside the freezer, a total length of
about 25 m would be required.
24.4.2 Refrigeration Load in Freezers

Example 24.5 illustrates the procedure for calculating the refrigeration load in freez-
ers. In addition to the product load, other loads that need to be considered are the fan
heat, pump heat, heat leakage through insulation, heat load due to internal lighting,
containers and conveyers, heat load due to defrosting, infiltration load, etc.
Example 24.5 32,400 kg/day of cold fish is to be frozen to – 30°C in 10 cm

thick blocks each weighing 45 kg. The secondary refrigerant temperature is
– 40°C. The evaporating refrigerant temperature is – 47°C. The fish enters at
30°C. The freezing cycle time may be taken as 4 hours. Given:
Specific heat of thawed fish = 3.77 kJ/kg°C
Latent heat of fusion of fish = 251.2 kJ/kg
Specific heat of frozen fish = 1.67 kJ/kg°C
Calculate the number of blocks frozen per cycle and refrigeration duty of the
plant for 18 hours running time.
32400
Solution Number of blocks/day = = 720 blocks/day
45
24
Number of freezing cycles/day = =6
4
720
Number of blocks frozen per cycle = = 120 blocks/cycle
6
32400
Fish loading m& = = 0.375 kg/s
(24) (3600)
Sensible cooling to a freezing temperature of 0°C
Q&1 = (0.375) (3.77) (30) = 42.4 kW
Latent heat of fusion
Q& 2 = (0.375) (251.2) = 94.2 kW
Sensible cooling to – 30°C
Q& 3 = (0.375) (1.67) (30) = 18.8 kW
Total product load
Q& p = 42.4 + 94.2 + 18.8 = 155.4 kW
Product load for 18 hours running time
24
Q = 155.4 ´ = 207.2 kW
18
24.4.3 Calculation of Freezing Time

The time taken to lower the temperature of the product from its initial temperature to
a given temperature at its thermal centre, is called the freezing time. The final tem-
perature is generally the intended storage temperature of the product. For example,
in the case of fish, the recommended storage temperature is – 30°C. To ensure
quick freezing, the freezer temperature must be below this temperature. It is desired
that after freezing, the temperature of the thermal centre should be reduced to at
least – 20°C so that the average temperature of the fish is near the storage tempera-
ture of – 30°C. The freezing time will, therefore, be the time required to reduce
the thermal centre from its initial temperature to – 20°C. The residence time of the
product in the freezer is, therefore, equal to its freezing time.
A precise calculation of the freezing time for irregular-shaped product is
difficult. But for uniformly-shaped products such as rectangular blocks, suitable
relations have been proposed. However, they often do not take into account the
pre-cooling from the initial temperature to the final temperature. They assume that
the product has been chilled initially, and that all extraction of heat is at the freezing
temperature. The presence of other factors such as packing, etc., may also give erro-
neous results. Nevertheless, calculations by the finite-difference method, using a
computer, give very good results.
A solution for the calculation of temperature distribution throughout a mass, in

which a change of state is occurring, has been proposed by Neuman10 for freeze-
drying. The same can be applied for freezing. The equations expressing the tempera-
ture as a function of the time and position in an infinite slab with a change of state are
as follows:
ts x
t1 = erf (24.1)
erf l 2 (a 1 t )1/ 2
( ti - t s ) x
t2 = ti –
Fa I
erfc G J
1/ 2 erfc
2 (a 2 t )1/ 2
(24.2)
Ha K
1
2
where
t1 = Temperature in the frozen section
t2 = Temperature in the thawed section
ts = Temperature at which change of state occurs
ti = Initial temperature of the thawed material
x = Distance from surface of slab
a1 = Thermal diffusivity of the frozen material
a2 = Thermal diffusivity of the thawed material
t = Time
l = Factor determined from the following equation
e- l
2
FG k IJ FG a IJ 1/ 2
( ti - t s ) exp [ - (a 1 /a 2 ) l2 ]
H k K Ha K
– 2 1
erf l 1 2 t s erfc [ l (a 1 /a 2 ) 1/ 2 ]
l Dhp 1/ 2
= (24.3)
C1 t s
where
D h = Latent heat of fusion
k1, C1 = Thermal conductivity and specific heat of the frozen material
k2, C2 = Thermal conductivity and specific heat of the thawed material.
The conditions assumed in these equations are as follows:
(i) All the temperatures are excess temperatures measured above the surface
temperature.
(ii) Region x > 0 is initially at the constant temperature ti with surface x = 0
maintained at zero for t = 0.
(iii) Also t2 approaches ti as x approaches infinity and t1 = 0 at x = 0.
In other words, it is assumed that the surface comes to the temperature of the
freezing medium immediately and the surface temperature is at 0°. If the surface
temperature is other than zero on any temperature scale, an excess temperature scale
must be employed so that on the excess-temperature scale the surface temperature is
at 0°. This involves subtracting or adding a constant to each temperature involved,
in order to obtain the excess temperature to be used in the foregoing equations.
Example 24.6 A package of meat 5.1 cm thick is being frozen in a plate or

contact freezer. The meat is initially at 4.4°C. It has a moisture content of 75 per
cent and its freezing-point average is – 5°C. The meat is being frozen from both
sides and the refrigerant is at – 29°C. Determine the time for the meat to pass
through the freezing zone. The thermophysical properties of thawed (2) and fro-
zen (1) materials are as follows:
k2 = 0.571 W m–1 °C–1
k1 = 1.04 W m–1 °C–1
r2 = 1057 kg m–3
r1 = 961 kg m–3
C2 = specific heat of thawed meat
= 0.75 (4.18) + 0.25 (1.38) = 3.488 kJ kg–1 °C–1
C1 = specific heat of frozen meat
= 0.75 (2.09) + 0.25 (1.38) = 1.918 kJ kg–1 °C–1
Also calculate the time for the meat centre to reach – 17.8°C.
Note The specific heat of dried material is 1.38. The specific heats of water and ice are
taken as 4.18 and 2.08 respectively.
Solution In this case, the surface temperature is at – 29°C. In order to make the
surface-excess temperature zero, we have a temperature scale
t = t ¢ – (– 29) = t ¢ + 29
where t ¢ is the actual temperature and t is the excess temperature. Thus, on the
excess-temperature scale
ti = 4.4 + 29 = 33.4
ts = – 5 + 29 = 24
Also, taking the latent heat of fusion of water as 335.5 kJ/kg, we have for the latent
heat of fusion of meat (with 75% water content)
D hmeat = 0.75 (335.5) = 252 kJ/kg
Thermal diffusivities
0.571
a2 = = 1.549 ´ 10–7 m2 s–1
(1057) (3.488 ´ 103 )
1.04
a1 = = 5.64 ´ 10–7 m2 s–1
(961) (1.918 ´ 103 )
In order to calculate l we solve Eq. (24.3) by trial and error as shown in
Table 24.3.
Table 24.3 Solving Eq. (24.3) by lteration
Assumed l LHS RHS

0.1 24.1 0.975
0.5 3.78 4.85
0.4 5.28 3.88
By interpolation for LHS = RHS, we get

l = 0.46
For the whole meat to pass through the excess freezing point temperature ts at 24°C
we must have at the centre line
t1 = ts
Hence from Eq. (24.1)
x
l=
2 (a 1 t )1/ 2
Since freezing takes place from both sides
x = 5.1/2 = 2.55 cm (0.0255 m)
Hence
FG x IJ2
a1t =
H 2l K
= G
F 0.0255 IJ 2
H 2 ´ 0.46K = 7.673 ´ 10–4
7.673 ´ 10 - 4
so that t= = 1360 s (0.38 h)
5.64 ´ 10 - 7
The time for the meat centre to pass through –17.8°C is obtained by putting
t1 = – 17.8 + 29 = 11.2
in Eq. (24.1). Thus
24 0.0255
11.2 = erf
erf 0.46 2(5.64 ´ 10-7 t )1/ 2
whence t = 6660 s (1.85 h).
Note In practice, the contact plates would not assume the freezing-medium temperature.
In addition, the thermal resistance of the metal wall is to be considered. Accordingly, the
freezing time will actually be more than the calculated value.
24.4.4 Freezing in Air

When freezing in contact-plate freezers, it may be assumed that the surface of the
object immediately attains the freezing-medium temperature since the heat-transfer
coefficient is high. However, attention is drawn to the note written above. But, when
freezing in air, as in an air-blast freezer, the surface does not immediately attain the
freezing-medium temperature. The film of air offers an additional convective resist-
ance to the heat transfer. In order to calculate the freezing time under these condi-
tions employing Eq. (24.1), it is necessary to convert the heat-transfer coefficient
into an equivalent thickness of the starting material, xe, approximated by
k
xe = 2 (24.4)
fg
where k2 is the thermal conductivity of the thawed material and fg is the heat-transfer
coefficient of air. If freezing occurs from both sides, xe is added to the half-thickness
of the material.
Example 24.7 Considering the package of meat in the preceding example,

how long would it take for the package to pass through the freezing zone, and for
the centre to reach –17.8°C, if the package were frozen in an air-blast freezer
rather than the contact-plate freezer. Air is at –28.9°C. The initial temperature is
4.4°C. Assume the heat-transfer coefficient in the freezer to be 17 W m–2 °C–1.
Solution Considering Eq. (24.3), l will remain the same as in the preceding
example, viz. l = 0.46.
Additional equivalent thickness of thawed material
0.571
xe = = 0.0336 m
17
Hence, the resulting half-thickness
x = 0.02544 + 0.0336 = 0.0591 m
From Eq. (24.1), the time for the package to pass through the freezing zone is
given by
1 FG x IJ 2
t=
a1 H 2l K
1 FG
0.0591 IJ
=
5.64 ´ 10 -7
H
2 ´ 0.46 K = 7317 s (2.03 h)
The time for the centre to reach – 17.8°C is given by

11.2 0.0336
erf 0.46 = erf
24 2(5.64 ´ 10-7 t )1/ 2
whence
t = 12115 s (3.37 h).
24.4.5 Modified Plank’s Equation for Calculation of Freezing Time

Plank’s formula1 for calculating the freezing time t has been widely used. It is given
below.
t=
Dh LM P D x + R (D x) OP 2
L Dt MN f g k PQ
(24.5)
where
D h = Heat extracted between the initial temperature of freezing
surface ts and the final temperature
L = Specific volume of fish
Dt = Temperature difference between the initial freezing point ts
and the temperature of the freezing medium tf
Dx = Thickness of product
fg = Heat-transfer coefficient of air
k = Thermal conductivity of the frozen material
1 1 1
P= for a sphere, for a cylinder and for a slab
6 4 2
1 1 1
R= for a sphere, for a cylinder and for a slab.
24 6 6
For a rectangular block of (D x) ´ (b1D x) ´ (b 2 D x), the values of P and R can be
found from Fig. 24.8 which is due to Ede3.
10
9 0.110
8 0.105 0.40
0.100
7
6 0.095
R 0.38
5
0.090
0.36
4
0.085
0.34
2
3 0.080 0.32
0.075 P
0.30
0.070
2 0.065 0.28
0.060 0.26
0.055
0.24
0.050
0.20 0.22
0.045
0.16
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
Fig. 24.8 Chart giving constants P and R in Plank’s equation (b1 and b2 are
interchangeable)
Equation (24.5) can be conveniently used to obtain results for varying conditions,
from accurately-measured experimental data for a set of known conditions. It is seen
that the freezing time is inversely proportional to the temperature difference, and
nearly proportional to the square of the product thickness.
Nagaoka et al.9 have modified Plank’s equation to include the effect of difference
in the initial and final temperatures as follows:
FG Dh IJ LM P D x + R (D x) OP 2
t = [1 + 0.008 (t i – t s )]
H L Dt K MN f g k PQ
(24.6)
Here, ts is the freezing surface temperature.

Example 24.8 (a) The freezing time for a 100 mm thick block of fish is found
to be 200 min (3 h 20 min) when the freezing-medium temperature is –35°C.
What is the freezing time if the freezing medium temperature is changed
to – 25°C? The initial freezing point of fish is –1°C.
(b) What is the freezing time if the block thickness is reduced to 75 mm?
All other conditions remain same in both cases.
Solution (a) Effective temperature difference

D t = ts – tf = – 1 – (– 35) = 34°C
Changed effective temperature
D t ¢ = – 1 – (– 25) = 24°C
Required freezing time
FG D t IJ
J¢ = J
H D t¢K
F 34I
= 200 G J = 283 min (4 h 43 min)
H 24K
(b) Required freezing time with reduced thickness
FG D x ¢ IJ
2
J¢ = J
H Dx K
= 200 G
F 75 IJ 2
H 100K = 112.5 min (1 h 52.5 min)
24.4.6 Ice Manufacture

The time required to freeze a given thickness of ice in cans immersed in a brine tank
is determined firstly by the temperature of the ice-freezing surface, in this case, that
of brine. Most raw waters, treated or untreated, cannot be frozen without cracking
at a temperature below –12°C. The brine velocity also has a marked influence on
the freezing time and should not exceed above 105 mpm. The brine movement is
caused by the hydraulic gradient best designed for about 3.2 to 3.8 cm in the tank
length. The brine level in the tank should permit the submergence of water in the ice
cans below the brine level.
A uniform rate of harvesting exactly according to the time schedule is necessary
for maximum yield. The rate of ice-freezing drops rapidly as the ice layer becomes
thicker and the thermal resistance to heat transfer increases due to the lower ther-
mal conductivity of ice as compared to that of water. A 28 cm ´ 56 cm can holding
145 kg of water in –11°C brine will make 127 kg of ice in 24 hours and consume an
additional 14 hours to freezing the remaining 18 kg.
When brine agitation is moderate, 4.5 to 7.5 mpm, the total freezing time for US
standard cans, 28 cm thick, may be expressed by Eqs (24.7) and (24.8)
0.6 b2
J= (24.7)
(- t )
where
t = Total freezing time for the block, hours
b = Thickness of ice block (short side), cm
t = Temperature of brine, °C
mn 41.67 t
t= ´ 24 or n = (24.8)
1000 m
where
n = Number of cans per metric ton of ice produced in 24 hours
m = Mass of ice block, kg
Equation (24.9) is obtained by combining Eqs (24.7) and (24.8) and sovling for
the brine temperature
25b2
t=– (24.9)
mn
Thus, for a given plant, the daily output is a function of the brine temperature only.
The number of cans per ton is the usual unit for rating tank capacity, which also
establishes the necessary brine temperature for a given daily output.
For block thickness above 30 cm or below 25 cm, Eq. (24.9) should not be used,
because of the following reasons:
(i) It assumes that all resistance to heat flow is dependent upon ice thickness,
whereas the resistance actually consists of
(a) ice resistance (thickness), and
(b) surface resistance (from brine to ice), which is independent of the ice
thickness.
(ii) It does not take into consideration the flow of heat across the narrow sides
of the can, which becomes increasingly important as the shape of the can
approaches a square.
The value of the heat-transfer coefficient f varies with the brine velocity. For
very high brine velocities, f = 285 W.m–2 K–1. For ordinary ice tanks with relatively
slow-moving brine, f = 140 W.m–2 K–1.
24.5 FREEZE DRYING
Freeze drying is a successful process of liquid separation from a product in a frozen

state, achieved by sublimation under vacuum. The sublimation serves to obtain a
product that retains even its volatile components and initial quality, and the vacuum
is used to maintain the physical state as frozen and to direct the vapour flow. At
present, the main problems to the application of the process in general are; (a) the
relatively high cost of the freeze-dried product by sublimation-dehydration due to
high vacuum, (b) very low temperature refrigeration to pre-freeze the product and
then to condense the sublimated vapour in a freeze-condenser, (c) the complicated
operational control and (d) the long duration of the freeze-drying time. Characteris-
tically, however, the cost is not the determining factor for the manufacture of
certain products including blood plasma, life-saving drugs such as gamma-
globulin, and high value food products such as mushrooms, shrimp, prawns, etc.
Figure 24.9 shows a model of the freeze-drying process with radiant heating.
The profile shows the temperature distribution.
x
x
C
tR 90°
Dried Dried tR =
ts ts = 65°C
Temperature
Radiation
Q Q
Frozen
tf = – 26°C = Ice – Front

Temperature
Specimen Vapour to Freeze

Condenser
Fig. 24.9 Temperature distribution during freeze-drying of a specimen
with radiant heating (Example 24.9)
The dehydration takes place in a vacuum chamber. The pressure in the chamber
must be maintained below the triple-point pressure, normally below 5 mm Hg,
otherwise the product will begin to thaw.
The rate of dehydration is governed by either one of the following two factors:
(i) The rate of heat transfer from the heat source to the ice front.
(ii) The rate of vapour diffusion from the ice front to the freeze condenser.
Usually, the rate of dehydration is controlled by the transfer of heat which may
be supplied by either a radiant-heat source, or by contact heating platens sandwich-
ing the product, but having pores to permit the sublimated vapours to escape. In
such a case, there is an obvious similarity between freezing and freezing-drying.
Neuman and Plank’s solutions for freezing can, therefore, be used to calculate
freeze-drying time as well. A simple heat and mass-transfer model is, however,
presented below. Numerical methods can also be successfully used.
It must be mentioned that the heat input is limited by the maximum allowable
temperature of the dried material at the surface so that the product is not damaged
by overheating.
24.5.1 Heat and Mass Transfer through the Dried Material2

Let the surface temperature of the material be maintained at the maximum
allowable value, say ts, and the ice-front temperature of the frozen layer be tf. We
also assume that the partial pressure of the water vapour in the drying chamber is
maintained constant at ps. The thickness of the dried layer at any instant of time is
D x. Under these conditions, the heat-transfer rate is given by
Q =
k A
(t s – t f ) (24.10)
Dx
where k is the thermal conductivity of the dried material.
The mass-transfer rate is given by
kd A
m = (pf – ps) (24.11)
Δx
where kd is the diffusion coefficient or permeability of the dried material, and pf is
the saturation pressure at tf.
Assuming that the rate of heat transfer is equal to the rate of mass transfer
multiplied by the latent heat of sublimation D hs, we obtain by energy balance from
Eqs (24.10) and (24.11).
k
pf = ps + (ts – t f ) (24.12)
kd Δ hs
If ps, ts, k, kd and D hs are taken as constants, we have a linear relation between pf
and tf as shown in Fig. 24.10. The figure also shows the thermodynamic pressure-
temperature relationship for water. The point of intersection f gives the ice-front
temperature tf and pressure pf which will be constant for the assumed conditions.
k
pf = ps + (t – t )
3 kd hs s t
p, torr
1 Thermodynamic
f
Relation
pf pf = f (tf)
tf
0
– 50 – 40 – 30 – 20
t, °C
Fig. 24.10 Graphical determination of ice front temperature and vapour
pressure during freeze drying
Under these conditions, the freeze-drying time can be determined by writing

Eq. (24.10) in the differential form at any instant of time t when the ice front is at a
distance x from the surface, viz.,
Q d t = kA(ts – t f ) t = rAx (wi – wo) (D hs)
d
(24.13)
dx
where
r = Density of solids in the material, viz., the dried material
wi = Initial moisture content per unit mass of solids
wo = Final moisture content per unit mass of solids.
The integration of Eq. (24.13) with (t s – t f ) constant, yields for the drying time
( D x ) 2 r ( wi - wo ) D hs
t= (24.14)
8k (t s - t f )
It may be stated that the largest source of error in the above method is in gener-
alizing the surface temperature and assuming it to be constant. In actual practice, as
the dried-layer thickness grows, the surface temperature has to be increased to over-
come the increased thermal resistance. Similarly, the ice-front temperature is also
affected by the pressure drop through the dried layer. Numerical techniques were
used by Trifonova, Arora and Sharma12,17 to obtain a more accurate result for the
drying time. As an approximate method, the Neuman solution for freezing can also
be applied to freeze drying.
Example 24.9 (a) A 1.125 cm layer of frozen shrimp is freeze dried by con-
tact with heating platens. The chamber is maintained at 0.43 mm Hg pressure.
The heating platens are raised linearly from the freezing temperature to the
maximum allowable temperature of 65°C. The product contains 80 per cent
water. The density and thermal conductivity of the dried product are respec-
tively 335 kg/m3 and 0.015 W/mK. Determine the freeze-drying time. The heat-
ing is done from both sides.
(b) If the heating is done by radiation, determine the maximum permissible tem-
perature of the radiating surface.
Solution (a) The sublimation temperature from properties of water

tf = – 26°C (at 0.43 mm Hg pressure)
Heat of sublimation at –26°C
D hs = 2462 kJ/kg
Average heating surface temperature
65 + ( - 26)
ts = = 19.5°C
2
Initial moisture constant
0.8
wi = = 4 kg water/kg solids
0.2
Freeze-drying time
( D x ) 2 r ( wi - wo ) D hs
t=
8k (t s - t f )
(0.01125/ 2) 2 (335)(4 - 0)( 2462 ´ 103 )
=
8(0.015)(19.5 - ( - 26))
= 19,118 s (5.3 h)
(b) Let TR be the absolute temperature of the radiating surface. Then by energy
balance between heat transfer to the surface by radiation and heat transfer by
conduction between the surface and the ice front, we have
LMFG T IJ 4
FG T IJ OP
4
MNH 100K H 100K PQ

k
(ts – t f ) = 5.669 R
- S
Dx
(0.015 (65 + 26)

= 5.669 MG
LF T IJ 4
- G
F 273 + 65IJ OP
4
MNH 100K H 100 K PQ

R
(0.01125/ 2)
whence
TR = 363 K
tR = 90°C
24.5.2 Freeze Drying of Yoghurt: Influence of Concentration of Milk Solids

Yoghurt is a common ingredient of diet because of its nutritional and therapeutic
value. Accordingly, efforts should be made to incorporate it in the manufacturing
of products, such as yoghurt-flavoured baby foods, by freeze drying process.
The high cost of freeze drying can be reduced, particularly in the case of yo-
ghurt, by reducing the initial moisture content of the product. Sharma, Arora and
Mital11 conducted a study to determine the effect of milk solids in yoghurt on its
freeze drying rate, and the quality of the reconstituted product.
For yoghurt preparation, the milk was heated to 85°C for 30 min. The total sol-
ids in milk were increased by adding non-fat dry milk (NFDM) (moisture 5%, fat
2.7%, protein 35%) at 2, 5 and 8% (w/v) levels. The resultant solids in the yoghurt
were 14.7% without addition of NFDM, and 16.3%, 18.8% and 20.4% with the
addition of NFDM. The milk was then cooled and inoculated with the cultures
Streptococcus thermophilous-YHS and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.
bulgraicus-YHL in the ratio of 1:1 at 3% L/L.
The inoculated milk was incubated at 42°C for 3.5 hours. The yoghurt thus pre-
pared was kept at 4 ± 1°C until transferred to a product tray for freezing at – 24°C.
The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 24.11. The compressor maintained a
temperature of – 54 ± 3°C in the freeze condenser. A temperature controller auto-
matically adjusted the heater-platen temperature to 45 ± 3°C. The schematic of the
product tray is shown in Fig. 24.12. The pressure in the vacuum chamber ranged
from 1.3 m bar at the beginning to 0.52 m bar at the end of drying run. After drying,
the samples were stored in glass-stoppered containers at 4°C.
There are two methods of heating:
(i) Contact-plate heating.
(ii) Radiant heating.
Glass Cover for

Connector Visual Observation
Vacuscope/Pirani
Copper
Gauge
Constantan
Radiator
Drying Chamber
Ice
Junction Product Tray
Heating Platen
Insulation
Balance
Temperature Controller
Thermocouples
Data Logger
Freeze Insulation
Solenoid Valve Condenser Cooling Coil
Capillary Tube
Surge Tank Secondary Trap
Exhaust
Vacuum
pump Condenser
Compressor
Drier
Fig. 24.11 Experimental set-up of freeze drying apparatus
Dry Layer
Sublimation Front
Frozen Layer
Steel Pins
Nylon-Side Wall
Surface
Heater Plate Micro-Heater

Fig. 24.12 Schematic of product tray
Sharma et al. used contact-plate heating in this work. Samples were placed sym-
metrically on the aluminium platen fitted with a micro-heater. To promote good
contact between the product bottom and the tray, steel pins fixed radially through
the side walls and extending into the product were used, as shown in Fig. 24.12.
The weight loss as a function of drying time for the yoghurt samples with
different total solids (14.7–20.4%) is shown in Fig. 24.13. After drying for 4.5 h,
moisture determinations showed that the moisture loss of the samples had become
negligible.
90
80
70
% Weight Loss (Wet Base)
60
50 14.7 % Milk Solids

16.3 % Milk Solids
20.4 % Milk Solids
30
20
10
Heater Power On
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Drying Time, (h)
Fig. 24.13 Weight loss in different yoghurt samples during freeze-drying at
constant heater-platen temperature
Therefore, the end point of drying was taken as 4.5 h. Due to the large thermal
contact resistance between the heater-platen and the product-tray interface, the tem-
perature at the product bottom-tray interface varied from – 19 to – 3°C during
sublimation.
The drying rate curves are shown in Fig. 24.14. And the production rate, and the
drying time per unit output of freeze-dried yoghurt are shown in Fig. 24.15. With
the increase in solids concentration in yoghurt from 14.7 to 20.4%, the production
rate of freeze-dried yoghurt increased from 0.2196 to 0.3067 kg/m2 h, and the dry-
ing time per unit output decreased from 1.265 to 0.8658 h/g (Table 24.4). This
shows an increase of 40.6% in the production rate, and a reduction of 28.9% in the
drying time per unit output.
Therefore, productivity increases more than that accounted for by the lower
amount of water needed to be evaporated. With the increase in solids concentra-
tion, the eutectic temperature decreases and partial melting of the frozen core
during drying may occur. Secondly, yoghurt being a cultured product, the sensory
characteristics of the freeze-dried product will be a limiting factor in deciding the
solids concentration in yoghurt.
18
Heater Power On
16
Drying Rate (x10–4 kg m–2 s–1)

14
12

16.3 % Milk Solids
20.4 % Milk Solids
6
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Drying Time, (h)
Fig. 24.14 Drying rate curves for yoghurt containing different
concentration of milk solids
0.31
0.30
1.20
0.29 Production Rate
0.28
Production Rate (kgm–2 h–1)
1.10
Drying Time (h/g)
0.27
0.26
0.25 1.00
0.24
0.23 Drying Time Per

Unit Output 0.90
0.22
0.21
0.20 0.80
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Milk Solids (%)
Fig. 24.15 Production rate and drying time per unit output of freeze
dried yoghurt as influenced by concentration of milk solids
Table 24.4 Influence of concentration of milk solids in yoghurt on the production

rate and the drying time
Concentration of Drying time/ Reduction in Production

milk solids unit output drying rate
time
% h/g % kg/m2h
14.7 1.2650 – 0.2186
16.3 1.0718 15.27 0.2495
18.8 0.9380 25.85 0.2851
20.4 0.8658 31.56 0.3067
Table 24.5 shows the proximate composition of freeze-dried yoghurt samples

prepared using different concentration of solids in milk. Freeze-dried yoghurt pre-
pared from whole cow milk contained 26.3% protein, 29.8% fat and 5.02% ash. As
expected, the addition of NFDM at 2, 5 and 8% levels enhanced protein and ash
content of the products, whereas their fat contents decreased. The concentration of
lactic acid in the freeze-dried product increased from 5.8 to 6.95, and the average
bulk density increased from 0.29 to 0.42 g/cm3.
Table 24.5 Proximate composition of freeze-dried yoghurt at different

concentrations of milk solids
Conc. of Freeze-dried yoghurt

solids in
yoghurt Moisture Protein Fat Lactic acid Ash Bulk density
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (g/cm3)
14.7 4.3 26.3 29.8 5.80 5.02 0.29
16.3 4.5 26.8 28.0 6.52 5.38 0.32
18.8 5.3 27.6 23.1 6.61 5.51 0.40
20.4 5.9 30.5 20.2 6.95 6.33 0.42
The acceptability of freeze-dried yoghurt samples was determined after recon-

stitution. The acceptability scores of the samples prepared from yoghurt containing
14.7, 16.3, 18.8 and 20.4% total solids were 5.08, 6.5, 7.58 and 6.41 respectively.
Tukey’s test analysis also showed that the samples containing 16.3 to 20.4% solids
were superior to the sample containing 14.7% solids.
It was also observed that increasing the level of solids in milk upto 18.8%
improves the acceptability of the product. A further increase in concentration of
solids lowers the acceptability.
Note Computer simulation of freeze drying behaviour can be obtained using very simple
equation/s, while simultaneously determining, experimentally, the parameters and prop-
erties for the process and the product as done by Sharma and Arora for freeze drying
yoghurt and given in Table 24.6.
Table 24.6 Parameter values for yoghurt freeze drying
Parameter Value
Specific heat, dried layer Cpd (cal/g–K) 0.46
Specific heat, external space (pores) Cpe (cal/g–K) 0.25
Specific heat, water vapour CpwL (cal/g–K) 0.45
Thickness of sample L (cm) 1.125
Distance from radiator Z (cm) 1.5
Porosity s 0.75
Enthalpy of sublimation DH (cal/g) 670.0
Density, frozen layer rf (g/cm3) 0.92
Density, dried layer rd (g/cm3) 0.38
Density, external space re (g/cm3) 0.00005
Thermal Cond., dried layer ld (cal/cm-s-K) .00015
Thermal Cond., frozen layer l f (cal/cm-s-K) .005
Thermal, Cond., External space le (cal/cm-s-K) .00005
Thermal diffusivity, dried layer ad (cm2/s) .00085812
Thermal diffusivity, external space ae (cm2/s) 4.0
Emissivity, radiation eR 0.9
Emissivity, surface eS 0.8
24.5.3 Comparison of Radiant and Contact-plate Heating

Sharma and Arora13 showed that the production rate is not affected significantly by
product thickness in radiant heating. Hence large product thicknesses can be used
to neutralize and reduce the dead time between loadings.
In contrast, the production rate improves with decreasing product thickness in
contact heating through the bottom of frozen layer.
In radiant heating, the production rate improves slightly with an increase in
chamber pressure from 0.01 to 0.5 mm Hg.
In contact heating through frozen region, and for simultaneous heat transfer
through both frozen and dried region, low operating vacuum chamber pressures are
essential to ensure that the temperature of the frozen core is as low as possible, and
hence allow the use of higher platen temperature to shorten the drying time.
For all modes of heat transfer and thicknesses, it is only the melt constraint that
needs to be controlled during sublimation, and burn constraint after drying.
24.6 HEAT DRYING OF FOODS2
When the moisture content of foods is reduced to 5 to 10 per cent, the microorgan-
isms become sufficiently inactive. Dehydration by heating is thus the most
economical method of food preservation. However, the delicate characteristics of
foods require skillful operation of the process so as to preserve its nutrition value
and flavour. Many industrial processes also require the drying of solids.
A few accepted terms in drying terminology may now be given. Moisture
content w, as different from W the total moisture in the product, is the percentage of
moisture by weight of the bone-dried solid. The equilibrium-moisture content is

that to which a material can be dried under given conditions of air temperature and
humidity. The process of drying essentially takes place in two stages as shown in
Fig. 24.16. These are:
(i) Constant-rate period
(ii) Falling-rate period.
Constant-rate
Period
Moisture Content, w
B
Falling-rate
Period
Time
Fig. 24.16 Drying process
During the constant-rate period, the surface of the product remains wet and its
temperature and evaporation rate remain constant. The primary resistance to heat
and mass transfer is at the surface. When the surface appears to develop dry
patches, the rate of drying begins to decrease, as the internal resistance of the mate-
rial to liquid diffusion to the surface becomes significant. When the constant-rate
period ends and the falling-rate period begins (at B in Fig. 24.16), the moisture
content of the material is termed as the critical moisture content.
24.6.1 Drying During Constant-Rate Period

Drying during the constant-rate period is equivalent to the evaporation of moisture
from a wetted surface. Thus, equations derived in Chapter 20 are applicable. In this
case, the surface remains at a constant temperature. If heat transfer is only by convec-
tion from the air, the surface approaches the wet-bulb temperature of air. But if heat
transfer takes place by conduction and radiation in addition to convection, the surface
will attain a temperature in between the dry and wet bulb temperatures of air.
The equilibrium between heat and mass transfer can be expressed as follows
dW f A (t - t S )
= t = kw A(wS – w) (24.15)
dt D hS
where W = Mass of moisture in product
dW
= Drying rate
dt
ft = Total heat-transfer coefficient including conduction,

con vection and radiation
D hS = Latent heat of vaporization at the wetted surface
temperature tS
and the other terms have their usual meaning as given in Chapter 20. When ft = fg, i.e.,
equal to the convective coefficient, the surface temperature tS approaches the wet
bulb temperature of air.
The convective heat-transfer coefficient for air blowing parallel to a surface is
given by
fg = 14.327 G0.8 (24.16)
and for air blowing perpendicular to a surface is given by
fg = 24.199 G0.37
where G is the mass velocity of air in kg/s m2.
Example 24.10 To control the temperature and drying rate of bread, a

humidified baking oven is maintained at 166°C dry bulb and 60°C wet bulb
temperatures. The walls of the oven radiate heat as black bodies. The air is
circulated in the oven by natural convection so that the heat-transfer coefficient
is given by
fg = 1.974 (t – tS )0.25 (24.17)
The oven is 0.3 m cube and the bread-pan dimensions are 0.3 m ´ 0.1 m ´ 0.1 m.
Determine the drying rate during the constant-rate drying period. Neglect
drying from the base of the pan.
Solution The heat transfer is by radiation and natural convection. The heat-
transfer coefficients depend on the surface temperature. The solution is, therefore,
found by iteration.
Vapour pressure of water at 60°C
p L¢ = 19910 N/m2
Vapour pressure of water in air steam, from the Carrier equation
( p - pL¢ ) (t - t ¢) (1.8)
pL = p¢L –
2800 - 1.3 (18 . t + 32)
(101325 - 19910) (166 - 60) (18
. )
= 19910 –
2800 - 1.3 (18
. ´ 166 + 32)
= 13355 N/m2
Specific humidity of air
pL
w = 0.622
p - pL
13355
= 0.622 = 0.094 kg/kg
(101325 - 13355)
Assume the surface temperature of bread to be above wet bulb temperature, say 65°C
Convective coefficient
fg = 1.974 (166 – 65)0.25 = 7.09 W m–2 K–1
Radiative coefficient
5.669 × 10 −8 (T 4 − TS4 )
fR =
(T − TS )
5.669 (4.394 - 3.384 )
= = 13.52 W m–2 K–1
(166 - 65)
Total heat-transfer coefficient
ft = fg + fR = 7.09 + 13.52 = 20.61 W m–2 K–1
fg 7.09
kw = = = 6.94 ´ 10–3 kg s–1 m–2
Cp 1.0216 ´ 103
Vapour pressure at the surface temperature of 65°C
pLS = 25,000 N/m2
Specific humidity at surface
25,000
wS = 0.622 = 0.2037 kg/kg
101325 - 25,000
Latent heat of vaporization at 65°C
D hS = 2346 kJ/kg
Checking the assumed value of tS from Eq. (24.15)
f t (t - t S )
= kw (wS – w)
D hS
20.61 (166 - 65)
¹ 6.94 ´ 10–3 (0.2037 – 0.094)
2346 ´ 103
LHS = 0.8873 ´ 10–3 ¹ 0.7613 ´ 10–3 = RHS
Assume tS = 67°C. Then,
fg = 6.227 Wm–2 K–1
fR = 13.615 W m–2 K–1
ft = 19.842 Wm–2 K–1
kw = 6.095 ´ 10–3 kg s–1 m–2
pLS = 27,375 N/m2
wS = 0.23
D hS = 2341 kJ/kg
19.842 (166 - 67)
From Eq. (24.15), = 6.095 ´ 10–3 (0.23 – 0.094)
2341 ´ 103
LHS = 0.839 ´ 10–3 » 0.829 ´ 10–3 = RHS
The assumed value of a surface temperature of 67°C is quite satisfactory. Hence

the initial drying rate
dW f A (t - t S )
= t
dt D hS
(19.842) [0.3 ´ 0.1 + 2 ´ 0.3 (0.3 + 0.1)] (166 - 67)
=
2341 ´ 103
= 0.227 ´ 10 kg/s
–3
24.6.2 Drying During Falling-rate Period

Drying during the falling-rate period begins when the product reaches a critical
moisture-content level. At this stage, the rate of migration of water from the interior
to the surface becomes less than the rate of evaporation of water from the surface.
Accordingly, during this period, the rate of drying is controlled by the rate of
migration of water, i.e., by the internal resistance of the product to the mass trans-
fer. If the rate of heat transfer is high, the vaporization may take place within the
material. In this case, the conductive heat-transfer resistance of the material will
also be significant. The surface temperature, as also the temperature at the interface
between the dried and wet material, will be controlled by the relative thermal and
mass-transfer resistances.
There are different mechanisms of migration of water from the interior. Some
are summarised by Görling7 as follows:
(i) Liquid movement due to capillary forces,
(ii) Diffusion of liquid due to concentration difference,
(iii) Surface diffusion in the liquid absorbed at the boundary of the solid,
(iv) Water-vapour diffusion by partial-pressure difference.
It is possible that one or more of the above mechanisms, and/or other mecha-
nisms of moisture migration are present simultaneously. In most food products,
however, the moisture migration occurs by diffusion.
It is found that the diffusion coefficient depends on moisture content. It is constant
down to about 15 per cent moisture content. At this stage, a second-diffusion coeffi-
cient, which is about one-fifth the first-diffusion coefficient controls the process.
The governing equation for the transfer of moisture by diffusion is analogous to
the transient heat-conduction equation. Thus the methods of solution are also the
same. Accordingly, the Gurnie-Lurie1 charts may also be used for estimating the
moisture transfer.
In the analogy, the liquid diffusivity D is analogous to the thermal diffusivity a =
k/r Cp or ar Cp is analogous to the thermal conductivity k. The mass-transfer equiva-
lence of the heat-transfer coefficient is determined from the mass-balance equation
(t - tS )
fg = kw (wS – w) (24.18)
D hS
whence
DhS (w S - w )
fg = kw (24.19)
(t - t S )
which is, therefore, equivalent to kw Cp since w S – w is dimensionless and DhS/

(t – tS) is equivalent to Cp. Thus in Gurnie-Lurie charts, the surface-resistance ratio
k 1 Dr C p Dr
= is analogous to or to
f g rm Bi kw C p rm kw rm
in which k has been replaced by Dr Cp and f g by kw Cp. The density term represents
the density of bone-dried material. The drying rate is then given by
dW
= kw A(wS – w) (24.21)
dt
where W is the moisture content of the material at any time t and dW/dt represents
the moisture gradient.
In the use of Gurnie-Lurie charts, the Fourier number at//rm2 may be replaced by
Dt/rm2. As for the dimensionless temperature, it may be replaced by the
dimensionless moisture content W/W i. For this purpose, the initial-moisture
content should be taken as equal to the critical-moisture content.
Example 24.11 297 g of a food product in the form of a slab are dried. The
weight vs. time readings are given in Table 24.7.
Table 24.7 Experimental weight vs. time data for Example 24.11
Time Weight Time Weight

min g min g
0 297 535 149.9
25 283.5 637 132.2
55 273.5 777 107.2
195 233.5 883 93.1
The weight of the bone-dried material is 79 g. The dimensions of the material

are 12.1 cm ´ 12.1 cm ´ 2 cm.
(a) Determine the critical-moisture content of the product and the drying rate
during the constant-rate period.
(b) The dry and wet bulb temperatures of the air are 54.5 and 37.8°C respec-
tively. If the heat transfer is only by convection, determine the heat-transfer
coefficient of the air and diffusion coefficient of water vapour during the
constant-rate period.
(c) Determine the liquid diffusivity during the falling-rate period.
Solution (a) Initial-moisture content

297 - 79 218
wi = = = 2.76
79 79
The values of moisture content w, and dimensionless moisture content W/W i
are evaluated in Table 24.8.
Table 24.8 Moisture content vs. time for Example 24.11
Time w W/Wi
min
0 2.76 1.0
283.5 - 79
25 = 2.59 0.935
79
273.5 - 79
55 = 2.46 0.892
79
233.5 - 79
195 = 1.95 0.709
79
149.9 - 79
535 = 0.895 0.325
79
132.2 - 79
635 = 0.675 0.245
79
107.2 - 79
777 = 0.375 0.129
79
93.1 - 79
883 = 0.082 0.082
79
The drying curve, w vs. t is plotted in Fig. 24.17. It is seen that the plot is a
straight line only up to t = 70 min and W = 2.4.
3.0
2.5 Constant-rate
2.4 Period Straignt Line
2.0 = 70 min
1.5
w
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8
, min 10–2
Fig. 24.17 W vs. t plot for Example 24.11
Thus, constant-rate drying ends at this point so that the critical-moisture content is
wc = 2.4
Rate of change of moisture content
dw 2.76 - 2.4
= = 0.3 kg water/kg solid/hour
dt 70/ 60
Drying rate dring the constant rate period
dW dw FG IJ
dt
=
dt H K
(Mass of solid)
= (0.3) (0.079) = 0.0237 kg/h

(b) Surface area of the product
A = 2(12.1 ´ 12.1) + 2(12.1 + 12.1) ´ 2
= 390 cm2
By moisture balance during the constant-rate period
dW f g A (t - t S )
= = kw A(wS – w)
dt D hS
whence
FG 0.0237 IJ (2410 ´ 103 )
fg =
H 3600 K (390 ´ 10-4 ) (54.5 - 37.8)
= 24.3 W m–2 K–1
Now
p¢L = 6552 N/m2 (at 37.8°C)
(101325 - 6552) (54.5 - 37.8)
pL = 6552 –
2800 - 1.3 (18. ´ 54.5 + 32)
= 5950 N/m2
FG 5950 IJ = 0.039
w = 0.622
H 101325 - 5950K
= 0.622 G
F 6552 IJ = 0.043
wS
H 101325 - 6552 K
Hence
FG 0.0237 IJ 1
kw =
H 3600 K -4
(390 ´ 10 ) (0.043 - 0.039)
= 0.0422 kg s–1 m–2
From the similarly relation
fg
kw =
Cp
24.3
= = 0.024 kg s–1 m–2
1.0216 ´ 103
(c) The value of wi = wc = 2.4 may be taken as the initial moisture-content for the
falling-rate period. Considering 70 min as zero time, the values of W/Wc,
beginning from the new zero time, are evaluated and given in Table 24.9.
Table 24.9 Dimensionless moisture content vs. time for falling-rate period for
Example 24.11
Time W/Wi = W/Wc

h
0 1.0
2.67 0.75
7.0 0.417
11.35 0.167
12.85 0.1
13.6 0.071
Density of bone-dried material

0.079
r= = 269.8 kg.m –3
(12.1 ´ 12.1 ´ 2) ´ 10-6
The liquid diffusivity D will now be evaluated by trial and error.
Assume D = 10–4 m2 h–1
Surface resistance ratio
Dr (10-4 / 3600) (269.8) kw rm 1
= = 0.031 and = = 32
kw rm (0.024) (0.01) Dr 0.031
which is equivalent to Bi in Fig. 24.2.
From Table 24.6
W
= 0.1 at t = 12.85 h
Wi
Diffusion term
Dt (10-4 / 3600) (12.85 ´ 3600)
= = 12.85
2
rm (0.01) 2
From the Gurnie-Lurie chart (Fig. 24.2).
W
< 0.002 ¹ 0.1
Wi
It is evident that the value of D is such that the equivalent of Bi, viz.,
kw rm
=¥
D
From Fig. 24.2, for this value and for W/W i = 0.1, we have
Dt
= 1.02
r 2m
(1.02) (0.01) 2
so that D= = 2.205 ´ 10–9 m2 s–1
(12.85) (3600)
24.7 TUNNELS VENTILATION
All road tunnels require ventilation to remove pollutants produced from exhaust of
vehicles. Natural ventilation can suffice if the tunnel length is 300 m or so. For
longer tunnels, mechanical ventilation is necessary.
There are two type of ventilation requirements. These are ‘normal ventilation’
and ‘emergency ventilation’.
Emergency ventilation is necessary in case, for example, if there is fire. Normal
ventilation must be capable of handling emergency requirement.
There is the third type also which is ‘temporary ventilation’. This is needed
during construction. The purpose can be served by portable equipment, which can
be removed after work is over.
There are two systems for tunnel ventilation: ‘Longitudinal ventilation’ and
‘transverse ventilation’.
Longitudinal ventilation is by far very common. It introduces ‘in’ and removes
air ‘from’ tunnel at one or more points. A typical layout is shown in Fig. 24.18.
Fig. 24.18 (a) shows system with ‘jet injection’ of air at one point, while Fig. 24.18
(b) shows a module with one jet injection and one exhaust fan combination.
Fan
Jet
Pollutants
level
(a) With one jet fan, no exhaust fan
Ethaust Supply
fan fan
Jet
Pollutants
level
(b) With one jet fan, and one exhaust fan

Fig. 24.18 Longitudinal ventilation
The figure, also shows increasing pollutants level towards the exhaust side. It is
seen that the pollutants level towards the end of the tunnel can be decreased by
employing exhaust fan/s.
Note that, in longitudinal ventilation, air flows longitudinally in the direction of
the moving vehicles.
In transversve ventilation, air flows in a direction transverse to the movement of
vehicles, Transverse ventilation requires supply and exhaust air fans and ducts as
shown in Fig. 24.19.
Exhaust
Fan
Exhaust Air Duct
Supply Air Duct

Pollutants
level
Fig. 24.19 Transverse ventilation
Such arrangement is used in long tunnels. This system takes care of the emer-
gency ventilation requirement as well. During a fire the exhaust fans in the system
start working at their maximum capacities.
Ventilation air quantities can be determined by estimation of poisonus CO,
and CO2 and NOx emissions at maximum traffic level. Based on monitoring the
CO levels, for example, centralized control is provided to regulate fan speeds and
operate dampers in the system.
24.8 STATION AIR CONDITIONING
The net internal sensible heat gain for a typical 2-track metro station catering to, say,
40 trains per track traveling at 80 km/h speed may be of the order of 1.5 MW nearly.
To remove just this sensible heat only (excluding latent heat) simply by a ventila-
tion system, allowing for 1.7°C rise in temperature of ouside air, will require about,
say, 660 m3/s of outside air. Such a ventilation system anyway will be very costly,
not much less costly than the air-conditioning system. Further, air velocities on plat-
form would reach intolerable propertions. And when one thinks of the letent heat
load to cater to, one can imagine how unbearable the conditions on the platfoms will
be. Hence air conditioning is necessary.
The same amount of sensible heat gain plus the latent heat gain and ventilation
air loads for keeping the station air temperature 5°C below the ambient temperature
could be handled by about 2.6 MW of refrigeration.
24.9 MINE AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION
Air conditioning and ventilation of mines requires very special expertise. The
description presented here is only a brief overview of the topic.
Mine ventilation is required to supply oxygen to underground facilities, to
remove dangerous substances like hydrocarbon methane (CH4), radon, strata gases,
dust, blasting fumes, diesel emission, etc., and also to remove heat, and help control
humidity. Use of ventilation is limited by the wet bulb temperature which should not
exceed the prescribed range which is considered satisfactory between 25.5 to 29°C.
Accordingly, ventilation can be done to a depth of 2500 m at the most. Below this
depth, air temperatures in the intake shaft reach very high values, and air condition-
ing becomes absolutely necessary.
‘Stope’ in the mine is a production site where ore is actually mined. Actual cool-
ing load is calculated at the average stope temperature, which is lower than the
acceptable temperature for ventilation.
Heat enter the mines from wall rocks.
Other loads are from electric motors, lights, substation losses, calorific value of
diesel burnt, and occupancy. Another important source of heat entering mine is due
to adiabatic compression of air descending the shaft.
Finally, heat enters from ground water.
Wall rock heat flow is the main source of heat in deep rock mines. Note that the
temperature at the earth’s core is estimated about 5700°C. Heat flux from core to
mine’s internal surface may be as high as 50 W/m2 which corresponds to thermal
conductivity k = 5.5 W/mK, and thermal diffusivity a = 0.008 m3/h of surrounding
earth.
For estimation of wall rock heat flow, one may refer to ASHRAE Handbook
Application, 2003.
Note that air descending a shaft increases in pressure.
This may be referred to as ‘adibatic compression’. As a result, temperature of
descending air increases. Load due to this adiabtic compression is given by
Q = Qv r E D L
where the load Q is in W, Qv is air flow in shaft in m3/s, r is air density about
1.12 kg /m3, E is energy added per unit distance of elevation about 0.01 kJ/kg m,
and D L is the change in elevation. For example, load of adiabatic compression of
150 m3/s of air at r = 1.12, flowing down 1500 m deep shaft is
Q = (150)(1.12)(0.01)(1500) = 2520 W
Groundwater load is an important factor. For example, if 1.5 L/s of water at 53°C
leaks into shaft sump which is at 29°C, the load is
FG L IJ FG IJ FG
kg kJ IJ
Q = 15
H
.
s KH KH
1
L
4.1868
kg K K
(53 – 29)K
= 151 kW
For mine air conditioning, we may have a surface plant or an underground plant.
Underground plants do the same job as surface plants. They have the advantage of
being closer to work areas. As a result, they give better efficiency and utilization.
But heat rejection is limited by the temperature of mine exhaust air which is used for
cooling in condenser. Maintenance is also more difficult. Building spary chambers
is more costly.
Mine A/C plant may either cool air or supply chilled water. Figure 24.20 shows a
combination system. It can cool air and chill water also.
Condenser
Cooling Tower
Air Washer
Refrigeration
Plant Chilled-
Water Air
Cond
Reservoir
Evap
Surface Cooled-Air
Chilled-water Down Shaft
Down Shaft
Pump Water
Shaft
Pelton
Turbine
Mine Pump Station
Chilled Water To Work Areas

Supply System
To Work Areas
Mine Pump Station

Fig. 24.20 Integrated cooling system
Such a surface plant provides a higher fraction of cooling capacity to cool intake
air in bulk in summer. In winter, a higher fraction of cooling capacity is used to chill
air conditioning water. This water is delivered underground.
Figure 24.20 shows that chilled water from chilled water reservoir is taken to the
following:
(i) Air Washer From air washer, cooled-air is sent down shaft.
(ii) Underground Chilled Water Supply System Chilled water first goes to
pelton turbine which produces power from the ‘head’ of water corresponding
to depth below ground level. After doing work in turbine, water is available
for chilled-water fan-coil unit (FCU), and other services.
A mine pump station returns the water to surface. This return water plus return
water from air washer together enter the evaporator/chiller of the refrigeration plant.
The plant uses centrifugal or screw compressoor. Most common refrigerant is
HCFC 22. Ammonia is also commonly used in surface plants. Other method being
developed includes air cycle refrigeration. Air is compressed on the surface. It is
sent underground to a turbine where it turns a generator and exits at –40°C.
References
1. ASHRAE, Handbook of Applications, 1968.
2. Charm, S E, The Fundamentals of Food Engineering, AVI, Westport,
Connecticut, 1963.
3. Ede, A J, ‘The calculation of freezing and thawing of foodstuffs’, Modern
Refrigeration, Vol. 52, 1949, p. 52.
4. ‘Freezing in fisheries’, Food and Agricultural Organisation, Fisheries
Technical Paper, No. 167, 1977.
5. Gilliland, E R and T K Sherwood, ‘Drying of solids IV’, Ind. Engg. Chem.,
Vol. 25, p. 1134.
6. Goldblith, S A, L Rey and W W, Rothmayer, Freeze Drying and Advanced
Food Technology, Academic Press, London, 1975.
7. Gorling, P, Fundamental Aspects of the Dehydration of Foodstuffs,
Macmillan, New York, 1958.
8. Harper J C and A L, Tappel, Advances in Food Research, Vol. 7, Academic
Press, New York, 1957.
9. Nagaoka, J, S Takagi and S, Hotani ‘Experiments on the freezing of fish in an
air-blast freezer’, Proc. IX International Congress of Refrigeration, Paris,
Vol. 2, 1953, p. 4.
10. Neuman, K, ‘Advances in the method and application of freeze drying’,
ChemiIngenieur Technik, Jan. 1957, p. 267.
11. Sharma N K, C P Arora and B K Mital, ‘Influence of concentration of milk
solids on freeze-drying rate of yoghurt and its quality’, J. Food Process
Engg., Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 187–198, 1972.
12. Sharma N K and C P, Arora, ‘Prediction of transient temperature distribution
during freeze drying of yoghurt’, Drying Technology, Vol. 11, No. 7,
pp. 1863–1883, 1993.
13. Sharma N K and C P, Arora, ‘Influence of product thickness, chamber
pressure and heating conditions on production rate of freeze-dried yoghurt’,
Int. J. Refrigeration, Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 297–307, 1995.
14. Sherwood, T K, ‘Application of theoretical diffusion equations to the drying
of solids’, Trans. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Vol. 27, 1931,
p. 190.
15. Tressler D K and C F, Evers, The Freezing Preservation of Foods, Vols. I
and II, AVI, Westport, Connecticut, 1957.
16. Trifonova L I, ‘Theoretical and experimental investigation of freeze
dehydration process, Ph D. thesis, IIT, Delhi, 1975.
17. Trifonova L I and C.P. Arora, ‘Symmetrical steady state freeze drying
and optimization of radiator temperature, XIV Int. Cong. Refrigeration,
Moscow, 1975.
Revision Exercises
24.1 (a) 10 cm thick meat slabs, initially at 35°C, are kept in a cold room at 1°C.
Using numerical method, find the time required for the centre of the slab
to reach a temperature of 4°C. The heat-transfer coefficient of air may
be taken as 10 Wm–2 K–1. The thermophysical properties of meat are as
follows:
Thermal conductivity = 0.65 W m–1 K–1
Specific heat = 3.5 kJ kg–1 K–1
Density = 1020 kg m–3
(b) Compare your result with that obtained by using Gurnie-Lurie charts.
24.2 (a) A 10 cm thick meat slab is being frozen from both sides in a contact-
plate freezer. The meat is initially at 5°C and has a moisture content of
75 per cent. The average freezing point is – 5°C. The plates are main-
tained at – 18°C. Employing Neuman solution, determine the time for
the meat centre to pass through the freezing zone.
(b) Determine the time required if the freezing is carried out in an air-blast
freezer with air supplied at – 18°C and the heat-transfer coefficient of
air is 20 Wm–2 K–1.
All other data remain the same.
The thermophysical properties of thawed and frozen meat are given
below.
Property Thawed Meat Frozen Meat Units
Thermal conductivity 0.57 1.04 W m–1 K–1
Specific heat 3.48 1.91 kJ kg–1 K–1
Density 1057 961 kg m–3
24.3 Solve Problem 24.2 using modified Plank’s equation.

24.4 Determine the freeze-drying time for a tray of 1.2 cm thick, frozen lean steaks
in contact with heating platens on both sides at 90°C. The drying chamber is
maintained at 1 mm Hg pressure. The thermophysical properties of dried and
frozen meat are as follows:
Property Dried Meat Frozen Meat Units
Thermal conductivity 0.017 1.0 W m–1 K–1
Specific heat 1.34 8.3 kJ kg–1 K–1
Density 320 960 kg m–3
Use Neuman’s solution.

24.5 1360 kg/h of magnesium hydroxide are to be dried from 82 to 4 per cent
moisture content (based on a bone-dry basis) on a belt drier with air blown at
a dry bulb temperature of 71°C and a wet bulb temperature of 37.5°C. The
make-up air is at 40°C dry bulb and 25°C wet bulb. The material enters the
drier at a temperature of 30°C. The test-drying time is 25 min. The drier bed
is loaded with 34 kg/m2 of bone-dry material. The depth of the bed is 10 cm.
The air velocity is 1.27 m/s.
(a) If the commercial-drying time is 70 per cent more than the test-drying
time, find the width and length of a perforated belt assuming a suitable
free-flow area.
(b) Determine the evaporation rate in the drier, supply air rate and make-up
air rate.
(c) Establish the heat balance of the system. The specific heat of wet mate-
rial is 1.2 kJ/kg.K.
24.6 Trays of material cut into 1.25 cm cubes at an initial moisture content of 70%
are being dried in a counter-current tunnel drier. The trays are 15.2 cm deep.
The space between the trays is 2.5 cm. The temperature of cubes entering the
drier is 30°C. The production rate is to be 45 kg of the product per hour.
Assume the final product has 2 per cent moisture. The heat-transfer coeffi-
cient of air may be calculated from Eq. (24.16). The spacing between trays is
7.5 cm. The trays are mounted on trucks, the cross-section of which is 0.9 m
´ 0.8 m Calculate:
(a) The drying rate in the constant-rate period and the mass-transfer
coefficient.
(b) The critical-moisture content.
(c) The length of the drier.
The diffusivity of the dried material is 1.8 ´ 10–9 m2/s and its density is
320 kg/m3.
Appendix
)
Thermodynamic Properties
Correlations for Refrigerants
A.1 CORRELATIONS FOR THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

OF R 12
All the correlations given by Watson* as written below have been used:

P2
ln Ps = P1 + + P3 ln Ts + P4 Ts5 (A.1.1)
Ts
where Ps is in bar. And constants are as follows:
P1 = 4.749214603 ´ 101
P2 = –3.783397029 ´ 103
P3 = –5.852561143
P4 = 1.568931884 ´ 10–8
n=3
From Eq. (A.1.1), we obtain the saturation pressure versus saturation temperature
gradient
LM d P OP = P LM- P
s P3
+ n P4 Tsn - 1
OP
Nd T Q N T +
2
Q
s 2
(A.1.2)
s s Ts
for substitution in Clapeyron equation to determine the latent heat of vaporization
of R 12.
Equation of State and Vapour Phase Enthalpy and Entropy

Perel’ shtein’s equation is used as given below
9
P=RTH å Ei H i– 1 (A.1.3)
i =1
* Watson J.T.R., Thermophysical properties of refrigerant R12, Department of

Industry/National Engineering Lab., Edinburgh, 1975.
Appendix A 851
where P is in bar, H is in kg/dm3 and the constants are

E1 = 1.0
E2 = A1 + A2/J + A3/J 2 + A4 /J 3
E3 = A5 + A6/J + A 7 /J 2
E4 = A8 + A9 /J + A10 /J 2
E5 = A11 + A12/J
E6 = 0.0
E7 = A13 + A14 /J
E8 = 0.0
E9 = A15
A1 = 4.18883659 A2 = –11.4858003 A3 = 8.64725830
A4 = – 3.51695112 A5 = – 9.66065502 A6 = 21.9447268
A7 = –10.8428817 A8 = 17.9920989 A9 = – 41.2886382
A10 = 23.7864658 A11 = 0.0485266372 A12 = – 0.162237281
A13 = 4.63277362 A14 = – 6.16887911 A15 = 1.29950293
R = 0.6875616 bar dm3/kg.K.
J is reduced temperature defined as T/385.15, where 385.15 K is the critical tem-
perature of R 12.
From Eq. (A.1.3), we obtain
LM d P OP LM
= HR + H 2 R A 1 -
. )2
A3 (38515
-
. )3
A4 (38515 OP
N dT Q H N T2 T3 Q
3 L
+ H R MA -
. )2
A7 (38515 OP
N Q
5 (A.1.4)
T2
4 L
+ H R MA -
A10 . ) O
(38515
PQ
2
N 8
T2
+ H 5 RA11 + H7RA13 + H 9RA15

Substituting from the above, we obtain the following expressions for the vapour
phase enthalpy and entropy of R 12.
z
T
h = ho + PL – RTo + (Cpo – R) dT
To
FL
+ HR T G M A - A G
F 385.15IJ - A FG 385.15IJ OP - E IJ
2 3
H MN 1
H T K H T K PQ K
3 4 2
F
+ H RT LM A - A FG 385.15IJ OP - E
I
G H T K PQ JK
2 2
2 H MN
5 7 3
H RT F L . I O
F 38515 I
G M A - A G J P - E J
3 2
+
3 H MN
8
H T K PQ K 10 4
H 4 RT H 6 RT
+ [A11 – E5] + [A 13 – E 7]
4 6
H 8 RT
+ [A15 – E6] (A.1.5.)
8
LM OP
z
T
dT RTH
(CpH – R)
s = so +
To
T
– R ln
Po N Q
LM LM OP . O O
LM 38515
N T PQ PPQ
2 3
– HR A - A 38515
.
1 3
TMN N Q - A4
LM
H2 R 38515
. LM OP OP 2
–
2 MN
A 5 - A7
T N Q PQ
H RL . O O H A
LM 38515
MA - A N T PQ PPQ - 4
3 2 4
11R
3 MN
– 8 10
H 6 R A13 H 8 R A15
– - (A.1.6)
6 8
Correlation for Saturated Liquid Density
6
HL – Hc = å Di (Tc – T ) i/3 (A.1.7)
i =1
where HL is in kg/dm3, and the constants are as follows:
D1 = 0.2477199 D2 = – 0.1480948 D3 = 0.008001550
D4 = – 0.01962269 D5 = 0.0023223 D6 = – 0.0001057677
Zero-Pressure Constant Volume Specific Heat

CLo = CL1 + CL2 T + CL3 T 2 + CL3 T 3 (A.1.8)
where the units of specific heat are in kJ/kg.K, and the constants are
CL1 = 0.0479836 CL3 = –2.94985 ´ 10–6
CL2 = 0.00238154 CL4 = 1.37374 ´ 10–9
A.2 CORRELATIONS FOR THERMODYNAMIC

The correlations given by Wilson and Basu* have been used:

P2 P ( P - Ts )
ln Ps = P1 + + P3 Ts + P4 Ts2 + 5 6 ln (P6 – Ts) (A.2.1)
Ts Ts
* Wilson D.P. and Basu R.S., ‘Thermodynamic properties of a new statospherically safe
working fluid-Refrigerant 134a’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 94, pp. 2095–2118, 1988.
Appendix A 853
where Ps is in kPa, and the constants are

P1 = 24.8033988
P2 = – 0.3980408 ´ 104
P3 = – 0.2405332 ´ 10–1
P4 = 0.2245211 ´ 10– 4
P5 = 0.1995548
P6 = 0.3748473 ´ 10 3
Also, differentiating Eq. (A.2.1), the derivative is obtained as below:
LM d P OP
s LM P2 P P P ln ( P6 - Ts )
N dT Q
s
= Ps -
N Ts2
+ 3 + 2 P4 Ts - 5 6
Ts Ts2
-
P5 P6
+
P5 OP
Ts ( P6 - Ts ) ( P6 - Ts ) Q (A.2.2)

A 13-constant Martin-Hou equation of state has been used.
RT E + E2 T + E 3 e – k Tr E 4 + E5 T + E 6 e – k Tr
P= + 1 +
(L - b) (L - b) 2 (L - b) 3
E7 E8 + E9 T + E10 e – k Tr
+ +
(L - b) 4 (L - b) 5
RT 5
A + Bi T + Ci e – k Tr
= +∑ i (A.2.3)
(L – b ) i = 2 (L – b)i
where P is in kPa, L is in m /kg, and the constants are:
3
b = 0.3455467 ´ 10–3 k = 5.475

E1 = – 0.1198051
E2 = 0.1137590 ´ 10–3
E3 = –3.531592
E4 = 0.1447797 ´ 10–3
E5 = – 0.8942552 ´ 10–7
E6 = 0.6469248 ´ 10–2
E7 = – 1.049005 ´ 10–7
E8 = – 6.953904 ´ 10–12
E9 = 1.269806 ´ 10–13
E10 = –2.051369 ´ 10–9
R = 0.081488162 kJ/kg.K
LM d P OP =
R E - E3 k e - k Tr / Tc
+ 2
E - E6 k e - k Tr / Tc
+ 5
N dT Q H
L-b (L - b) 2
( L - b) 3
E9 - E10 k e - k Tr / Tc
+ (A.2.4)
(L - b)5
phase enthalpy and entropy of R 134a.
LM OP
z
T 5
A
(Cp0 – R) dT + å i
N (i - 1) (L - b) Q
h = ho + (A.2.5)
(i - 1)
To i=2
+ å M
L C e (1 + k T ) OP + (PL – RT )
5
i
- k Tr
r
N (i - 1) (L - b) Q
i=2
(i - 1) o
z
T o
C dT
p
- R ln M
L RT OP + å LM B 5 OP
N Q
i
N (i - 1) (L - b) Q
s = so + ( i - 1)
To
T P ( L - b )o i =2
+ å M
L C (k / T ) e OP
5
i c
- k Tr
N (i - 1) (L - b) Q (i - 1)
(A.2.6)
i=2

4
HL = Hc + å DN (1 – Tr)N/3 (A.2.7)
N =1
where HL is in kg/m3 and the constants are:
D1 = 819.6183
D2 = 1023.582
D3 = –1156.757
D4 = 789.7191
Zero-Pressure Constant Pressure Specific Heat

C p5
Cpo = Cp1 + Cp2T + Cp3T 2 + Cp4T 3 + (A.2.8)
T
where Cpo is in kJ/kg.K and the constants are:
Cp1 = – 0.5257455 ´ 10–2
Cp2 = 0.3296570 ´ 10–2
Cp3 = –2.017321 ´ 10–6 Cp 4 = 0.0
Cp5 = 15.82170

The correlations given by Kamei et al*. have been used:
* Kamei A., Piao C.C., Sato H. and Watanabe K. ‘Thermodynamic charts and
cycle performance of HFC-134a and HFC-152a’, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 96, Part 1,
pp. 141–149, 1990.
Appendix A 855
Ps FG IJ [– 7.46588 T
T
ln
Pc H K
= c
Ts
r1 + 1.89468 Trl1.5 – 2.57557 Trl2.5] (A.3.1)
where Ps and Pc are in Pa, and

Ts
Trl = 1 –
Tc
LM d P OP = P LM 7.46588 T
s c
-
1.26312 Tc2 / 3 1.030228 Tc2 / 5
+
OP
N dT Q N T Q
s 2
(A.3.2)
s s Ts5 / 3 Ts7 / 5

Soave Redlich-Kwong type equation is used
RT A a (T )
P= - c (A.3.3)
L - b L (L - b)
where P is in Pa, L is in m3/kg and
R 2 Tc2
Ac = 0.42748
Pc
FG IJ Lm + nFG T IJ O
K MN H T K PQ
T
a(T) = 1 + 1 -
H
c
Tc
0.08664 RTc
b=
Pc
R
R= o
M
Ro = 8.31451 kJ/kmol × K, M = 66.051 ´ 10–3 kg/mol
m = 0.45 n = 1.15
LM n T m
+
OP
LM d P OP
c
NT Q
Ac 2
R Tc
= + (A.3.4)
N dT Q H
(L - b) L(L + b)
phase enthalpy and entropy of R 152a.
Ac LM T L OP LM OP
h = ho +
b N
1 + m - n + 2n c ln
T L+b Q N Q
z
T
+ PL – RT + CPo dT (A.3.5)
To
LM m + n T OP + R ln L (L - b) O + C
MN RT PQ z
T
Ac c o dT
NT T Q
s = so + 2 P (A.3.6)
b c To
T

HL
= 1 + 1.86756 Tr10.326 + 0.99263 Tr10.836 (A.3.7)
Hc
where HL and Hc are in kg/m3
Zero-Pressure Constant Pressure Specific Heat

Cpo = 2.07225 + 5.72223 ´ 10–2 T – 3.48012 ´ 10–5 T 2
+ 8.10711´ 10–9 T 3 (A.3.8)
o
where Cp is in kcal/kmol K.

PROPERTIES OF R 22
Correlations given by Reynolds* have been used:
P2 (C - Ts )
ln Ps = P1 + + P3 ln Ts + [P4 ´ Ts] + P5 ln (C – Ts) (A.4.1)
Ts Ts
where Ps is in Pa, and the constants are
P1 = 7.1554148092
P2 = – 4.8189575050 ´ 103
P3 = –7.8610312200
P4 = 9.0806824483 ´ 10–3
P5 = 4.4574670300 ´ 10–1
C = 381.17
From Eq. (A.4.1) we obtain
LM d P OP = P LM- P
s
+
P3 P C ln (C - Ts )
+ P4 - 5 -
P5 C
+
P5 OP
N dT Q N T
2
s
s
s
2
Ts Ts2
Ts (C - Ts ) (C - Ts ) Q
(A.4.2)

Modified Martin-Hou equation is used.
* Reynolds C W, Thermodynamic properties in S.I.: Graphs, tables and computational

equations for forty substances, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA, 1979.
Appendix A 857
RT ( A i + Bi T + Ci e - kT / Tc ) ( A6 + B6 T + C6 e - kT / Tc )
5
P=
L-b
+ å (L - b)i
+
e= L (1 + ce= L )
i =2
(A.4.3)
where P is in Pa, L is in m3/kg, and the constants are
R = 96.1467 k = 4.2
b = 1.24855636 ´ 10 –4
= = 8781.3417
A2 = –1.16981908 ´ 102 A3 = – 2.92952588 ´ 10–2
A4 = 2.41919261 ´ 10–4 A5 = –2.43458381 ´ 10–7
A6 = 9.40022615 ´ 1011 B2 = 1.16431240 ´ 10–1
B3 = 2.30319412 ´ 10 –4
B4 = – 6.79667708 ´ 10–7
B5 = 6.30201766 ´ 10 –10
B6 = – 2.07580650 ´ 109
C2 = – 1.18409710 ´ 10 3
C3 = 2.48896136
C4 = 0.0 C5 = – 1.20619716 ´ 10–6
C6 = 0.0
LM d P OP R
+ å
5
1
-
LM
Ci k e - kT Tc OP
N dT Q H
=
(L - b) i =2 (L - b)i
Bi
N Tc Q
C6 k e - kT Tc
B6 -
Tc
+ (A.4.4)
e= v (1 + e= L )
phase enthalpy and entropy of R 22.
LM A + C e FG1 + k T IJ OP - kT Tc
+ z C dT – å M
T
H T KP
5 i i
MM (1 - i) (L - b) PP
o c
h = ho L ( i - 1)
i=2
MN PQ
To
FG1 + k T IJ - kT Tc
+
A + C e6
H T K + (PL – RT )
6
c
(A.4.5)
= e= L
o
k - kT Tc
z
T 5 Bi - Ci e
dT Tc
s = so + CLo
T
+ R ln (L – b) + å (1 - i )( L - b ) (i -1)
To i =2
k - kT Tc
B6 - C6 e
Tc
– (A.4.6)
= e= L

5
HL = å Di Tr1(i – 1)/3 + D6 Tr11/2 + D7 Tr12 (A.4.7)
i =1
where HL is in kg/m3, and Tr l= 1 – T

Tc
and the constants are D1 = 5.24766060 ´ 102
D2 = 8.75161285 ´ 102
D3 = 5.88662575 ´ 102
D4 = – 3.57093464 ´ 102
D5 = 3.27951374 ´ 102

4 CL5
CLo = å CL T i–1 +
i
T2
(A.4.8)
i =1
where CLo is in J/kg.K, and the constants are
CL1 = 1.17767818 ´ 102
CL2 = 1.69972960
CL3 = – 8.83043292 ´ 10–4
CL4 = 0.0
CL5 = 3.32541759 ´ 105

PROPERTIES OF R 290 AND R 600a
Reynolds* also gives correlations for R 290 and R 600a which are as follows.
FG T - 1IJ å P F T I i -1
H T K GH T - 1J
8
K
ln (Ps/Pc) = c s (A.5.1)
i
s i =1 p
The constants are given in the table below:

Constants Propane Isobutane
P1 – 6.230993 – 6.3016457
P2 – 4.4226860 ´ 10–1 2.1880736 ´ 10–1
P3 – 1.8839624 – 1.1288158
P4 3.6383362 ´ 10–1 2.2391095
P5 1.5177354 ´ 101 1.0653363
P6 1.1216551 ´ 102 9.3322720
P7 2.7635840 ´ 102 2.4836848 ´ 101
P8 2.358535 ´ 102 3.7187854 ´ 101
Tp 300 300
Pc 4.2359300 ´ 106 3.6845470 ´ 106
LM d P OP = P LM T 8 LM T OP i -1
s
MN- T å -1
Nd T Q
c
MN T
s
s
s 2
s i =1
Pi
p PQ
Appendix A 859
LM T OP 1 LM T OP i-2
8 OP
+ c
-1 s
-1 å (i - 1) Pi
PQ
NT Q T MN T PQ
(A.5.2)
s p p i =1

Reynolds has used the following equation of state for both R 290 and R 600a.
E FG
E E IJ
P = HRT + E1 RT - E2 - 23 + 43 - 45 H2
T H
T T K
d FG d IJ FG IJ
+ b RT - a -
T H
H3 + = a +
T
H6
K
(A.5.3)
H K
H3
(1 + C H 2) e– C H
2
2
+c
T
where P is in Pa, and H is in kg/m3.
The constants for the two refrigerants are given in the table below:
R 1.887326 ´ 102 1.430797 ´ 102
E1 1.366892 ´ 10–3 2.018128 ´ 10–3
E2 2.579108 ´ 102 2.964140 ´ 102
E3 3.401044 ´ 107 2.489763 ´ 107
E4 1.076728 ´ 109 1.163672 ´ 109
E5 3.375879 ´ 1010 6.371519 ´ 1010
b 1.096523 ´ 10–5 9.906333 ´ 10–6
a 7.856721 ´ 10–1 4.100261 ´ 10–1
d 1.639769 ´ 102 1.029360 ´ 102
c 1.661103 ´ 105 1.072632 ´ 105
= 5.728034 ´ 10–9 5.253972 ´ 10–9
C 9.157270 ´ 10–6 8.208362 ´ 10–6
From Eq. (A.5.3), we obtain,

FG d P IJ LM E3 E E d OP LM OP
H dT K H
= HR + H2 E1 R +
N T 3
- 44 + 55 + H 3 bR + 2
T T T Q N Q
2 c ρ 3 (1 + γ ρ 2 ) e –γ ρ
2
α ρ6 d
2 − – (A.5.4)
T T3
phase enthalpies and entropies of R 290 and R 600a.
z
T
h = ho+ PL – R To + (Cpo – R) dT
To
LMFG E E3 E E E IJ FG
E E IJ OP
NH K H KQ
+H 1 R+ 3
- 44 + 55 - E1 R T - E2 - 23 - 43 + 45
T T T T T T
H2 H5 LM= d + = d OP - 3c e - C H2
–
2
a -
5 NT T Q TC 2 2
( H - 1)
H2 e- C H
2
3c
– 2 (1– e–C H ) –
2
(A.5.5)
T 2C
z
T
LM OP L R TH OP
N Q MN
dT 2E 3E 4E
s = so +
To
T
+ R ln
Po
- H E1 R + 33 - 44 + 55
T T T Q
H L 2
d O H =d 5 -C H 2
2 MN T PQ
2ce
- bR + + - (H + 1) (A.5.6)
2
5T TC 2 3
- C H2
e j cH e 2
2c - C H2
+ 1- e -
C T 3
C T 3

6
HL = å Di T r(i1- 1) 3 (A.5.7)
i =1
where HL is in kg/m3, and
T
Trl = 1 –
Tc
and the constants are given in the table below:
D1 1.9738193 ´ 10 2
1.9450561 ´ 102
D2 – 2.1307184 ´ 101 – 9.1725345 ´ 101
D3 3.3522024 ´ 103 2.4446128 ´ 103
D4 – 7.7040243 ´ 103 – 2.7219989 ´ 103
D5 7.5224059 ´ 103 1.9324597 ´ 102
D6 – 2.5663363 ´ 103 8.7037158 ´ 102

6
CLo = å CLi T i–2 (A.5.8)
i =1
where (CL)o is in J/kg. K and the constants are as follows:

Constnats Propane Isobutane
CL1 2.0582170 ´ 10 5
1.7563902 ´ 105
CL2 – 1.9109547 ´ 103 – 1.7524300 ´ 103
CL3 1.1622054 ´ 101 1.1642389 ´ 101
CL4 – 9.7951510 ´ 10–3 – 1.0197170 ´ 10–2
CL5 4.5167026 ´ 10–6 4.9006615 ´ 10–6
CL6 – 8.6345035 ´ 10–10 – 9.8234416 ´ 10–10
uo 4.2027216 ´ 105 3.9342075 ´ 105
so 2.1673997 ´ 103 1.8189390 ´ 103
Appendix
*
Tables
B.1 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AT

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE*
The values of m, k, Cp and Pr are not strongly pressure-dependent and may be used over a
fairly wide range of pressures.
T r Cp m v k a
3 2
Pr
(K) (kg/m ) (kJ/kg K) (kg/m s (m /s (W/mk) (m2/s
´ 105) ´106 ) ´ 104)
100 3.9010 1.0266 0.6924 1.923 0.009246 0.02501 0.770
150 2.3675 1.0099 1.0283 4.343 0.013735 0.05745 0.753
200 1.7687 1.0061 1.3289 7.49 0.01809 0.10165 0.739
250 1.4128 1.0053 1.488 9.49 0.02227 0.13161 0.722
300 1.1774 1.0057 1.983 15.68 0.02624 0.2216 0.708
350 0.9980 1.0090 2.075 20.76 0.03003 0.2983 0.697
400 0.8826 1.0140 2.286 25.90 0.03365 0.3760 0.689
450 0.7833 1.0207 2.284 28.86 0.03707 0.4222 0.683
500 0.7048 1.0295 2.671 37.90 0.04038 0.5564 0.680
550 0.6423 1.0392 2.848 44.34 0.04360 0.6532 0.680
600 0.5879 1.0551 3.018 51.34 0.04649 0.7512 0.680
650 0.5430 1.0635 3.177 58.51 0.04953 0.8578 0.682
700 0.5030 1.0752 3.322 66.25 0.05230 0.9672 0.684
750 0.4709 1.0856 3.481 73.91 0.05509 1.0774 0.686
800 0.4405 1.0978 3.625 82.29 0.05779 1.1951 0.689
850 0.4149 1.1095 3.765 90.75 0.06028 1.3097 0.692
900 0.3925 1.1212 3.899 99.3 0.06269 1.4271 0.696
950 0.3716 1.1321 4.023 108.2 0.06525 1.5610 0.699
1000 0.3524 1.1417 4.152 117.8 0.06752 1.6779 0.702
1100 0.3204 1.160 4.44 136.6 0.0732 1.969 0.704
1200 0.2947 1.179 4.92 159.1 0.0782 2.251 0.707
1300 0.2707 1.197 4.93 182.1 0.0837 2.583 0.705
1400 0.2515 1.214 5.17 205.5 0.0891 2.920 0.705
1500 0.2355 1.230 5.40 229.1 0.0946 3.262 0.705
1600 0.2211 1.248 5.63 254.5 0.100 3.609 0.705
* From National Bureau of Standards (USA), Circ, 564, 1955.
B.2 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SATURATED WATER AND STEAM*
862
Temperature Specific-Volume Isobaric Specific Thermal Dynamic Viscosity Prandtl Number

Heat Capacity Conductivity
(°C) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg K) (W/m K) (g/ms)
t vf vg Cpf Cpg kf kg mf mg Prf Prg
Triple point
0.01 0.00100 206.2 4.217 1.854 0.509 0.0173 1.755 0.0088 13.02 0.942
10 0.00100 106.4 4.193 1.860 0.587 0.0185 1.301 0.0091 9.29 0.915
20 0.00100 57.8 4.182 1.866 0.603 0.0191 1.002 0.0094 6.95 0.918
30 0.00100 32.9 4.179 1.875 0.618 0.0198 0.797 0.0097 5.39 0.923
40 0.00100 19.5 4.179 1.885 0.632 0.0204 0.651 0.0101 4.31 0.930
50 0.00100 12.05 4.181 1.899 0.643 0.0210 0.544 0.0104 3.53 0.939
60 0.00102 7.68 4.185 1.915 0.653 0.0217 0.462 0.0107 2.96 0.947
70 0.00102 5.05 4.190 1.936 0.662 0.0224 0.400 0.0111 2.53 0.956
80 0.00103 3.41 4.197 1.962 0.670 0.0231 0.350 0.0114 2.19 0.966
90 0.00104 2.36 4.205 1.992 0.676 0.0240 0.311 0.0117 1.93 0.976
100 0.00104 1.673 4.216 2.028 0.681 0.0249 0.278 0.0121 1.723 0.047
125 0.00107 0.770 4.254 2.147 0.687 0.9272 0.219 0.0133 1.358 1.047
150 0.00109 0.392 4.310 2.314 0.687 0.0300 0.180 0.0144 1.133 1.110
175 0.00112 0.217 4.389 2.542 0.679 0.0334 0.153 0.0156 0.990 1.185
200 0.00116 0.127 4.497 2.843 0.665 0.0775 0.133 0.0167 0.902 1.270
225 0.00120 0.0383 4.648 3.238 0.644 0.0427 0.1182 0.0179 0.153 1.36
250 0.00125 0.0500 4.867 3.772 0.616 0.0495 0.1065 0.0191 0.841 1.45
275 0.00132 0.0327 5.202 4.561 3.582 0.0587 0.0972 0.0202 0.869 1.57
300 0.00140 0.0216 5.762 5.863 0.541 0.0719 0.0897 0.0214 0.955 1.74
325 0.00153 0.0142 6.861 8.440 0.493 0.0929 0.0790 0.0230 1.100 2.09
350 0.00174 0.00880 10.10 17.15 0.437 0.1343 0.0648 0.0258 1.50 3.29
360 0.00190 0.00694 14.6 25.1 0.400 0.168 0.0582 0.0275 2.11 4.89
374.15 0.00317 0.00317 – ¥ 0.24 0.94 0.045 0.045 ¥ ¥
Critical point 0.00317 0.00317 – ¥ 0.24 0.94 0.045 0.045 ¥ ¥
*Haywood, R W, Thermodynamic tables in S.I. units, Cambridge University Press, 1968.
Appendix B 863
B.3 THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF REFRIGERANTS*
Table B.3.1 Viscosities of saturated liquid refrigerants in cP
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .986 .472 .343 .201 .281
– 30 .848 .406 .305 .181 .244
– 20 .735 .353 .272 .164 .214
– 10 .642 .309 .243 .149 .190
0 .565 .271 .218 .137 .171
+ 10 .499 .239 .196 .126 .153
+ 20 .443 .211 .175 .116 .138
+ 30 .394 .186 .157 .101 .126
+ 40 .352 .163 .139 .090 .114
+ 50 .316 .143 .123 .079 .098
Table B.3.2 Viscosities of saturated vapour refrigerants in cP
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .0088 .00912 .01013 .0063 .00786
– 20 .0097 .00992 .01074 .00691 .00842
0 .0102 .01073 .01164 .00745 .00906
+ 20 .0108 .01158 .01272 .00809 .00968
+ 40 .0114 .01255 .01354 .00905 .01030
Table B.3.3 Thermal conductivities of saturated liquid refrigerants in W/mK
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .096 .1106 .12 .127 .688
– 20 .090 .1011 .11 .114 .622
0 .084 .0920 .1 .1040 .559
+ 20 .078 .0833 .09 .0961 .410
+ 40 .072 .0747 .08 .0870 .444
Table B.3.4 Thermal conductivities of saturated vapour refrigerants in W/m.K
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .00549 .00817 .00709 .01176 .02065
– 20 .00661 .00982 .00817 .01363 .02177
0 .00774 .01151 .00942 .01574 .02337
+ 20 .00889 .01333 .01095 .01825 .02638
+ 40 .01008 .01544 .01302 .02145 .02838
* ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, 2005.

Table B.3.5 Constant pressure specific heats of liquid refrigerants in kJ/kg.K
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .948 1.255 1.10 2.26 4.414
0 .990 1.341 1.17 2.51 4.617
+ 40 1.038 1.408 1.34 2.93 4.932
Table B.3.6 Constant pressure specific heats of saturated vapour refrigerants in kJ/kg.K
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 .585 .749 0.608 1.474 2.244
– 20 .617 .816 0.665 1.615 2.425
0 .651 .807 0.739 1.787 2.680
+ 20 .686 1.001 0.84 2.006 3.028
+ 40 .724 1.145 0.997 2.317 3.51
Table B.3.7 Surface tension of refrigerants in mN/m
Temp. R123 R134a R22 R290 R717

°C
– 40 23.19 17.60 17.94 15.53 42.26
– 30 21.92 16.04 16.34 14.14 43.52
– 20 20.66 14.51 14.76 12.78 39.88
– 10 19.41 13.02 13.21 11.44 36.34
0 18.18 11.56 11.70 10.13 32.91
+ 10 16.97 10.14 10.22 8.84 29.59
+ 20 15.77 8.76 8.78 7.59 26.38
B.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 744 (CARBON DIOXIDE)*
Table B.4.1 Properties below critical temperature
Saturated Saturated Saturated Liquid and Vapour Vapour

Temperature Pressure Specific volume Specific enthalpy Specific entropy Superheated
(°C) (MPa) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg K) By 30°C By 60°C
t p vf vg hf hg sf sg h s h s
– 56.6 Triple point
– 40 1.005 0.00090 0.0382 zero 321.1 zero 1.377 355.4 1.507 383.0 1.611
– 35 1.20 0.00091 0.0320 9.7 322.2 0.39 1.352 356.9 1.485 385.6 1.588
– 30 1.43 0.00093 0.0270 19.5 323.1 0.079 1.328 358.7 1.464 388.0 1.566
– 25 1.68 0.00095 0.0229 29.5 323.7 0.119 1.304 360.4 1.442 390.3 1.545
– 20 1.97 0.00097 0.0195 39.7 323.7 0.158 1.280 361.8 1.421 392.5 1.525
– 15 2.29 0.00099 0.0166 50.2 323.2 0.198 1.256 363.0 1.401 394.5 1.505
– 10 2.65 0.00102 0.0142 60.9 322.3 0.238 1.231 363.9 1.381 396.2 1.486
– 5 3.04 0.00105 0.0122 72.0 320.5 0.278 1.205 364.6 1.361 397.8 1.467
0 3.48 0.00108 0.0104 83.7 318.1 0.320 1.178 364.9 1.342 399.3 1.449
5 3.97 0.00111 0.00879 96.0 312.9 0.364 1.143 364.9 1.322 400.4 1.431
10 4.50 0.00116 0.00743 109.1 307.2 0.407 1.107 364.7 1.302 401.4 1.414
15 5.08 0.00121 0.00623 123.3 301.0 0.454 1.071 364.0 1.282 402.2 1.396
20 5.73 0.00129 0.00516 139.1 292.3 0.506 1.028 362.9 1.261 402.7 1.379
25 6.44 0.00140 0.00413 159.7 279.9 0.573 0.976 361.5 1.241 403.0 1.362
30 7.21 0.00169 0.00294 191.2 253.1 0.682 0.886 359.6 1.220 402.9 1.345
31.05 7.38 0.00214 0.00214 223.0 223.0 0.780 0.780 359.1 1.216 402.9 1.341
Critical point
Appendix B 865
*Haywood R W, Thermodynamic Tables in S.I. Units, Cambridge University Press, 1968

Table B.4.2 Thermodynamic properties of gaseous R 744 (carbon dioxde)
p, MPa Temperature of Vapour/Gas, K

(Tsat, K ) Sat. 300 400 500 600
1.0 L .0384 .0538 .0742 .0938 .1130
(233) h 321.1 384.3 477.9 577.5 683.2
s 1.377 1.617 1.886 2.108 2.300
2.0 L .0190 .0254 .0364 .0465 .0564
(253.6) h 322.7 373.7 472.8 574.3 681.0
s 1.275 1.460 1.746 1.972 2.166
5.0 L .0064 .0078 .0137 .0182 .0224
(287.5) h 304.1 331.3 456.6 564.7 674.7
s 1.086 1.178 1.542 1.784 1.984
10.0 L .0062 .0089 .0111
h 427.5 549.0 664.5
s 1.356 1.628 1.838
20.0 L .0026 .0043 .0055
h 367.3 519.6 646.2
s 1.106 1.448 1.680
Appendix B 867
B.5 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R290 (PROPANE)*
Table B.5.1 Saturation table of R 290
Temp. psat Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Liquid Vapour
vf ´ 103 vg hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
3 3
(°C) (bar) (m /kg) (m /kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
– 50 .699 1.729 .5828 83.41 432.92 516.33 .5363 1.9400 2.4763
– 48 .769 1.735 .5338 87.90 430.79 518.69 .5562 1.9133 2.4695
– 46 .843 1.742 .4897 92.41 428.64 521.05 .5760 1.8870 2.4630
– 44 .923 1.748 .4500 96.93 426.48 523.40 .5957 1.8610 2.4567
– 42 1.009 1.754 .4142 101.46 424.29 525.75 .6153 1.8355 2.4508
– 40 1.101 1.761 .3818 106.01 422.09 528.10 .6347 1.8103 2.4450
– 38 1.200 1.768 .3525 110.57 419.87 530.44 .6540 1.7855 2.4395
– 36 1.305 1.774 .3259 115.14 417.63 532.77 .6732 1.7610 2.4342
– 34 1.417 1.781 .3017 119.73 415.38 535.10 .6923 1.7368 2.4291
– 32 1.537 1.788 .2797 124.32 413.10 537.42 .7112 1.7130 2.4242
– 30 1.664 1.795 .2596 128.93 410.81 539.74 .7300 1.6895 2.4195
– 28 1.799 1.802 .2413 133.55 408.50 542.05 .747 1.6662 2.4150
– 26 1.942 1.809 .2246 138.19 406.16 544.35 .7673 1.6433 2.4106
– 24 2.094 1.816 .2092 142.84 403.81 546.65 .7858 1.6207 2.4065
– 22 2.255 1.823 .1951 147.50 401.43 548.94 .8042 1.5983 2.4025
– 20 2.425 1.831 .1822 152.18 399.03 551.21 .8224 1.5762 2.3986
– 18 2.605 1.838 .1703 156.87 396.61 553.48 .8406 1.5544 2.3949
– 16 2.794 1.846 .1593 161.58 394.16 555.74 .8586 1.5327 2.3914
– 14 2.994 1.853 .1492 166.31 391.68 557.99 .8766 1.5114 2.3879
– 12 3.205 1.861 .1399 171.06 389.17 560.23 .8944 1.4902 2.3846
– 10 3.426 1.869 .1312 175.82 386.63 562.46 .9122 1.4692 2.3814
–8 3.659 1.877 .1232 180.61 384.06 564.67 .9299 1.4484 2.3783
–6 3.904 1.885 .1158 185.42 381.45 566.87 .9476 1.4278 2.3754
–4 4.161 1.894 .1090 190.25 378.81 569.06 .9651 1.4074 2.3725
–2 4.430 1.902 .1026 195.11 376.12 571.24 .9826 1.3871 2.3697
0 4.712 1.911 .0966 200.00 373.40 573.40 1.0000 1.3669 2.3669
2 5.007 1.919 .0911 204.91 370.63 575.54 1.0174 1.3469 2.3643
4 5.316 1.928 .0860 209.86 367.81 577.67 1.0347 1.3271 2.3617
6 5.639 1.937 .0812 214.83 364.95 579.77 1.0519 1.3073 2.3592
8 5.976 1.947 .0767 219.83 362.03 581.86 1.0691 1.2876 2.3567
10 6.329 1.956 .0725 224.87 359.07 583.93 1.0862 1.2681 2.3543
12 6.696 1.966 .0686 229.93 356.05 585.98 1.1033 1.2486 2.3519
14 7.079 1.975 .0649 235.02 352.99 588.01 1.1203 1.2292 2.3495
16 7.478 1.985 .0614 240.16 349.86 590.02 1.1372 1.2099 2.3472
18 7.893 1.996 .0582 245.32 346.67 592.00 1.1542 1.1907 2.3448
20 8.325 2.006 .0552 250.52 343.43 593.95 1.1710 1.1715 2.3425
22 8.774 2.017 .0523 255.75 340.12 595.87 1.1878 1.1523 2.3401
(Contd)

Liquid Vapour
(°C) (bar) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
24 9.241 2.028 .0497 261.02 336.75 597.77 1.2045 1.1332 2.3378
26 9.726 2.039 .0471 266.32 333.32 599.63 1.2212 1.1142 2.3354
28 10.230 2.051 .0448 271.69 329.76 601.45 1.2379 1.0950 2.3329
30 10.752 2.063 .0425 277.07 326.18 603.24 1.2545 1.0759 2.3304
32 11.294 2.076 .0404 282.48 322.52 605.00 1.2709 1.0569 2.3278
34 11.855 2.088 .0384 287.93 318.78 606.71 1.2873 1.0378 2.3252
36 12.437 2.102 .0365 293.41 314.97 608.38 1.3036 1.0188 2.3224
38 13.040 2.115 .0347 298.93 311.07 610.00 1.3198 .9997 2.3195
40 13.664 2.130 .0330 304.48 307.09 611.57 1.3359 .9806 2.3166
42 14.309 2.144 .0314 310.07 303.01 613.08 1.3520 .9615 2.3134
44 14.977 2.160 .0299 315.70 298.84 614.54 1.3679 .9422 2.3101
46 15.667 2.176 .0285 321.37 294.56 615.93 1.3837 .9229 2.3066
48 16.381 2.192 .0271 327.08 290.18 617.26 1.3994 .9035 2.3029
50 17.119 2.210 .0258 332.82 285.68 618.51 1.4149 .8840 2.2989
52 17.881 2.228 .0246 338.61 281.07 619.68 1.4303 .8644 2.2947
54 18.668 2.247 .0234 344.44 276.33 620.77 1.4456 .8446 2.2902
56 19.480 2.268 .0222 350.31 271.46 621.77 1.4606 .8247 2.2854
58 20.319 2.289 .0212 356.21 266.46 622.67 1.4755 .8046 2.2802
60 21.184 2.312 .0202 362.15 261.34 623.48 1.4902 .7844 2.2746
Table B.5.2 Superheat table: R290 vapour
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
1.01 L 0.4143 0.4673 0.4970 0.5554 0.5840 0.6323 0.6800 0.7274 0.7746 0.8217
(–41.14) h 526.98 566.21 589.79 639.62 665.97 712.07 760.93 812.56 866.93 923.98
s 2.4553 2.6158 2.7046 2.8776 2.9627 3.1023 3.2398 3.3755 3.5096 3.6422
1.50 L 0.2860 0.3111 0.3318 0.3723 0.3922 0.4249 0.4574 0.4897 0.5219 0.5539
(– 32.69) h 536.59 563.90 587.82 638.15 664.67 710.98 760.02 811.79 866.27 923.41
s 2.4251 2.5349 2.6251 2.8001 2.8856 3.0258 3.1639 3.3000 3.4344 3.5671
2.50 L 0.1758 0.1808 0.1941 0.2196 0.2320 0.2522 0.2722 0.2918 2.3114 0.3308
(– 20.46) h 550.06 558.92 583.61 635.01 661.92 708.75 758.16 810.19 864.92 922.22
s 2.3887 2.4235 2.5168 2.6958 2.7826 2.9245 3.0636 3.2004 3.3354 3.4687
3.50 L 0.1296 0.1349 0.1541 0.1632 0.1782 0.1927 0.2021 0.2212 0.2352
(– 7.86) h 565.73 579.16 631.76 659.09 706.45 756.25 508.60 863.51 921.02
s 2.3902 2.4404 2.6239 2.7122 2.8558 2.9961 3.1338 3.2693 3.4030
4.50 L 0.1009 0.1019 0.1176 0.1250 0.1370 0.1486 0.1599 0.1711 0.1822
(– 1.64) h 571.53 574.44 628.38 656.17 704.09 754.31 806.97 862.15 919.84
s 2.3680 2.3786 2.5675 2.6574 2.8029 2.9445 3.0831 3.2194 3.3535
5.50 L 0.0831 0.0943 0.1006 0.1108 0.1205 0.1299 0.1392 0.1484
(5.12) h 578.82 624.86 653.14 701.68 752.33 805.32 860.74 918.63
s 2.3601 2.5201 2.6118 2.7594 2.9024 3.0419 3.1788 3.3135
6.50 L 0.0706 0.0781 0.0837 0.0926 0.1010 0.1092 0.1171 0.1250
(11.01) h 585.02 621.18 650.01 699.21 750.32 803.64 559.31 917.40
s 2.3536 2.4784 2.5722 2.7220 2.8664 3.0070 3.1446 3.2797
7.50 L 0.0613 0.0662 0.0713 0.0792 0.0867 0.0939 0.1009 0.1078
(16.21) h 590.31 617.31 646.76 696.67 748.26 801.93 857.87 916.17
s 2.3477 2.4404 2.5365 2.6888 2.8348 2.9764 3.1148 3.2505
Appendix B 869
(Contd)
p, bar t,°C
870
(tsat, °C) sat. – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170

8.50 L 0.0541 0.0571 0.0617 0.0690 0.0758 0.0823 0.0885 0.0947
(20.87) h 594.87 613.30 643.37 694.05 746.16 800.20 856.41 914.92
s 2.3421 2.4052 2.5037 2.6588 2.8064 2.9492 3.0883 3.2245
9.50 L 0.0483 0.0498 0.0542 0.0609 0.0671 0.0730 0.0788 0.0843
(25.10) h 598.83 609.01 639.82 691.36 744.01 798.43 854.93 913.66
s 2.3367 2.3714 2.4728 2.6311 2.7805 2.9244 3.0644 3.2012
10.50 L 0.0436 0.0438 0.0481 0.0543 0.0601 0.0656 0.0708 0.0759
(29.01) h 602.32 604.44 636.20 688.58 741.82 796.64 853.43 912.38
s 2.3313 2.3386 2.4437 2.6051 2.7565 2.9017 3.0425 3.1799
11.50 L 0.0396 0.0429 0.0489 0.0543 0.0594 0.0643 0.0690
(32.66) h 605.46 632.33 685.71 739.58 794.82 851.92 911.09
s 2.3262 2.4153 2.5805 2.7341 2.8806 3.0222 3.1603
12.50 L 0.0363 0.0386 0.0443 0.0494 0.0542 0.0588 0.0632
(36.11) h 608.31 628.25 682.74 737.28 792.97 850.38 909.79

s 2.3213 2.3874 2.5569 2.7128 2.8607 3.0033 3.1421
13.50 L 0.0334 0.0348 0.0404 0.0453 0.0498 0.0541 0.0582
(39.38) h 610.92 623.92 679.76 734.93 791.08 848.82 908.48
s 2.3165 2.3597 2.5343 2.6926 2.8420 2.9856 3.1250
14.50 L 0.0310 0.0316 0.0370 0.0417 0.0460 0.0500 0.0539
(42.51) h 613.34 619.29 67659 732.51 789.16 847.24 907.15
s 2.3119 2.3317 2.5122 2.6731 2.8242 2.9688 3.1089
15.50 L 0.0288 0.0340 0.0385 0.0427 0.0465 0.0502
(45.50) h 615.56 673.29 730.03 787.21 845.64 905.80
s 2.3073 2.4903 2.6543 2.8071 2.9528 3.0937
16.50 L 0.0269 0.0314 0.0358 0.0397 0.0434 0.0469
(48.38) h 617.59 669.86 727.48 785.21 844.02 904.45
s 2.3027 2.4687 2.6360 2.7907 2.9375 3.0792
* Ashok Babu. T P, A Theo. and Experimental Investigations of Alternatives to CFC 12 in Refrigerators, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
Appendix B 871
B.6 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 22*
Table B.6.1 Saturation table of R22

Liquid Vapour
3 3
– 50 0.644 .695 .3246 145.05 238.96 384.01 .7792 1.0708 1.8500
– 48 0.713 .698 .2952 147.12 237.84 384.96 .7884 1.0563 1.8447
– 46 0.787 .701 .2690 149.20 236.70 385.90 .7976 1.0420 1.8396
– 44 0.868 .704 .2456 151.29 235.55 386.84 .8067 1.0279 1.8346
– 42 0.955 .706 .2246 153.39 234.38 387.77 .8158 1.0139 1.8297
– 40 1.049 .709 .2057 155.51 233.19 388.70 .8249 1.0001 1.8250
– 38 1.151 .712 .1888 157.63 231.99 389.62 .8339 .9865 1.8204
– 36 1.259 .715 .1735 159.76 230.77 390.53 .8429 .9730 1.8160
– 34 1.376 .718 .1597 161.90 229.53 391.43 .8519 .9597 1.8116
– 32 1.501 .721 .1472 164.06 228.27 392.33 .8608 .9466 1.8074
– 30 1.635 .725 .1358 166.22 227.00 393.22 .8698 .9335 1.8033
– 28 1.778 .728 .1256 168.40 225.70 394.10 .8786 .9206 1.7993
– 26 1.930 .731 .1162 170.59 224.39 394.97 .8875 .9079 1.7953
– 24 2.092 .734 .1077 172.78 223.05 395.84 .8963 .8952 1.7915
– 22 2.265 .738 .0999 174.99 221.70 396.69 .9051 .8827 1.7878
– 20 2.448 .741 .0928 177.21 220.32 397.53 .9139 .8703 1.7841
– 18 2.643 .744 .0864 179.44 218.93 398.37 .9226 .8580 1.7806
– 16 2.849 .748 .0804 181.68 217.51 399.19 .9313 .8458 1.7771
– 14 3.068 .751 .0750 183.93 216.07 400.00 .9400 .8337 1.7737
– 12 3.299 .755 .0699 186.20 214.61 400.81 .9486 .8218 1.7704
– 10 3.543 .759 .0653 188.47 213.13 401.60 .9572 .8099 1.7670
–8 3.801 .763 .0611 190.75 211.62 402.37 .9658 .7981 1.7639
–6 4.072 .766 .0572 193.05 210.09 403.14 .9744 .7864 1.7608
–4 4.358 .770 .0536 195.36 208.54 403.89 .9830 .7748 1.7577
–2 4.659 .774 .0502 197.67 206.96 404.63 .9915 .7632 1.7547
0 4.976 .778 .0471 200.00 205.36 405.36 1.000 .7518 1.7518
2 5.308 .782 .0443 202.34 203.73 406.07 1.0085 .7404 1.7489
4 5.657 .787 .0416 204.69 202.08 406.77 1.0169 .7291 1.7460
6 6.023 .791 .0391 207.05 200.40 407.45 1.0254 .7179 1.7432
8 6.406 .795 .0368 209.42 198.69 408.11 1.0338 .7067 1.7405
10 6.807 .800 .0347 211.81 196.95 408.76 1.0422 .6956 1.7377
12 7.226 .805 .0327 214.20 195.19 409.39 1.0506 .6845 1.7351
14 7.665 .809 .0309 216.61 193.40 410.01 1.0589 .6735 1.7324
16 8.123 .814 .0291 219.03 191.57 410.60 1.0673 .6625 1.7298
18 8.601 .819 .0275 221.46 189.72 411.18 1.0756 .6516 1.7272
20 9.099 .824 .0260 223.90 187.83 411.73 1.0839 .6407 1.7246
22 9.619 .830 .0246 226.36 185.91 412.27 1.0922 .6299 1.7221
24 10.160 .835 .0233 228.83 183.95 412.78 1.1005 .6190 1.7195
26 10.723 .840 .0220 231.31 181.96 413.27 1.1088 .6082 1.7170
(Contd)

Liquid Vapour
vf ´ 103 vg hf hfg h9 sf sfg sg
3 3
28 11.309 .846 .0208 233.81 179.93 413.74 1.1770 .5975 1.7145
30 11.919 .852 .0197 236.31 177.86 414.18 1.1253 .5867 1.7120
32 12.552 .858 .0187 238.84 175.75 414.59 1.1336 .5759 1.7095
34 13.210 .864 .0177 241.38 173.60 414.98 1.1418 .5652 1.7070
36 13.892 .870 .0168 243.93 171.41 415.33 1.1501 .5544 1.7045
38 14.601 .877 .0160 246.50 169.16 415.66 1.1583 .5437 1.7020
40 15.335 .884 .0151 249.08 166.87 415.95 1.1666 .5329 1.6995
42 16.096 .891 .0144 251.68 164.53 416.21 1.1749 .5220 1.6969
44 16.885 .898 .0136 254.30 162.13 416.43 1.1831 .5112 1.6943
46 17.702 .906 .0129 256.94 159.67 416.61 1.1914 .5003 1.6917
48 18.548 .914 .0123 259.59 157.15 416.75 1.1998 .4893 1.6891
50 19.423 .922 .0117 262.27 154.57 416.84 1.2081 .4783 1.6864
52 20.328 .930 .0111 264.97 151.92 416.89 1.2165 .4672 1.6837
54 21.265 .939 .0105 267.69 149.19 416.88 1.2249 .4560 1.6809
56 22.232 .949 .010 270.43 146.38 416.81 1.2333 .4447 1.6780
58 23.232 .958 .0095 273.20 143.48 416.68 1.2418 .4333 1.6751
60 24.266 .969 .0090 276.00 140.49 416.49 1.2504 .4217 1.6721
Appendix B 873
Table B.6.2 Superheat table: R22 vapour
t(°C) v,(m3/kg) h,(kJ/kg) s, (kJ/kg. K) t (°C) L,(m3/kg) h,(kJ/kg) s, (kJ/kg. K)

Saturation temperature, –20°C Saturation temperature, – 10°C
– 20 .0928 397.5 1.7841
– 15 .0951 400.7 1.7969
– 10 .0974 404.0 1.8095 – 10 .0653 401.5 1.7671
–5 .0997 407.3 1.8219 –5 .0670 404.9 1.7800
0 .1019 4106. 1.8341 0 .0687 408.4 1.7927
5 .1041 413.9 1.8461 5 .0703 411.8 1.8052
10 .1063 417.3 1.8580 10 0719 415.2 1.8174
15 .1085 420.6 1.8697 15 .0735 418.7 1.8295
20 .1107 423.9 1.8813 20 .0750 422.1 1.8414
25 .1128 426.3 1.8928 25 .0766 425.6 1.8531
Saturation temperature, 0°C Saturation temperature, 5°C

0 .0471 405.3 1.7518 5 .0404 407.1 1.7446
5 .0484 408.9 1.7649 10 .0415 410.8 1.7578
10 .0496 412.5 1.7777 15 .0425 414.5 1.7708
15 .0508 416.1 1.7903 20 .0436 418.2 1.7834
20 .0520 419.6 1.8026 25 .0446 421.8 1.7958
25 .0532 423.3 1.8148 30 .0456 425.5 1.8080
35 .0467 429.2 1.8200
40 .0477 432.8 1.8319
45 .0487 436.5 1.8435
50 .0496 440.2 1.8550

10 .0347 408.6 1.7377 10
15 .0357 412.4 1.7511 15 .0300 410.2 1.7311
20 .0366 416.2 1.7642 20 .0308 414.0 1.7556
25 .0376 420.0 1.7769 25 .0317 417.8 1.7578
30 .0385 423.4 1.7894 30 .0325 421.5 1.7707
35 .0394 427.1 1.8017 35 .0334 425.2 1.7833
40 .0403 431.0 1.8137 40 .0342 429.0 1.7956
45 .0412 434.4 1.8256 45 .0349 432.8 1.8078
50 .0420 437.9 1.8373 50 .0357 436.5 1.8197

20 .0260 411.5 1.7246 25 .0226 413.0 1.7183
25 .0267 415.4 1.7383 30 .0233 417.1 1.7322
30 .0278 419.3 1.7517 35 .0240 421.1 1.7458
35 .0286 423.3 1.7646 40 .0247 425.1 1.7590
40 .0290 427.1 1.7774 45 .0254 429.0 1.7718
45 .0297 431.1 1.7899 50 .0260 433.0 1.7844
50 .0304 434.8 1.8021 55 .0266 437.0 1.7967
55 .0311 438.8 1.8141 60 .0272 441.0 1.8087
60 .0318 442.5 1.8258 65 .0278 444.8 1.8206
(Contd)
t(°C) v,(m3/kg) h,(kJ/kg) s, (kJ/kg. K) t (°C) L,(m3/kg) h,(kJ/kg) s, (kJ/kg. K)

Saturation temperature, 30° Saturation temperature, 32°C
30 .0197 414.0 1.7120 35 .0191 417.1 1.7182
35 .0204 418.3 1.7262 40 .0197 421.4 1.7322
40 .0210 422.4 1.7400 45 .0203 425.5 1.7458
45 .0216 426.6 1.7534 50 .0209 429.7 1.7591
50 .0222 430.5 1.7664 55 .0214 433.8 1.7719
55 .0228 434.6 1.7791 60 .0220 437.9 1.7845
60 .0234 438.7 1.7915 65 .0225 442.0 1.7968
65 .0239 442.6 1.8036 70 .0231 446.0 1.8089
75 .0236 450.0 1.8207
80 .0241 454.0 1.8323
35 .0179 415.7 1.7099
40 .0185 420.0 1.7243 40 .0173 418.7 1.7162
45 .0191 424.4 1.7382 45 .0179 423.1 1.7304
50 .0196 428.5 1.7517 50 .0185 427.4 1.7442
55 .0202 432.8 1.7647 55 .0190 431.7 1.7575
60 .0207 436.9 1.7775 60 .0195 436.0 1.7704
65 .0212 441.0 1.7899 65 .0200 440.0 1.7830
70 .0217 445.0 1.8021 70 .0205 444.3 1.7954
75 .0222 449.0 1.8141 75 .0210 448.2 1.8074
80 .0227 453.0 1.8258 80 .0214 452.1 1.8193
40 .0162 417.3 1.7080 40 .0151 415.9 1.6995
45 .0168 421.9 1.7225 45 .0157 420.4 1.7144
50 .0173 426.2 1.7365 50 .0162 424.9 1.7287
55 .0178 430.6 1.7501 55 .0168 429.3 1.7426
60 .0183 434.8 1.7632 60 .0172 433.6 1.7560
65 .0188 439.0 1.7760 65 .0177 438.0 1.7690
70 .0193 443.4 1.7885 70 .0182 442.1 1.7817
75 .0198 447.3 1.8008 75 .0187 446.2 1.7940
80 .0202 451.2 1.8127 80 .0191 450.5 1.8061
85 .0195 454.8 1.8180
45 .0147 419.0 1.7061 45 .0133 416.5 1.6931
50 .0152 423.5 1.7208 50 .0138 421.3 1.7084
55 .0157 428.0 1.7349 55 .0143 426.0 1.7231
60 .0162 432.4 1.7486 60 .0148 430.5 1.7372
65 .0167 436.8 1.7618 65 .0153 435.1 1.7509
70 .0172 441.2 1.7747 70 .0157 439.4 1.7641
75 .0176 445.4 1.7872 75 .0161 443.6 1.7769
80 .0180 449.5 1.7995 80 .0165 448.0 1.7895
85 .0185 451.7 1.8115 85 .0170 452.4 1.8017
90 .0174 456.6 1.8137
* Ashok Babu T P, A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation of Alternatives
to CFC 12 in Refrigerators, Ph. D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
Appendix B 875
B.7 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R717 (AMMONIA)
Table B.7.1 Saturation table of R717 (ammonia)
Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Temp. Pressure (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) kJ/kg.K)
(°C) (bar) vf ´103 vg hf hg sf sg
–60 .2199 1.40 4.685 –69.5 1373.2 –0.1095 6.6592
–55 .3029 1.41 3.474 –47.5 1382.0 –0.0071 6.5454
–50 .4103 1.42 2.617 –25.4 1390.6 0.0926 6.4382
–45 .5474 1.43 2.000 –3.3 1399.0 0.1904 6.3369
–40 .7201 1.45 1.547 18.9 1407.2 0.2865 6.2410
–35 .9349 1.46 1.212 41.2 1415.2 0.3808 6.1501
–30 1.1990 1.48 .961 63.6 1422.8 0.4735 6.0636
–28 1.3202 1.48 .878 72.5 1425.8 0.5101 6.0302
–26 1.4511 1.48 .809 81.5 1428.7 0.5465 5.9974
–25 1.5216 1.49 .770 86.0 1430.2 0.5646 5.9813
–24 1.5922 1.49 .737 90.5 1431.6 0.5827 5.9652
–22 1.7441 1.49 .677 99.6 1434.4 0.6186 5.9336
–20 1.9074 1.50 .622 108.6 1437.2 0.6543 5.9025
–18 2.0826 1.50 .573 117.7 1439.9 0.6898 5.8720
–16 2.2704 1.51 .528 126.7 1442.6 0.7251 5.8420
–15 2.3709 1.52 .508 131.3 1443.9 0.7426 5.8223
–14 2.4714 1.52 .488 135.8 1445.2 0.7601 5.8125
–12 2.6863 1.53 .451 144.9 1447.7 0.7950 5.7835
–10 2.9157 1.53 .417 154.2 1450.2 0.8296 5.7550
–9 3.0360 1.53 .402 158.6 1451.4 0.8469 5.7409
–8 3.1602 1.54 .387 163.2 1452.6 0.8641 5.7269
–7 3.2884 1.54 .373 167.8 1453.8 0.8812 5.7131
–6 3.4207 1.54 .359 172.4 1455.0 0.8983 5.6993
–5 3.5571 1.55 .346 176.9 1456.1 0.9154 5.6856
–4 3.6977 1.55 .334 181.6 1457.2 0.9324 5.6721
–3 3.8426 1.55 .322 186.2 1458.4 0.9493 5.6586
–2 3.9920 1.56 .310 190.8 1459.5 0.9663 5.6453
–1 4.1458 1.56 .299 195.4 1460.6 0.9831 5.6320
0 4.3043 1.57 .289 200.0 1461.7 1.0000 5.6189
1 4.4674 1.57 .279 204.6 1462.7 1.0167 5.6058
2 4.6353 1.57 .269 209.3 1463.8 1.0335 5.5929
3 4.8081 1.57 .260 213.9 1464.8 1.0502 5.5800
4 4.9859 1.58 .251 218.5 1465.8 1.0669 5.5672
5 5.1687 1.58 .243 223.2 1466.8 1.0835 5.5545
6 5.3567 1.59 .235 227.8 1467.8 1.1001 5.5419
7 5.5500 1.59 .227 232.5 1468.8 1.1167 5.5294
8 5.7487 1.59 .219 237.1 1459.7 1.1332 5.5170
9 5.9528 1.60 .212 241.8 1470.7 1.1496 5.5046
10 6.1625 1.60 .205 246.5 1471.5 1.1661 5.4924
(Contd)
Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

Temp. Pressure (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) kJ/kg.K)
(°C) (bar) vf ´ 103 vg hf hg sf sg
11 6.3778 1.60 .198 251.2 1472.5 1.1825 5.4802
12 6.5989 1.61 .192 255.9 1473.3 1.1988 5.4681
13 6.8259 1.61 .186 260.6 1474.2 1.2152 5.4561
14 7.0588 1.61 .180 265.3 1475.4 1.2314 5.4441
15 7.2979 1.62 .174 270.0 1475.9 1.2477 5.4322
16 7.5431 1.62 .169 274.8 1476.2 1.2639 5.4204
17 7.7946 1.62 .164 279.5 1477.5 1.2801 5.4087
18 8.0525 1.63 .158 284.8 1478.3 1.2963 5.3971
19 8.3169 1.63 .154 289.0 1479.0 1.3124 5.3855
20 8.5879 1.64 .149 293.8 1479.8 1.3285 5.3740
21 8.8657 1.64 .144 298.5 1480.5 1.3445 5.3626
22 9.1503 1.64 .140 303.3 1481.2 1.3606 5.3512
23 9.4418 1.65 .136 308.4 1481.9 1.3765 5.3399
24 9.7403 1.65 .132 312.9 1482.5 1.3925 5.3286
25 10.046 1.66 .128 317.7 1483.2 1.4084 5.3175
26 10.359 1.66 .124 322.5 1483.8 1.4243 5.3063
27 10.680 1.67 .128 327.3 1484.4 1.4402 5.2953
28 11.007 1.67 .117 332.1 1485.0 1.4560 5.2843
29 11.343 1.67 .114 336.9 1485.8 1.4718 5.2733
30 11.686 1.68 .110 341.8 1486.1 1.4876 5.2624
31 12.037 1.68 .107 346.6 1486.7 1.5033 5.2516
32 12.396 1.69 .104 351.5 1487.2 1.5191 5.2408
33 12.763 1.69 .101 356.3 1487.7 1.5348 5.2300
34 13.139 1.70 .098 361.2 1488.1 1.5504 5.2193
35 13.522 1.70 .096 366.1 1488.6 1.5660 5.2086
36 13.915 1.71 .092 370.9 1489.0 1.5816 5.1980
37 14.314 1.71 .090 375.9 1489.4 1.5972 5.1874
38 14.724 1.72 .088 380.8 1489.8 1.6128 5.1768
39 15.143 1.72 .085 385.7 1490.1 1.6283 5.1663
40 15.570 1.72 .083 390.6 1490.4 1.6437 5.1558
41 16.006 1.73 .080 395.5 1490.7 1.6592 5.1453
42 16.451 1.73 .078 400.4 1490.9 1.6747 5.1349
43 16.906 1.74 .076 405.4 1491.2 1.6901 5.1244
44 17.370 1.74 .074 410.4 1491.4 1.7055 5.1140
45 17.843 1.75 .072 415.4 1491.5 1.7209 5.1036
46 18.326 1.75 .070 420.4 1491.7 1.7363 5.0932
47 18.819 1.76 .068 425.4 1491.8 1.7517 5.0827
48 19.322 1.76 .066 430.4 1491.8 1.7671 5.0723
49 19.835 1.77 .065 435.4 1491.9 1.7825 5.0618
50 20.359 1.77 .063 440.5 1491.8 1.7979 5.0514
51 20.892 1.78 .061 445.6 1491.8 1.8134 5.0409
52 21.436 1.78 .060 450.7 1491.7 1.8289 5.0303
53 21.991 1.79 .058 455.9 1491.5 1.8444 5.0198
54 22.556 1.79 .056 461.1 1491.3 1.8600 5.0092
55 23.132 1.80 .055 466.3 1491.1 1.8757 4.9985
Appendix B 877
Table B.7.2 Superheat table: R717 (ammonia) vapour
tsat psat Degree of Superheat of Vapour

50°C 100°C
v h s v h s
(°C) (bar) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) 3
(m /kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
–40 0.718 1.82 1517 6.667 2.08 1624 7.016
–35 0.932 1.45 1526 6.572 1.76 1634 6.919
–30 1.196 1.24 1535 6.483 1.45 1644 6.827
–25 1.516 .96 1544 6.399 1.15 1654 6.741
–20 1.9 .78 1553 6.319 .90 1664 6.659
–15 2.36 .61 1561 6.243 .73 1674 6.581
–10 2.91 .53 1570 6.171 .59 1683 6.507
–5 3.55 .42 1578 6.102 .49 1693 6.437
0 4.29 .36 1586 6.036 .42 1702 6.370
5 5.16 .30 1594 5.974 .35 1711 6.307
10 6.15 .25 1601 5.914 .285 1720 6.247
15 7.28 .22 1608 5.856 .25 1729 6.189
20 8.57 .185 1615 5.801 .215 1737 6.133
25 10.01 .165 1622 5.748 .18 1746 6.080
30 11.67 .137 1628 5.697 .16 1754 6.030
35 13.5 .118 1634 5.648 .14 1762 5.982
40 15.54 .110 1640 6.601 .12 1770 5.935
45 17.82 .090 1646 5.555 .105 1778 5.890
50 20.33 .070 1651 5.510 .085 1785 5.847
B.8 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R12*
878
Satura– Satura– Saturated Liquid and Vapour Vapour Superheated

tion tion
Temp. Pressure By 20 By 40°C
t p vf vg hf hg sf sg h s h s
(°C) (bar) (kJ/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/k) (kJ/kg.K) (kJ/kg.K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
–40 0.6417 0.66 0.2421 0 169.0 0 0.7274 180.8 0.7737 192.4 0.8178
–35 0.8069 0.67 0.1950 4.4 171.9 0.0187 0.7220 183.3 0.7681 195.1 0.8120
–30 1.0038 0.67 0.1595 8.9 174.2 0.0371 0.7171 185.8 0.7631 197.8 0.8068
–25 1.2368 0.68 0.1313 13.3 176.5 0.0552 0.7127 188.3 0.7586 200.4 0.8021
–20 1.5089 0.69 0.1089 17.8 178.7 0.0731 0.7088 190.8 0.7546 203.1 0.7979
–15 1.8256 0.69 0.0911 22.3 181.0 0.0906 0.7052 193.2 0.7510 205.7 0.7942
–10 2.1912 0.70 0.0767 26.9 183.2 0.1080 0.7020 195.7 0.7477 208.3 0.7909
–5 2.610 0.71 0.0650 31.4 185.4 0.1251 0.6991 198.1 0.7449 210.9 0.7879
0 3.086 0.72 0.0554 36.1 187.5 0.1420 0.6966 200.5 0.7423 213.5 0.7853
5 3.626 0.72 0.0475 40.7 189.7 0.1587 0.6942 202.9 0.7401 216.1 0.7830
10 4.233 0.73 0.0409 45.4 191.7 0.1752 0.6921 205.2 0.7381 218.6 0.7810
15 4.914 0.74 0.0354 50.1 193.8 0.1915 0.6902 207.5 0.7363 221.2 0.7792
20 5.673 0.75 0.0308 54.9 195.8 0.2078 0.6885 209.8 0.7348 223.7 0.7777
25 6.516 0.76 0.0269 59.7 197.7 0.2239 0.6869 212.1 0.7334 226.1 0.7763
30 7.450 0.77 0.0235 64.6 199.6 0.2399 0.6854 214.3 0.7321 228.6 0.7751
35 8.477 0.79 0.0206 69.5 201.5 0.2559 0.6839 216.4 0.7310 231.0 0.7741
40 9.607 0.80 0.0182 74.6 203.2 0.2718 0.6825 218.5 0.7300 233.4 0.7732
45 10.843 0.81 0.0160 79.7 204.9 0.2877 0.6812 220.6 0.7291 235.7 0.7724
50 12.193 0.83 0.0142 84.9 206.5 0.3037 0.6797 222.6 0.7282 238.0 0.7718
60 15.259 0.86 0.0111 95.7 209.3 0.3358 0.6777 226.4 0.7265 242.4 0.7706
70 18.859 0.90 0.0087 107.1 211.5 0.3686 0.6738 230.2 0.7240 246.2 0.7650
*Haywood R W, Thermodynamics Tables in S.I. Units, Cambridge University Press, 1968, p.22.
Appendix B 879
B.9 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R134a*
Table B.9.1 Saturation table of R134a
Temp. Pres- Density Volume Enthalpy Entropy Specific Heat

°C sure kg/m3 m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg × K) cp, kJ/(kg × K) cp /cv
MPa Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor
– 103.30a 0.00039 1591.1 35.4960 71.46 334.94 0.4126 1.9639 1.184 0.585 1.164
– 100.00 0.00056 1582.4 25.1930 75.36 336.85 0.4354 1.9456 1.184 0.593 1.162
– 90.00 0.00152 1555.8 9.7698 87.23 342.76 0.5020 1.8972 1.189 0.617 1.156
– 80.00 0.00367 1529.0 4.2682 99.16 348.83 0.5654 1.8580 1.198 0.642 1.151
– 70.00 0.00798 1501.9 2.0590 111.20 355.02 0.6262 1.8264 1.210 0.667 1.148
– 60.00 0.01591 1474.3 1.0790 123.36 361.31 0.6846 1.8010 1.223 0.692 1.146
– 50.00 0.02945 1446.3 0.60620 135.67 367.65 0.7410 1.7806 1.238 0.720 1.146
– 40.00 0.05121 1417.7 0.36108 148.14 374.00 0.7956 1.7643 1.255 0.749 1.148
– 30.00 0.08438 1388.4 0.22594 160.79 380.32 0.8486 1.7515 1.273 0.781 1.152
– 28.00 0.09270 1382.4 0.20680 163.34 381.57 0.8591 1.7492 1.277 0.788 1.153
– 26.07b 0.10133 1376.7 0.19018 165.81 382.78 0.8690 1.7472 1.281 0.794 1.154
– 26.00 0.10167 1376.5 0.18958 165.90 382.82 0.8694 1.7471 1.281 0.794 1.154
– 24.00 0.11130 1370.4 0.17407 168.47 384.07 0.8798 1.7451 1.285 0.801 1.155
– 22.00 0.12165 1364.4 0.16006 171.05 385.32 0.8900 1.7432 1.289 0.809 1.156
– 20.00 0.13273 1358.3 0.14739 173.64 386.55 0.9002 1.7413 1.293 0.816 1.158
– 18.00 0.14460 1352.1 0.13592 176.23 387.79 0.9104 1.7396 1.297 0.823 1.159
– 16.00 0.15728 1345.9 0.12551 178.83 389.02 0.9205 1.7379 1.302 0.831 1.161
– 14.00 0.17082 1339.7 0.11605 181.44 390.24 0.9306 1.7363 1.306 0.838 1.163
– 12.00 0.18524 1333.4 0.10744 184.07 391.46 0.9407 1.7348 1.311 0.846 1.165
– 10.00 0.20060 1327.1 0.09959 186.70 392.66 0.9506 1.7334 1.316 0.854 1.167
– 8.00 0.21693 1320.8 0.09242 189.34 393.87 0.9606, 1.7320 1.320 0.863 1.169
– 6.00 0.23428 1314.3 0.08587 191.99 395.06 0.9705 1.7307 1.325 0.871 1.171
– 4.00 0.25268 1307.9 0.07987 194.65 396.25 0.9804 1.7294 1.330 0.880 1.174
– 2.00 0.27217 1301.4 0.07436 197.32 397.43 0.9902 1.7282 1.336 0.888 1.176
0.00 0.29280 1294.8 0.06931 200.00 398.60 1.0000 1.7271 1.341 0.897 1.179
2.00 0.31462 1288.1 0.06466 202.69 399.77 1.0098 1.7260 1.347 0.906 1.182
4.00 0.33766 1281.4 0.06039 205.40 400.92 1.0195 1.7250 1.352 0.916 1.185
6.00 0.36198 1274.7 0.05644 208.11 402.06 1.0292 1.7240 1.358 0.925 1.189
8.00 0.38761 1267.9 0.05280 210.84 403.20 1.0388 1.7230 1.364 0.935 1.192
10.00 0.41461 1261.0 0.04944 213.58 404.32 1.0485 1.7221 1.370 0.945 1.196
12.00 0.44301 1254.0 0.04633 216.33 405.43 1.0581 1.7212 1.377 0.956 1.200
14.00 0.47288 1246.9 0.04345 219.09 406.53 1.0677 1.7204 1.383 0.967 1.204
16.00 0.50425 1239.8 0.04078 221.87 407.61 1.0772 1.7196 1.390 0.978 1.209
18.00 0.53718 1232.6 0.03830 224.66 408.69 1.0867 1.7188 1.397 0.989 1.214
20.00 0.57171 1225.3 0.03600 227.47 409.75 1.0962 1.7180 1.405 1.001 1.219
22.00 0.60789 1218.0 0.03385 230.29 410.79 1.1057 1.7173 1.413 1.013 1.224
24.00 0.64578 1210.5 0.03186 233.12 411.82 1.1152 1.7166 1.421 1.025 1.230
26.00 0.68543 1202.9 0.03000 235.97 412.84 1.1246 1.7159 1.429 1.038 1.236
28.00 0.72688 1195.2 0.02826 238.84 413.84 1.1341 1.7152 1.437 1.052 1.243
30.00 0.77020 1187.5 0.02664 241.72 414.82 1.1435 1.7145 1.446 1.065 1.249
(Contd)
Temp. pres- Density Volume Enthalpy Entropy Specific Heat

°C sure kg/m3 m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg × K) cp, kJ/(kg × K) cp /cv
MPa Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor
32.00 0.81543 1179.6 0.02513 244.62 415.78 1.1529 1.7138 1.456 1.080 1.257
34.00 0.86263 1171.6 0.02371 247.54 416.72 1.1623 1.7131 1.466 1.095 1.265
36.00 0.91185 1163.4 0.02238 250.48 417.65 1.1717 1.7124 1.476 1.111 1.273
38.00 0.96315 1155.1 0.02113 253.43 418.55 1.1811 1.7118 1.487 1.127 1.282
40.00 1.0166 1146.7 0.01997 256.41 419.43 1.1905 1.7111 1.498 1.145 1.292
42.00 1.0722 1138.2 0.01887 259.41 420.28 1.1999 1.7103 1.510 1.163 1.303
44.00 1.1301 1129.5 0.01784 262.43 421.11 1.2092 1.7096 1.523 1.182 1.314
46.00 1.1903 1120.6 0.01687 265.47 421.92 1.2186 1.7089 1.537 1.202 1.326
48.00 1.2529 1111.5 0.01595 268.53 422.69 1.2280 1.7081 1.551 1.223 1.339
50.00 1.3179 1102.3 0.01509 271.62 423.44 1.2375 1.7072 1.566 1.246 1.354
52.00 1.3854 1092.9 0.01428 274.74 424.15 1.2469 1.7064 1.582 1.270 1.369
54.00 1.4555 1083.2 0.01351 277.89 424.83 1.2563 1.7055 1.600 1.296 1.386
56.00 1.5282 1073.4 0.01278 281.06 425.47 1.2658 1.7045 1.618 1.324 1.405
58.00 1.6036 1063.2 0.01209 284.27 426.07 1.2753 1.7035 1.638 1.354 1.425
60.00 1.6818 1052.9 0.01144 287.50 426.63 1.2848 1.7024 1.660 1.387 1.448
62.00 1.7628 1042.2 0.01083 290.78 427.14 1.2944 1.7013 1.684 1.422 1.473
64.00 1.8467 1031.2 0.01024 294.09 427.61 1.3040 1.7000 1.710 1.461 1.501
66.00 1.9337 1020.0 0.00969 297.44 428.02 1.3137 1.6987 1.738 1.504 1.532
68.00 2.0237 1008.3 0.00916 300.84 428.36 1.3234 1.6972 1.769 1.552 1.567
70:00 2.1168 996.2 0.00865 304.28 428.65 1.3332 1.6956 1.804 1.605 1.607
72.00 2.2132 983.8 0.00817 307.78 428.86 1.3430 1.6939 1.843 1.665 1.653
74.00 2.3130 970.8 0.00771 311.33 429.00 1.3530 1.6920 1.887 1.734 1.705
76.00 2.4161 957.3 0.00727 314.94 429.04 1.3631 1.6899 1.938 1.812 1.766
78.00 2.5228 943.1 0.00685 318.63 428.98 1.3733 1.6876 1.996 1.904 1.838
80.00 2.6332 928.2 0.00645 322.39 428.81 1.3836 1.6850 2.065 2.012 1.924
85.00 2.9258 887.2 0.00550 332.22 427.76 1.4104 1.6771 2.306 2.397 2.232
90.00 3.2442 837.8 0.00461 342.93 425.42 1.4390 1.6662 2.756 3.121 2.820
95.00 3.5912 772.7 0.00374 355.25 420.67 1.4715 1.6492 3.938 5.020 4.369
100.00 3.9724 651.2 0.0268 373.30 407.68 1.5188 1.6109 17.59 25.35 20.81
101.06c 4.0593 511.9 0.00195 389.64 389.64 1.5621 1.5621 ¥ ¥ ¥
a
Triple point bNBP cCritical point
* Ashrae Handbook Fundamentals, 2005.
Table B.9.2 Superheat table: R134a vapour
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. – 20 – 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1.01 L 0.1901 0.1957 0.2045 0.2132 0.2222 0.2304 0.2392 0.2475 0.2558
(–26.13) h 382.9 392.68 395.65 403.74 411.97 420.34 428.85 437.52 446.33
s 1.7476 1.7667 1.7976 1.8278 1.8574 1.8864 1.9150 1.9431 1.9708
2.0 L 0.1300 0.0999 0.1048 0.1095 0.1142 0.1188 0.1232 0.1277
(–10.07) h 392.71 392.77 401.21 409.73 418.35 427.07 435.90 444.87
High temperatures on suction
s 1.7337 1.7339 1.7654 1.7961 1.8260 1.8552 1.8839 1.9121
side not encountered
4.0 L 0.05123 0.05152 0.0542 0.05679 0.05928 0.06173
(8.94) h 403.8 404.78 414.00 423.21 432.46 441.76
s 1.7229 1.7263 1.7583 1.7892 1.8192 1.8485
6.0 L 0.03433 0.03598 0.03786 0.03967
(21.58) h 410.67 418.97 428.72 438.44
s 1.7178 1.7455 1.7772 1.8077
8.0 L 0.02565 0.02704 0.02855 0.02998 0.03135 0.03266
(31.33) h 415.58 424.61 434.85 444.98 455.08 465.17
s 1.7144 1.7437 1.7758 1.8067 1.8366 1.8656
10.0 L 0.02034 0.02043 0.02181 0.02307 0.02427 0.02541
(39.39) h 419.31 419.99 430.91 441.56 452.65 462.47
s 1.7117 1.7139 1.7482 1.7807 1.8117 1.8416
12.0 L 0.01674 0.01721 0.01841 0.01951 0.02054
(46.32) h 422.22 426.51 437.83 448.81 459.61
s 1.7092 1.7226 1.7571 1.7896 1.8206
14.0 L 0.01413 0.01501 0.01606 0.01702
(52.43) h 424.5 433.69 445.31 456.56
s 1.7068 1.7347 1.7691 1.8014
16.0 L 0.01214 0.01239 0.01344 0.01437
(57.91) h 426.27 428.99 441.77 453.30
s 1.7042 1.7124 1.7493 1.7833
Appendix B 881
B.10 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 152a*
Table B.10.1 Saturation table of R 152a

Liquid Vapour
3 3
–40 0.479 0.957 0.5989 139.78 338.59 478.38 0.7552 1.4522 2.2074
–38 0.530 0.961 0.5453 142.52 337.36 479.88 0.7673 1.4346 2.2019
–36 0.585 0.964 0.4973 145.28 336.11 481.39 0.7794 1.4172 2.1966
–34 0.644 0.968 0.4543 148.80 334.81 482.89 0.7916 1.4000 2.1915
–32 0.709 0.972 0.4156 150.90 333.49 484.39 0.8037 1.3829 2.1866
–30 0.778 0.976 0.3808 153.75 332.13 485.88 0.8158 1.3659 2.1818
–28 0.853 0.980 0.3495 156.63 330.74 487.37 0.8280 1.3491 2.1771
–26 0.933 0.984 0.3212 159.54 329.31 488.85 0.8402 1.3324 2.1726
–24 1.020 0.988 0.2956 162.47 327.85 490.33 0.8524 1.3158 2.1682
–22 1.112 0.992 0.2724 165.45 326.35 491.80 0.8646 1.2994 2.1640
–20 1.211 0.996 0.2514 168.43 324.83 493.26 0.8768 1.2831 2.1599
–18 1.317 1.001 0.2323 171.47 323.25 494.72 0.8891 1.2669 2.1560
–16 1.431 1.005 0.2149 174.52 321.65 496.17 0.9014 1.2508 2.1522
–14 1.552 1.009 0.1991 177.60 320.01 497.61 0.9136 1.2348 2.1484
–12 1.681 1.014 0.1846 180.71 319.33 499.05 0.9259 1.2189 2.1448
–10 1.818 1.018 0.1714 183.87 316.61 500.47 0.9383 1.2031 2.1414
–8 1.963 1.023 0.1593 187.02 314.87 501.89 0.9505 1.1875 2.1380
–6 2.118 1.028 0.1482 190.24 313.05 503.30 0.9629 1.1718 2.1347
–4 2.282 1.032 0.1380 193.47 311.23 504.70 0.9752 1.1563 2.1315
–2 2.456 1.037 0.1287 196.73 309.35 506.09 0.9876 1.1409 2.1285
0 2.640 1.042 0.1201 200.02 307.44 507.46 1.000 1.1255 2.1255
2 2.835 1.047 0.1122 203.35 305.48 508.83 1.0124 1.1102 2.1226
4 3.040 1.052 0.1049 206.71 303.48 510.18 1.0248 1.0949 2.1197
6 3.257 1.057 0.0981 210.09 301.44 511.53 1.0372 1.0798 2.1170
8 3.486 1.063 0.0919 213.48 299.38 512.86 1.0496 1.0648 2.1144
10 3.726 1.068 0.0862 216.93 297.25 514.18 1.0620 1.0498 2.1118
12 3.980 1.074 0.0808 220.39 295.09 515.48 1.0745 1.0348 2.1093
14 4.246 1.079 0.0759 223.87 292.90 516.77 1.0869 1.0200 2.1069
16 4.526 1.085 0.0713 227.41 290.63 518.04 1.0994 1.0051 2.1045
18 4.819 1.091 0.0670 230.97 288.33 519.30 1.1119 0.9903 2.1022
20 5.127 1.097 0.0631 234.54 286.00 520.54 1.1244 0.9756 2.1000
22 5.450 1.103 0.0594 238.13 283.64 521.77 1.1369 0.9610 2.0978
24 5.787 1.109 0.0559 241.77 281.20 522.98 1.1494 0.9463 2.0957
26 6.141 1.116 0.0527 245.44 278.73 524.16 1.1620 0.9317 2.0937
28 6.510 1.122 0.0497 249.12 276.22 525.34 1.1745 0.9172 2.0917
30 6.896 1.129 0.0469 252.86 273.62 526.48 1.1872 0.9026 2.0897
32 7.300 1.136 0.0443 256.57 271.05 527.61 1.1996 0.8882 2.0879
(Contd)
Appendix B 883

Liquid Vapour
vf ´ 103 vg hf h fg hg sf sfg sg
3 3
34 7.720 1.143 0.0419 260.34 268.38 528.72 1.2123 0.8737 2.0860
36 8.159 1.150 0.0396 264.19 265.61 529.80 1.2251 0.8591 2.0842
38 8.616 1.157 0.0374 267.99 262.87 530.86 1.2377 0.8448 2.0825
40 9.092 1.165 0.0354 271.86 260.03 531.89 1.2505 0.8303 2.0808
42 9.587 1.172 0.0335 275.68 257.22 532.91 1.2630 0.8162 2.0792
44 10.103 1.180 0.0317 279.66 254.22 533.88 1.2760 0.8016 2.0776
46 10.638 1.188 0.0300 283.57 251.26 534.83 1.2888 0.7873 2.0760
48 11.195 1.197 0.0285 287.49 248.27 535.76 1.3015 0.7730 2.0745
50 11.774 1.206 0.0270 291.50 245.14 536.64 1.3145 0.7586 2.0731
52 12.374 1.214 0.0256 295.52 241.97 537.49 1.3275 0.7442 2.0717
54 12.997 1.224 0.0242 299.55 238.76 538.32 1.3405 0.7298 2.0703
56 13.643 1.233 0.0230 303.59 235.51 539.10 1.3536 0.7155 2.0690
58 14.313 1.243 0.0218 307.74 232.10 539.84 1.3669 0.7009 2.0678
60 15.008 1.253 0.0207 311.90 228.63 540.53 1.3803 0.6863 2.0666
62 15.727 1.264 0.0196 316.07 225.12 541.18 1.3937 0.6717 2.0654
64 16.471 1.275 0.0186 320.25 221.54 541.79 1.4073 0.6571 2.0644
66 17.242 1.286 0.0177 324.44 217.92 542.36 1.4208 0.6425 2.0634
Table B.10.2 Superheat table: R152a vapour
884
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
1.01 L 0.2973 0.3097 0.3299 0.3695 0.3891 0.4214 0.4535 0.4854 0.5172 0.5488
(–24.13) h 489.13 498.31 513.55 544.97 561.27 589.42 618.85 649.60 681.64 714.96
s 2.1858 2.2215 2.2782 2.3857 2.4369 2.5188 2.5969 2.6710 2.7413 2.8076
1.50 L 0.2055 0.2195 0.2471 0.2607 0.2829 0.3050 0.3268 0.3485 0.3700
(–14.84) h 495.91 511.48 543.54 560.05 588.46 618.08 648.96 681.10 714.49
s 2.1672 2.2245 2.3335 2.3852 2.4678 2.5465 2.6207 2.6912 2.7576
2.50 L 0.1265 0.1275 0.1451 0.1537 0.1676 0.1812 0.1947 0.2080 0.2211
(–1.51) h 505.32 507.01 540.52 557.49 586.47 616.47 647.63 679.98 713.54
s 2.1449 2.1509 2.2634 2.3161 2.4000 2.4793 2.5544 2.6253 2.6921
3.50 L 0.0916 0.1013 0.1077 0.1181 0.1282 0.1380 0.1477 0.1573
(8.18) h 511.84 537.36 554.85 584.42 614.884 646.28 678.85 712.57
s 2.1314 2.2149 2.2689 2.3541 2.4344 2.5101 2.5815 2.6486
4.50 v 0.0717 0.0769 0.0822 0.0906 0.0987 0.1066 0.1143 0.1219

(15.82) h 516.82 534.06 552.11 582.33 613.18 644.93 677.72 711.61
s 2.1219 2.1770 2.2323 2.3190 2.4001 2.4765 2.5483 2.6158
5.50 L 0.0588 0.0613 0.0658 0.0731 0.0799 0.0865 0.0930 0.0993
(22.31) h 520.86 530.58 549.26 580.19 611.49 643.56 676.57 710.64
s 2.1147 2.1452 2.2018 2.2901 2.3722 2.4492 2.5216 2.5894
6.50 L 0.0498 0.0504 0.0545 0.0609 0.0669 0.0727 0.0782 0.0837
(27.96) h 524.22 526.90 546.29 577.98 609.77 642.17 675.42 709.66
s 2.1090 2.1172 2.1755 2.2654 2.3486 2.4263 2.4991 2.5672
7.50 L 0.0431 0.0461 0.0519 0.0573 0.0625 0.0674 0.0722
(32.96) h 527.04 543.18 575.71 608.02 640.76 674.26 708.68
s 2.1041 2.1519 2.2437 2.3279 2.4063 2.4796 2.5480
8.50 L 0.0379 0.0397 0.0451 0.0500 0.0547 0.0591 0.0634
(37.50) h 529.50 539.91 573.38 606.24 639.34 673.10 707.70
s 2.1001 2.1304 2.2242 2.3095 2.3886 2.4624 2.5312
(Contd)
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
9.50 L 0.0338 0.0345 0.0397 0.0443 0.0485 0.0526 0.0565
(41.65) h 531.63 536.45 570.97 604.42 637.90 671.92 706.71
s 2.0366 2.1104 2.2063 2.2928 2.3727 2.4469 2.5161
10.50 v 0.0304 0.0353 0.396 0.0435 0.0473 0.0509
(45.49) h 533.49 568.48 602.57 636.45 670.73 705.72
s 2.0936 2.1898 2.2776 2.3582 2.4329 2.5024
11.50 L 0.0277 0.0316 0.0357 0.0394 0.0429 0.0463
(49.06) h 535.13 565.89 600.67 634.97 669.54 704.72
s 2.0910 2.1743 2.2634 2.3448 2.4200 2.4899
12.50 L 0.0253 0.0285 0.0324 0.0360 0.0393 0.0424
(52.41) h 536.56 563.20 598.74 633.48 668.33 703.72
s 2.0886 2.1598 2.2503 2.3324 2.4082 2.4783
13.50 L 0.0233 0.0258 0.0296 0.0330 0.0361 0.0391
(55.57) h 537.84 560.38 596.75 631.96 667.12 702.72
s 2.0865 2.1459 2.2379 2.3208 2.3971 2.4676
14.50 L 0.0215 0.0235 0.0272 0.0305 0.0334 0.0363
(58.56) h 538.95 557.44 594.72 630.42 665.89 701.71
s 2.0847 2.1326 2.2262 2.3100 2.3867 2.4576
15.50 L 0.0199 0.0214 0.0251 0.0282 0.0311 0.0338
(61.38) h 539.89 554.33 592.63 628.87 664.66 700.69
s 2.0830 2.1198 2.1250 2.2997 2.3770 2.4483
16.50 L 0.0186 0.0196 0.0232 0.0263 0.0290 0.0316
(64.06) h 540.69 551.03 590.49 627.29 663.41 699.67
s 2.0874 2.1073 2.2045 2.2900 2.3678 2.4394
17.50 L 0.0174 0.0180 0.0216 0.0245 0.0272 0.0296
(66.62) h 541.35 547.49 588.28 625.67 662.16 698.65
s 2.0801 2.0951 2.1943 2.2808 2.3591 2.4311
Appendix B 885
*Ashok Babu T P, A Theo. & Expt. Investigation of Alternatives to CFC 12 in Refrigerators, Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
B.11 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 600a

(ISOBUTANE)*
Table B.11.1 Saturation table of R 600a (isobutane)

Liquid Vapour
3 3
–40 0.287 1.604 1.1461 109.64 393.42 503.06 0.6446 1.6873 2.3320
–38 0.318 1.609 1.0432 114.14 391.52 505.66 0.6639 1.6649 2.3288
–36 0.351 1.614 0.9514 118.64 389.63 508.27 0.6829 1.6429 2.3258
–34 0.387 1.619 0.8692 123.13 387.76 510.89 0.7017 1.6214 2.3231
–32 0.425 1.624 0.7955 127.61 385.91 513.52 0.7203 1.6002 2.3206
–30 0.467 1.630 0.7292 132.09 384.06 516.16 0.7388 1.5795 2.3183
–28 0.512 1.635 0.6696 136.57 382.23 518.80 0.7571 1.5591 2.3162
–26 0.561 1.641 0.6158 141.05 380.40 521.45 0.7752 1.5391 2.3143
–24 0.612 1.646 0.5673 145.53 378.58 524.12 0.7932 1.5194 2.3126
–22 0.668 1.652 0.5233 150.02 376.77 526.79 0.8110 1.5001 2.3111
–20 0.728 1.657 0.4834 154.51 374.95 529.46 0.8287 1.4811 2.3098
–18 0.791 1.663 0.4472 159.00 373.14 532.15 0.8463 1.4624 2.3087
–16 0.859 1.669 0.4143 163.51 371.33 534.84 0.8638 1.4440 2.3077
–14 0.931 1.674 0.3843 168.02 369.51 537.54 0.8811 1.4258 2.3069
–12 1.008 1.680 0.3569 172.55 367.69 540.24 0.8984 1.4079 2.3063
–10 1.090 1.686 0.3319 177.09 365.87 542.95 0.9155 1.3903 2.3058
–8 1.176 1.692 0.3089 181.64 364.03 545.67 0.9326 1.3729 2.3055
–6 1.269 1.698 0.2880 186.20 362.19 548.39 0.9495 1.3557 2.3053
–4 1.366 1.704 0.2687 190.78 360.34 551.12 0.9664 1.3388 2.3052
–2 1.469 1.710 0.2510 195.38 358.47 553.85 0.9832 1.3220 2.3052
0 1.578 1.717 0.2347 200.00 356.59 556.59 1.0000 1.3054 2.3054
2 1.693 1.723 0.2196 204.64 354.70 559.33 1.0167 1.2891 2.3057
4 1.815 1.730 0.2058 209.30 352.78 562.08 1.0333 1.2728 2.3062
6 1.943 1.736 0.1930 213.98 350.85 564.83 1.0499 1.2568 2.3067
8 2.078 1.743 0.1811 218.69 348.90 567.58 1.0664 1.2409 2.3073
10 2.220 1.750 0.1701 223.42 346.92 570.34 1.0829 1.2252 2.3080
12 2.369 1.757 0.1600 228.18 344.92 573.10 1.0993 1.2096 2.3089
14 2.526 1.764 0.1505 232.96 342.90 575.86 1.1157 1.1941 2.3098
16 2.690 1.771 0.1417 237.78 340.84 578.62 1.1320 1.1787 2.3108
18 2.863 1.778 0.1336 242.62 338.76 581.38 1.1484 1.1635 2.3119
20 3.043 1.786 0.1260 247.50 336.65 584.15 1.1646 1.1484 2.3130
22 3.233 1.793 0.1189 252.40 334.51 586.91 1.1809 1.1333 2.3142
24 3.431 1.801 0.1123 257.34 332.33 589.68 1.1972 1.1184 2.3155
26 3.638 1.809 0.1061 262.32 330.12 592.44 1.2134 1.1035 2.3169
28 3.854 1.817 0.1004 267.33 327.87 595.20 1.2296 1.0887 2.3183
30 4.080 1.826 0.0950 272.37 325.59 597.96 1.2458 1.0740 2.3198
32 4.315 1.834 0.0899 277.46 323.26 600.72 1.2620 1.0593 2.3213
(Contd)
Appendix B 887

Liquid Vapour
(°C) (bar) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
34 4.561 1.843 0.0852 282.59 320.89 603.48 1.2781 1.0447 2.3228
36 4.817 1.852 0.0807 287.75 318.48 606.23 1.2943 1.0302 2.3244
38 5.083 1.861 0.0766 292.95 316.03 608.98 1.3104 1.0156 2.3261
40 5.361 1.870 0.0726 298.20 313.52 611.72 1.3266 1.0012 2.3278
42 5.649 1.879 0.0690 303.48 310.97 614.45 1.3427 0.9867 2.3294
44 5.949 1.889 0.0655 308.81 308.37 617.18 1.3589 0.9723 2.3312
46 6.261 1.899 0.0622 314.18 305.72 619.91 1.3750 0.9579 2.3329
48 6.585 1.910 0.0591 319.61 303.01 622.62 1.3911 0.9435 2.3346
50 6.920 1.920 0.0562 325.07 300.26 625.33 1.4073 0.9291 2.3364
52 7.269 1.931 0.0535 330.58 297.44 628.02 1.4234 0.9147 2.3381
54 7.630 1.943 0.0509 336.14 294.57 630.70 1.4395 0.9004 2.3399
56 8.004 1.954 0.0485 341.75 291.63 633.37 1.4557 0.8860 2.3416
58 8.392 1.966 0.0462 347.41 288.62 636.03 1.4718 0.8716 2.3434
60 8.793 1.979 0.0440 353.12 285.55 638.67 1.4879 0.8571 2.3451
62 9.209 1.991 0.0419 358.88 282.42 641.30 1.5041 0.8426 2.3467
64 9.638 2.005 0.0399 364.69 279.21 643.90 1.5202 0.8281 2.3483
66 10.083 2.019 0.0381 370.56 275.93 646.49 1.5364 0.8136 2.3499
Table B.11.2 Superheat table: R600a (isobutane) vapour
888
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. –5 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
0.25 L 1.3024 1.5216 1.5506 1.7242 1.8108 1.9552 2.0992 2.2432 2.3870 2.5307
(– 42.68) h 499.59 554.13 561.85 610.61 636.59 682.24 730.82 782.28 836.55 893.56
s 2.3365 2.5556 2.5841 2.7535 2.8372 2.9754 3.1121 3.2473 3.3812 3.5137
0.50 L 0.6804 0.7543 0.7690 0.8568 0.9006 0.9733 1.0459 1.1183 1.1906 1.2628
(–30.04) h 515.93 553.14 560.90 609.86 635.92 681.67 730.34 781.86 836.19 893.25
s 2.3078 2.4536 2.4823 2.6524 2.7364 2.8749 3.0113 3.1473 3.2813 3.4138
0.75 L 0.4865 0.4984 0.5084 0.5677 0.5971 0.6460 0.6943 0.7433 0.7918 0.8401
(–19.00) h 542.90 552.12 559.93 609.10 635.24 681.10 729.85 781.45 835.83 892.93
s 2.3578 2.3926 2.4215 2.5924 2.6767 2.8155 2.9527 3.0884 3.2226 3.3553
1.01 L 0.3551 0.3654 0.3729 0.4173 0.4394 0.4759 0.5123 0.5485 0.5845 0.6205
(–11.91) h 540.36 551.03 558.80 608.29 634.51 680.50 729.34 781.00 835.44 892.59
s 2.3060 2.3464 2.3755 2.5473 2.6318 2.7711 2.9086 3.0444 3.1788 3.3116
1.50 L 0.2461 0.2476 0.2784 0.2936 0.3187 0.3436 0.3684 0.3930 0.4175
(–1.40) h 554.68 556.92 606.77 633.16 679.36 728.37 780.17 934.72 891.96
s 2.3054 2.3136 2.4871 2.5723 2.7123 2.8503 2.9866 3.1212 3.2542
2.50 L 0.1520 0.1625 0.1720 0.1877 0.2031 0.2183 0.2334 0.2484
(13.74) h 575.52 603.51 630.27 676.97 726.35 778.45 833.23 890.66
s 2.3100 2.4053 2.4918 2.6334 2.7727 2.9098 3.0451 3.1786
3.50 L 0.1101 0.1127 0.1199 0.1315 0.1428 0.1540 0.1650 0.1759
(24.50) h 590.30 600.06 627.25 674.49 724.28 776.68 831.71 889.34
s 2.3149 2.3476 2.4357 2.5792 2.7193 2.8578 2.9938 3.1279
4.50 L 0.0863 0.0908 0.1002 0.1093 0.1183 0.1270 0.1357
(33.41) h 602.61 624.06 671.91 722.14 744.88 830.16 887.99
s 2.3218 2.3911 2.5368 2.6783 2.8179 2.9546 3.0893
(Contd)
p, bar t,°C
(tsat, °C) sat. –5 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
5.50 L 0.0708 0.0722 0.0802 0.0880 0.955 0.1028 0.1101
(40.91) h 612.93 620.69 669.22 719.93 773.03 828.59 886.63
s 2.3282 2.3530 2.5012 2.6448 2.7851 2.9226 3.0579
6.50 L 0.0599 0.0664 0.0732 0.0797 0.0861 0.0923
(47.49) h 621.94 666.41 717.65 771.13 826.98 885.25
s 2.3342 2.4700 2.6154 2.7569 2.8953 3.0312
7.50 L 0.0518 0.0561 0.0623 0.0681 0.0738 0.0793
(53.34) h 629.86 663.46 715.29 769.18 825.34 883.85
s 2.3396 2.4416 2.5891 2.7319 2.8713 3.0078
8.50 L 0.0456 0.0483 0.0539 0.0592 0.644 0.0693
(58.61) h 636.88 660.34 712.84 767.18 823.66 882.42
s 2.3442 2.4152 2.5660 2.7093 2.8497 2.9869
9.50 L 0.0405 0.0420 0.0473 0.0522 0.059 0.0615
(63.41) h 643.17 657.04 710.29 765.12 821.95 880.97
s 2.3481 2.3900 2.5426 2.6885 2.8300 2.9680
10.50 L 0.0364 0.0369 0.0419 0.0465 0.0509 0.0551
(67.83) h 648.85 653.52 707.62 762.99 820.20 879.50
s 2.3514 2.3655 2.5213 2.6691 2.8117 2.9506
* Ashok Babu T P, A Theo. & Expt. Investigation of Alternatives to CFC 12 in Refrigerators, Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
Appendix B 889
B.12 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 123*

(TRIFLUORO ETHANE)
Saturation Table
tsat psat Pf vg hf hg sf sg Cf Cp
kg m3 kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ Cp
°C MPa
m3 kg kg kg kg K kg K kg K kg K Cv
0.00 0.03265 1526.1 0.44609 200.00 381.44 1.0000 1.6642 0.990 0.651 1.102
2.00 0.03574 1521.3 0.40991 201.98 382.64 1.0072 1.6638 0.993 0.654 1.103
4.00 0.03907 1516.4 0.37720 203.97 383.84 1.0144 1.6634 0.995 0.658 1.103
6.00 0.04264 1511.5 0.34759 205.97 385.05 1.0216 1.6631 0.997 0.661 1.103
8.00 0.04647 1506.6 0.32075 207.96 386.25 1.0287 1.6628 0.999 0.665 1.103
10.00 0.05057 1501.6 0.29637 209.97 387.46 1.0358 1.6626 1.002 0.668 1.104
12.00 0.05495 1496.7 0.27420 211.97 388.66 1.0428 1.6625 1.004 0.672 1.104
14.00 0.05963 1491.7 0.25401 213.99 389.87 1.0499 1.6624 1.006 0.675 1.104
16.00 0.06463 1486.7 0.23559 216.00 391.08 1.0569 1.6623 1.009 0.679 1.105
18.00 0.06995 1481.7 0.21877 218.02 392.29 1.0638 1.6623 1.011 0.682 1.105
20.00 0.07561 1476.6 0.20338 220.05 393.49 1.0707 1.6624 1.014 0.686 1.106
22.00 0.08163 1471.5 0.18929 222.08 394.70 1.0776 1.6625 1.016 0.690 1.106
24.00 0.08802 1466.4 0.17637 224.12 395.91 1.0845 1.6626 1.018 0.693 1.107
26.00 0.09480 1461.3 0.16451 226.61 397.12 1.0913 1.6628 1.021 0.697 1.107
27.82b 0.10133 1456.6 0.15453 228.03 398.22 1.0975 1.6630 1.023 0.701 1.108
28.00 0.10198 1456.2 0.15360 228.21 398.32 1.0981 1.6630 1.023 0.701 1.108
30.00 0.10958 1451.0 0.14356 230.26 399.53 1.1049 1.6633 1.026 0.705 1.109
32.00 0.11762 1445.8 0.13431 232.31 400.73 1.1116 1.6635 1.028 0.709 1.109
34.00 0.12611 1440.6 0.12577 234.38 401.93 1.1183 1.6639 1.031 0.712 1.110
36.00 0.13507 1435.4 0.11789 236.44 403.14 1.1250 1.6642 1.033 0.716 1.111
38.00 0.14452 1430.1 0.11060 238.51 404.34 1.1317 1.6646 1.036 0.720 1.112
40.00 0.15447 1424.8 0.10385 240.59 405.54 1.1383 1.6651 1.038 0.724 1.113
42.00 0.16495 1419.4 0.09759 242.67 406.73 1.1449 1.6655 1.041 0.728 1.114
44.00 0.17597 1414.1 0.09179 244.76 407.93 1.1515 1.6660 1.044 0.732 1.115
46.00 0.18755 1408.7 0.08641 246.86 409.12 1.1581 1.6665 1.046 0.736 1.116
48.00 0.19971 1403.3 0.08140 248.95 410.31 1.1646 1.6670 1.049 0.741 1.117
50.00 0.21246 1397.8 0.07674 251.06 411.50 1.1711 1.6676 1.052 0.745 1.119
52.00 0.22584 1392.3 0.07240 253.17 412.69 1.1776 1.6682 1.055 0.749 1.120
54.00 0.23985 1386.8 0.06836 255.28 413.87 1.1840 1.6688 1.058 0.753 1.121
56.00 0.25451 1381.2 0.06458 257.41 415.05 1.1905 1.6694 1.060 0.758 1.123
58.00 0.26985 1375.6 0.06106 259.53 416.23 1.1969 1.6701 1.063 0.762 1.124
60.00 0.28589 1370.0 0.05777 261.67 417.40 1.2033 1.6707 1.066 0.767 1.126
b
NBP
*Ashrae Handbook Fundamentals, 2005.
Appendix B 891
B.13 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 245 fa*

(PENTAFLUORO PROPANE)
Saturation Table
tsat psat Pf vg hf hg sf sg Cf Cp
°C MPa
0 0.05358 1404.0 0.30757 200.00 404.93 1.0000 1.7502 1.290 0.837 1.095
2 0.05866 1399.0 0.28251 202.59 406.43 1.0094 1.7503 1.294 0.842 1.096
4 0.06411 1393.9 0.25988 205.18 407.93 1.0188 1.7504 1.297 0.848 1.096
6 0.06995 1388.8 0.23939 207.78 409.44 1.0281 1.7505 1.301 0.853 1.097
8 0.07622 1383.7 0.22083 210.39 410.94 1.0374 1.7508 1.305 0.859 1.097
10 0.08293 1378.5 0.20397 213.00 412.45 1.0467 1.7511 1.309 0.864 1.098
12 0.09009 1373.3 0.18865 215.63 413.95 1.0559 1.7514 1.312 0.870 1.098
14 0.09774 1368.1 0.17469 218.26 415.46 1.0651 1.7518 1.316 0.875 1.099
14.90b 0.10133 1365.7 0.16885 219.44 416.13 1.0692 1.7520 1.318 0.878 1.099
16 0.10589 1362.8 0.16197 220.90 416.97 1.0742 1.7523 1.320 0.881 1.100
18 0.11457 1357.5 0.15035 223.54 418.47 1.0833 1.7528 1.324 0.887 1.100
20 0.12380 1352.2 0.13973 226.20 419.98 1.0924 1.7534 1.328 0.893 1.101
22 0.13360 1346.9 0.13000 228.86 421.48 1.1014 1.7540 1.332 0.899 1.102
24 0.14400 1341.5 0.12108 231.54 422.99 1.1104 1.7547 1.337 0.905 1.103
26 0.15502 1336.1 0.11289 234.22 424.49 1.1194 1.7554 1.341 0.911 1.104
28 0.16670 1330.6 0.10536 236.91 425.99 1.1283 1.7562 1.345 0.917 1.105
30 0.17904 1325.1 0.09843 239.60 427.50 1.1372 1.7570 1.350 0.923 1.106
32 0.19209 1319.6 0.09205 242.31 428.99 1.1461 1.7578 1.354 0.929 1.107
34 0.20586 1314.0 0.08616 245.03 430.49 1.1549 1.7587 1.359 0.936 1.108
36 0.22038 1308.4 0.08072 247.75 431.99 1.1637 1.7597 1.364 0.942 1.110
38 0.23568 1302.7 0.07569 250.49 433.48 1.1725 1.7606 1.368 0.949 1.111
40 0.25179 1297.0 0.07103 253.24 434.97 1.1813 1.7616 1.373 0.956 1.112
42 0.26873 1291.2 0.06672 255.99 436.46 1.1900 1.7626 1.378 0.962 1.114
44 0.28653 1285.4 0.06271 258.76 437.95 1.1987 1.7637 1.383 0.969 1.115
46 0.30523 1279.6 0.05899 261.53 439.43 1.2074 1.7648 1.388 0.976 1.117
48 0.32485 1273.7 0.05554 264.32 440.91 1.2160 1.7659 1.394 0.984 1.119
50 0.34541 1267.7 0.05232 267.11 442.38 1.2246 1.7670 1.399 0.991 1.121
52 0.36695 1261.7 0.04933 269.92 443.85 1.2333 1.7682 1.405 0.998 1.122
54 0.38951 1255.6 0.04653 272.74 445.32 1.2418 1.7694 1.410 1.006 1.125
56 0.41310 1249.5 0.04393 275.57 446.78 1.2504 1.7706 1.416 1.013 1.127
58 0.43776 1243.3 0.04149 278.41 448.24 1.2590 1.7718 1.422 1.021 1.129
60 0.46352 1237.0 0.03922 281.26 449.69 1.2675 1.7730 1.428 1.029 1.131
b
NBP
B.14 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R 404A*

[R 125/R 143a/R 134a(44/52/4)]
Saturation Table
psat tb td Hb vd hb hd sb sd Cf Cp
Liq. Vap. Liq. Vap. Liq. Vap. Liq. Vap.
MPa °C °C
m3 kg kg kg kg K kg K kg K kg J Cv
0.1 – 46.50 – 45.74 1307.1 0.18467 138.97 340.08 0.7571 1.6434 1.251 0.784 1.166
0.10132b – 46.22 – 45.47 1306.3 0.18240 139.31 340.25 0.7586 1.6430 1.252 0.785 1.166
0.12 – 42.63 – 41.90 1295.1 0.15551 143.83 342.40 0.7783 1.6387 1.259 0.798 1.169
0.14 – 39.24 – 38.53 1284.5 0.13443 148.12 344.41 0.7967 1.6349 1.266 0.811 1.171
0.16 – 36.20 – 35.51 1275.0 0.11846 151.97 346.20 0.8130 1.6318 1.273 0.823 1.174
0.18 – 33.45 – 32.78 1266.2 0.10592 155.49 347.81 0.8277 1.6292 1.279 0.834 1.177
0.2 – 30.93 – 30.27 1258.0 0.09581 158.73 349.28 0.8411 1.6270 1.285 0.844 1.179
0.22 – 28.59 – 27.94 1250.4 0.08748 161.75 350.63 0.8534 1.6250 1.291 0.855 1.182
0.24 – 26.42 – 25.78 1243.3 0.08049 164.57 1351.88 0.8649 1.6233 1.297 0.864 1.185
0.26 – 24.37 – 23.75 1236.5 0.07454 167.23 353.04 0.8755 1.6217 1.303 0.873 1.188
0.28 – 22.45 – 21.83 1230.1 0.06941 169.75 354.13 0.8855 1.6203 1.308 0.882 1.190
0.3 – 20.62 – 20.02 1223.9 0.06494 172.14 355.15 0.8950 1.6190 1.313 0.891 1.193
0.32 – 18.89 – 18.29 1218.0 0.06101 174.43 356.12 0.9039 1.6179 1.319 0.899 1.196
0.34 – 17.24 – 16.65 1212.4 0.05752 176.61 357.03 0.9125 1.6168 1.324 0.907 1.199
0.36 – 15.66 – 15.08 1206.9 0.05441 178.71 357.90 0.9206 1.6158 1.329 0.915 1.202
0.38 – 14.15 – 13.57 1201.6 0.05162 180.73 358.72 0.9283 1.6149 1.334 0.923 1.205
0.4 – 12.69 – 12.12 1196.5 0.04909 182.68 359.51 0.9358 1.6141 1.339 0.931 1.208
0.42 – 11.29 – 10.73 1191.6 0.04680 184.56 360.26 0.9429 1.6133 1.344 0.938 1.211
0.44 – 9.94 – 9.39 1186.7 0.04471 186.38 360.98 0.9498 1.6125 1.349 0.946 1.214
0.46 – 8.64 – 8.09 1182.0 0.04279 188.15 361.67 0.9564 1.6118 1.353 0.953 1.217
0.48 – 7.37 – 6.83 1177.5 0.04103 189.86 362.33 0.9628 1.6112 1.358 0.960 1.220
0.5 – 6.15 – 5.61 1173.0 0.03940 191.53 362.96 0.9690 1.6105 1.363 0.967 1.223
0.55 – 3.24 – 2.72 1162.3 0.03584 195.51 364.45 0.9837 1.6091 1.374 0.984 1.231
0.6 – 0.53 – 0.02 1152.0 0.03284 199.26 365.81 0.9973 1.6078 1.386 1.001 1.239
0.65 2.02 2.52 1142.3 0.03029 202.81 367.06 1.0101 1.6066 1.397 1.018 1.247
0.7 4.42 4.91 1132.9 0.02803 206.18 368.21 1.0222 1.6055 1.409 1.034 1.256
0.75 6.70 7.18 1123.8 0.02618 209.41 369.28 1.0336 1.6044 1.420 1.051 1.264
0.8 8.87 9.34 1115.1 0.02449 212.49 370.27 1.0444 1.6035 1.432 1.067 1.274
0.85 10.94 11.40 1106.5 0.02300 215.46 371.19 1.0547 1.6025 1.443 1.084 1.283
0.9 12.92 13.37 1098.2 0.02166 218.32 372.05 1.0646 1.6016 1.455 1.100 1.293
0.95 14.81 15.26 1090.2 0.02046 221.09 372.85 1.0741 1.6007 1.466 1.117 1.303
1.0 16.64 17.08 1082.2 0.01937 223.77 373.59 1.0832 1.5999 1.478 1.134 1.313
1.1 20.09 20.52 1066.9 0.01749 228.89 374.94 1.1005 1.5982 1.503 1.169 1.336
1.2 23.32 23.73 1052.0 0.01590 233.75 376.12 1.1166 1.5965 1.528 1.206 1.360
1.3 26.35 26.75 1037.5 0.01455 238.37 377.14 1.1318 1.5949 1.554 1.244 1.386
1.4 29.22 29.60 1023.4 0.01338 242.81 378.02 1.1462 1.5932 1.582 1.285 1.414
1.5 31.93 32.30 1009.5 0.01236 247.07 378.78. 1.1599 1.5914 1.611 1.329 1.445
1.6 34.51 34.87 995.7 0.01146 251.19 379.42 1.1730 1.5896 1.643 1.376 1.478
1.7 36.97 37.32 982.1 0.01066 255.17 379.95 1.1856 1.5878 1.676 1.426 1.515
1.8 39.33 39.67 968.6 0.00994 259.05 380.38 1.1977 1.5858 1.712 1.481 1.556
1.9 41.58 41.91 955.1 0.00930 262.83 380.70 1.2095 1.5838 1.751 1.541 1.601
2.0 43.75 44.07 941.6 0.00871 266.52 380.92 1.2208 1.5817 1.794 1.607 1.652
2.1 45.84 46.15 928.1 0.00817 270.14 381.05 1.2319 1.5794 1.841 1.681 1.709
2.2 47.85 48.15 914.4 0.00768 273.70 381.08 1.2427 1.5770 1.893 1.763 1.774
2.3 49.80 50.08 900.6 0.00723 277.20 381.01 1.2532 1.5745 1.952 1.856 1.847
2.4 51.68 51.95 886.5 0.00680 280.66 380.83 1.2635 1.5718 2.019 1.962 1.932
b
Bubble and dew points at 1 atm pressure
Subscripts: b Bubble temperature (liquid on bubble line)
d Dew temperature (Vapour on dew line)
Appendix B 893
B.15 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R407C*

[R32/R125/R134a(23/25/42)
Saturation Table
kg m3 kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ C p
MPa °C °C
0.08 – 48.42 – 41.34 1395.3 0.26975 134.39 386.99 0.7374 1.8445 1.306 0.769 1.187
0.1 – 43.90 – 36.90 1381.5 0.21865 140.31 389.59 0.7635 1.8349 1.312 0.786 1.190
0.10132b – 43.63 – 36.63 1380.7 0.21595 140.67 389.75 0.7650 1.8343 1.312 0.787 1.190
0.12 – 40.05 – 33.11 1369.7 0.18411 145.39 391.78 0.7854 1.8273 1.318 0.800 1.193
0.14 – 36.67 – 29.79 1359.1 0.15916 149.86 393.68 0.8043 1.8210 1.324 0.813 1.196
0.16 – 33.65 – 26.83 1349.7 0.14025 153.86 395.36 0.8211 1.8156 1.329 0.825 1.199
0.18 – 30.92 – 24.15 1341.0 0.12542 157.51 396.86 0.8362 1.8110 1.334 0.837 1.201
0.2 – 28.41 – 21.69 1333.0 0.11347 160.87 398.22 0.8499 1.8069 1.339 0.848 1.204
0.22 – 26.09 – 19.41 1325.5 0.10362 163.99 399.47 0.8625 1.8033 1.344 0.858 1.207
0.24 – 23.93 – 17.29 1318.4 0.09536 166.91 400.62 0.8742 1.8000 1.349 0.868 1.210
0.26 – 21.90 – 15.31 1311.8 0.08833 169.65 401.69 0.8851 1.7970 1.354 0.877 1.213
0.28 – 19.99 – 13.43 1305.5 0.08227 172.24 402.69 0.8954 1.7942 1.358 0.886 1.216
0.3 – 18.19 –11.66 1299.5 0.07699 174.71 403.62 0.9050 1.7917 1.362 0.895 1.219
0.32 – 16.47 – 9.98 1293.7 0.07235 177.06 404.49 0.9141 1.7894 1.367 0.903 1.222
0.34 – 14.83 – 8.38 1288.2 0.06824 179.30 405.32 0.9228 1.7872 1.371 0.911 1.224
0.36 – 13.27 – 6.85 1282.9 0.06457 181.45 406.10 0.9310 1.7851 1.375 0.919 1.227
0.38 – 11.77 – 5.38 1277.8 0.06127 183.52 406.85 0.9389 1.7832 1.379 0.927 1.230
0.4 – 10.33 – 3.97 1272.8 0.05830 185.52 407.55 0.9465 1.7814 1.383 0.934 1.233
0.42 – 8.94 – 2.61 1268.0 0.05559 187.44 408.23 0.9537 1.7796 1.387 0.942 1.236
0.44 – 7.61 – 1.31 1263.4 0.05313 189.30 408.87 0.9607 1.7780 1.391 0.949 1.239
0.46 – 6.31 – 0.04 1258.8 0.05087 191.11 409.48 0.9674 1.7764 1.395 0.956 1.242
0.48 – 5.06 1.18 1254.4 0.04879 192.86 410.07 0.9739 1.7750 1.399 0.963 1.245
0.5 – 3.85 2.36 1250.1 0.04687 194.56 410.64 0.9801 1.7735 1.403 0.970 1.248
0.55 – 0.98 5.17 1239.8 0.04267 198.61 411.95 0.9950 1.7702 1.413 0.987 1.255
0.6 1.70 7.79 1230.0 0.03915 202.42 413.15 1.0087 1.7672 1.422 1.004 1.262
0.65 4.22 10.24 1220.7 0.03615 206.02 414.25 1.0216 1.7644 1.432 1.020 1.270
0.7 6.60 12.56 1211.7 0.03356 209.44 415.25 1.0338 1.7618 1.441 1.036 1.278
0.75 8.85 14.76 1203.1 0.03131 212.71 416.18 1.0452 1.7594 1.451 1.052 1.286
0.8 11.00 16.85 1194.9 0.02933 215.83 417.03 1.0561 1.7571 1.460 1.067 1.294
0.85 13.04 18.84 1186.8 0.02757 218.83 417.83 1.0665 1.7550 1.469 1.082 1.302
0.9 15.00 20.74 1179.1 0.02600 221.71 418.57 1.0764 1.7529 1.479 1.098 1.310
0.95 16.88 22.56 1171.5 0.02460 224.50 419.25 1.0859 1.7509 1.488 1.113 1.319
1.0 18.69 24.32 1164.1 0.02332 227.19 419.89 1.0950 1.7491 1.498 1.128 1.327
1.1 22.11 27.63 1149.9 0.02111 232.34 421.03 1.1122 1.7455 1.517 1.159 1.346
1.2 25.30 30.73 1136.2 0.01926 237.20 422.03 1.1283 1.7421 1.537 1.190 1.365
1.3 28.30 33.63 1123.0 0.01768 241.82 422.89 1.1434 1.7389 1.557 1.222 1.385
1.4 31.14 36.37 1110.2 0.01631 246.24 423.63 1.1577 1.7358 1.578 1.255 1.406
1.5 33.83 38.97 1097.7 0.01512 250.48 424.27 1.1713 1.7328 1.600 1.289 1.428
1.6 36.39 41.43 1085.5 0.01408 254.57 424.80 1.1843 1.7298 1.622 1.324 1.452
1.7 38.84 43.78 1073.5 0.01315 258.51 425.25 1.1967 1.7269 1.645 1.361 1.477
1.8 41.18 46.03 1061.7 0.01231 262.33 425.61 1.2086 1.7241 1.669 1.400 1.504
1.9 43.43 48.18 1050.0 0.01157 266.05 425.89 1.2200 1.7212 1.695 1.440 1.533
2.0 45.59 50.25 1038.5 0.01089 269.66 426.10 1.2311 1.7184 1.722 1.483 1.564
b
B.16 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R410A*

[R32/R125/(50/50)]
Saturation Table
MPa °C °C
m3 kg kg kg kg K kg K kg K kg J Cv
010132b – 51.44 – 51.36 1349.7 0.23957 126.34 399.31 0.7040 1.9350 1.370 0.807 1.244
0.12 – 48.06 – 47.98 1339.0 0.20427 130.99 401.05 0.7247 1.9243 1.375 0.823 1.247
0.14 – 44.87 – 44.79 1328.8 0.17661 135.39 402.67 0.7441 1.9147 1.380 0.839 1.251
0.16 – 42.02 – 41.94 1319.6 0.15565 139.34 404.09 0.7612 1.9065 1.385 0.854 1.255
0.18 – 39.44 – 39.36 1311.2 0.13921 142.93 405.36 0.7766 1.8993 1.390 0.868 1.259
0.2 – 37.07 – 36.99 1303.4 0.12595 146.23 406.50 0.7905 1.8928 1.395 0.881 1.263
0.22 – 34.89 – 34.80 1296.2 0.11503 149.29 407.53 0.8034 1.8871 1.399 0.893 1.266
0.24 – 32.85 – 32.76 1289.4 0.10587 152.15 408.49 0.8153 1.8818 1.404 0.904 1.270
0.26 – 30.94 – 30.85 1283.0 0.09807 154.84 409.36 0.8264 1.8770 1.408 0.916 1.274
0.28 – 29.14 – 29.05 1276.9 0.09135 157.38 410.18 0.8368 1.8726 1.413 0.926 1.277
0.3 – 2744 – 27.35 1271.1 0.08550 159.80 410.94 0.8466 1.8685 1.417 0.936 1.281
0.32 – 25.82 – 25.73 1265.5 0.08035 162.10 411.65 0.8558 1.8647 1.421 0.946 1.285
0.34 – 24.28 – 24.19 1260.2 0.07579 164.29 412.32 0.8646 1.8611 1.426 0.956 1.288
0.36 – 22.81 – 22.72 1255.0 0.07172 166.40 412.95 0.8703 1.8577 1.430 0.965 1.292
0.38 – 21.40 – 21.31 1250.1 0.06806 168.43 413.54 0.8810 1.8545 1.434 0.975 1.295
0.4 – 20.04 – 19.95 1245.3 0.06476 170.38 414.10 0.8887 1.8514 1.438 0.983 1.299
0.42 – 18.74 – 18.65 1240.6 0.06176 172.26 414.64 0.8960 1.8486 1.443 0.992 1.303
0.44 – 17.48 – 17.39 1236.1 0.05902 174.08 415.14 0.9031 1.8458 1.447 1.001 1.306
0.46 – 16.27 – 16.18 1231.8 0.05652 175.84 415.63 0.9099 1.8432 1.451 1.009 1.310
0.48 – 15.10 – 15.00 1227.5 0.05421 177.55 416.09 0.9165 1.8407 1.455 1.017 1.313
0.5 – 13.96 – 13.86 1223.3 0.05209 179.21 416.53 0.9228 1.8383 1.459 1.025 1.317
0.55 – 11.26 – 11.16 1213.4 0.04743 183.17 417.54 0.9379 1.8326 1.469 1.045 1.326
0.6 – 8.74 – 8.64 1203.9 0.04352 186.89 418.46 0.9518 1.8275 1.479 1.064 1.335
0.65 – 6.38 – 6.28 1194.9 0.04019 190.40 419.28 0.9649 1.8227 1.489 1.083 1.344
0.7 – 4.15 – 4.05 1186.3 0.03732 193.74 420.03 0.9772 1.8183 1.499 1.101 1.354
0.75 – 2.04 – 1.93 1178.1 0.03482 196.92 420.71 0.9888 1.8141 1.509 1.119 1.363
0.8 – 0.03 0.08 1170.1 0.03262 199.96 421.33 0.9998 1.8102 1.519 1.136 1.373
0.85 1.89 1.99 1162.4 0.03068 202.88 421.89 1.0103 1.8065 1.529 1.154 1.382
0.9 3.72 3.83 1154.9 0.02894 205.69 422.41 1.0204 1.8030 1.540 1.171 1.392
0.95 5.48 5.58 1147.6 0.02738 208.40 422.88 1.0300 1.7996 1.550 1.188 1.402
1.0 7.17 7.27 1140.5 0.02596 211.02 423.31 1.0392 1.7964 1.560 1.205 1.413
1.1 10.36 10.47 1126.8 0.02351 216.03 424.07 1.0567 1.7903 1.581 1.239 1.434
1.2 13.34 13.46 1113.7 0.02145 220.76 424.68 1.0730 1.7846 1.603 1.274 1.457
1.3 16.15 16.26 1101.0 0.01970 225.26 425.19 1.0883 1.7792 1.624 1.31 1.481
1.4 18.79 18.91 1088.8 0.01819 229.56 425.59 1.1027 1.7741 1.647 1.347 1.506
1.5 21.30 21.41 1076.9 0.01687 233.68 425.89 1.1165 1.7691 1.670 1.385 1.532
1.6 23.68 23.80 1065.2 0.01571 237.65 426.11 1.1296 1.7644 1.694 1.424 1.560
1.7 25.96 26.07 1053.8 0.01468 241.48 426.25 1.1421 1.7597 1.719 1.465 1.590
1.8 28.13 28.25 1042.6 0.01376 245.19 426.31 1.1542 1.7552 1.745 1.509 1.621
1.9 30.22 30.34 1031.6 0.01293 248.79 426.31 1.1657 1.7508 1.772 1.555 1.655
2.0 32.22 32.34 1020.7 0.01218 252.29 426.24 1.1769 1.7464 1.800 1.603 1.690
2.1 34.16 34.28 1009.9 0.0115 255.71 426.10 1.1878 1.7421 1.830 1.655 1.728
2.2 36.02 36.14 999.2 0.01088 259.05 425.90 1.1983 1.7379 1.861 1.709 1.769
2.3 37.82 37.94 988.6 0.01031 262.32 425.64 1.2085 1.7336 1.894 1.768 1.813
2.4 39.56 39.68 978.0 0.00978 265.52 425.33 1.2185 1.7294 1.929 1.831 1.860
2.5 41.25 41.37 967.5 0.00929 268.67 424.95 1.2282 1.7251 1.967 1.898 1.911
2.6 42.89 43.00 957.0 0.00883 271.77 424.51 1.2377 1.7209 2.008 1.971 1.966
2.7 44.48 44.59 946.4 0.00841 274.82 424.02 1.2470 1.7166 2.052 2.050 2.026
2.8 46.02 46.14 935.8 0.00802 277.84 423.47 1.2561 1.7123 2.100 2.136 2.091
2.9 47.53 47.64 925.2 0.00764 280.82 422.85 1.2651 1.7079 2.153 2.230 2.163
3.0 48.99 49.10 914.5 0.00729 283.78 422.18 1.2740 1.7035 2.211 2.333 2.243
3.2 51.81 51.91 892.6 0.00665 289.62 420.62 1.2913 1.6944 2.348 2.575 2.429
b
Appendix B 895
B.17 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R507A*

[R125/R143a(50/50)]
Saturation Table
tsat psat Hf vg hf hg sf sg Cf Cp
3 Cp
kg m kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ kJ
°C MPa
– 46.74b 0.10132 1316.8 0.17902 139.07 336.01 0.7574 1.6273 1.241 0.777 1.166
– 46 0.10499 1314.5 0.17313 139.99 336.45 0.7615 1.6264 1.243 0.780 1.166
– 44 0.11541 1308.2 0.15836 142.48 337.65 0.7724 1.6241 1.247 0.787 1.167
– 42 0.12662 1301.9 0.14510 144.99 338.84 0.7832 1.6219 1.251 0.795 1.169
– 40 0.13867 1295.6 0.13317 147.49 340.03 0.7940 1.6198 1.255 0.803 1.170
– 38 0.15159 1289.2 0.12240 150.01 341.21 0.8047 1.6178 1.259 0.810 1.172
– 36 0.16542 1282.8 0.11268 152.54 342.38 0.8153 1.6159 1.264 0.818 1.174
– 34 0.18022 1276.3 0.10388 155.08 343.55 0.8260 1.6141 1.269 0.826 1.176
– 32 0.19602 1269.7 0.09590 157.63 344.72 0.8365 1.6123 1.274 0.835 1.178
– 30 0.21287 1263.2 0.08865 160.18 345.88 0.8470 1.6107 1.279 0.843 1.180
– 28 0.23081 1256.5 0.08205 162.75 347.03 0.8575 1.6092 1.284 0.852 1.183
– 26 0.24989 1249.8 0.07604 165.33 348.17 0.8679 1.6077 1.289 0.861 1.186
– 24 0.27016 1243.1 0.07055 167.92 349.30 0.8783 1.6063 1.295 0.870 1.188
– 22 0.29167 1236.3 0.06553 170.52 350.43 0.8886 1.6049 1.301 0.879 1.191
– 20 0.31446 1229.4 0.06094 173.13 351.54 0.8989 1.6037 1.307 0.888 1.195
– 18 0.33858 1222.5 0.05673 175.76 352.65 0.9091 1.6024 1.313 0.898 1.198
– 16 0.36408 1215.4 0.05286 178.39 353.75 0.9193 1.6013 1.319 0.908 1.202
– 14 0.39102 1208.4 0.04931 181.04 354.83 0.9295 1.6001 1.326 0.918 1.206
– 12 0.41945 1201.2 0.04603 183.71 355.91 0.9397 1.5991 1.333 0.929 1.210
– 10 0.44941 1193.9 0.04301 186.39 356.97 0.9498 1.5980 1.340 0.940 1.214
–8 0.48096 1186.6 0.04023 189.08 358.02 0.9599 1.5971 1.348 0.951 1.219
–6 0.51416 1179.2 0.03765 191.78 359.06 0.9699 1.5961 1.355 0.962 1.224
–4 0.54906 1171.7 0.03527 194.51 360.08 0.9800 1.5952 1.363 0.974 1.230
–2 0.58571 1164.0 0.03306 197.25 361.08 0.9900 1.5943 1.372 0.987 1.236
0 0.62417 1156.3 0.03101 200.00 362.07 1.0000 1.5934 1.381 0.999 1.242
2 0.66450 1148.5 0.02910 202.77 363.05 1.0100 1.5925 1.390 1.012 1.249
4 0.70676 1140.5 0.02733 205.56 364.00 1.0199 1.5917 1.399 1.026 1.256
6 0.75099 1132.4 0.02568 208.37 364.94 1.0299 1.5908 1.410 1.040 1.264
8 0.79728 1124.2 0.02415 211.20 365.85 1.0398 1.5900 1.420 1.055 1.272
10 0.84566 1115.9 0.02271 214.04 366.75 1.0498 1.5891 1.431 1.071 1.282
12 0.89622 1107.4 0.02138 216.91 367.61 1.0597 1.5883 1.443 1.088 1.291
14 0.94900 1098.7 0.02012 219.80 368.46 1.0696 1.5874 1.455 1.105 1.302
16 1.00410 1089.9 0.01895 222.71 369.28 1.0796 1.5865 1.468 1.124 1.314
18 1.06150 1080.9 0.01785 225.65 370.07 1.0895 1.5856 1.482 1.144 1.327
20 1.12140 1071.7 0.01683 228.61 370.83 1.0995 1.5846 1.497 1.165 1.341
22 1.18370 1062.4 0.01586 231.60 371.55 1.1094 1.5836 1.513 1.188 1.356
24 1.24860 1052.8 0.01495 234.61 372.25 1.1194 1.5826 1.530 1.212 1.372
26 1.31610 1043.0 0.01410 237.66 372.91 1.1294 1.5815 1.548 1.239 1.391
28 1.38640 1032.9 0.01329 240.73 373.52 1.1394 1.5804 1.568 1.268 1.411
30 1.45940 1022.6 0.01253 243.84 374.10 1.1495 1.5792 1.589 1.299 1.433
32 1.53520 1011.9 0.01182 246.98 374.63 1.1595 1.5779 1.612 1.333 1.458
34 1.61400 1001.0 0.01114 250.16 375.11 1.1697 1.5765 1.637 1.371 1.485
36 1.69580 989.7 0.01050 253.39 375.54 1.1799 1.5750 1.664 1.413 1.516
38 1.78070 978.1 0.00989 256.65 375.91 1.1901 1.5734 1.695 1.459 1.551
40 1.86880 966.0 0.00932 259.96 376.22 1.2004 1.5717 1.729 1.511 1.591
42 1.96020 953.5 0.00877 263.33 376.46 1.2108 1.5698 1.767 1.570 1.636
44 2.05490 940.5 0.00825 266.74 376.61 1.2213 1.5678 1.811 1.638 1.689
46 2.15310 926.9 0.00776 270.23 376.68 1.2320 1.5655 1.860 1.716 1.750
48 2.25480 912.7 0.00728 273.78 376.66 1.2427 1.5631 1.918 1.807 1.823
50 2.36030 897.7 0.00683 277.41 376.52 1.2536 1.5603 1.985 1.915 1.910
b
NBP + Small deviations from azeotropic behaviour
pressures are average of bubble and dew pressures
B.18 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF

SATURATED R11
Temp. Pressure Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy

(m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
(°C) (bar) vf ´ 103 vg hf hg sf sg
0 .4018 .652 .4031 200.0 388.9 1.0000 1.6915
1 .4192 .653 .3875 200.9 389.4 1.0031 1.6908
2 .4373 .654 .3726 201.7 389.9 1.0063 1.6902
3 .4560 .655 .3584 202.6 390.4 1.0094 1.6895
4 .4754 .656 .3448 203.5 390.9 1.0125 1.6889
5 .4953 .657 .3319 204.3 391.4 1.0156 1.6883
6 .5160 .658 .3195 205.2 392.0 1.0186 1.6877
7 .5373 .659 .3077 206.1 392.5 1.0217 1.6871
8 .5593 .660 .2964 206.9 393.0 1.0248 1.6865
9 .5821 .661 .2856 207.8 393.5 1.0278 1.6859
10 .6055 .662 .2753 208.7 394.0 1.0309 1.6854
11 .6297 .663 .2655 209.5 394.5 1.0339 1.6849
12 .6547 .663 .2561 210.4 395.0 1.0369 1.6844
13 .6804 .665 .2470 211.3 395.5 1.0399 1.6839
14 .7070 .666 .2384 212.1 396.0 1.0429 1.6834
15 .7343 .667 .2301 213.0 396.5 1.0459 1.6829
16 .7625 .668 .2222 213.3 397.0 1.0489 1.6824
17 .7915 .669 .2146 214.7 397.5 1.0519 1.6819
18 .8214 .670 .2073 215.6 398.0 1.0549 1.6815
19 .8521 .671 .2004 216.9 398.6 1.0579 1.6811
20 .8838 .672 .1937 217.4 399.1 1.0608 1.6806
21 .9164 .673 .1872 218.2 399.6 1.0638 1.6802
22 .9499 .674 .1811 219.1 400.1 1.0667 1.6798
23 .9844 .675 .1752 220.0 400.6 1.0696 1.6794
24 1.0198 .676 .1695 220.8 401.1 1.0725 1.6791
25 1.0562 .677 .1640 221.7 401.6 1.0755 1.6787
26 1.0937 .678 .1588 222.6 402.1 1.0784 1.6793
27 1.1321 .679 .1538 223.5 402.6 1.0813 1.6780
28 1.1716 .680 .1489 224.3 403.1 1.0841 1.6776
29 1.2122 .681 .1442 225.2 403.6 1.0870 1.6773
30 1.2538 .683 .1398 226.1 404.1 1.0899 1.6770
32 1.3405 .685 .1313 227.9 405.1 1.0956 1.6764
34 1.4318 .687 .1235 229.6 406.1 1.1013 1.6758
36 1.5278 .690 .1161 231.4 407.1 1.1070 1.6753
38 1.6287 .692 .1094 233.1 408.1 1.1126 1.6748
40 1.7346 .694 .1032 234.9 409.1 1.1182 1.6743
45 2.0228 .700 .0892 239.3 411.5 1.1321 1.6732
50 2.3464 .707 .07764 243.8 413.9 1.1458 1.6724
55 2.7083 .713 .06780 248.2 416.3 1.1593 1.6717
60 3.1110 .720 .05945 252.7 418.7 1.1727 1.6711
Appendix B 897
B.19 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R290/

R600a MIXTURE*
Table B.19.1 Thermodynamic properties of saturated mixture of R290/R600a

Composition: Propane = 50%/Isobutane = 50% (by mass)
Bubble t Bubble p vf ´ 103 hf sf vg ´ 103 hg sg

3 3
(°C) (bar) (m /kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K) (m .kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K)
–40 0.750 1.682 107.82 0.7531 520.6454 510.88 2.3998
–38 0.819 1.688 112.35 0.7724 479.6430 513.64 2.3954
–36 0.893 1.694 116.89 0.7915 442.3487 516.42 2.3913
–34 0.973 1.700 121.42 0.8104 408.5479 519.22 2.3874
–32 1.057 1.706 125.97 0.8292 377.9978 522.04 2.3836
–30 1.148 1.712 130.51 0.8478 350.1872 524.87 2.3801
–28 1.244 1.719 135.06 0.8663 324.8254 527.72 2.3768
–26 1.346 1.725 139.62 0.8846 301.9677 530.59 2.3737
–24 1.455 1.731 144.18 0.9029 280.7593 533.47 2.3708
–22 1.570 1.737 148.76 0.9210 261.3344 536.37 2.3681
–20 1.693 1.744 153.34 0.9389 243.5231 539.29 2.3655
–18 1.822 1.751 157.94 0.9568 227.1760 542.23 2.3631
–16 1.959 1.757 162.55 0.9746 212.3951 545.18 2.3608
–14 2.104 1.764 167.17 0.9922 198.5801 548.16 2.3587
–12 2.257 1.771 171.80 1.0098 185.8725 551.15 2.3567
–10 2.418 1.778 176.45 1.0272 173.9780 554.16 2.3549
–8 2.588 1.785 181.12 1.0446 163.2164 557.18 2.3531
–6 2.767 1.792 185.81 1.0619 153.2965 560.23 2.3515
–4 2.955 1.799 190.52 1.0791 143.9803 563.29 2.3501
–2 3.153 1.806 195.25 1.0963 135.3818 566.37 2.3487
0 3.360 1.814 200.00 1.1134 127.2927 569.47 2.3474
2 3.578 1.821 204.78 1.1304 119.9372 572.59 2.3463
4 3.806 1.829 209.58 1.1473 113.0286 575.73 2.3452
6 4.045 1.837 214.40 1.1642 106.5303 578.89 2.3442
8 4.295 1.845 219.26 1.1811 100.6241 582.06 2.3433
10 4.556 1.853 224.14 1.1979 94.9280 585.25 2.3424
12 4.829 1.861 229.05 1.2147 89.7230 588.46 2.3416
14 5.115 1.870 233.99 1.2313 84.8589 591.69 2.3409
16 5.413 1.878 238.97 1.2480 80.3081 594.94 2.3402
18 5.723 1.887 243.07 1.2646 75.9500 598.21 2.3396
20 6.047 1.896 249.01 1.2812 71.9572 601.49 2.3390
22 6.384 1.905 254.08 1.2977 68.2095 604.80 2.3384
24 6.735 1.915 259.18 1.3142 64.6884 608.12 2.3379
26 7.100 1.924 264.32 1.3306 61.3771 611.46 2.3374
28 7.479 1.934 269.51 1.3471 58.2603 614.82 2.3368
30 7.874 1.944 274.72 1.3635 55.3241 618.20 2.3363
(Contd)
Bubble t Bubble p vf ´ 103 hf sf vg ´ 103 hg sg

3 3
(°C) (bar) (m /kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K) (m .kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K)
32 8.284 1.955 279.97 1.3798 52.4820 621.60 2.3358
34 8.709 1.966 285.26 1.3961 49.8727 625.01 2.3352
36 9.150 1.977 290.58 1.4123 47.4090 628.45 2.3347
38 9.608 1.988 295.94 1.4285 45.0814 631.90 2.3341
40 10.082 2.000 301.34 1.4446 42.8811 635.37 2.3334
42 10.574 2.012 306.78 1.4607 40.7998 638.87 2.3327
44 11.083 2.024 312.26 1.4767 38.8300 642.38 2.3319
46 11.610 2.037 317.78 1.4927 36.9647 645.91 2.3310
48 12.155 2.051 323.34 1.5086 35.1974 649.45 2.3300
50 12.720 2.065 328.95 1.5244 33.4648 653.02 2.3289
52 13.303 2.080 334.60 1.5402 31.8771 656.60 2.3277
54 13.907 2.095 340.29 1.5559 30.3701 660.21 2.3 263
56 14.530 2.111 346.03 1.5715 28.9389 663.83 2.3247
58 15.174 2.128 351.81 1.5870 27.5787 667.47 2.3230
60 15.840 2.145 357.63 1.6024 26.2849 671.13 2.3211
62 16.526 2.164 363.49 1.6177 25.0531 674.81 2.3189
64 17.235 2.184 369.39 1.6328 23.8792 678.51 2.3166
66 17.967 2.205 375.31 1.6478 22.7593 682.23 2.3140
Table B.19.2 Superheat table: R 290/R600a vapour mixture composition: R 290 = 50%/R 600a = 50% (by mass)
p, bar Values at (Temp. of Superheated Vapour, °C)

(Bubble t, °C) Dew t – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
1.01 L 0.3806 0.4121 0.4379 0.4891 0.5146 0.5569 0.5989 0.6409 0.6827 0.7244
(–33.15) h 520.25 545.20 568.13 617.06 643.08 688.79 737.39 788.84 843.10 900.08
s 2.4659 2.5726 2.6593 2.8298 2.9139 3.0524 3.1894 3.3248 3.4588 3.5913
1.50 L 0.2647 0.2748 0.2927 0.3280 0.3455 0.3745 0.4033 0.4320 0.4605 0.4890
(–23.40) h 534.33 544.46 567.46 616.49 642.55 688.32 736.97 788.47 842.76 899.77
s 2.4553 2.5047 2.5919 2.7631 2.8473 2.9863 3.1235 3.2591 3.3932 3.5258
2.50 L 0.1637 0.1706 0.1927 0.2036 0.2215 0.2392 0.2567 0.2741 0.2914
(–9.24) h 555.31 566.02 615.29 641.45 687.34 736.10 787.69 842.06 899.14
s 2.4471 2.5012 2.6738 2.7587 2.8983 3.0360 3.1721 3.3065 3.4394
3.50 L 0.1182 0.1339 0.1419 0.1550 0.1679 0.1806 0.1932 0.2057
(1.24) h 571.41 614.04 640.30 686.34 735.22 786.90 841.35 898.49
s 2.4454 2.6124 2.6978 2.8382 2.9766 3.1131 3.2479 3.3810
4.50 L 0.0933 0.1025 0.1090 0.1196 0.1299 0.1400 0.1500 0.1600
(9.31) h 584.15 612.74 639.12 685.32 734.32 786.10 840.63 897.85
s 2.4460 2.5669 2.6530 2.7943 2.9332 3.0702 3.2053 3.3388
5.50 L 0.0766 0.0818 0.0874 0.0963 0.1049 0.1134 0.1218 0.1300
(16.30) h 595.43 611.38 637.89 684.26 733.40 785.29 839.90 897.19
s 2.4477 2.5283 2.6152 2.7574 2.8970 3.0345 3.1700 3.3038
6.50 L 0.0649 0.0674 0.0723 0.0801 0.0877 0.0950 0.1022 0.1092
(22.41) h 605.47 609.95 636.62 683.18 732.45 784.46 839.17 896.53
s 2.4499 2.4950 2.5828 2.7260 2.8663 3.0043 3.1402 3.2743
7.50 L 0.0562 0.0569 0.0613 0.0683 0.0750 0.0815 0.0879 0.0941
(27.81) h 614.50 608.44 635.28 682.06 731.49 783.62 838.42 895.86
s 2.4523 2.4654 2.5542 2.6986 2.8397 2.9783 3.1146 3.2490
(Contd)
Appendix B 899
p, bar Values at (Temp. of Superheated Vapour, °C)
900
(Bubble t, °C) Dewt – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170

8.50 L 0.0496 0.0529 0.0594 0.0655 0.0713 0.0770 0.0826
(32.66) h 622.72 633.88 680.91 730.51 782.76 837.66 895.19
s 2.4547 2.5285 2.6742 2.8162 2.9553 3.0921 3.2268
9.50 L 0.0439 0.0459 0.0518 0.0574 0.0628 0.0680 0.0730
(37.37) h 630.82 632.41 679.71 729.50 781.89 836.90 894.51
s 2.4573 2.5034 2.6506 2.7935 2.9333 3.0706 3.2056
10.50 L 0.0396 0.0405 0.0461 0.0514 0.0563 0.0611 0.0658
(41.45) h 637.90 630.85 678.47 728.47 781.00 836.12 893.82
s 2.4595 2.4813 2.6302 2.7741 2.9145 3.0523 3.1877
11.50 L 0.0357 0.0410 0.0459 0.9506 0.0550 0.0593
(45.55) h 645.12 677.18 727.41 780.10 835.34 893.13
s 2.4619 2.6094 2.7545 2.8957 3.0340 3.1698
12.50 L 0.0327 0.0370 0.0417 0.0461 0.0502 0.0542

(49.14) h 651.48 675.84 726.31 779.18 834.54 892.43
s 2.4638 2.5911 2.7375 2.8794 3.0182 3.1544
13.50 L 0.0300 0.0335 0.0380 0.0422 0.0461 0.0499
(52.54) h 657.58 674.44 725.19 778.24 833.73 891.72
s 2.4657 2.5735 2.7212 2.8640 3.0033 3.1399
14.50 L 0.0277 0.0305 0.0348 0.0388 0.0425 0.0461
(55.79) h 663.45 672.96 724.03 777.28 832.91 891.00
s 2.4673 2.5563 2.7055 2.8492 2.9892 3.1262
(Contd )
p, bar Values at Temp. of Superheated Vapour, °C)
(Bubble t, °C) Dew t – 15 0 30 45 70 95 120 145 170
15.50 L 0.0256 0.0277 0.0320 0.0358 0.0394 0.0428
(58.90) h 665.11 671.40 722.84 776.30 832.08 890.27
s 2.4688 2.5393 2.6904 2.8351 2.9757 3.1131
16.50 L 0.0238 0.0253 0.0295 0.0332 0.0366 0.0399
(61.87) h 674.58 669.74 721.60 775.29 831.23 889.54
s 2.4701 2.5226 2.6758 2.8216 2.9628 3.1007
17.50 L 0.0221 0.0231 0.0273 0.0309 0.0342 0.0373
(64.73) h 679.86 667.97 720.32 774.27 830.37 888.80
s 2.4711 2.5059 2.6615 2.8085 2.9504 3.0888
18.50 L 0.0208 0.0214 0.0255 0.0290 0.0322 0.0352
(67.13) h 684.34 666.05 718.99 773.22 829.50 888.05
s 2.4718 2.4911 2.6493 2.7974 2.9400 3.0788
19.50 L 0.0195 0.0195 0.0237 0.0272 0.0303 0.0332
(69.74) h 689.23 663.95 717.59 772.14 828.61 887.29
s 2.4723 2.4741 2.6357 2.7853 2.9287 3.0680
* Ashok Babu T P, A Theo. & Expt. Investigation of Alternatives to CFC 12 in Refrigerators, Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Delhi, 1997.
Appendix B 901
B.20 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF

WATER-LITHIUM BROMIDE SOLUTIONS
Table B.20.1 Enthalpy of water–lithium bromide solutions in kJ/kg*
Temp. % LiBr2
°C 0 10 20 30 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
20 84.0 67.4 52.6 40.4 33.5 33.5 38.9 53.2 78.0
30 125.8 103.3 84.0 68.6 58.3 56.8 60.5 73.5 96.8 Crystalization
40 167.6 139.5 115.8 96.0 82.5 79.7 82.2 93.5 115.4
50 209.3 175.2 147.0 123.4 106.7 102.6 103.8 114.0 134.5 163.5 Z
60 251.1 211.7 179.1 151.4 131.7 125.8 125.8 134.7 153.7 181.4 O
70 293.0 247.7 210.5 178.8 155.7 148.9 148.0 155.6 173.2 199.4 N
80 334.9 297.8 243.6 207.3 181.0 172.8 170.0 176.2 192.6 217.2 E
90 376.9 321.1 275.6 235.4 206.1 195.8 192.3 197.1 212.2 235.6
100 419.0 357.6 307.9 263.8 231.0 219.9 214.6 218.2 231.5 253.5 279.7
110 461.3 394.3 340.1 292.4 255.9 243.3 236.8 239.1 251.0 271.4 296.3
120 503.7 431.0 372.5 320.9 281.0 267.0 259.0 260.0 270.2 289.5 313.4
130 546.5 468.0 404.5 349.6 306.2 290.7 281.0 280.4 289.1 306.9 330.2
140 138.2 505.6 437.8 377.9 331.3 314.2 303.2 301.1 308.1 324.7 346.9
150 632.2 542.7 470.5 406.8 356.6 337.8 325.5 321.6 327.3 342.7 363.6
160 675.6 580.8 503.1 435.4 381.9 361.2 347.7 342.2 346.1 360.3 380.1
170 719.2 618.9 536.1 464.3 406.8 384.9 369.9 362.9 365.4 378.3 396.0
180 763.2 657.1 569.4 493.4 432.1 408.8 392.1 383.4 384.3 395.8 411.3
*Ashrae Fundamentals Handbook, 1989.
Table B.20.2 Saturation/bubble temperatures of water–lithium bromide solutions in °C*
Pressure Pure Water % LiBr2

kPa 0 10 20 30 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
2.34 20 19.1 17.7 15.0 9.8 5.8 –0.4 –7.7 –15.8
42.5 30 29.0 27.5 24.6 19.2 15.0 8.6 1.0 –7.3 Crystalization
7.38 40 38.9 37.3 34.3 28.5 24.1 17.5 9.89 1.3
12.35 50 48.8 47.2 44.0 37.9 33.3 26.5 18.5 9.9 1.3 Z
19.94 60 58.8 57.0 53.6 47.3 42.5 35.5 27.3 18.4 9.5 O
31.19 70 68.7 66.8 63.3 56.6 51.6 44.4 36.1 27.0 17.7 N
47.39 80 78.6 76.7 73.0 66.0 60.8 53.4 44.8 35.6 26.0 E
70.14 90 88.6 86.5 82.6 75.4 70.0 62.3 53.6 44.1 34.2
101.33 100 98.5 96.3 92.3 84.7 79.1 71.3 62.4 52.7 42.4 32.0
143.3 110 108.4 106.2 101.9 94.1 88.3 80.2 71.1 61.3 50.6 39.7
198.5 120 118.3 116.0 111.6 103.4 97.5 89.2 79.9 69.8 58.9 47.3
270.1 130 128.3 125.8 121.3 112.8 106.7 92.8 88.7 78.4 67.1 55.0
361.3 140 138.2 135.7 130.9 122.2 115.8 107.1 97.4 87.0 75.3 62.7
475.8 150 148.1 145.5 140.6 131.5 125.0 116.1 106.2 95.5 83.5 70.3
617.8 160 158.1 155.3 150.3 140.9 134.2 125.0 115.0 104.1 91.8 78.0
791.7 170 168.0 165.2 159.9 150.3 143.3 134.0 123.7 112.7 100.0 85.7
1002.1 180 177.9 175.0 169.6 159.6 152.5 142.9 132.5 121.2 108.2 93.3
* Ashrae Fundamentals Handbook, 1989.
B.21 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF R718 (WATER)*
Table B.21.1 Thermodynamic properties of saturated water and steam, temperature from triple point to 50°C
tsat psat vf vg hf h fg hg sf sg
(°C) (kPa) (L/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K) (kJ/kg. K)
0.01 0.611 1.000 206.2 0.0 2501.6 2501.6 0 9.157
2 0.705 1.000 179.9 8.4 2496.8 2505.2 0.031 9.105
4 0.813 1.000 157.3 16.8 2402.1 2508.9 0.061 9.053
6 0.935 1.000 137.8 25.2 2487.4 2512.6 0.091 9.001
8 1.072 1.000 121.0 33.6 2482.6 2516.2 0.121 8.951
10 1.2276 1.000 106.4 42.0 2477.9 2519.9 0.151 8.902

12 1.401 1.000 93.8 50.4 2473.2 2522.6 0.180 8.854
14 1.597 1.001 82.9 58.8 2468.5 2527.2 0.210 0.806
16 1.817 1.001 73.4 67.1 2463.8 2530.9 0.239 8.759
18 2.062 1.001 65.1 75.5 2459.0 2534.5 0.268 8.713
20 2.34 1.002 57.8 83.9 2454.3 2538.2 80.296 8.668

22 2.64 1.002 51.5 92.2 2449.6 2541.8 0.325 8.624
24 2.98 1.003 45.9 100.6 2444.9 2545.5 0.353 8.581
(Contd)
Appendix B 903
904
tsat psat vf vg hf h fg hg sf s
(°C) (kPa) (L/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K) (kJ/kg. K)
25 3.17 1.003 43.4 104.8 2442.5 2547.3 0.367 8.559
26 3.36 1.003 41.4 108.9 2440.2 2349.1 0.381 8.538
28 3.78 1.004 36.7 117.3 2435.4 2552.7 0.409 8.496
30 4.246 1.004 32.9 125.7 2430.7 2556.4 0.437 8.455

32 4.75 1.005 29.6 134.0 2425.9 2560.0 0.464 8.414
34 5.32 1.006 26.6 142.4 2421.2 2563.6 0.491 8.374
36 5.94 1.006 24.0 150.7 2416.4 2567.2 0.518 8.335
38 6.62 1.007 21.6 159.1 2411.7 2570.8 0.545 8.296
40 7.384 1.008 19.55 167.5 2406.9 2574.4 0.572 8.258

42 8.20 1.009 17.69 175.8 2402.1 2577.9 0.599 8.221
44 9.10 1.009 16.04 184.2 2397.3 2581.5 0.625 8.184
46 10.09 1.010 14.56 192.5 2392.5 2585.1 0.651 8.148
48 11.16 1.011 13.23 200.9 2387.7 2588.6 0.678 8.113
50 12.349 1.012 12.05 209.3 2382.9 2592.2 0.704 8.078
*Haywood RW, Thermodynamic Tables in SI Units, Combridge University Press, 1960, p. 9.

Table B.21.2 Thermodynamic properties of saturated water and steam, pressures from triple point to 20 bar*
p t vf vg hf h fg hg sf sg
(kPa) (°C) (L/kg) (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg. K) (kJ/kg. K)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.611 0.01 1.000 206.2 +0.0 2501.6 2501.6 0.0 9.157
0.8 3.8 1.000 159.7 15.8 2492.6 2508.6 0.058 9.058
1.0 7.0 1.000 129.2 29.3 2485.0 2514.4 0.106 8.977
1.2 9.7 1.000 108.7 40.6 2478.7 2519.3 0.146 8.910
1.4 1.20 1.000 93.9 50.3 2473.2 2523.5 0.180 8.854
1.6 14.0 1.001 82.8 58.9 2468.4 2527.3 0.210 8.805
1.8 15.9 1.001 74.0 66.5 2464.1 2530.6 0.237 8.763
2.0 17.5 1.001 67.0 73.5 2460.2 2533.6 0.261 8.725

2.2 19.0 1.002 61.2 79.8 2456.6 2536.4 0.282 8.690
2.4 20.4 1.002 56.4 85.7 2453.3 2539.0 0.302 8.659
2.6 21.7 1.002 52.3 91.1 2450.2 2541.3 0.321 8.630
2.8 23.0 1.002 48.7 96.2 2447.3 2543.6 0.338 8.603
3.0 24.1 1.003 45.7 101.0 2444.6 2545.6 0.354 8.578

3.5 26.7 1.003 39.5 111.8 2438.5 2550.4 0.391 8.523
4.0 29.0 1.004 34.8 121.4 2433.1 2554.5 0.422 8.475
4.5 31.0 1.005 31.1 130.0 2428.2 2558.2 0.451 8.433
5.0 32.9 1.005 28.2 137.8 2423.8 2561.6 0.476 8.396
6 36.2 1.006 23.74 151.5 2416.0 2567.5 0.521 8.331
7 39.0 1.007 20.53 163.4 2409.2 2572.6 0.559 8.277
8 41.5 1.008 18.10 173.9 2403.2 2577.1 0.593 8.230
(Contd)
Appendix B 905
p t
906
vf vg hf h fg hg sf sg
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 43.8 1.009 16.20 183.3 2397.9 2581.1 0.622 8.188
10 45.8 1.010 14.67 191.8 2392.9 2584.8 0.649 8.151
11 47.7 1.011 13.42 199.7 2388.4 2588.1 0.674 8.118
12 49.4 1.012 12.36 206.9 2284.3 2591.2 0.696 8.087
13 51.1 1.013 11.47 213.7 2380.4 2594.0 0.717 8.087
14 52.6 1.013 10.69 220.0 2376.7 2596.7 0.737 8.033
15 54.0 1.014 10.02 226.0 2373.2 2599.2 0.755 8.009

16 55.3 1.015 9.43 231.6 2370.0 2601.6 0.772 7.987
17 56.6 1.015 8.91 236.9 2366.9 2603.8 0.788 7.966
18 57.8 1.016 8.45 242.0 2363.9 2605.9 0.804 7.946

19 59.0 1.017 8.03 246.8 2361.1 2607.9 0.818 7.927
20 60.1 1.017 7.65 251.5 2358.4 2609.9 0.832 7.909

22 62.2 1.018 7.00 260.1 2353.3 2613.5 0.858 7.876
24 64.1 1.019 6.45 268.2 2348.6 2616.8 0.882 7.846
26 65.9 1.020 5.98 275.7 2344.2 2619.9 0.904 7.819
28 67.5 1.021 5.58 282.7 2340.0 2622.7 0.925 7.793
(Contd)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
30 69.1 1.022 5.23 289.3 2336.1 2625.4 0.944 7.770
35 72.7 1.025 4.53 304.3 2327.2 2631.5 0.988 7.717
40 75.9 1.027 3.99 317.7 2319.2 2636.9 1.026 7.671
45 78.7 1.028 3.58 329.6 2312.0 2641.7 1.060 7.631
50 81.3 1.030 3.24 340.6 2305.4 2646.0 1.091 7.595
55 83.7 1.032 2.96 350.6 2299.3 2649.9 1.119 7.562

60 86.0 1.033 2.73 359.9 2293.6 2653.6 1.145 7.533
65 88.0 1.035 2.53 368.6 2288.3 2656.9 1.170 7.506
70 90.0 1.036 2.36 376.8 2283.3 2660.1 1.192 7.480
75 91.8 1.037 2.22 384.5 2278.6 2663.0 1.213 7.457
80 93.5 1.039 2.087 391.7 2274.1 2665.8 1.233 7.435

85 95.2 1.040 1.972 398.6 2269.8 2668.4 1.252 7.415
90 96.7 1.041 1.869 405.2 2265.6 2670.9 1.270 7.395
95 98.2 1.042 1.777 411.5 2261.7 2673.2 1.287 7.377
100 99.6 1.043 1.694 417.5 2257.9 2675.4 1.303 7.360
101 100.0 1.044 1.673 419.1 2256.9 2676.0 1.307 7.355

110 102.3 1.046 1.549 428.8 2250.8 2679.6 1.333 7.328
120 104.8 1.048 1.428 439.4 2244.1 2683.4 1.361 7.298
(Contd)
Appendix B 907
908
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
140 109.3 1.051 0.236 458.4 2231.9 2690.3 1.411 7.247
150 111.4 1.053 1.159 467.1 2226.2 2693.4 1.434 7.223
160 113.3 1.055 1.091 475.4 2220.9 2696.2 1.455 7.202

170 115.2 1.056 1.031 483.2 2215.7 2699.0 1.475 7.181
180 116.9 1.058 0.977 490.7 2210.8 2701.5 1.494 7.162
190 118.6 1.059 0.929 497.8 2206.1 2704.0 1.513 7.144
200 120.2 1.061 0.885 504.7 2201.6 2706.3 1.530 7.127
220 123.3 1.064 0.810 517.6 2193.0 2710.6 1.563 7.095

240 126.1 1.066 0.746 529.6 2184.9 2714.5 1.593 7.066

260 128.1 1.069 0.693 540.9 2177.3 2718.2 1.621 7.039
280 131.2 1.071 0.646 551.4 2170.1 2721.5 1.647 7.014
300 133.5 1.074 0.606 561.4 2163.2 2724.7 1.672 6.991
320 135.8 1.076 0.570 570.9 2156.7 2727.6 1.695 6.969

340 137.9 1.078 0.538 579.9 2150.4 2730.3 1.717 6.949
360 139.9 1.080 0.510 588.5 2144.4 2732.4 1.738 6.930
380 141.8 1.082 0.485 596.8 2138.6 2753.4 1.757 6.912
400 143.6 1.084 0.462 604.7 2133.0 2737.6 1.776 6.894
(Contd)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
420 145.4 1.086 0.442 612.3 2127.5 2739.8 1.795 6.878
440 147.1 1.088 0.423 619.6 2122.3 2741.9 1.812 6.862
460 148.7 1.089 0.405 626.7 2117.2 2743.9 1.829 6.847
480 150.3 1.091 0.389 633.5 2112.2 2745.7 1.845 6.833
500 151.8 1.093 0.375 640.1 2107.4 2747.5 1.860 6.819
550 155.5 1.097 0.342 655.8 2095.9 2751.7 1.897 6.787

600 158.8 1.101 0.315 670.4 2085.0 2755.5 1.931 6.758
650 162.0 1.105 0.292 684.1 2074.7 2750.9 1.962 6.730
700 165.0 1.108 0.273 697.1 2064.9 2762.0 1.902 6.705
750 167.8 1.112 0.2554 709.3 2055.5 2764.8 2.020 6.682
800 170.4 1.1115 0.2403 720.9 2046.5 2767.5 2.046 6.660

850 172.9 1.1118 0.2268 732.0 2037.9 2769.9 2.071 6.639
900 175.4 1.1121 0.2148 742.6 2029.5 2772.1 2.094 6.619
950 177.7 1.1124 0.2040 752.8 2021.4 2774.2 2.117 6.601
1000 179.9 1.1127 0.1943 762.6 2013.6 2776.2 2.138 6.583
(Contd)
Appendix B 909
910
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1050 182.01 1.1130 0.1855 772.0 2005.9 2778.0 2.159 6.566
1100 184.1 1.1133 0.1774 781.1 1998.5 2779.7 2.179 6.550
1150 186.0 1.1136 0.1700 789.9 1991.3 2781.3 21.98 6.534
1200 188.0 1.1139 0.1632 798.4 1984.3 2782.7 2.216 6.519
1250 189.8 1.1141 0.1569 806.7 1977.4 2784.1 2.234 6.505
1300 191.6 1.1144 0.1511 814.7 1970.7 2785.4 2.251 6.491

1400 195.0 1.1149 0.1407 830.1 1957.7 2787.8 2.284 6.465
1500 198.3 1.1154 0.1317 844.7 1945.2 2789.9 2.314 6.441

1600 201.4 1.1159 0.1237 858.6 1933.2 2791.7 2.344 6.418
1700 204.3 1.1163 0.1166 871.8 1921.5 2793.4 2.371 6.396

1800 207.1 1.1168 0.1103 884.6 1910.3 2794.8 2.398 6.375
1900 209.8 1.1175 0.1047 896.8 1899.3 2796.1 2.423 6.355
2000 212.4 1.1177 0.0995 908.6 1888.6 2797.2 2.447 6.337
* Haywood R W, Thermodynamic Tables in S.I. Units, Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–13.
Table B.21.3 Enthalpy (in kJ/kg) and entropy (in kJ/kg. K) of superheated steam*
Pressure, bar
Tempe- 0 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 20
rature h s h s h s h s h s h s h s
50 2595 2593 8.176
75 2642 2640 8.317
100 2689 2688 8.449 2683 7.695 2676 7.362
125 2736 2735 8.572 2731 7.822 2726 7.492
150 2784 2783 8.689 2780 7.941 2776 7.614
175 2832 2831 8.799 2829 8.053 2826 7.720 2800 6.947
Infinite
200 2880 2880 8.905 2878 8.159 2875 7.835 2855 7.059 2827 6.692
225 2929 2928 9.005 2927 8.260 2925 7.937 2909 7.169 2886 6.815 2834 6.412
250 2978 2977 9.101 2976 8.356 2975 8.034 2961 7.272 2943 6.926 2902 6.545
275 3027 3027 9.193 3026 8.449 3024 8.127 3013 7.369 2998 7.029 2965 6.663
300 3077 3077 9.282 3076 8.538 3074 8.217 3065 7.461 3052 7.125 3025 6.770
* Haywood R W, Thermodynamic Tables in S.I. Units, Cambridge University Press, 1968, pp. 16–17.
Appendix B 911
Table B.21.4 Water vapour pressure (1 mmHg = 133 Pa)
tsat psat tsat p sat

(°C) (mm Hg) (°C) (mm Hg)
– 50 0.02955 0 4.579
– 48 0.0378 1 5.29
– 46 0.0481 2 4.93
– 44 0.0609 3 5.69
– 42 0.0768 4 6.10
– 40 0.0966 5 6.54
– 38 0.1209 6 7.01
– 36 0.1507 7 7.51
– 34 0.1873 8 8.05
– 32 0.23188 9 8.61
– 30 0.2859 10 9.21
– 29 0.317 11 9.84
– 28 0.351 12 10.52
– 27 0.389 13 11.23
– 26 0.430 14 11.99
– 25 0.476 15 12.79
– 24 0.526 16 13.63
– 23 0.580 17 14.53
– 22 0.640 18 15.48
– 21 0.705 19 16.48
– 20 0.747 20 17.54
– 19 0.852 21 18.65
– 18 0.937 22 19.83
– 17 1.029 23 24.07
– 16 1.130 24 22.38
– 15 1.239 25 23.76
– 14 1.359 26 25.21
– 13 1.488 27 26.74
– 12 1.629 28 28.35
– 11 1.783 29 30.40
– 10 1.948 30 31.82
–9 2.128 31 33.70
–8 2.329 32 35.66
–7 2.535 33 37.73
–6 2.763 34 39.90
(Contd)
Appendix B 913
tsat p sat tsat psat

(°C) (mm Hg) (°C) (mm Hg)
–5 3.011 35 42.18
–4 3.278 36 44.56
–3 3.567 37 47.07
–2 3.380 38 49.69
–1 4.217 39 52.44
0 4.579 40 55.32
41 58.34 71 243.9
42 61.50 72 254.6
43 64.80 73 265.7
44 68.26 74 277.2
45 71.88 75 289.1
46 75.65 76 301.4
47 79.60 77 314.1
48 83.71 78 327.3
49 88.02 79 341.0
50 92.51 80 355.1
51 97.20 81 396.7
52 102.1 82 384.9
53 107.2 83 400.6
54 112.5 84 416.8
55 118.0 85 433.6
56 123.8 86 450.9
57 129.8 87 468.7
58 136.1 88 487.1
59 142.6 89 506.1
60 149.4 90 525.8
61 156.4 91 546.1
62 163.8 92 567.0
63 171.4 93 588.6
64 179.3 94 610.9
65 187.5 95 633.9
66 196.1 96 657.6
67 205.0 97 682.1
68 214.2 98 707.3
70 233.7 100 760.0
914
B.22 OUTDOORS DESIGN DATA*
Place Summer Monsoon Winter Latitude

DBT WBT RH DBT WBT RH DBT WBT RH
Bombay 35 28.3 60 29.4 27.8 88 18.3 14.4 65 18.54
Calcutta 37.8 28.3 49 32.2 30.0 85 13.3 89 55 22.32
Delhi 43.3 23.9 20 35.0 28.3 60 7.2 5.0 70 28.35
Guwahati 32.3 25.7 59 31.7 27.8 78 11.1 8.3 69 26.11
Kanpur 42.8 25.0 23 36.1 28.9 58 7.2 5.6 80 26.26
Madras 39.4 27.8 41 28.3 26.7 88 18.3 13.9 60 13.04
*Temperatures in °C, relative humidity in per cent and latitude in degrees.
Appendix B 915
B.23 THE ERROR FUNCTION*
D erf D D erf D D erf D

0.00 0.00000 0.76 0.71754 1.52 0.96841
0.02 0.02256 0.78 0.73001 1.54 0.97059
0.04 0.04511 0.80 0.74210 1.56 0.97263
0.06 0.06762 0.82 0.75381 1.58 0.97455
0.08 0.09008 0.84 0.76514 1.60 0.97635
0.10 0.11246 0.86 0.77610 1.62 0.97804
0.12 0.13476 0.88 0.78669 1.64 0.97962
0.14 0.15695 0.90 0.79691 1.66 0.98110
0.16 0.17901 0.92 0.80677 1.68 0.98249
0.18 0.20094 0.94 0.81627 1.70 0.98379
0.20 0.22270 0.96 0.82542 1.72 0.98500
0.22 0.24430 0.98 0.83423 1.74 0.98613
0.24 0.26570 1.00 0.84270 1.76 0.98719
0.26 0.28690 1.02 0.85084 1.78 0.98817
0.28 0.30788 1.04 0.85865 1.80 0.98909
0.30 0.32863 1.06 0.86614 1.82 0.98994
0.32 0.34913 1.08 0.87333 1.84 0.99074
0.34 0.36936 1.10 0.88020 1.86 0.99147
0.36 0.38933 1.12 0.88079 1.88 0.99216
0.38 0.40901 1.14 0.89308 1.90 0.99279
0.40 0.42809 1.16 0.89910 1.92 0.99338
0.42 0.44749 1.18 0.90484 1.94 0.99392
0.44 0.46622 1.20 0.91031 1.96 0.99443
0.46 0.48466 1.22 0.91553 1.98 0.99489
0.48 0.50272 1.24 0.92050 2.00 0.995322
0.50 0.52050 1.26 0.92524 2.10 0.997020
0.52 0.53790 1.28 0.92973 2.20 0.98137
0.54 0.55494 1.30 0.93401 2.30 0.998857
0.56 0.57162 1.32 0.93806 2.40 0.999311
0.58 0.58792 1.34 0.94191 2.50 0.999593
0.60 0.60386 1.36 0.94656 2.60 0.999764
0.62 0.61941 1.38 0.94902 2.70 0.999866
0.64 0.63459 1.40 0.95228 2.80 0.999925
0.66 0.64938 1.42 0.95638 2.90 0.999959
0.68 0.66278 1.44 0.95830 3.00 0.999978
0.70 0.67780 1.46 0.96105 3.20 0.999994
0.72 0.69143 1.48 0.96365 3.40 0.999998
0.74 0.70468 1.50 0.96610 3.60 1.000000
* Boelter L M K, V H Cherry, H A Johnson, and R C Martinelli, Heat-transfer

Notes, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, California, 1948.
B.24 CONVERSION TABLES
Lengths Masses
(m) (ft) (kg) (lb)
1 3.2808 1 2.2046226
0.3048 1 0.45359237 1
Areas/Surfaces Densities
(m2) (ft2) (kg/m3) (lb/ft3)

1 10.764 1 0.062428
0.092903 1 16.02 1
Volumes Forces
(L) (m3) (ft 3 ) (US Gallons) (N) (kgf) (lbf)
1000 1 35.3 264.2 1 0.102 0.22481
0.0283 1 7.484 9.80665 1 2.20462
3.785 0.003785 0.1336 1 4.448 0.4536 1
Pressures
(bar) (ata) (atm) (torr) (m H2O)
FG kgf IJ FG lb IJ
H cm K H in K
f
2 2 or (mm Hg)
1 1.02 14.5 0.987 750 10.2

0.9807 1 14.22 0.968 736 10.0
0.0689 0.0703 1 0.068 51.7 0.703
0.01325 1.033 14.7 1 760 10.33
0.00133 0.00136 0.01934 0.001316 1 0.0136
Velocities Flow Rates

3
m ft 3 Gal
(m/s) (ft/min) (L/s) (m3/s) , cmm , cfm , gpm
min min min
1 196.9 1 0.06 2.1
0.00508 1 16.67 1 35.3
0.472 0.0283 1
1000 1 60 2119 15,850
Kinematic Viscosities
Dynamic Viscosities and Diffusivities
FG Ns IJ FG kg IJ F lb h I FG lbmIJ Fm I 2 F ft I
2
(Pa s) or
Hm K
2 or
H msK H ft K
f
2
H f ts K (cP) GH s JK GH s JK (cS)
1 5.8016 ´ 10–6 0.672 1,000 1 10.76 106

0.0929 1
1.488 1
(Contd)
Appendix B 917
FG dynesIJ = FG1 g IJ = FG 0.1 kg IJ 1 St (stoke) F cm I

2
1P (poise) = 1
H cm K H cm sK H m sK
2
=1 GH s JK
F m2 I
GH
= 10–4
s JK
Power
(kW) (Btu/h) (hp)
1 3,412 1.341
Energies
FG Horsepower hours IJ
(J) or (N m) (kgf m)
or (W s)
(ft lbf) (kW h)
H Metric Imperial K (kcal) (Btu)
1 0.102 0.738 0.05278 0.06378 0.06372 0.03239 0.03948

9.80665 1 7.23 0.05272 0.0537 0.05365 0.0234 0.02929
1.356 0.1383 1 0.06377 0.06512 0.06505 0.03324 0.021285
3.6 ´ 106 0.67 ´ 105 2.66 ´ 106 1 1.36 1.341 860 3412
2.65 ´ 105 2.7 ´ 105 1.953 ´ 106 0.736 1 9.986 632 2510
2.68 ´ 106 2.74 ´ 105 1.98 ´ 106 0.746 10.14 1 641 2540
41 427 3090 0.021163 0.021581 0.02156 1 3.97
1055 107.6 778 0.03293 0.0398 0.0393 0.252 1
Enthalpies Heat Transfer Coefficients
FG kJ IJ FG kcal IJ FG Btu IJ F W I F k cal I F Btu I

H kgK H kg K H lb K GH m K JK
2 GH m h° C JK GH f t hr ° F JK
2 2
1 0.239 0.42993 1 0.86 0.17612

4.1868 1 1.8 1.163 1 0.205
2.326 0.556 1 5.68 4.88 1
Entropies and Specific Heats Heat Radiation
FG kJ IJ FG kcal IJ FG Btu IJ F W I F k cal I F Btu I

H kg K K H kg ° CK H lb ° FK GH m K JK GH m h K JK GH f t hr ° F JK
2 4 2 4 2
1 0.2389 0.2389 1 0.86 0.0302

4.1868 1 1 1.163 1 0.0350
4.1868 1 1 33.1 28.5 1
Thermal Conductivities
F W I F k cal I F Btu I F Btu-in I
GH m K JK GH m h ° C JK GH f t hr ° FJK
– GH f t hr ° F JK
2
1 0.86 0.57 6.934

1.163 1 0.671
1.73 1.488 1
90 0.6
80 20 0.5
0.4
70 15
0.3
60 3
10 m
kg
50 8.0 0.2
t = 40 °C 6.0
190
200
170
30
160
150
140
130
ur
4.0 0.1
120
110
90
100
J = 180 °C
80
0.09
70
60
a po
50
40
0.08
30
20 3.0
dv
0.07
0.6
0.9
ra te
0.5
0.06
0.8
0.7
t u
2.0
a
10 0.05 Vapour Pressure, MPa
S
)
1.5 0.04
g/k
/(k
0
kJ
0.03
5
0
0
5
0
0
0
5
5
5
0
1.0
1.9
2.0
1.6
1.7
140
1.6
1.8
1.8
1.35
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.5
2.0
1.5
0.80
s=
–10°C 0.02
.10 0.60
2
–20
0.01
300 350 400 450 500 550
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Appendix C-1: Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 123
kg
r = 50 2
m3
60
50 40
40 30
1
30 20 0.8
20 0.6
15
10
10 0.4
0 8.0 0.3
Vapour Pressure, MPa

t = –10°C 6.0
0.2
180
170
150
160
140
130
120
110
100
4.0 kg
90
80
70
(–20)
60
50
m3
40
30
ur
20
10
3.0
Vapo
0
0.1
(–30) 0.08
2.0
rated
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.06
1.5
Satu
(–40)
0.04
1.0
)
gK
(–50) 0.80
/(k
J
1.70
1.60
1.80
2.10
1.40
1.90
0k
1.50
0.60
2.00
2.3
2.2
0.02
s=
0
(–60)
2.4
0.40
0.01
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Enthalpy
Appendix C-2: Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram for Refrigerant 134a
390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490
20 20
50°
0.02
40°
v in m3/kg
h in kJ/kg
74
s in kJ/kg K
1.
30°
76
1.
78
10 10
1.
20°
ur
9 0.04 9
apo
80
1.
8 8
ed v
82
0.05
1.
urat
7 7
10°
84
Sat
0.06
1.
6 6
0.07
86
Pressure, bar
1.
5 5
0°C 0.08
88
0.09
1.
4 4
=
s
0.1
90
- 10°
1.
92
3 3
1.
94
- 20° 0.15
1.
96
2 2
1.
v = 0.2 m3/kg
8
2. 1.9
- 30°
02
00
04
06
08
2.
2.
10
2.
2.
12
14
2.
2.
2.
- 30° - 20° - 10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120°
16
2.
1 1
390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Appendix C-3: Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram of R 22 Vapour

1400 1420 1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 1680 1700 1720 1740
20 20
50° 0.07 0.1
0.08
0.09 0.125
40° 5.3
5.4
0.15
30° 5.5
0.175
r
pou
10 5.6 10
0.2
d va
9 9
20° 5.7
gK
rate
8 8
.8 kJ/k 0.25
=5
Satu
7 s 7
10° 0.3
6 5.9 6
0.35
5 6.0 0.4 5
0°C 6.1 0.5

4 4
Pressure, bar
6.2 0.6
3 –10° 6.3 3
0.7
0.8
6.4
0.9
2 6.5 1.0 2
–20°
5 m /kg
6.6 3
v = 1.2
6.7 1.5
9
6.
8
–30° 7.0
6.
1.75
–30° –20°C –10°C 0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
1 7.1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 7.2 7.3 0.8
– 40° 2.25
0.7 0.7
1400 1420 1440 1460 1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620 1640 1660 1680 1700 1720 1740
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Appendix C-4: Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R 717 (Ammonia) Vapour

370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440
2.4 2.4
50°
0.1
70
2.0 2.0
72
1.
74
76
1.
40°
1.
1.
0.15
78
1.
80
30°
1.
ur
0.2
po
1.0 1.0
Va
0.9
Pressure , bar
5
d
20°
1.8
te
0.8 0.8
ra
tu
m3/kg
Sa
0.7 v = 0.3
0.6 0.6
10°C
0.4
0.5 0.5
4
1.8
0.5
0.4 0° 0.4
10 °C 20 30 40 70 80
50 0.6
60 90
0.3 0.7 0.3
0°C
–10° 0.8
–10 0.9
1.0
0.2 0.2
370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Appendix C-5: Pressure Enthalpy Diagram of R11 Vapour

3 5
4
31.05 6 73.8
3.0 72.1
Volume, m3/kg 7
25 Entropy, KJ/kg °C 64.4
120
110
Pressure, bar 8
100
20 57.3
90
9
80
15 2 10 50.8
70
60
3 /kg
50
10 3 45.0
dm 12
40
4 4
30
SATURATION TEMPERATURE, °C
5 5 14 39.7
20
10
0
0 6 16 34.8
18
–5 8 30.4
20
Pressure, bar
–10 10 26.5
25
–15 22.9
30
–20 15 19.7
20 40 16.8
–30 50 14.3
30 70
12.0
–40 10.0
–50 100
–56.6 5.18
40
150
20
–20
0
–60 4.1
–40
200
–60
–70 1.981
–80 500 0.892
–90 0.373
–280 –240 –200 –160 –120 –80 –40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440
h, k J/kg
Appendix C-6: Pressure Enthalpy Diagram for CO2
30
10
0 28
30
0.9
4
26
90
30
24
0.9
80
2V
OL
22
UME
da
g
CU
/k
kJ
BIC
70 25
h,
°C
20
ME
Y
E
LP
TR
U
A
AT
E
TH
PE
R
EN
PE
25
%
RK
90
WE 18
M
60 T-B
ILO
TE
UL
0.9
BT
GR
N
EM
%
IO
PE
A
80
RA
AT
TU MD
RE 16
R
RY
TU
°C
%
SA
A
50 20
70
IR
14
%
60
0.8
20
8
40
%
12
50
15
%
30 40 10
0.8
15
6
%
10 30 8
20
0.8
10
4
6
5 20%
0.8
5
2
4
IDITY
LATIV E HUM
0.8
0 0% RE
0
0.7
2
8
0 10 20 30 40 50
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE, °C
ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, 2005
Appendix C-7: Psychrometric Chart

120 200
110 150
100 100
° C 90
e,
ur 0°
r at 50
pe 80 3%
em
tT 4% 40
a n
er
rig 70 5%
Saturation pressure, kPa
ef 30
R
60 20
6%
50
7%
10
40
30 5
4
3
20 e
on
nz 2
atio
liz
10 ysta
Cr 1
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Solution Temperature, °C
Appendix C-8: lnp-1/T Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions

500
180
170
160
450
150
140
130
400
120
110
250
100°C
90
300
Enthalpy, kJ/kg Solution
80
350
70
60
200
50
150
40
Crystalization zone
100 30
20
50
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Lithium Bromide Concentration, Mass Per cent
Appendix C-9: Enthalpy Concentration Diagram for H2O-LiBr2 Solutions

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2700 2700
Appendix C-10:
ENHELPY-COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
2600 FOR 2600
Nh3 - H2O SYSTEM
2500 2500
Superheated vapour
2400 2400
Co
nde
nsa
tion 20
line 15
10
2300 6 2300
4
2
1
0.4
0.2
2200 0.1 2200
2100 2100
Au
xil
2000 iar 2000
yl
ine
1900 1900
Br
1800 1800
20
15
10
1700 1700
6
1600 2 1600
1
0.4
1500 1500
0.2
0.1
1400 1400
Enthalps h, kj/kg
1300 1300
1100 1100
1000 1000
900 900
200°
800 800
190°
180°
700 700
170°
160°
600 600
150°
140°
500 60° 500
130°
120°
400 110° 400

20 100° 70°
80°
18 90°
16
300 300
14
12
10
200 200
8
7
6
100 5 100
3.5
2.5
1.8
0 0
1.4
1.0
10° 0.8
-100 -100
0.6
20° 0.4
0.2
-200 30° -200
0.0
40°
-300 -300
50°
60°
-400 -400
70°
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Concentration of Ammonia
Appendix C-10: Enthalpy Composition Diagram for NH3–H2O System
Index
A Axial-Flow Fans 752
azeotrope 191
Absorption-System Calculations 414 Azeotropic Mixtures 191
absorptivity 547 azimuth angle 537
Action of Refrigerant with Water 148
Action with Oil 148
B
Actual
gas cycle 370 Badylkes theory of thermodynamic
refrigeration systems 85 similarity12 141
vapour compression cycle 114 Bernoulli’s equation 706
vapour-absorption cycle 411 Beverage Processing 798
Actuating Elements 771 Biot number 53, 587, 811
Adiabatic Blow 697
demagnetization 21 Blow-through System 626
efficiency 241 boiling/condensation temperature 14
saturation 487, 665 Bootstrap System 378
Air Brines 208
curtains 744 bubble temperature 176
horsepower 729 Bulb-and-Bellow Elements 768
locks 744 Bypass
spaces 577 control 783
washer 486 factor 482, 638
washers 683
Air-blast freezers 800
C
Air-Conditioning Apparatus 640
Air-Conditioning Processes 474 Calorimetric Method of Measuring
air-conditioning system 493, 696 Refrigerating Cap 252
Air-duct design 729 Candy Manufacture 798
Air-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient 671 capacitor-start-capacitor-run motor 778
aircraft refrigeration 371 Capacitor-start-Induction-run 777
All Outdoor Air Application 649 capacitor-start-induction-run motor 777
Alternatives to R 11 274 Capacity Control of Centrifugal
altitude angle 537 Compressors 270
Amagat Law 449 Capacity Control of Reciprocating
Ammonia Ice Plant 96 Compressors 253
Analogy between Heat and Mass Capillary Tube 311
Transfer 59 Carnot Principle 71
Apparatus Dew Point 639 Carrier equation 463
apparatus dew point of the coil 484 Cascade Systems 226
Appliances Load 623 Central
Atmospheric Cooling Tower 692 standard 542
Augmentation of Boiling Heat standard time 542
Transfer 334 Centrifugal
Augmentation of Condensing Heat-Transfer compressors 260
Coefficient 294 fans 748
automatic-expansion valve 304 Charging the Refrigerant 361
Index 919
Clapeyron Equation 26 Dehydro-freezing 801

Claude Process 387 Dephlegmator 407
Clausius Statement 66 Design of
Clausius–Clapeyron equation 137 direct-expansion chiller 327
Clean Rooms 742 flooded chiller 338
Clean Spaces 528 forced convection air-cooled
Coefficients of Performance 68, 146 Condenser 298
Coil Equipment 662, 668 heat exchangers 55
Colburn Analogy 58 shell and tube condenser 295
Colburn j-factor 58 Designation of Refrigerants 129
Cold Detecting Elements 767
storage 514 Dew Point Temperature 453
storage design 802 dew temperature 176
Storage Psychrometrics 804 Dielectric Strength 151
Colebrook-White relation 710 diffuse or sky radiation 532
Comfort diffusion coefficient 57, 663, 672
air conditioning 516 Direct Gain 611
chart 518 direct or beam radiation 532
Complete Vapour Compression Dittus-Boelter equation 54, 292
System 349 Domestic Refrigerator 3
Compound Compression 214 Draft 697
compressibility 24 Draw-through System 626
condensation number 290 Drop 697
Condensers 286 Dry Air Rated Temperature 377
Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient 289 dry compression 88
Contact plate freezers 800 Dry ice 228
continuous belt air-blast freezer 816 Drying rate 832
controlled atmosphere (CA) Duct friction chart 711, 712
storage 801 dynamic loss 709
Cooling and Dehumidification 664
Cooling and Dehumidifying E
Coils 331, 483
Cooling and Heating of Foods 810 Earth-Sun Angles 535
Cooling and Humidification 665 Effect of
Cooling Load 599 condenser pressure 106
Cooling load estimate 628 evaporator pressure 104
Critical Loading Conditions 526 liquid subcooling 108
critical point 16 operating temperatures 73
Cross-Charged Expansion Valves 309 suction vapour superheat 107
Cut-outs 780 Effective
room latent heat 629
room sensible heat 628
D
sensible heat factor 627, 639
D – X Coil Design 680 surface temperature 666
D’ Arcy’s formula 709 temperature 516
D-X Chiller Capacity (Simulation) 341 Ejector-Compression System 437
Dalton’s Law 448 Electrical Analogy 39
Decrement Factor 584, 594 Electrical Disturbances 782
Degree of Saturation 455 Electrolux Refrigerator 431
degree-day 521 Energy
Dehumidified Air Quantity 639 balance line 684
920 Index
conservation 653 Fouling Factor 292

ratios 68 Fourier Law 36
Enthalpy Calculations 28 Fourier number 53, 810
Enthalpy of Moist Air 456 Free Convection Correlation 55
Enthalpy Potential6 663 Freeze drying 17, 825
Enthalpy-Composition Diagram 177 Freeze-condenser 17
Entrainment Ratio 698 Freezing in Air 821
Entropy Calculations 33 Freezing of Foods 814
Entropy of Mixture 190 Freezing Time 818
Equation of State 23 friction loss 709
equation of time 538 friction rate 711
Equivalent Temperature Differential 599 Fritzsche’s formula 711
Eutectic Plates 807
Evaporative Cooling 651 G
Evaporators 319
Ewing’s Construction 99 Gas constant 24
exfiltration 606 Gas Cycle 367
Expansion Devices 303 General data of refrigerants 138
Extended Surface Evaporators 329 geometric factors 39
External Equilizer 307 Gibbs’ Theorem 450
Global Warming Potential 153
Glycols 210
F
grand total heat 629
Fabric Heat Gain 574 Grand Total Load 629
Face and Bypass Dampers 783 Grimson’s equation 292
Fade-Out Point 309 Gurnie-Lurie chart 811
Fan
arrangements 759 H
characteristics 747
static pressure, FSP 729 Head coefficient 750
total pressure 708 Heat balance (HB) Method 629
velocity pressure 729 Heat
system interaction 754 capacity 152
Fanning equation 709 drying 834
Fanno line 441 exchanger 49
Film coefficient 38 gain through glass 547
Filters 741 of respiration 624
fin efficiency 51 pump 67, 121
Finite Difference Approximation 584 rejection Ratio 286
First Law of Thermodynamics 9 transfer coefficient 38
Flammability 147 transfer coefficient for nucleate pool
flash chamber 215 boiling 323
Flash Gas Removal 214 Transfer from extended surface 49
flash intercooling 214 Transfer in Condensers 288
flashing 18 pipe 656
Flat-plate Solar Collector 568 Heating and Humidification 666
Flow coefficient 750 Heating Load Estimate 629
Flow or Forced-Convection Boiling 324 Hermetically-sealed Units 779
Flow through the impeller 262 HFC Blends 178
Forced Convection Boiling Correlations 325 Horsepower per Ton 146
Forced Convection Correlations 54 hour angle 535
Index 921
Humid Specific Heat 458 M

Humidifying Efficiency 685
Maintenance of vapour compression
Humidity Ratio 452
systems 3359
Marine Refrigeration 809
I Martin-Hou equation 25
Ice Manufacture 824 Mass Transfer 57
ice-bank type water chiller 802 Mass transfer coefficient 57
Ice-Making Time 120 Mass Transfer Coefficient of Water Vapour
Ideal Mixtures 180 in Air 60
Immersion freezers 800 Mass-transfer Coefficient 672
In psat versus 1/Tsat diagram of refriger- Mathematical Modelling 353
ants 142 maximum boiling azeotrope 191
Indirect Gain 612 mine air conditioning and
Individual Quick Freezing 800 ventilation 845
Induction minimum-boiling 191
Ratio 698 Mixed Refrigerants 174
System 789 Modifications to simple vapour-absorption
Industrial Air Conditioning 516 system 406
Infiltration 606 Modified Plank’s Equation 822
influence coefficients 591 modulating control unit 774
inside design conditions 514 moist air 447
Internal Heat Gains 622 Mollier diagram of centrifugal stage 261
inversion curve 385 Multi-Evaporator Systems 222
Isentropic Discharge Temperatures 93, 146 Multistage Compression System 218
Isothermal Efficiency 241
N
J Nergy ratios 68
Joule–Thomson coefficient 20, 385 Newton–Raphson Method 355
Newton’s Law 37
K Non-flow Processes 11
Non-ideal Mixtures 182
Kelvin-Planck statement 66 Non-Isothermal Refrigeration 195
normal boiling point 22
L Nusselt number 54
Latent
heat 479 O
heat balance 494 Occupancy Load 622
heat transfer 662 of incidence 543
latent-heat load 479 Operating pressures of refrigerants 144
Latitude angle 535 Optimal Design of Evaporator 358
Leak Tendency 153 Outside Design Conditions 521
Lewis Number 58 Overall
Lighting Load 623 heat transfer coefficient 47
Limitations of Reversed Carnot Cycle 84 heat-transmission coefficient 574
Linde–Hampson Process 386 Ozone Depletion Potential 153
Local solar time 542
Lockhart-Martinelli parameter 326 P
Log Mean Temperature Difference 56
Lubricants in Refrigeration Systems 207 Passive heating and cooling 611
922 Index
Peltier effect 20 real gas 24

Peng-Robinson (P-R) equation 25 reciprocity relation 39
Performance Characteristics of Recirculation type evaporators 336
Reciprocating com 248 Redlich-Kwong 24
Performance Characteristics of a Centrifugal Reduced ambient system 380
Compre 268 Reference State Enthalpy 32
Performance Characteristics of the Reference State Entropy 34
Condensing Unit 349 reflectivity 547
Performance Coefficient 688 Refrigerant
Periodic heat transfer 581 charge 93
permanent-capacitor motor 778 piping 201
Permeabilities 616 absorbent systems 405
permeance coefficient 616 Refrigerating Machine 64, 67
phase diagrams 14 Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Philips liquefier 392 control 766
Plant Maintenance 657 Reheat Control 788
Plant Selection 656 Relative Humidity 456
Polytropic Efficiency 264 relay 772
Pool Boiling 322 Resistances in
Prandtl number 54 parallel 41
Pressure 706 series 40
Drop in Evaporators 340 Reversed brayton or joule or bell coleman
Ratio Developed in a Centrifugal cycle 367
Stage 265 Reversed
Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram of a carnot cycle 72
Mixture 177 stirling cycle 389
Pressure–EnthalpyDiagram 92 Reynolds
primary air 698 analogy 58
Principal Dimensions of A Reciprocating number 54
Compressor 247 Room
Process Load 625 air conditioner 2
Product Load 624 air distribution 697
Property Relations 27 latent heat 629
Psychrometric load 628
Calculations for Cooling 635 Sensible Heat 628
Chart 464 total heat 629
Properties 452 Rotary compressors 256
Pull-Down Characteristic 120
Pump-down Cycle 781 S
Pumping Down 364
Saturated
discharge temperature 92
Q
suction temperature 92
Quantities of refrigerants charged 164 Saturation Pressure Versus Saturation
Temperature 22
R Schmidt
number 58
Radiation coefficient 39 plot 586, 813
Ranque–Hilsch Tube 383 Screw Compressors 257
Raoult’s law pressure 180 Scroll Compressors 259
Rayleigh line 441 Second Law Efficiency 122
Index 923
Second Law of Thermodynamics 11 station air conditioning 844

Secondary steady-flow energy equation 10
air 698 Steady-Flow Processes 12
refrigerants 208 Steady-State Conduction 42
Selection of a Refrigerant 136 Steam Injection 491
Selection of Operating Temperatures 74 steam-ejector system 437
Sensible Stefan-Boltzman constant 39
heat 17, 478 Stefan-Boltzman law 39
heat Balance 494 Storage conditions 515
heat factor 480 subcooled liquid 16
heat load 478 sublimation/ablimation temperature 14
heat transfer 662 Substitutes for
Shaded-pole motor 779 CFC 11 169
Shading 551 CFC 12 157
Shading Device 555 CFC R 502 171
shape factor 578 CFC Refrigerants 154
Sherwood number 59 HCFC 22 170
Significance of Normal Boiling Point 137 Suction State for Maximum COP 101
Simple Suction vapour volumes of
cooling 664 refrigerants 145
fan-system network 757 Summer air conditioning 497
humidification 665 sun’s declination 535
saturation cycle 92 Supercritical vapour compression cycle with
vapour compression system 65 CO2 172
Simulation of Flooded Chiller 331 superheated vapour 16
Single-phase Induction 776 supply design conditions 522
Slipcevic Correlations 337 Surface Conductance 38, 575
sol-air temperature 582 Surface heat transfer coefficients 577
solar constant 531 Surface Tension 152
solar heat-gain factor 555 Surging 269
solar radiation 530 synchronous speed 775
Solid Carbon Dioxide1,6 228 System
Solubility behaviour of a refrigerant and characteristics 753
oil 148 heat gains 625
Specific Humidity 452 practices 233
Split-phase 776 simulation 354
Spray Equipment 683
Sprayed Coil 686 T
Spread 698
spring-return motor 772 Temperature Difference (CLTD)
Stack Effect 606 Method 599
Standard temperature of adiabatic saturation 461
rating cycle 103 temperature potential 662
rating cycle for domestic Temperature-Composition Diagram 175
refrigerator 118 The Metabolic Rate 519
standing pressure 143 Thermal
Stanton number 58 conductivity 36, 151
Starting Torques of Motors 163 diffusivity 53
Static overload protection 780
pressure 706 radiation 39
regain 721 storage 656
924 Index
Thermodynamic State 13 compression system calculations 91

Thermoelectric Cooling 20 mixture enthalpy calculation 189
Thermophysical Properties 576 pressure curve 22
Thermostatic-expansion Valve 305 pressure potential 662
Three-phase Induction Motors 775 Vapour-Absorption System 402
Throttling 20 velocity pressure 706
Throttling Process 13 Ventilation
Throw 697 air 518
Time Lag 584, 594 load 627
total air 698 Viscosity 151
total pressure 706 Volume Control 789
Toxicity 147 Volume of Suction Vapour 144
transmissivity 547 Volumetric Efficiency 242
Transport Refrigeration 806 Vortex tube 383
triple point 16
Trouton number 141 W
tunnels ventilation 843
two-phase motor 773 Wall solar azimuth angle 543
Types of washer equipment 662
condensers 286 Water Injection 490
evaporators 319 Water vapour transfer 614
Water-lithium bromide absorption
chiller 424
U
Wet
Unit of bulb depression 460
energy 6 bulb temperature 459
enthalpy 7 bulb thermometer 460
force 5 compression 87
power 6 Wetted surface 662
pressure 5 Wilson’s Plot 300
refrigerating capacity 7 Wind pressure 606, 707
Unit power consumption 93 Winter air conditioning 508
Units of Entropy and Specific Heat 7 Work in Centrifugal Compressor 238
Unsteady-State Conduction 53 Work in Reciprocating Compressor 236
Using Liquid–Vapour Regenerative Heat
Exchanger 109 Y
Year-round A/C System 792
V
Vapour-Absorption 402 Z
Vapour
absorptioncycle on ln p – Diagram 419 Zenith angle 537
barriers 618 Zero-pressure Constant Volume and
compression Cycle 89 Zero-pressure 24

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REFRIGERATION

C P Arora was formerly Professor, Department of

Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Managing Director: Ajay Shukla

General Manager : Marketing—Higher Education & School: Michael J Cruz

Controller—Production: Rajender P Ghansela

2. Refrigerating Machine and Reversed Carnot Cycle 64

3. Vapour Compression System 87

4.1 A Survey of Refrigerants 128

4.14 Substitutes for HCFC 22 170

5. Multipressure Systems 214

5.1 Introduction 214

6. Refrigerant Compressors 236

6.1 Types of Compressors 236

6.14 Alternatives to R 11 (CFC 11) 274

8. Expansion Devices 303

10. Complete Vapour Compression System 349

11. Gas Cycle Refrigeration 367

12. Vapour–Absorption System 402

13. Ejector-Compression System 437

14. Properties of Moist Air 446

14.5 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or

15. Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes 474

16. Design Conditions 514

17. Solar Radiation 530

18. Heat Transfer through Building Structures 574

19. Load Calculations and Applied Psychrometrics 621

20. Design of Air-Conditioning Apparatus 662

21. Transmission and Distribution of Air 696

21.1 Room Air Distribution 697

22. Fans 747

23. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Control 766

24. Applications in Food Refrigeration/Processing and

24.5 Freeze Drying 825

Appendix A Thermodynamic Properties Correlations

Appendix B Tables 861

Appendix C Chart Ex. Sheets

Hence, it had become absolutely necessary to revise the book.

Mrs L I Trifonova of Higher Technological Institute, Sofia, Mr R S Mital of Voltas

d Solar declination angle

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION

Outside Air at Outside Air at

Supply Air to Compressor

Vapour Compression System 9 Solved Examples

Solution From the table of properties of R 134a in the Appendix, we have

Over 150 Practice Problems Revision Exercises

Fig. 22.11 Simple fan-system network

Category Chemical N.B.P., °C Flammability

Calculation of Enthalpy of Mixture in Vapour Phase

Fig. 4.15 Proposed method for vapour mixture enthalpy calculation

Simulation Problems Example 9.4 Estimation of D-X Chiller Capacity (Simulation)

given in Appendix A. A.2 CORRELATIONS FOR THERMODYNAMIC

The correlations given by Wilson and Basu* have been used:

Vapour Pressure Correlation

Vapour Pressure, MPa

expand the scope of study

–10°C 0.80 0.02

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF REFRIGERATION

1.1.1 Room Air Conditioner