Social Studies Research and Practice

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Displaying Historical Empathy:

What Impact Can a Writing Assignment Have?

Sarah Brooks
University of Virginia

This study explored the development of historical empathy in the social studies classroom by addressing the following
question: Does the manner in which students are asked to express their historical conclusions impact their ability to
exhibit empathy? The results of two different types of writing assignments were examined in order to determine whether
one is more likely to encourage the display of historical empathy: text written in the first person from the perspective of a
historical agent or text written in the third person about the perspectives of historical agents. Data, in the form of student
writing samples and interviews, was collected over a two-week period in an eighth-grade social studies classroom. The
findings suggest that the way in which students are asked to articulate their historical conclusions can indeed encourage
or inhibit their ability to exhibit empathetic regard.

Introduction bach (2004) was able to demonstrate a positive

correlation between the ability (and inclina-
Historical inquiry provides, for the novice tion) to accurately take another perspective and
and the expert alike, the opportunity to expand social studies achievement and conflict resolu-
one's capacity to entertain perspectives differ- tion skills. Barton and Levstik (2004) argue
ent from one's own (Barton & Levstik, 2004; strongly for the development of historical
Foster & Yeager, 1998; Lee & Ashby, 2001). empathy in the classroom as a means of
The ability to display empathy is commonly preparing students to be effective citizens of a
recognized as an essential element of effective pluralist democracy. Democratic deliberation
participation in society; consequently, it has depends on the ability to recognize that other
attracted significant attention in the research on people's values, attitudes, beliefs, and inten-
the teaching and learning of history (Barton & tions may be different from one's own and that
Levstik, 2004; VanSledright, 2001). Empathy these perspectives have potential merit. Fur-
has been defined as a process of understanding thermore, they write that “if students are going
people in the past by contextualizing their to take part in meaningful public discussion,
actions (Barton & Levstik, 2004). An alternate they need to understand that differing perspec-
conceptualization, put forward by Lee and tives are a normal part of social interaction, not
Ashby (2001), identifies historical empathy as an aberration to be suppressed or overcome”
“where we get to when we know what past (p. 216). Finally, students’ recognition of the
agents thought, what goals they may have been historical context of their own perspectives is
seeking, and how they saw their situation, and crucial to meaningful communication with
can connect all this with what they did” (p. others.
24). In an attempt at further clarification, Empathy, perhaps more than any other as-
Foster (1999) writes that historical empathy pect of historical understanding, is a particu-
should be carefully distinguished from identi- larly difficult achievement, because it runs
fication, imagination, or sympathy. counter to many natural, common sense ways
Whether historical empathy is classified as of thinking. Barton and Levstik (2004) found
an achievement or a process, there is little in their work with fourth and fifth graders that
debate over its importance. In a study of ninth students have a tendency to believe that
and tenth grade social studies students, Gehl- historical agents’ attitudes, beliefs, and prac-

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tices were a result of their lack of intelligence. Indians and Spanish colonists and found that
Lee and Ashby (2001) report that another they were only somewhat successful at captur-
significant hindrance to students’ ability to ing a historic outlook. Their marginal success,
empathize historically is their need to explain he suggests, was most likely a result of the
by providing justifications, even those that are preceding instruction, which focused primarily
simply made up. By generating reasons to on the details of what people did and not on
explain the past that are not grounded in how they did it or how they thought about
evidence, students are in danger of what doing it. Downey advises that “instruction that
Wineburg (2001) labels “presentism” — the has historical thinking as a goal should place
act of viewing the past through the lens of the greater emphasis on the underlying structures
present. He explains that this act is not simply and processes of everyday life” (p. 23).
a bad habit that some fall into, but a “psycho- Foster and Yeager (1998) have outlined
logical condition at rest, a way of thinking that four interrelated phases that they propose
comes quite naturally” (p. 19). should be included in any exercise of empathy.
Some researchers claim that historical em- First, students should be introduced to a
pathy is essentially impossible to fully achieve. historical event that necessitates the analysis of
VanSledright (2001) points out that every human action. Second, students must acquire
student of history is influenced by historical background knowledge of the event through
“positionality” which he describes as “the research into both chronology and context.
current, socioculturally permeated deportment Third, students should analyze a variety of
or stance any historical thinker brings to the historical evidence related to the event under
task of making sense of the past” (p. 57). This study. In order to successfully engage in this
“positionality” impinges on, invades, and stage, students must be able to “consider issues
configures the information processed. Riley such as utility, audience, language, perspec-
(1998) makes a similar point in saying that tive, and bias when examining evidence”
“the individual researcher-student brings to the (Yeager et al., 1998, p. 20). Finally, students
task at hand a set of unique experiences,” should use the evidence they have to draw
which assist in the construction of knowledge historical conclusions and construct a perspec-
but also make it impossible to access history tive of the past. Riley (1998) extends this
on its own terms (p. 32). framework by stressing that an exercise in
Despite the existence of serious obstacles historical empathy should also include an
to students’ development of historical empa- examination of “the actions and words of
thy, a number of studies have produced en- ordinary individuals related to the historic
couraging findings about young people’s moment in question” (p. 33).
ability and propensity to engage in this cogni- Multiple studies have evaluated how the
tive process. Davis (2001) observed fifth and availability and use of different types of
twelfth graders participating in empathy- historical sources influences students’ ability
developing activities and concluded that, while to empathize historically. In an investigation
the two groups functioned with different levels conducted by Yeager and her co-researchers
of sophistication, both were able to gain (1998), two groups of students were given
additional knowledge and make progress in different sources to study Harry Truman’s
their appreciation of different perspectives. decision to drop the atomic bomb: one a
Downey (1994) evaluated fifth grade students’ textbook, the other a variety of historical
ability to take on the perspectives of American documents such as first-hand accounts, mem-

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oirs, etc. The resulting student work indicated few), perhaps the most commonly assigned
that those who had many sources at their exercise is a written one. As the most visible
disposal were able to construct insightful, product of historical reasoning, writing is
accurate narratives that also incorporated their fundamental to the study of history. Monte-
own perspectives on the bombing. Building on Sano (2006) asserts that “in constructing
this exploratory study, Doppen (2000) found historical arguments, writing is often inextrica-
that providing investigative questions along ble from thinking and working with evidence”
with varied primary and secondary sources (p. 2). The connection between claim and
encouraged students to focus on the evidence, evidence, frequently elusive in other modes of
rather than being swayed by emotions. presentation, is most clearly demonstrated
Through classroom observations of two through writing.
high school social studies teachers’ units on It is not surprising then that essays, as well
the Civil Rights movement in the United States as first-person narratives which invite students
and interviews with students in each class, to write from the perspective of a past histori-
Grant (2001) explored the relationship between cal agent, are ubiquitous in the social studies
teachers’ practices and students’ understand- classroom. Downey (1994) claims that the
ings of history. His findings indicate that latter form of writing assignments provide “an
students taught almost exclusively through easy entrée for the more systematic introduc-
lecture do not have an understanding of the tion of historical thinking into the school
multiple perspectives that existed at a given curriculum, as teachers are familiar with the
time. Conversely, students who participate in a genre and students seem to like doing it” (p. 4).
variety of educational exercises, including This observation certainly resonated with my
simulations, are given access to different own experience as an eighth grade social
viewpoints, and most importantly recognize studies teacher; however, it left me wondering
the value of understanding multiple perspec- what influence, if any, the particular design of
tives. a writing task might have on students’ histori-
Recent literature makes a strong case for cal thinking. This curiosity led to the formation
the promotion of historical empathy in the of the following research question: Which type
social studies classroom and creates a need for of writing assignment is more likely to encour-
more empirical work on the subject. While a age the display of historical empathy — text
number of studies have examined the impact written in the first person from the perspective
that access to varied historical sources and of a historical agent or text written in the third
different types of instruction can have on person about the perspectives of historical
students’ historical thinking, less attention has agents?
been paid to the significance of the format in
which students are required to communicate Theoretical Framework
their ideas about the past. The question re-
mains: Does the manner in which students are This study is framed by a synthesis of the-
asked to express their historical conclusions ory that has resulted from previous research on
influence their ability to display empathy? students’ development of historical empathy
While students of history are often invited to and, more generally, on students’ historical
convey their historical interpretations in a host thinking. Students bring to the study of history
of ways (performing skits, creating documenta- a set of assumptions and ways of making sense
ries, or constructing exhibits — to name just a of the world — some of which hinder their

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ability to understand the past (Lee & Ashby, Context

2001; VanSledright, 2002; Wineburg, 2001).
The nature of the instruction that students This study was conducted at a middle
encounter in the classroom can impact their school that accommodates approximately 650
ability to think historically. Factors such as the students in grades five through eight. The
depth and breadth of study, the format and school is located in a rural community near a
structure of learning, and the nature of re- major university; many of the students that
sources made available are all significant to attend have a parent(s) in academia, while
students' development of historical thinking others’ families are in private industry, social
(Doppen, 2000; Downey, 1994; Grant, 2001; services, and other occupations. The partici-
Yeager et al., 1998). Instruction that manages pants in this study were students from four
each of these variables effectively has the separate sections of an eighth grade American
potential to move students along the continuum history course that I taught. Each of these four
from less to more contextualized thought. classes ranged in size from 17-22 students. A
Students' work, as well as their comments total of 80 students — 39 females and 41
about their own work, can provide evidence of males — participated in the study. These
their understanding and skills (Monte-Sano, students, aged 12-14, came from a variety of
2006). ethnic backgrounds: Latino (n=1), Persian
(n=2), Black (n=4), Asian (n=12), and White
Research Methods (n=61). They were grouped heterogeneously in
the classroom and therefore ranged academi-
My investigation included each of the ac- cally from gifted to severely disabled. The
tivities which are considered typical of action classes met three times a week for two 90-
research: design of a research question, forma- minute blocks and one 45-minute block.
tion of an action plan, and collection, analysis, At the time of this study, the eighth grade
and interpretation of multiple data sources American History curriculum was organized
(Johnston, 2006; Mills, 2003). I employed into eight topical units: (a) American Revolu-
qualitative research methods in order to gain a tion, (b) American Government, (c) Westward
more thorough understanding of the phenome- Expansion, (d) Industrial Revolution, (e)
non under investigation — middle school Reform Movements, (f) Civil War, (g) Immi-
students’ display of historical empathy. The gration, and (h) Decades of the Twentieth
design of this inquiry reflects the assumption Century. The fourth unit, the Industrial Revo-
that this phenomenon can be most effectively lution, was chosen as the backdrop for this
examined in the context in which it most study for two reasons. First, the topic is one
commonly occurs: the classroom. Furthermore, that invites analysis of human action. Second,
insight into this phenomenon was sought from because the unit was situated in the middle of
the perspectives of the students themselves, as the year, students had significant previous
expressed in their own words. The steps of experience with primary source work. They
data collection and analysis described below were fairly comfortable considering such
were guided by a desire to preserve this emic issues as utility, audience, language, perspec-
perspective. tive, and bias when examining various forms
of historical evidence.

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Data Collection consider which aspects of the description

might have been attractive to a young woman
Over a period of two weeks, data were at the time. All of the primary source activities
gathered in two main forms: student writing required students to work in pairs or in groups
samplings and student interviews. In an effort of four to five participants so that they might
to “strengthen the precision, the validity, and have the opportunity to think about the sources
the stability of the findings,” each form of data in different ways through discussion.
was collected on two separate occasions (Miles Following these activities, students from
& Huberman, 1994, p. 29). What follows is a two of the four classes involved in this study
detailed description of the instruction students were asked to consider the perspective of a
received in connection with this study and the fifteen-year-old girl, living in the first half of
process by which data were collected from the 19th century, who had just recently decided
them. to leave her family’s New England farm and
To begin, all of the students received a travel to Lowell, Massachusetts, to work in the
brief introduction to the topic of the American mills. They were instructed to write a one- to
Industrial Revolution by reading an assigned two-page letter that such a girl might have
chapter in their textbook, The American written to her cousin explaining why she has
Nation. They also viewed a short film which made this decision. Students from the other
addressed the development of interchangeable two classes were asked to write a one- to two-
parts, the establishment of the factory system page essay explaining why many young
in Lowell, Massachusetts, and some of the women, in the first half of the 19th century,
broader changes brought about by these chose to leave farm life to find work in the
industrial developments (i.e., the mass produc- mills. Rubrics, very similar in format, were
tion of goods, urbanization, and the develop- provided to the students for each assignment.
ment of new methods of transportation). After these assignments had been collected,
Students were then asked to analyze a variety twelve students were interviewed about their
of primary sources while considering the work. Five of the students who were inter-
question, “Why did young women choose to viewed had completed the first-person letter
leave farm life to find work in the mills?” assignment and the other seven students had
During one class period, students read several written the third-person essay. The average
pages from two separate diaries — one written overall social studies grades of the students
by a young man and the other by a young interviewed ranged from A to C. During the
women — in order to gain insight into the interviews, students were asked a series of
experiences of a young person living on a New questions concerning their writing process and
England farm in the early 1800s. In the next the appeal of the assignment. Students' re-
session, students worked together in small sponses were tape recorded and later tran-
groups to study a collection of six documents scribed.
(see Table 1). These sources were accompa- Having completed one of the two initial
nied by an analysis guide, which provided writing assignments, students in all four
questions specific to each document. For sections were asked to examine another set of
example, after reading a description of Lowell, documents (seven in total) in an attempt to
Massachusetts, written in the New England understand the experience of those who
Gazetteer in 1839, students were asked to worked in the mills and lived in the company
identify the purpose of the document and to boarding house (see Table 1). As in the previ-

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ous lesson, the sources were accompanied by chusetts Legislature requesting a 10-hour
an analysis guide with specific questions for workday and a series of testimonies given to
each document, and students worked in groups the Massachusetts Legislative Committee on
to make sense of the material. The final lesson Manufactures regarding conditions in the
of this unit addressed early labor reform efforts Lowell Mills. Students were asked to list any
that began in Lowell, Massachusetts. After arguments, for and against the ten-hour move-
reviewing a time line of key events, students ment that they could infer from these docu-
examined a petition addressed to the Massa- ments.

Table 1. Primary Sources Analyzed by Students

Topic Documents Used

Farm life
excerpted diary of Catherine Cabot Hall (1830)

excerpted diary of Noah Blake (1805)

Appeal of the
article from the Plattsburg Republican

city
letter from the Superintendent of the Merrimack Manufacturing Co. to Jesse Huse Esq. (1847)

advertisement for Merrimack Co. Power Loom Jeans (c. 1830)

description of Lowell, MA, from the New England Gazetteer (1839)

drawing of the Lowell Shopping District (1856)

cloth label—Hamilton Mills (c. 1860)

Factory and
"Letters from Susan-Letter First" from the Lowell Offering (1844)
boarding-house
Boardinghouse Regulations, Middlesex Co. (c. 1846)
life
letter from Barilla Taylor to her parents (1844)

Regulations for the Hamilton Manufacturing Co. (1848)

"Time Table of the Lowell Mills" (1851)

Hamilton Manufacturing Co. Records (1843-1846)

Bill of Mortality for the City of Lowell, MA (1846)

Early labor
Petition to the Massachusetts Legislature (1845)

reform
excerpted testimonies given to Massachusetts Legislative Committee on Manufactures (1845)

Following these inquiry lessons, students letter — such as a teenager living in that time
from the two sections who had previously period might have written explaining why he
completed the letter writing assignment were or she supports the ten-hour movement — to
asked to write a one- to two-page essay ex- the editor of the Lowell Courier. As with the
plaining why many Massachusetts mill work- initial writing assignment, rubrics were pro-
ers supported the Ten-Hour Movement in the vided to convey clear expectations for both
mid 1800s. Students in the other two sections, tasks.
who had previously written an essay, were A different set of twelve students was se-
asked to consider the perspective of a teenage lected to be interviewed about their work on
mill worker in Lowell in the year 1845. They the second writing assignment. This time, six
were instructed to write a one- to two-page of the students who were interviewed had

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written a third-person essay, and the other six draw conclusions based on inference has the
students had completed the first-person letter potential to contribute to empathetic regard but
assignment. Fifty percent of all the students only to the degree to which it takes the avail-
interviewed in both rounds were male, and able historical evidence into account. The first-
fifty percent were female. The same interview person narratives also proved more likely to
questions were used in this second round of invite decontextualized thinking about the past.
interviews as was used in the first. On the other hand, the process of writing an
essay appeared to focus students’ attention on
Data Analysis the accuracy of information, even as it de-
tracted from their propensity to make infer-
The process of data analysis concentrated ences.
initially on the 153 student writing samples
collected. A set of codes was designed and Inferential Thinking: Promise and Peril
used to identify evidence of historical empa-
thy, or the absence of it, in each piece of The findings provided by Table 2 reveal
student work (see Table 2). Next, the student that in many ways the first-person and the
interviews were carefully reviewed several third-person writing assignments yielded very
times, before a code was created for each new similar outcomes. The two different assign-
and distinct response. Similar and reoccurring ments were almost entirely successful at
responses were assigned the same code. prompting students to provide explanations for
Interview questions two and three focus on the actions of historical agents. Similarly, both
students’ writing process. One set of codes was assignments were equally successful at induc-
constructed to identify the manner in which ing students to form historical arguments
students decided upon which points to make in grounded in the evidence available. Further-
their writing. Another set of codes was created more, students who completed the first-person
to categorize the ways in which students used writing assignment were only slightly more
historical evidence in their writing (see Table likely to support their arguments with factually
3). Interview questions one and four address a accurate details drawn from the evidence than
similar subject, that of the appeal to students of those who completed the third-person writing
first-person and third-person writing assign- assignment. The similar results of these two
ments (see Table 4). Therefore, another set of different writing assignments are not surpris-
codes was created in order to organize the ing, because all students were given access to
students’ expressed reasons for liking or the same variety of sources and participated in
disliking the different writing tasks. the same guided-inquiry activities prior to
writing. The design of these activities was
Findings based upon the findings of previous research
on student development of historical empathy.
The findings of this study offer some evi- For example, the student inquiry included the
dence to suggest that the manner in which four interrelated phases described by Foster
students are asked to express their historical and Yeager (1998); based on Riley's (1998)
conclusions can significantly encourage or recommendation, the student work focused on
inhibit their display of empathy. First-person the actions and words of ordinary individuals
writing samples were found to be more likely in the past. The results of this study, then,
to include inferential thinking. The ability to confirm these previous findings on the best

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instructional practices for encouraging the 2000; Downey, 1994; Foster & Yeager, 1998;
development of historical empathy (Doppen, Riley, 1998).

Table 2. Results of Writing Samples Analysis

Code 1st person 3rd person

Provides explanation for past actions
100% 98%
Main points of explanation are drawn from the evidence all some all some
75% 24% 74% 24%
Specific information / supporting details are drawn from the evidence all some all some
51% 45% 43% 45%
Includes references to / descriptions of specific sources used in class
30% 43%
Includes inferences that can be supported by the evidence
96% 81%
Includes inferences that cannot be supported by the evidence
76% 62%
Includes statements that require hindsight
(1st-person only) 12%
Includes references to student's and/or reader's thoughts / preferences
(3rd-person only) 20%
Includes use of the present tense
(3rd-person only) 38%

Although comparison of the first- and include these in their work. This information is
third-person writing samples reveals many helpful, but what is difficult to quantify are the
similarities, there are some noteworthy differ- differences in the types of deductions students
ences, which can shed light on the ways in make in the different assignments. In order to
which these assignments impact the develop- highlight how the inferences made in the first
ment of historical empathy. In order to culti- person are unlike those made in the third
vate historical empathy, students must go person, it is necessary to look at actual exam-
beyond the collection and organization of ples of student work. The following excerpts
factual data from the sources. It is critical that are taken from writing samples in which
students make connections between the students attempted to identify young women’s
fragmented pieces of evidence available and motivations for leaving farm life for the mills.
begin to draw conclusions in an effort to
reconstruct the mindset of those people whom Third-person narrative
they are studying. The data in Table 2 indicates
that students who completed a first-person These recruiters told the women about
writing assignment were more likely to make how much they would be paid, what
inferences (some of which were rooted in the kind of work was being offered, how
evidence and some which were not) and long it is, where they will stay, and

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what is expected of the employees. from writing samples in which students sought
These professional recruiters were to identify factory workers’ reasons for sup-
hard to refuse when the girls had never porting the Ten-Hour Movement.
left the farm. They played a big role in
why the women wanted to go to the Third-person narrative
mills, and without the recruiters, not as
many women would be in the cities Almost all of those that testified at the
working in the factories. (Neha) 1845 hearings complained that they did
not have time to exercise their bodies,
First-person narrative minds, or religion. At the time of the
complaints there were schools open at
I was visited by one of the nicest men I night to educate those at the mills, but
have ever met. His name was Jesse Huse many people worked so late they did
Esq., and he ... told us that he could loan not have the free hours to attend.
me money to get to the mills. I don’t have (Shanirah)
the money to get to the mills, and he said
that I could pay the loan back when it is the First-person narrative
best time for me. I have never been able to
travel, mainly because I didn’t have When the recruiter came to visit my
enough money, and now that he has given town he said we would work for awhile
me a loan, I can go to Lowell, which is a then have time for our own activities.
new place to me. The mill owners must be What could I do after I work a thirteen
very kind to give loans to future workers, hour shift I would be too tired to have
which probably means that the work there any fun at all. They had advertised
will be easy and the boarding houses will shopping and socializing and other ac-
be very high quality. If the mill owners are tivities. I’m stuck in a building all day
so kind, he would let us skip work if we are long either sitting or standing and do-
tired, sick or just want to go, which makes ing nothing with my mind ....There is no
life a lot easier. (Beth) mental freedom time for any of us. I
believed them for what they told just to
The two students responsible for these two find out there was a consequence.
excerpts have drawn essentially the same (Nick)
conclusion. Based on the evidence made
available to them, they have concluded that the Once again, these two excerpts, although
work of mill recruiters was a key factor in taken from two different types of assignments,
many young women’s decisions to leave their make a similar assertion. They present the
homes for the mills. Both of the excerpts argument that many mill workers participated
describe the type of information that a recruiter in the Ten-Hour Movement in response to their
would provide, but the first-person excerpt lack of time to engage in educational and
goes further in that it makes inferences about recreational activities outside of the mills. Both
the impressions a recruiter’s words or de- offer examples of the types of pastimes young
meanor might have given a young women women might have participated in with a
concerning her future experience at the mills. shortened workday, yet the latter excerpt
The following are two more excerpts taken makes some inferences that the former does

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not. The first-person passage conveys a no documentation to support the claim made in
sentiment of frustration that cannot be detected Nick’s writing that mill recruiters made
in the third-person passage. The first-person promises or guarantees about the recreational
excerpt also goes so far as to assume that some activities available to young women in the city.
of the young women’s frustrations might have Unsupported claims such as these are certainly
stemmed from a feeling of being lied to by mill present in the third-person writing samples but
recruiters. Both examples suggest that the first- to a lesser extent.
person writing assignment provides students
with an opportunity to explore the thinking of Inviting Decontextualized Thinking
historical agents in a way that an essay as-
signment might not. It is worthwhile to consider what about the
These passages also reveal that this explo- first-person assignment might tempt students
ration can be detrimental to students’ devel- to go beyond the evidence in their assertions.
opment of historical empathy. Both of the first- Perhaps the best way to approach this question
person excerpts contain assertions that cannot is to examine the other major source of data
be clearly supported by the historical sources collected in this study —students’ answers to
provided to the students. For example, there is interview questions. Students who were
no evidence to support the contention made in interviewed about their work were asked to
Beth’s writing that young women, contemplat- describe how they decided on the main points
ing a move to Lowell, expected their future they would make in their writing.
employers to be kind and lenient. There is also

Table 3. Student Responses Regarding Their Writing Process

Interview Statements about Statements about

Question 1st-Person Writing Assignment 3rd-Person Writing Assignment

How did you 27% considered which points were personally the 31% considered which were the main points, the
decide what most interesting or appealing most important
main points to
include in your 27% could not articulate why they chose the 31% considered which points were easiest/ most
writing? points they included fun to write about / support

9% considered which points he/she knew the 15% considered which points were personally the
most about most interesting or appealing

9% considered which points came up the most in 15% considered which points came up the most
the primary sources in the primary sources

9% considered which points were the most 8% could not articulate why they chose the
important historically points they included

9% considered which points were easiest/most

fun to write about/support

9% considered which were the main points, the

most important

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How did you 27% referenced/described specific sources in the 40% to obtain specific information about the
use the sources writing topic to put into my writing
we have
analyzed in 27% to obtain specific information about the 40% to gain general knowledge about the topic
class in your topic to put into my writing
writing? 20% to generate main points/general ideas/
27% to generate main points/general ideas/ primary reasons
primary reasons
20% referenced/described specific sources in the
9% to develop an understanding of past historical writing
agents

9% to consider my own personal reaction to them

9% to gain general knowledge about the topic

Table 3 reveals that 27% of the students who completed a first-person assignment could not ar-
ticulate why they made the points they made. Another 27% of the students explained that they chose
to write about those points, which were personally interesting and/or appealing. Several student
responses to this effect are provided below.

Mike: I chose some of the three major ones that made a big difference, like the sicknesses
and injuries.
Interviewer: Did you pick the ones that you thought were most serious or the ones that you
thought people in the past thought were most serious?
Mike: The ones that I thought were the most significant.
Olivia: I just picked out the most important things that I would think if I was a girl. The
important things to me would be the pay and everything.
Erin: From the different articles and what we did, I chose — because I’m about the same
age — things that would interest me, like the shops or the church — I don’t go to
church — but it would be something familiar to me and it would comfort me, and the
money and how they offer room and board for you and food. Also it’s more inde-
pendent, which I wouldn’t really want now necessarily, but I can understand if you
have been working on the farm your whole life and taking care of your siblings and
helping all the time and not really going to school, why you would want to be more
independent.

These responses indicate that students who completed a first-person writing assignment were inclined
to make sense of the sources in terms of their own feelings, preferences, etc. When questioned di-
rectly about it, Mike is quick to admit that his own opinions were foremost in his mind as he organ-
ized his writing. Mike and Olivia appear to take it for granted that all girls of a similar age think and

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are motivated in the same way, regardless of their place in history. Erin bases her historical conclu-
sions exclusively on what she can visualize herself doing. It does not occur to these students that the
past peoples they are studying might think entirely differently from themselves, even if they are the
same age and gender. Instead, the students (perhaps without even being aware of it) do what is most
comfortable for them in that they analyze and explain past actions through their own eyes or from
their own perspective.

Table 4. Student Responses Regarding the Appeal of the Writing Assignments

Interview Question Statements about Statements about

1st-Person Writing Assignment 3rd-Person Writing Assignment
100% like 61% like

Did you like 45% allows for consideration and expres- 38% an opportunity to learn or think more about the
completing this sion of personal feelings topic
assignment?
Why or why not? 27% opportunity to learn or think more 7% good way to demonstrate or synthesize
about the topic knowledge

18% enjoyable way to learn 7% possessed the content knowledge needed to

complete it

9% could not articulate reason 7% allows for consideration and expression of

personal feelings

7% enjoyable way to learn

0% dislike 39% dislike

15% uncomfortable or struggle with format

7% lacking the content knowledge needed to

complete it

7% find the topic boring

7% just stating facts

58% like 42% like

If given a choice 54% allows for consideration and expres- 13% possessed the content knowledge necessary to
between a 1st- or sion of personal feelings complete it
3rd-person writing
assignment, which 4% comfortable with the format 13% just stating the facts
would you choose?
Why? 8% comfortable with the format

8% can include various opinions, more information

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This observation is further supported by students’ comments in response to interview questions

related to the appeal of either assignment (see Table 4). All of the students who completed a first-
person writing task stated that they liked the assignment. When asked to provide a reason for their
approval, 45% responded that it afforded an opportunity to consider and express their personal
thoughts and feelings. Several of their responses are provided below.

Olivia: I liked it because instead of just studying from a textbook, like facts and everything,
you actually got to pretend like you were a girl that age set in that time and every-
thing.
Sarah: Yeah I actually thought it was kind of cool, just so we could put ourselves in the place
of a teenager working at the mills.
Dillon: I thought it was ok, because it was interesting.
Interviewer: What was interesting?
Dillon: You could come up with your own reasons why you would support the ten-hour
movement.

When asked to choose between a first-person and a third-person assignment, 58% of the students
questioned selected the former. All but one of these students explained their preference in terms of a
desire to consider and express their own thoughts and opinions in their writing.

Erin: I think the first one, because...you could kind of put your own opinion in it, and I think
it is easier if you are able to have a bias or more of your own opinion on it. It’s just
easier for me to do it that way.
Dillon: I think I would choose the first one because the way you could write it is like what you
would do at the time...
Seth: The letter. In an essay you have three reasons and an introduction. In a letter you just
tell what you feel about what’s going on.
Interviewer: Is it what you feel or is it what someone else felt?
Seth: What I felt.

All of these comments suggest that many students who wrote about the past in the first person felt
quite comfortable contemplating what their own reaction might have been had they lived in the time
period of which they were writing. It is as if they thought the assignment required them to “pretend”
they were living in the past, to put themselves in the place of another, or to “come up with their own
reasons” to explain past actions. In fact, the instructions asked them to do nothing more than “con-
sider the perspective” of an individual from another time. The students describe the process of writing
a first-person history as “interesting,” “cool,” and “easier” than writing in an essay format. It is quite
possible that they found the first-person writing task preferable and simpler, because they understood
it to require less careful analysis of the sources.

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Getting the Facts Right

Can it be concluded, then, that the third-person writing assignment encouraged students to rely
more heavily on the evidence in the formation of their historical conclusions? The data in Table 2
provides some evidence to support this assertion. While there are fewer inferences made overall in the
third-person writing samples, the inferences which are present are more likely to be drawn from the
evidence. Table 2 also documents students who completed a third-person assignment directly refer-
enced specific documents studied in class more frequently in their work. This inclination to describe
or cite certain primary documents could be an indication of a key element of historical empathy —
students’ reliance on the available sources to generate their explanations of the past.
Additional information about students’ perceptions of, and approaches to, the writing process
comes from the interviews (see Table 3). Students were asked to describe how they decided which
points to make in their third-person writing, and several of their responses are as follows:

Jared: I just took a look at the notes from the class before — the t-chart — and kind of took
some off of there.
Interviewer: Were there more than three?
Jared: Yeah, but I just picked three for the essay.
Interviewer: How did you pick those three?
Jared: Basically the ones that seemed the most important — like how the working conditions
were poor, the hours were tough, and the wages were low.
Mitchell: I just chose the three biggest, more important reasons — the overall topic of health,
not just bad sleeping habits.
Interviewer: How did you decide what was the most important?
Mitchell: Really just the easiest.
Julia: I looked at the chart that we made and compared farm life and city life and chose the
ones I thought I could back up the best.
Josh: I picked the ones that were easiest to describe.

The majority of the students responded with one of two basic answers. Some, like Jared, simply
explained that they included in their writing the points that were the most important. It is difficult to
determine whether they are referring to those points that they personally think are most significant or
to those points that they believe were historically most significant. Other students — like Mitchell,
Julia, and Josh — claim that they considered which points were the easiest to write about or support
with evidence. These responses indicate that the students who completed third-person writing assign-
ments were primarily focused on getting it right. In other words, they were not nearly as interested in
making creative inferences and expressing their own personal thoughts as they were in making those
points, which might be considered most important or are easiest to write about in a thorough manner.
This can also be seen in students’ remarks on the appeal of the third-person writing assignment
(see Table 4). Forty-two percent of those who were interviewed claimed to prefer writing about the
past in the third person over the alternative. As the examples below demonstrate, their explanations
for this preference focus on their possession of adequate content knowledge to complete the task and
the opportunity afforded by an essay assignment to concentrate on presenting factual data.

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Jared: Probably the second one, because it isn’t so much emotion. It’s more just facts in
there.
Mike: I think the second one, because for me it’s harder to put myself inside the position of
others, but I can just give you the facts and everything.

Some students seem to think that when prior to the assignment. Students must be
completing a third-person writing task, they allowed to explore historical events that invite
are relieved of some of the responsibilities analysis of human action. They should have
inherent in a first-person assignment. In their the opportunity to examine a wide range of
comments on essay writing, there is almost no historical evidence related to the event under
mention of forming opinions, drawing conclu- study and be guided through careful scrutiny of
sions, etc. Rather there is a heavy emphasis in these sources. And yet, even with these
students’ remarks (both positive and negative) elements in place, it should not be overlooked
on presenting factual information properly. that the manner in which students are asked to
This understanding of the assignment can have express their historical conclusions can signifi-
some positive outcomes in terms of students’ cantly encourage or inhibit their display of
development of historical empathy in that it empathy.
can encourage a close review of the sources. The evidence produced by this investiga-
Also, there appears to be less temptation to be tion supports the assertion that a first-person
distracted from the evidence by an exploration writing assignment can both contribute to, and
of personal feelings and opinions. At the same detract from, the development of historical
time, it is quite possible that third-person empathy. According to Barton and Levstik
writing assignments can detract from the (2004), historical empathy involves “using the
development of historical empathy in that they perspectives of people in the past to explain
invite the misunderstanding that historical their actions” (p. 208). A first-person writing
inquiry requires nothing more than the compi- task does invite students to consider the
lation of factual information. In order to thoughts, feelings, and opinions of past agents
develop historical empathy, it is critical that in order to contextualize their actions. It can
students are encouraged to explore the empower students to speculate and make
thoughts, beliefs, and motivation of past inferences in order to explain the events of the
people's lives. past. At the same time, the explanations
offered in their work are not always the result
Conclusions of the careful examination of evidence that
empathy requires. In composing their first-
The results of this study indicate that the person histories, students frequently appear to
final assignment students complete, as part of a rely on their own imaginations in order to
larger exercise in historical inquiry, is just one make inferences. When completing this type of
of many important variables contributing to assignment, students can easily fall prey to
their development of historical empathy. “presentism” by viewing the past through the
Students’ abilities to display empathy in any lens of the present (Wineburg, 2001, p. 19).
type of historical writing task are directly They fail to recognize that “historical empathy
linked to the type of instruction they receive demands an intuitive sense of a bygone era and

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an implicit recognition that the past is different their previous educational experiences to “find
from the present” (Foster, 1999, p. 19). A the right answer,” that they struggle with the
“sense of otherness” — perhaps the most task of stepping into the territory of specula-
fundamental aspect of empathy — is too often tion. These students need to be rewarded for
missing from their first-person histories their attempts to draw their own conclusions
(Barton & Levstik, 2004, p. 210). and should not be penalized for making
In contrast, when writing a history in the assertions that further study might reveal to be
third person, students appear to avoid some of false. For this purpose, it would seem that a
the pitfalls presented by the first-person first-person writing assignment is the most
writing assignment. For example, they seem to appropriate tool.
have a lesser tendency toward personal identi- Of course, if empathy is the objective, it is
fication with the mindsets of past agents. critical that students are educated in the
Rarely do these students express their needs, or importance of rooting historical conclusions in
inclinations, to share the motivations and the evidence. Students should be given the
feelings of the people they write about. In opportunity to revisit the inferences they have
general, those who write in the third person made in order to evaluate their validity in
seem more disposed to the “cautious inquiry terms of the historical sources. Modeling and
and close examination of available evidence” explicit instruction are a must if students are to
that empathy requires (Foster 1999, p. 19). become adept at supporting their claims with
Students reference the sources often in their evidence. For this purpose, the third-person
writing and in their comments about the writing assignment might be most suitable. No
writing process. At the same time, their use of matter what type of writing assignment is
the evidence concentrates on the collection of assigned, it is useful for teachers to be candid
factually accurate information. Empathy with their students about the pitfalls the task
“involves some ability to infer from given might present. This is likely to assist students
knowledge an explanation of certain actions” in achieving the ultimate goal: a balance
(Foster & Yeager, 1998, p. 2). In so far as it between careful analysis of historical evidence
discourages this sort of adductive and inferen- and creative, inferential thinking, both of
tial thinking, a third-person writing assignment which are necessary to understand and explain
has the potential to inhibit a student’s devel- the past on its own terms.
opment of historical empathy.
The findings of this study provide valuable References
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taking in the social studies (pp. 1-11). Lanham,
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