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SCAD GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

COURSE SYLLABUS
EE6401 - ELECTRICAL MACHINES – I LTPC 3 1 0 4
UNIT-I MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS 9
Magnetic circuits –Laws governing magnetic circuits - Flux linkage, Inductance and
energy – Statically and Dynamically induced EMF - Torque – Properties of magnetic
materials, Hysterisis and Eddy Current losses - AC excitation, introduction to permanent
magnets-Transformer as a magnetically coupled circuit.
UNIT-II TRANSFORMERS 9
Construction – principle of operation – equivalent circuit parameters – phasor
diagrams, losses – testing – efficiency and voltage regulation-all day efficiency-

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Sumpner‘s test, per unit representation – inrush current - three phase transformers-

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connections – Scott Connection – Phasing of transformer– parallel operation of three
phase transformers-auto transformer – tap changing transformers- tertiary winding.

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UNIT-III ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONCEPTS IN
ROTATING MACHINES 9

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Energy in magnetic system – Field energy and coenergy-force and torque

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equations – singly and multiply excited magnetic field systems-mmf of distributed

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windings – Winding Inductances-, magnetic fields in rotating machines – rotating mmf
waves – magnetic saturation and leakage fluxes.
UNIT-IV DC GENERATORS r ing
Construction and components of DC Machine – Principle of operation - Lap and
9

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wave windings-EMF equations– circuit model – armature reaction –methods of

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excitation-commutation and interpoles -compensating winding –characteristics of DC
generators.
UNIT- V DC MOTORS 9
Principle and operations - types of DC Motors – Speed Torque Characteristics of
DC Motors-starting and speed control of DC motors –Plugging, dynamic and
regenerative braking- testing and efficiency – Retardation test- Swinburne‘s test and
Hopkinson‘s test - Permanent magnet dc motors(PMDC)-DC Motor applications.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Nagrath I. J and Kothari D. P. ‗Electric Machines‘, Fourth Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company Ltd, 2010.

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2. M.N.Bandyopadhyay, Electrical Machines Theory and Practice, PHI Learning PVT

LTD., New Delhi, 2009.
3. Fitzgerald. A.E., Charles Kingsely Jr, Stephen D.Umans, ‗Electric Machinery‘, Sixth
edition, Tata McGraw Hill Books Company, 2003.
REFERENCES:
1. P. C. Sen., ‗Principles of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics‘, John Wiley &
Sons, 1997.
2. Syed A. Nasar, Electric Machines and Power Systems: Volume I, Mcgraw-Hill College;
International Edition, January 1995.
3. Deshpande M. V., ―Electrical Machines‖ PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2011.
4. P.S. Bimbhra, ‗Electrical Machinery‘, Khanna Publishers, 2003.

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5. S.Sarma & K.Pathak ―Electric Machines‖, Cengage Learning India (P) Ltd., Delhi,

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2011.
Web resources

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http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/books/11/stdxi-voc-ema-em-1.pdf
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/IIT-MADRAS/Electrical_Machines_I/

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http://www.ee.bgu.ac.il/~engconv/natan/chapman.pdf

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Aim of the subject:

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To expose the students to the basic principles of Electro mechanical Energy
Conversion in Electrical apparatus and the operation of Transformers and DC machines.

Objectives: r ing
 To discuss the fundamentals of magnetic circuits and materials.
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


Generators.
To familiarize the students with DC Motors.
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To make the students understand the basic construction and operation of DC

 To expose the students to the concept of Electro mechanical energy conversion.

 To make the students understand the basic construction and operation of
Transformers.
Course Outcomes:
 To understand the magnetic material concept and analysis the magnetic materials
 To analysis the construction and operation of transformers.
 To examine the electrical machines using electromechanical energy conversion.

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 To analysis the function of DC machines and its characteristics along with its
speed control.
Books recommended:
1. B.L.Theraja”Electrical Technology”
2. Bakshi, “Electrical Machines-I”
Need and Importance for Study of the Subject:
Need for Study of the Subject:
 Makes it possible to design the simple motors– Mini projects.
 Allows students to upgrade their knowledge in electric field.
 Helps students/engineers in touch with the latest technologies.(Electric Machines)

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Importance for Study of the Subject:
At the end of the course, the student should be able to:

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 Design the simple homemade motors.
 Design and analyse performance of Transformers.

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 Identify the optimal placing of special Machines.
 Understand the concept of Electromechanical energy conversion.

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3. Industry Connectivity and Latest Developments

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Industry Connectivity:

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 The following companies (Industries) are connectivity to Electrical Machines: ABB

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Ltd,Allied
 Motion Technologies, AMETEK lnc, ARC Systems and Asmo, etc.
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Latest Developments:
 Advanced electronic controlled machines. .ne
 Design and control of the Brushless Doubly Fed twin Induction generator
 Development of single phase PM BLDC motor..
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 Transformer in practice, Lopez-Fernandez.

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Course Lesson Plan

Sl. No of Cumulative
Topics Book
No. Hours Hours
UNIT I MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1 Magnetic circuits 1 1 T3
2 Laws governing magnetic circuits 1 2 T3
3 Flux linkage, Inductance and energy 1 3 T3
Statically and Dynamically induced EMF ,
4 Torque 1 4 T1
5 Properties of magnetic materials 1 5 T3

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6
7
Hysteresis and Eddy Current losses
AC excitation,
1
1
6
7
T1
T3
8
w. E Introduction to permanent magnets
Transformer as a magnetically coupled
1 8 T3

9
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circuit 1 9 T1
10
11 En
Tutorial problems
Tutorial problems
1
1
10
11
MSM
MSM
12
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Tutorial problems
UNIT II TRANSFORMERS nee
1 12 MSM

Construction , principle of operation r ing

13 ,equivalent circuit parameters 1
.ne 13 R3
14
15
Phasor diagrams, losses ,testing
Efficiency and voltage regulation
All day efficiency, Sumpner‘s test ,per unit
1
1 t
14
15
T1
T1

16 representation 1 16 T1
inrush current ,three phase transformers-
17 connections, Scott Connection 1 17 T1
18 Phasing of transformer 1 18 T1
Parallel operation of three phase
19 transformers 1 19 T1
20 Auto transformer, tap changing transformers 1 20 T1
21 Tertiary winding. 1 21 T1

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Sl. No of Cumulative
Topics Book
No. Hours Hours
22 Tutorial problems 1 22 MSM
23 Tutorial problems 1 23 MSM
24 Tutorial problems 1 24 MSM
UNIT III ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION AND CONCEPTS IN
ROTATING MACHINES
25 Energy in magnetic system 1 25 T1
Field energy and coenergy,
26 force and torque equations 1 26 R1

ww
27
28
Singly excited magnetic field systems
Multiply excited magnetic field systems
1
1
27
28
T3
T3
29
30
w. Emmf of distributed windings
Winding Inductances
1
1
29
30
T1
T1
31
asy
Magnetic fields in rotating machines 1 31 T1
32
33 En
Rotating mmf waves
Magnetic saturation and leakage fluxes
1
1
32
33
T1
T3
34
35
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Tutorial problems
Tutorial problems nee
1
1
34
35
MSM
MSM
36 Tutorial problems
UNIT IV DC GENERATORS r 1

ing
36 MSM

Construction , principle of operation

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37
38
39
,equivalent circuit parameters
Phasor diagrams, losses ,testing
Efficiency and voltage regulation
1
1
1
t
37
38
39
R3
T1
T1
All day efficiency, Sumpner‘s test ,per unit
40 representation 1 40 T1
inrush current ,three phase transformers-
41 connections, Scott Connection 1 41 T1
42 Phasing of transformer 1 42 T1
Parallel operation of three phase
43 transformers 1 43 T1
44 Auto transformer, tap changing transformers 1 44 T1

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Sl. No of Cumulative
Topics Book
No. Hours Hours
45 Tertiary winding. 1 45 T1
46 Tutorial problems 1 46 MSM
47 Tutorial problems 1 47 MSM
48 Tutorial problems 1 48 MSM
UNIT V DC MOTORS
Construction and components of DC
Machine 1 49 R3
Principle of operation, Lap and wave

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50
51
windings
EMF equations
1
1
50
51
R3
T1
52
53
w. ECircuit model
Armature reaction
1
1
52
53
T1
T1
54
asy
Methods of excitation 1 54 T1
55
56 En
Commutation and interpoles
Compensating winding
1
1
55
56
T3
T3
57
58
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Characteristics of DC generators
Tutorial problems nee
1
1
57
58
T1
MSM
59
60
Tutorial problems
Tutorial problems r 1
1 ing
59
60
MSM
MSM

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Total Hours: 60

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INDEX
UNIT Q.NO TITTLE PAGE
NO
1-12 PART-A 1
PART-B
1 Statically And Dynamically Induced Emf 3
2 Magnetic Circuit 7
I 3 AC operation of magnetic circuits 10
4 Hysteresis loop 13
5 Core losses that occurs in magnetic circuits 15

ww 6 Problems
PART-C
17

w. E 1-12 PART-A
PART-B
20

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1 Construction and working principle of Single Phase
transformer
22

2En Parallel operation of single phase transformer. 26

II
3
4
giConstruction and working of auto transformer
Equivalent circuit of Transformer
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30
32
5 Tap Changing of transformer.
PART-C r ing
34

6
1-13
Problems
PART-A .ne 37
41

1
PART-B
Multiply (or) doubly excited magnetic system
t 43
2 Singly excited magnetic system 44
III 3 The fundamental mmf wave of the distributed winding in it 46
4 Energy through in magnetic field 49
5 Torque in round rotor machines. 51
PART-C
6 Problems 51
1-12 PART-A 56
IV
PART-B

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1 The construction and principle of operation of DC 57

generator
2 EMF equation of a DC generator 62
3 Characteristics of DC generator 65
4 Armature reaction 68
5 Commutation of D.C machines. 70
PART-C
6 Problems 72
1-12 PART-A 76
PART-B

ww 1
2
Starters
Testing of DC machines
77
80
V
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3
4
Characteristics of DC motors
Different methods of Speed control in DC motor
84
87
5
asy Types of braking 89

6 EnProblems
PART-C
91
1 gi
Anna University Question paper

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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
PART-A
1. Mention the types of electrical machines. [MAY/JUNE 2013]
There are three basic rotating machines types, namely
a. The dc machines
b. the poly phase synchronous machine (ac)
c. Poly and single phase induction machine (ac)and a stationary machine, namely
Transformer
2. Mention the magnetic materials with example [APRIL/MAY 2015]
Dia Magnetic Materials

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The materials whose permeability is below unity are called Dia magnetic materials. They

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are repelled by magnet.
Ex. Lead, gold, copper, glass, mercury

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Para Magnetic Materials
The materials with permeability above unity are called Para magnetic materials. The

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force of attraction by a magnet towards these materials is low.

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Ex.: Copper Sulphate, Oxygen, Platinum, Aluminum.
Ferro Magnetic Materials
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The materials with permeability thousands of times more than that of paramagnetic

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materials are called Ferro magnetic materials. They are very much attracted by the
magnet.
Ex. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel. .ne
Permanent Magnet
Permanent magnet means, the magnetic materials which will retain the magnetic
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property at a] l times permanently. This type of magnets is manufactured by aluminum,
nickel, iron, cobalt steel (ALNICO).
3.What is magnetostriction and coercivity? [APRIL/MAY 2015]
When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to magnetizing mmf, these may
undergo small changes in dimension; this phenomenon is known as magnetostriction
It is the measure of mmf which, when applied to the magnetic circuit would reduce its flux
density to zero, i.e., it demagnetizes the magnetic circuit.
4.Why the core of an electrical machines are laminated? [NOV/DEC 2015]
When the core is laminated, it gets divided into thin laminations. The path of the

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eddy currents is broken due to the insulating sheets present between the laminations.
This eddy current through the core and reduces the eddy current losses.
5. Distinguish between leakage flux and fringing flux. .[MAY/JUNE 2014,
MAY/JUNE 2013]
The small amount of flux always leak to the airgap that flux is called as leakage
flux.The Flux spread out the edge of the airgap that flux is called as fringing flux
6. What are quasi static fields? [NOV/DEC 2015,MAY/JUNE 2014]
All the electromechanical energy conversion devices are slow moving devices
because of inertia associated with the moving parts. Therefore, the fields in the device
are also slow in nature.
7.What is core loss and eddy current loss? What is its significance in electric

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machines? [NOV/DEC 2015]

w. E When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic magnetization, two kinds of power

losses occur on it. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are called as core loss. It is

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important in determining heating, temperature rise, rating & efficiency of transformers,
machines & other A.C run magnetic devices.

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When a magnetic core carries a time varying flux, voltages are induced in all

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possible path enclosing flux. Resulting is the production of circulating flux in core. These

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circulating current do no useful work are known as eddy current and have power loss
known as eddy current loss.

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8. How will you find the direction of force produced using Fleming’s left hand rule?
[NOV/DEC 2015]
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The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of left hand is held so that these fingers are

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mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of magnetic field,
middle finger gives the direction of the current and thumb gives the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor.
9.How hysteresis and eddy current losses are minimized? [APRIL/MAY 2015]
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon
steel & steel alloys with low hysteresis co-efficient and electrical resistivity. Eddy current
losses are minimized by laminating the core.
10.Draw the typical normal magnetization curve of ferromagnetic
material.[MAY/JUNE 2013]

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11.Define stacking factor.[NOV/DEC 2015]

The stacking factor is defined as the ratio of the net cross section area of
magnetic core to gross cross section area of magnetic core. Due to laminations net
cross section area will be always less than gross cross section area.
12. State faradays law of electromagnetic induction.[NOV/DEC 2008]
Whenever the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field the flux cut by
the conductor it produces torque and dynamically induced emf. The magnitude of
induced emf is proportional to rate of change flux linkage
e = NdФ/dt
PART-B
1.Explain in detail about statically and dynamically induced emf. [NOV/DEC 2015]

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Nature of induced emf

w. EWhenever the number of magnetic lines of force linking with a current carrying
conductor an emf get induced in that coil (or) conductor.

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Magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
linkages

En E=N dФ/dt

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As per lenz’s law the induced emf set upa current in such a direction so as to oppose
the very cause producing it.
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E=-N dФ/dt
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF r ing
“An induced emf which is due to physical movement of magnet (or) coil is called
dynamically induced emf” .ne
t

Magnitude of dynamically induced emf

 If plane of the motion of the conductor is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field,
then there is no cutting of flux lines and there cannot be any induced emf in the
conductor.

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 When plane of the flux is parallel to the plane of the motion of conductors then
there is no cutting of flux, hence no induced emf.
 Motion of conductor is perpendicular to the flux. Hence whole length of conductor
is cutting the flux line hence there is maximum possible induced emf in the conductor.

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Such condition plane of flux and plane of motion are perpendicular to each other.

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‘When plane of the flux is perpendicular to the plane of the motion of the conductors then
the cutting of flux is maximum and hence induced emf is also maximum.’

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Consider a conductor moving with velocity V m/s such that its palne of motion or
direction of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of flux lines.

En
B=Flux density in wb/m2

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L=Active length of conductor in meters
V=Velocity in m/sec
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
Area swept by conductor=l*dx*m2 r
This conductor is moved through distance dx in a small time interval and,then

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 Flux cut by conductor=Flux density*Area swept
dФ = B*l*dx wb .ne


t
The magnitude of induced emf is propotional to the rate of change of flux
E=Flux cut/time= dФ/dt [N=1 as single conductor]
=Bl dx/dt
 dx/dt=rate of change of displacement=V
e=BLV volts is perpendicular to the direction of flux responsible for induced emf.
 The magnitude of induced emf
E= BLVsinӨ volts
 If conductor is moving with a velocity V but at a certain angle Ө measured with
respect to direction of the field then component of velocity Vsin

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STATICALLY INDUCED EMF

“The change in flux lines with respect to coil can be achieved without physically moving
the coil or magnet is called statically induced emf”
 An induced emf there must be change in flux associated with a coil. The change in
flux can be achieved without any physical movement by increasing and decreasing the
current producing the flux with respect to time.
 An electromagnet which is producing the necessary flux for producing emf. The
current flow through the coil of an alternating one. It means it changes its magnitude
periodically with time.
 There is no physical movement of magnet or conductor, it is the alternating supply
which is responsible for an induced emf. The alternating flux linking with the coil

ww itself, the emf gets induced in that coil itself.

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 The statically induced emf is classified as
1. Self-induced emf

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SELF INDUCED EMF

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Consider a coil having ‘N’ turns and carrying current ‘I’. When switch is closed the

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magnitude of current can be varied with the help of variable resistance. The flux
produced by the coil links with the coil itself.
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 The current ‘’ is changed with the help of variable resistance, then flux produced will
also change. r ing
 According to faraday’s law due to rate o change of flux linkages there will be induced
emf in the coil .ne

t
So there is no physical moving coil the flux is induced emf the coil itself. This emf
is called as self-induced emf.

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SELF INDUCTANCE
 The direction of this induced emf will be oppose the cause producing it. When
current is increased, self-induced emf reduces the current tries to keep it to original
value.
Let
N- No. of turns
I-Current flowing in coil
Φ – Flux produced by the coil.

By Faradays law,
------------(1)

ww Consider the flux, Φ

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Rate of change of flux,

En
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Subs (2) in (1) We get

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r ing
Where
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MUTUALLY INDUCED EMF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
t
“The flux produced by one coil is getting linked with another coil and due to
change in flux produced by first coil, there is induced emf I the second coil , then such
emf is called mutually induced emf”

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 The coil ‘A’ has N1 turns and coil ‘B’ has N2 turns .The coil A has switch ‘S’ with
variable resistance.
 Current I1 produces a total flux Ф11 in coil 1. The flux of coil 1 that links coil 1. The
resulting self-inductance L1 of coil 1 is
------(1)

Consider the flux, Φ

Rate of change of flux,

ww Subs (2) in (1) We get

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En
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Where M=
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 r
2.Explain in detail about magnetic circuit. .[MAY/JUNE 2014, MAY/JUNE 2013]

ing
Magnetic circuit is defined as the closed path followed by the flux lines. Electric

.ne
circuit provides a path for electric current whereas magnetic circuit provides a path for
magnetic flux.

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 In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic lines of force leaves the north poles passes
through the entire circuit and return the starting point.
 A magnetic circuit usually consist of materials having high permeability such as
iron, soft steel etc.,
 These materials offer very small opposition to the flow of magnetic flux. consider a
coil of N turns would on an iron core
F=I N(AT)
I=Current through the coil
N=Number of turn in the coil
Ampere’s law
The total current piercing the surface enclosed by this path is easily

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w. E J=Current density

asy The magnetic field intensity H causes a flux density B to be set up at every
point along the flux th.Which is given by

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B= H= H (Flux path in core)
B= H=
gi H(Flux path in air)

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The flux over a given area

Φ=
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The flux set up in air path is known as leakage flux .ne
F=NI=HcLc
Hc=Average magnitude of magnetic field intensity in the core
t
Lc=mean core length(m)
F=MMF in AT Φc=Flux in core,Bc=Flux density in core
Ac=Cross section area in core
 Now imagine that the exciting current I vary with time would indicate the Hc
will vary in unison with it. Such fields are known as quasi-static field.
Bc=

Φ= =BcAc

= c Hc Ac=NI/(lc/ c Ac)

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B-H RELATIONSHIP(MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS)

 The permeability is constant so that B-H relationship is linear.B-H
relationship is strictly nonlinear in two parts respects-saturation and hysteresis.

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w. EHysteresis on linearity is the doubled value of B-H relationship exhibited in cyclic
variation of H.

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CORE WITH AN AIRGAP

En
gi nee
r ing
 .ne
Transformers are wound on closed core. Rotating machines have a moving

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element and must therefore have air gaps in the cores out of necessity. Assume
that air gap is narrow and the flux coming out of the core passes straight down the
air gap such that the flux density in the air gap is the same as in the core.
 The flux in the gaps finges out so that the airgap flux density is somewhat
less than that of the core.
 The MMF NI is now consumed in the core plus the gap.
NI=Hclc+Hglg
NI=Bclc/ c+Bglg/ o

Bg=Bc
Φ=BcA=BgA
NI= ϕ(lc/ cA)+(lg/ oA)

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MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATION

 It required to determine the excitation needed to establish a desired flux or flux
density at a given point in a given point in a magnetic circuit.
 The flux is unknown and required to be determined for a given geometry of the
magnetic circuit and specified mmf.
LEAKAGE FLUX
 A small amount of flux is always leak through the surrounding air. This stray flux is
called as leakage flux. Leakage must be made for AC machines and transformers since
their performance is affected.
FRINGING FLUX
 The flux spread out the edge of the airgap is called as fringing flux.

ww  The effect of fringing flux increases the cross section area of the airgap.

w. E
asy
En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
Stacking factor
t
 Magnetic cores are made up lightly insulated lamination to reduce power loss due
to eddy current.
 The net cross section area of the core occupied by the magnetic material is less
than it gross section their ratio is known as stacking factor.
3.Explain AC operation of magnetic circuits and derive the energy stored in
magnetic field. .[MAY/JUNE 2014]
 For establishing a magnetic field, energy must be spent, though to energy is
required to maintain it. Take the example of the exciting coils of an electromagnet.
 The energy supplied to it is spent in two ways,
 (i) Part of it goes to meet I2R loss and is lost once for all.
 (ii) part of it goes to create flux and is stored in the magnetic field as potential
10

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energy, and is to the potential energy of a raised weight, when a mass M is raised
through a height of H.
 When current through an inductive coil is gradually changed from Zero to a
maximum, value then every change of it is opposed by the self-induced emf.
Produced due to this change. Energy is needed to overcome this opposition.
 This energy is stored in the magnetic field and is, later on, recovered when the
field collapse.
 In many applications and machines such as transformer and a.c machines, the
magnetic circuits are excited by a.c supply. In such an operation, Inductance plays
vital role even in steady state operation though in d.c it acts as a short circuit. In
such a case the flux is determined by the a.c voltage applied and the frequency,

ww thus the exciting current has to adjust itself according to the flux so that every time

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B-H relationship is satisfied.

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En
gi nee
r ing
 Consider a coil having N turns wound on iron core. The coil carries an alternating

.ne
current ‘i’ varying sinusoidal. The flux Ф produced by the exciting current ‘I’ is also
sinusoidal varying with time.Let
N- No. of turns
I-Current flowing in coil
t
Φ – Flux produced by the coil.

By Faradays law,

For AC Circuit, Φ

11

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From the above equation consider the magnitude alone,

RMS value is given by,

Where

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w. E
Energy stored in AC circuit;
Energy is the product of power and time.

asy
En
gi nee
For AC Circuit,
r ing
.ne
t
Change the limit,

12

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ww The above equation is the energy stored in AC circuit.

Energy per unit volume:

w. E
asy
En
gi nee
r ing
The above equation is the energy stored per unit volume in AC circuit.
4.Explain the Hysteresis loop that occurs in magnetic circuits in B-H relationship
(magnetization characteristics)
.ne
 The permeability
t
is constant so that B-H relationship is linear-H
relationship is strictly nonlinear in two parts respects-saturation and hysteresis.

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Hysteresis on linearity is the doubled value of B-H relationship exhibited in cyclic

variation of H.
 Let us take a un magnetized bar of iron AB and magnetize in by placing it within
the magnetizing field of a solenoid (H). The Field can be increased or decreased
by increasing or decreasing current through it. Let `H' be increased in step from
zero up to a certain maximum value and the corresponding of induction flux
density (B) is noted.
 If we plot the relation between H and B, a curve like OA, as shown in Figure, is

ww
w. E
asy
En
gi
obtained. The material becomes magnetically saturated at H = OM and has, at

nee
that time, a maximum flux density, established through it. If H is now decreased

r
gradually (by decreasing solenoid current) flux density B will not decrease along

ing
AO (as might be expected) but will decrease less rapidly along AC.

.ne
 When it is Zero B is not zero, but has a definite value = OC. It means that on
removing the magnetizing force H, the iron bar is not completely demagnetized
This value of B (=OC) is called the residual flux density.
t
 To demagnetize the iron bar we have to apply the magnetizing force H in the
reverse direction. When H is reversed by reversing current through the solenoid,
then B is reduced to Zero at point D where H - OD.
 This value of H required to wipe off residual magnetism is known as coercive force
and is a measure of the coercivity of materials i.e. its `tenacity' with which it holds
on to its magnetism.

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 This value of H required to wipe off residual magnetism is known as coercive force
and is a measure of the coercively of materials i.e. its `tenacity' with which it holds
on to its magnetism.
 After the magnetization has been reduced to zero value of H is further increased
in the negative i.e. reverse direction, the iron bar again reaches a state of

ww magnetic saturation represented by point E. By taking H back from its value

corresponding to negative saturation (=OL) to its value for positive saturation

w. E (=OM), a similar curve EFGA is obtained. If we again start from G, the same curve
GACDEFG is obtained once again.

asy
 It is seen that B always lags behind H the two never attain zero value

En
simultaneously. This lagging of B, behind H is given the name Hysteresis' which

gi
literally means `to lag behind.' The closed Loop ACDEFGA, which is obtained

nee
when iron bar is taken through one complete cycle of reversal of magnetization, is
known as Hysteresis loop.

r ing
5.Explain the core losses that occurs in magnetic circuits in detail.
2015,NO/DEC 2015,NOV/DEC 2012]
.[MAY/JUNE

Iron or Core losses

.ne
 These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the rotation
of armature in the magnetic field of the poles.
They are of two types i) Hysteresis loss ii) Eddy current loss.
t
Hysteresis loss
 Hysteresis loss occurs in the armature of the d.c. machine since any given part of
the armature is subjected to magnetic field reversals as it passes under
successive poles. shows an armature rotating in two-pole machine. Consider a
small piece ab of the armature.
 When the piece ab is under N-pole, the magnetic lines pass from a to b. Half are
volition later, the same piece of iron is under S-pole and magnetic lines pass from
b to a In order to reverse continuously the molecular magnets in the armature
core, some amount of power has to be spent which is called hysteresis loss. It is

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given by Steinmetz formula. This formula is

Hysteresis loss, Ph=B16maxfV watts
where
Bmax = Maximum flux density in armature
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals
V = Volume of armature in m3
h = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
 In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of such
materials which have a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon
steel Eddy current loss
 In addition to the voltages induced in the armature conductors, there are also

ww
w. E
asy
En
voltages induced in the armature core. These voltages produce circulating
currents in the armature core.

gi
 These are called eddy currents and power loss due to their flow is called eddy
nee
current loss. The eddy current loss appears as heat which raises the temperature
of the machine and lowers its efficiency.
r ing
 If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current path will be

.ne
small due to large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude

t
of eddy current and hence eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy
current can be reduced by making core resistance as high as practical.
 The core resistance can be greatly increased by constructing the core of thin,
round iron sheets called laminations. The laminations are insulated from each
other with a coating of varnish.
 Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which decreases the eddy
current loss.
Eddy current loss, Pe = KeB2maxf2t2V watts
where,
Ke = Constant
Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz
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t = Thickness of lamination in m
V = Volume of core in m3
PART C
1. The total core loss of a specimen of silicon steel is found to be 1500W at 50
Hz, keeping the flux density to be constant, the loss become 3000W. When
the frequency is raised to 75 Hz. Calculate the separately hysteresis loss
and eddy current losses at each frequency. [Non/Dec 15]
Solution
Hysteresis loss = (BM )1.6VkHf
Wh=Af
Ke(BM )2 t2Vf2

ww We= Bf2

w. E Now core loss, P=W e +Wh

P=Af+Bf2

asy P/f= A+Bf -------------------(A)

At 50 Hz, Core loss is 1500W

En 1500/50=A+50B

gi 30= A+50B --------(1)

At 75 Hz, Core loss is 3000W
nee
3000/60=A+75B
40= A+75B ---------------(2) r ing
Solving (1) and (2) we get,
25B=10 .ne
B=0.4
Therefore
t
A=10
At 50 Hz
Hysteresis loss = Af = 10*50=500W
Eddy current loss= Bf2=0.4*(50)2=1000W
At 75 Hz
Hysteresis loss = Af = 10*75=750W
Eddy current loss= Bf2=0.4*(75)2=2250W
2. A steel ring has a mean diameter of 20cm and cross sectional area 0f 25 cm2
and a radial air gap of 0.8 mm. when excited by a current of 1A through a

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coil of 1000 turns wound on the ring core, it produces a air gap flux of 1
mWb Neglect the leakage flux. Calculate Relative permeability of steel and
total reluctance of magnetic circuit.
Solution
A= 25 cm2
Lg=0.8mm
I=1A
N=1000 turns
Φ=1mWb
Mean diameter=20 cm
Length of air gap=πd – length of air gap.

ww =π(20*10-2) – (0.8*10-3)

w. E Li=0.6272m

asy
En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
t

Relative Permeability Of Steel=

Total Reluctance Of Magnetic Circuit=
3. A iron bar of 30 cm long and 2 cm in diameter is bent into a circular shape.
It is then wound into with a wire of 600 turns. Calculate the current require

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to produce a flux of 0.5mWb. If with no air gap and with a air gap of 1mm
and =4000.
Solution:

600 turns
(i) With No air gap

ww
w. E
asy
En
gi
(ii) With air gap

nee
r ing
.ne
t

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UNIT – II
TRANSFORMERS
PART-A
1.Does transformer draw any current when secondary is open? Why?
yes, it(primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to magnetize
the core and to supply for iron and copper losses on no load. There will not be any
current in the secondary since secondary is open.
2. Why transformers are rated in kVA?[NOV/DEC 2015,MAY/JUNE 2009]
Copper loss of a transformer depends on current & iron loss on voltage. Hence
total losses depend on Volt-Ampere and not on PF. That is why the rating of
transformers are in kVA and not in kW.

ww
3.Give the emf equation of a transformer .

w. EEmf induced in coil

asy
f-frequency of AC input
Фm-maximum value of flux in the core

En
N-Number of turns.

gi
4.Define voltage regulation.

nee
Regulation is defined as change in magnitude of secondary terminal voltage,

to no load, with primary voltage maintained constant. r

when full load i.e rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced

ing
.ne
t
5. Mention the applications of single phase auto transformer. [APRIL/MAY 2015]
Variable voltage regulators, variable voltage rectifiers and laboratories.
6. What are the typical uses of auto transformer? [NOV/DEC 2012]
(i)To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop.
(ii)As induction motor starters.
(iii)As furnace transformers
(iv)As interconnecting transformers
(v)In control equipment for single phase and 3 phase elective locomotives
7. Why are breathers used in transformers?
Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it
to pass on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and

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contract as its temperature increases and decreases. Normally silica gel is filled in the
breather having pink colour. This colour will be changed to white due to continuous use,
which is an indication of bad silica gel, it is normally heated and reused.
8. Why is the efficiency of a three phase induction motor is less than that of a
three phase transformer?
Three phase induction motor is considered as rotating transformer. But due to
rotating feature there are friction and wind age losses associated with it. While three
phase transformer is a static device and there are no rotational losses present it. Hence
the efficiency of a three phase induction motor is less than that of a three phase
transformer.
9.Comparision of Core and Shell type transformers. [MAY/JUNE 2014]

ww
Core type Shell Type

w. E
The winding encircles the core The core encircles most part of the
windings

asy
It has single a single magnetic circuit
The cylindrical type of coils are used
It has double magnetic circuit.
Generally, multilayer disc type or sandwich

En coils are used.

gi
The construction preferred for low voltage The construction preferred for high voltage
transformers.
nee
transformers.

limbs limbs r
In a single phase type, the core has two In a single phase type, the core has three

ing
.ne
10. Distinguish power transformers & distribution transformers? [MAY/JUNE 2012]
Power transformers have very high rating in the order of MVA. They are used in

t
generating and receiving stations. Sophisticated controls are required. Voltage ranges
will be very high. Distribution transformers are used in receiving side. Voltage levels will
be medium. Power ranging will be small in order of kVA. Complicated controls are not
needed.
11.State all day efficiency of a transformer? [NOV/DEC 2012, MAY/JUNE 2009]
It is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period, usually a
day of 24 hrs. all day efficiency=output in kWh/input in kWh tor 24 hrs.
12. What happen when a DC supply is applied to a transformer? [NOV/DEC 2015]
Due to saturation of magnetic core a large current flows through the windings,
without induced any emf. This large current burns the windings of the transformer.

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PART-B
1.Describe the Construction and working principle of a transformer. [MAY/JUNE
2014, MAY/JUNE 2013,MAY/JUNE 2011]
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of
electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or
decrease in the current ratings.

ww
w. E
asy
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two

En
circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two

gi
coils that are electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a

nee
path of reluctance. The working principle of the transformer can be understood from the
figure

r ing
The simple construction of a transformer must need two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core.
.ne
The two coils are insulated from each other and from the steel core. The device

t
will also need some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a medium
with which the core and its windings from its container can be insulated.
In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt
bushings that are made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used.
In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer
sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum
of air-gap included. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
For this to happen, the steel should be made of high silicon content and must also
be heat treated. By effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be
reduced.

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The lamination can be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or
lay an oxide layer on the surface.
For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm to
0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.
Core Type Transformers
The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to
insulate. The effective core area of the transformer can be reduced with the use of
laminations and insulation.
Shell-Type Transformers
In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings. The comparison is shown in the figure below.

ww
Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Winding

w. E The coils are form-wound but are multi-layer disc type usually wound in the form
of pancakes. Paper is used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The

asy
whole winding consists of discs stacked with insulation spaces between the coils. These
insulation spaces form the horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. Such a transformer

En
may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may also have a distributed form. Both

gi
designs are shown in the figure below:

nee
r ing
.ne
t
Shell Type Transformers Distributed Form
A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the
transformers. This will help in minimizing the movement of the device and also prevents
the device from getting any insulation damage.
A transformer with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its
working and will also reduce vibration.
A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the device
is placed in tightly-fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special insulating oil.

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This oil is needed to circulate through the device and cool the coils. It is also
responsible for providing the additional insulation for the device when it is left in the air.
The quality, durability and handling of these insulating materials decide the life of
the transformer. All the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable
bushings. There are many designs of these, their size and construction depending on the
voltage of the leads. Porcelain bushings may be used to insulate the leads, for
transformers that are used in moderate voltages. Oil-filled or capacitive-type bushings
are used for high voltage transformers.
The selection between the core and shell type is made by comparing the cost
because similar characteristics can be obtained from both types. Most manufacturers
prefer to use shell-type transformers for high-voltage applications or for multi-winding

ww
design.

w. E When compared to a core type, the shell type has a longer mean length of coil
turn. Other parameters that are compared for the selection of transformer type are

asy
voltage rating, kilo-volt ampere rating, weight, insulation stress, heat distribution and so
on.

En
Transformer tank

gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid
coolant circulates by natural convection or fins.
Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for
forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling.
An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay, which,
depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm
or de-energize the transformer.
Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures
such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.
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Bushings
Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of
polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide
careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil.
Buchholz relay
Buchholz relay is a safety device which is generally used in large oil immersed
transformers (rated more than 500 kVA). It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection
relay. It is used for the protection of a transformer from the faults occurring inside the
transformer, such as impulse breakdown of the insulating oil, insulation failure of turns
etc. Working principle of buchholz’s relay
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid

ww
coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric

w. E
fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for
water-cooling. An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay,

asy
which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either
alarm or de-energize the transformer. Oil-immersed transformer installations usually

En
include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression

gi
sprinkler systems
Transformer Working
nee
Transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core laminations are

r ing
joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some narrow

.ne
gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be
‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is

t
induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core,
due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating
flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual
induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained
with the help of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is
transferred magnetically from the first to the second coil.
The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called
as the primary winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be
called as the secondary winding.

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In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

 Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
 Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
 Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.
This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or divide
voltage and current in AC circuits.
Indeed, the transformer has made long-distance transmission of electric power a
practical reality, as AC voltage can be “stepped up” and current “stepped down” for
reduced wire resistance power losses along power lines connecting generating stations
with loads.

ww At either end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by

w. E
transformers for safer operation and less expensive equipment.
Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down

asy
transformer.
Step up Transformer:

En
A transformer that increases voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary

gi
winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer.
Step down Transformer:
nee
A transformer that decreases voltage from primary to secondary (less secondary

r ing
.ne
t
winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-down transformer.
2. Explain parallel operation of single phase transformer. and derive the emf
equation of transformers. [APRIL/MAY 2015,MAY/JUNE 2014,NOV/DEC 2012,MAY/JUNE 2011]
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS
By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the
same supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the
secondary side. Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice. The reasons
that necessitate parallel operation are as follows.
1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.
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2. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of
the capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.
3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is
taken out for maintenance/repair the load can have continued to be serviced.
4. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one
machine can be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of
similar rating has to be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer
machines in service at a location.
5. When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it may be
easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel. Fig. 37 shows the
physical arrangement of two single phase transformers working in parallel on the primary

ww
side. Transformer A and Transformer B are connected to input voltage bus bars. After

w. E
ascertaining the polarities they are connected to output/load bus bars. Certain conditions
have to be met before two or more transformers are connected in parallel and share a

asy
common load satisfactorily. They are,
1. The voltage ratio must be the same.

En
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be the same.

gi
3.The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between the
transformers.
nee
4.The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must exist between
the voltages of the two transformers. r ing
Where ,V1=Load bus voltage V2=Supply voltage
.ne
These conditions are examined first with reference to single phase transformers

t
and then the three phase cases are discussed. Same voltage ratio generally the turns
ratio and voltage ratio are taken to be the same. If the ratio is large there can be
considerable error in the voltages even if the turns ratios are the same. When the
primaries are connected to same bus bars, if the secondary’s do not show the same
voltage, paralleling them would result in a circulating current between the secondaries.
Reflected circulating current will be there on the primary side also. Thus even without
connecting a load considerable current can be drawn by the transformers and they
produce copper losses. In two identical transformers with percentage impedance of 5
percent, a no-load voltage difference of one percent will result in a circulating current of
10 percent of full load current. This circulating current gets added to the load current
when the load is connected resulting in unequal sharing of the load

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. PA=V2IA
PB=V2IB

ww PA=P*(ZB/ZA+ZB)
PB=P*(ZA/ZA+ZB)

w. E
EMF EQUATION OF THE TRANSFORMER
In a transformer, source of alternating current is applied to the primary winding.

asy
Due to this, the current in the primary winding (called as magnetizing current) produces

En
alternating flux in the core of transformer. This alternating flux gets linked with the

gi
secondary winding, and because of the phenomenon of mutual induction an emf gets

nee
induced in the secondary winding. Magnitude of this induced emf can be found by using
the following

Let,
EMF equation of the transformer.
r ing
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
.ne
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
t
The flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0.
It reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec
(where, T is time period of the sin wave of the supply = 1/f).

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Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Φm /(T/4) = Φm /(1/4f)

Therefore, average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm ....... (Wb/s).
Now, Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).

ww
Now, we know,Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per turn.

w. E
As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm

asy
RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf per turn X

En
Number of turns in primary winding

gi
E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm.
............................. eq 1

nee
Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as
............................ eq 2
from the above equations 1 and 2,
E1/N1=E2/N2=K=4.44f Φm
r ing
 This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of
.ne
turns is same for both primary and secondary winding.
 For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .
 where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
t
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)
As derived above,
E1/N1=E2/N2
Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
 If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
 If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.

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3. Explain the working and construction of auto transformer in detail.[NOV/DEC

2015,MAY/JUNE 2012,NOV/DEC 2009]
An auto transformer is an electrical transformer having only one winding.The
part of the winding both primary and secondary
The winding has at least three terminals which is explained in the construction
details
Some of the advantages of auto-transformer are that,
 They are smaller in size,
 Cheap in cost,
 Low leakage reactance,
 Increased kVA rating,

ww  Low exciting current etc.

w. E
An example of application of auto transformer is, using an US electrical equipment
rated for 115 V supply (they use 115 V as standard) with higher Indian voltages. Another

asy
example could be in starting method of three phase induction motors.
CONSTRUCTION OF AUTO TRANSFORMER

En An auto transformer consists of a single copper wire, which is common in both

gi
primary as well as secondary circuit. The copper wire is wound a laminated silicon steel

nee
core, with at least three tappings taken out. Secondary and primary circuit share the
same neutral point of the winding The construction is well explained in the diagram.

r ing
Variable turns ratio at secondary can be obtained by the tappings of the winding (as

.ne
shown in the figure), or by providing a smooth sliding brush over the winding. Primary
terminals are fixed. Thus, in an auto transformer, you may say, primary and secondary
windings are connected magnetically as well as electrically.

Working of auto transformer

t

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As I have described just above, an auto transformer has only one winding which is
shared by both primary and secondary circuit, where number of turns shared by

ww
w. E
asy
En
secondary are variable. EMF induced in the winding is proportional to the number of

of turns. gi
turns. Therefore, the secondary voltage can be varied by just varying secondary number

nee
As winding is common in both circuits, most of the energy is transferred by means of

Copper in auto transformer =

r
(N1-N2)I1+N2(I2-I1) ing
electrical conduction and a small part is transferred through induction.

Copper in two winding transformer N1I1+N2I2

.ne
But N1I1=N2I2
=1-(2N2I1/N1I1+N2I2)

The Ratio=1-(2N2I1/2N1I1)=1-(N2/N1)=1-K
t
This means that an auto transformer requires the use of lesser quantity of copper
given by the ratio of turns. This ratio therefore denotes the savings in copper. As the
space for the second winding need not be there, the window space can be less for an
auto transformer, giving some saving in the lamination weight also. The larger the ratio of
the voltages, smaller is the savings. As T2 approaches T1 the savings become
significant. Thus auto transformers become ideal choice for close ratio transformations.
The savings in material is obtained, however, at a price. The electrical isolation between
primary and secondary
The considerable disadvantages of an auto transformer are,
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 Any undesirable condition at primary will affect the equipment at secondary (as
windings are not electrically isolated),
 due to low impedance of auto transformer, secondary short circuit currents are
very high,
 harmonics generated in the connected equipment will be passed to the supply.
Advantages of Autotransformers:
 Its efficiency is more when compared with the conventional one.
 Its size is relatively very smaller.
 Voltage regulation of autotransformer is much better.
 Lower cost
 Low requirements of excitation current.

ww  Less copper is used in its design and construction

w. E
 In conventional transformer the voltage step up or step down value is fixed while
in autotransformer, we can vary the output voltage as per out requirements and

asy
can smoothly increase or decrease its value as per our requirement.
4.Explain the Equivalent circuit of Transformer [NOV/DEC 2012,NOV/DEC 2009]

En
The assumption made are,

gi
(a) Some leakage flux is present at both primary and secondary sides. This leakage

nee
gives rise to leakage reactance’s at both sides, which are denoted as X 1 and X2
respectively.

r ing
(b) Both the primary and secondary winding possesses resistance, denoted as R 1 and R2

.ne
respectively. These resistances cause voltage drop as, I1R1 and I2R2 and also copper
loss I12R1 and I22R2.

t
(c) Permeability of the core cannot be infinite hence some magnetizing current is
needed. Mutual flux also causes core loss in iron parts of the transformer.
Equivalent circuit of transformer
Resistances and reactance’s of transformer, which are described above, can be
imagined separately from the windings (as shown in the figure below). Hence, the
function of windings, thereafter, will only be the transforming the voltage.

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The no load current I0 is divided into, pure inductance X0 (taking magnetizing

components Iμ) and non induction resistance R0 (taking working component Iw) which are
connected into parallel across the primary. The value of E 1 can be obtained by
subtracting I1Z1 from V1. The value of R0 and X0 can be calculated as,

ww R0 = E1 / Iw and X0 = E1 / Iμ.
But, using this equivalent circuit does not simplify the calculations. To make

w. E
calculations simpler, it is preferable to transfer current, voltage and impedance either to
primary side or to the secondary side. In that case, we would have to work with only one

asy
winding which is more convenient.

En
From the voltage transformation ratio, it is clear that,
E1 / E2 = N1 / N2 = K

gi nee
Now, lets refer the parameters of secondary side to primary.
Z2 can be referred to primary as Z2'
where, Z2' = (N1/N2)2Z2 =
that is, R2'+jX2' = K2(R2+jX2)
K2Z2.
r
............where K= N1/N2.

ing
equating real and imaginary parts,
.ne
R2' = K2R2 and X2' = K2X2 .
And V2' = KV2
The following figure shows the equivalent circuit of transformer with
t

secondary parameters referred to the primary.

Now, as the values of winding resistance and leakage reactance are so small
that, V1 and E1 can be assumed to be equal. Therefore, the exciting current drawn by the
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parallel combination of R0 and X0 would not affect significantly, if we move it to the input
terminals as shown in the figure below.

Now, let R1 + R2' = R'eq and X1 + X2' = X'eq

ww
Then the equivalent circuit of transformer becomes as shown in the figure below

w. E
asy
En
gi
5.Explain in detail about Tap Changing of transformer.nee
Tap Changing
r ing
Regulating the voltage of a transformer is a requirement that often arises in a
power application or power system. In an application it may be needed
.ne
1. To supply a desired voltage to the load.
2. To counter the voltage drops due to loads. t
3. To counter the input supply voltage changes on load.
On a power system the transformers are additionally required to perform the task
of regulation of active and reactive power flows.
The voltage control is performed by changing the turns ratio. This is done by
provision of taps in the winding. The volts per turn available in large transformers is quite
high and hence a change of even one turn on the LV side represents a large percentage
change in the voltage. Also the LV currents are normally too large to take out the tapping
from the windings. LV winding being the inner winding in a core type transformer adds to
the difficulty of taking out of the taps.

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Hence irrespective of the end use for which tapping is put to, taps are provided on
the HV winding.
This may be called buck-boost arrangement. In addition to the magnitude, phase
of the injected voltage may be varied in power systems. The tap changing arrangement
and buck boost arrangement with phase shift are shown in Fig.
Tap changing can be effected when a) the transformers is on no- load and b) the
load is still remains connected to the transformer
Switches
Taps closed
1 1,S
2 1,2

ww 3 2,S

w. E 4
5
2,3
3,S

asy
Provision of taps to control voltage is called tap changing. In 7
6 3,4

En
the case of power systems, voltage levels are sometimes changed 8
4,S
4,5

gi
by injecting a suitable voltage in series with the line.

nee
. These are called off load tap changing and on load tap changing. The Off load
taps changing relatively costs less. The tap positions are changed when the transformer

r ing
is taken out of the circuit and reconnected. The on-load tap changer on the other hand
tries to change the taps without the interruption of the load current.
.ne
In view of this requirement it normally costs more. A few schemes of on-load tap

t
changing are now discussed. Reactor method The diagram of connections is shown in
Fig. 43. This method employs an auxiliary reactor to assist tap changing. The switches
for the taps and that across the reactor(S) are connected as shown. The reactor has a
center tapped winding on a magnetic core. The two ends of the reactor are connected to
the two bus bars to which tapping switches of odd/even numbered taps are connected.
When only one tap is connected to the reactor the shorting switch S is closed minimizing
the drop in the reactor. The reactor can also be worked with both ends connected to two
successive taps. In that case the switch ’S’ must be kept open. The reactor limits the
circulating current between the taps in such a situation. Thus a four step tapped winding
can be used for getting seven step voltage on the secondary.
Reactor method the diagram of connections is shown in Fig. 43. This method

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employs an auxiliary reactor to assist tap changing. The switches for the taps and that
across the reactor(S) are connected as shown. The reactor has a center tapped winding
on a magnetic core. The two ends of the reactor are connected to the two bus bars to
which tapping switches of odd/even numbered taps are connected. When only one tap is
connected to the reactor the shorting switch S is closed minimizing the drop in the
reactor. The reactor can also be worked with both ends connected to two successive
taps. In that case the switch ’S’ must be kept open. The reactor limits the circulating
current between the taps in such a situation. Thus a four step tapped winding can be
used for getting seven step voltage on the secondary (see the table of switching). The
advantage of this type of tap changer is
1. Load need not be switched.

ww 2. More steps than taps are obtained.

w. E
3. Switches need not interrupt load current as a alternate path is always provided.
The major objection to this scheme seems to be that the reactor is in the circuit

asy
always generating extra loss. Parallel winding, transformer method In order to maintain
the continuity of supply the primary winding is split into two parallel circuits each circuit

En
having the taps. as

gi
Two circuit breakers A and B are used in the two circuits. Initially tap 1a and 1b are

nee
closed and the transformer is energized with full primary voltage. To change the tap the
circuit breaker A is opened momentarily and tap is moved from 1a to 2a. Then circuit

r ing
breaker A is closed. When the circuit A is opened whole of the primary current of the

.ne
transformer flows through the circuit B. A small difference in the number of turns between
the two circuit exists. This produces a circulating current between them. Next, circuit

t
breaker B is opened momentarily, the tap is changed from 1b to 2b and the breaker is
closed. In this position the two circuits are similar and there is no circulating current. The
circulating current is controlled by careful selection of the leakage reactance.
The advantage of this type of tap changer are The major objection to this scheme
seems to be that the reactor is in the circuit always generating extra loss. Parallel
winding, transformer method In order to maintain the continuity of supply the primary
winding is split into two parallel circuits each circuit having the taps.
Two circuit breakers A and B are used in the two circuits. Initially tap 1a and 1b are
closed and the transformer is energized with full primary voltage. To change the tap the
circuit breaker A is opened momentarily and tap is moved from 1a to 2a. Then circuit
breaker A is closed. When the circuit A is opened whole of the primary current of the

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transformer flows through the circuit B.A small difference in the number of turns between
the two circuits exists. This produces a circulating current between them. Next, circuit
breaker B is opened momentarily, the tap is changed from1b to 2b and the breaker is
closed. In this position the two circuits are similar and there is no circulating current.
The circulating current is controlled by careful selection of the leakage reactance.
Generally, parallel circuits are needed in primary and secondary to carry the large
current in a big transformer. Provision of taps switches and circuit breakers are to be
additionally provided to achieve tap changing in these machines. Series booster method
in this case a separate transformer is used to buck/boost the voltage of the main
transformer. The main transformer need not be having a tapped arrangement.
This can be obtained with the help of moving coil voltage regulators. Moving coil

ww
voltage regulator shows the physical arrangement of one such transformer. a, b are the

w. E
two primary windings wound on a long core, wound in the opposite sense. Thus the flux
produced by each winding takes a path through the air to link the winding. These fluxes

asy
link their secondary’s a2 and b2. A short circuited moving coil s is wound on the same
limb and is capable of being held at any desired position. This moving coil alters the

En
inductances of the two primaries. The sharing of the total applied voltage thus becomes

gi
different and also the induced emf in the secondary’s a2 and b2.

nee
The total secondary voltage in the present case varies from 10 percent to 20
percent of the input in a continuous manner. By selecting proper ratios for the

r ing
secondary’s a2 and b2 one can get the desired voltage variation. Sliding contact
regulators these have two winding or auto transformer like construction.
.ne
The winding from which the output is taken is bared and a sliding contact taps the

t
voltage. The minimum step size of voltage change obtainable is the voltage across a
single turn. The conductor is chosen on the basis of the maximum load current on the
output side. In smaller ratings this is highly cost effective. Two winding arrangements are
also possible. The two winding arrangement provides electrical isolation also.
PART C
1. A 100 KVA, 3300/240 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 990 turns on
primary. Calculate the number of turns on secondary and the approximate
value of primary and secondary full load currents. [Apr/May 15]
Solution:

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ww
w. E
asy
2. A 500 KVA transformer has a core loss of 2200 W and a full load copper
loss of 7500 w. If the power factor of load is 0.9 lagging. Calculate the full

En
load efficiency and KVA at maximum efficiency. [Apr/May 15]
Solution:
gi nee
r ing
Efficiency at full load at 0.9 power factor
.ne
t
KVA for maximum efficiency:

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3. Calculate the efficiency for half and full load of 100 KVA for the power factor
of unity and 0.8, the copper loss at full load is 1000 W and iron loss is
1000W[Nov/Dec 2015].
Solution:

At half load and unity power factor.

ww
w. E
asy
En
At full load and 0.8 power factor

gi nee
r ing
.ne
readings are V1=1000 V, V2=500 V, I=0.42, Pac=100W. The short circuitt
4. The primary of the transformer is rated at 10A and 1000V. The open circuit

readings are I1=10 A, V1=125V and Pac=400V. Find the equivalent circuit
parameters for the output voltage of ZL=19+12j ohms. [Apr/May 15]
Solution:

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Short circuit test:

ww
w. E
asy
En
gi nee
=47.37 Ohms
r ing
.ne
t

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UNIT-3
ELECTRO ELECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
PART-A
1.Describe multiply excited magnetic field system. [MAY/JUNE 2011]
The specially designed transducers have the special requirement of producing an
electrical signal proportional to forces or velocities of producing force proportional to
electrical signal. Such transducers require two or more excitation called as multiply
excited magnetic field system.
2.Write down the advantages of short pitched coil.
The length required for the end connection of coils is less i.e., inactive length of
winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical. Short pitching eliminated

ww
high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of emf. Hence waveform of

w. E
an induced emf is more sinusoidal due to short pitching. As high frequency harmonics
get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on frequency also get

3.Giveasy
minimized. This increases the efficiency.
example for single and multiple excited systems? [MAY/JUNE

En
2013,MAY/JUNE 2009]

gi
Single excited system-reluctance motor, single phase transformer, relay coil

nee
Multiply excited system-alternator, electro mechanical transducer.
4. Write the relation between electrical mechanical degrees. [APIL/MAY 2015]
 e   m for two pole machine r ing
 e  P / 2 * m for 4 pole a.c machines
.ne
5. Write the application of single and doubly fed magnetic systems? [MAY/JUNE
2013] t
Singly excited systems are employed for motion through a limited distance or
rotationthrough a prescribed angle. Whereas multiply excited systems are used where
continues energy conversion take place and in ease of transducer where one coil
when energized the care of setting up of flux and the other coil when energized
produces a proportional signal either electrical or mechanical
6. What is the significance of co energy? [MAY/JUNE 2014,MAY/JUNE 2013]
When electrical energy is fed to coil not the whole energy is stored as magnetic
energy. the co energy gives a measure of other energy conversion which takes place in
coil then magnetic energy storage
1. Field energy 2. Coenergy
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7.Short advantages of short pitched coil?

1.Hormonics are reduced in induced voltage 2.Saving of copper 3.End
connections are shorter
8. What is the significance of winding factor? [NOV/DEC 2012]
Winding factor gives the net reduction in emf induced due to short pitched coil
wound in distributed type
Winding factor kw=kpkd kp= pitch factor
kd= distribution factor kp= cos(α/2)
kd= sin(mγ/2)/msin(γ/2)
9. What is mean by Pole pitch and Chording angle?[NOV/DEC 2008]
 Pole pitch: The distance between the centers of two adjacent poles is called pole

ww pitch. One pole pitch is equal to 180 electrical degrees. It is also defined as the

w. E number of slots per pole.

 Chording angle: It is defined as that angle by which the coil pitch departs from 180

asy
electrical degrees.
10. Draw the graphical relation between field energy and coenergy

En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
11. What is meant by SPP? What is its significance ?[NOV/DEC 2015]
SPP = Slots/Pole /Phase The parameter is used to design the poles and inter-
poles of a machine core.
12. Why do all practical energy conversion devices make use of the magnetic field
as a coupling medium rather than electric field?[APRIL/MAY 2015,MAY/JUNE 2014]
When compared to electric field energy can be easily stored and retrieved form a
magnetic system with reduced losses comparatively. Hence most all practical energy
conversion devices make use of magnetic medium as coupling

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13. Why fractional pitched winding is required than full pitched winding?[NOV/DEC
2015]
Fractional pitch winding require less copper compare to full pitch coil.
 It improves the commutation, and the mutual inductance of fractional pitch coil is smaller
than full pitch coil.
PART-B
1. Explain in detail doubly excited magnetic system [APRIL/MAY 2015,NOV/DEC
2015, MAY/JUNE 2013,NOV/DEC 2012,NOV/DEC 2009]
For certain applications like that of electro mechanical transducers required
specially two excitations

ww where one is used for establishing the required magnetic field and other for
producing an electrical signal proportional to the force or velocity that is to be measured.

w. E An alternator ay even requires multiple excitations such as one concerned with

stator and other dealt with rotor. So it becomes essential to analysis a multiple excited

asy
system.
Tf=-∂W f(λ1, λ2,θ)/ ∂θ

En
Where, the field energy is given by

gi
Wf(λ1, λ2,θ) =

Analogous to Equation
+ ----------------

nee
1

i1=∂Wf(λ1, λ2,θ)/ ∂ λ1
i2=∂Wf(λ1, λ2,θ)/ ∂ λ2 r ing
.ne
t

λ1=L11i1+L12i2 ----------------- 2
λ2=L21i1+L22i2 (L21= L12 ) ----------------- 3
Solving for i1 and i2 in terms of λ1, λ2 and substituting in equation 1
Where the inductances are the functions of angle θ
i1= 11 1+ 12 2

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i2= 21 1+ 22 2 ( 21= 12 )

Wf(λ1, λ2,θ) = +

Wf(λ1, λ2,θ) = +

Wf(λ1, λ2,θ) = +

Wf(λ1, λ2,θ) =1/2 11 λ12 + 12 λ1 λ2 +1/2 22 λ22

11= L22 /( L11L22- L122)

22= L11 /( L11L22- L122)

12= 21 = -L12 /( L11L22- L122)

The self and mutual inductance of the two exciting coils are functions of angle θ

ww If currents are used to describe the system state

w. E
Tf=∂Wf ’(λ1, λ2,θ)/ ∂ θ
Where the co-energy is given by

asy
Wf ’(i1, i2,θ) = +

En
Wf ’(i1, i2,θ) = +

gi
Wf ’(i1, i2,θ) =1/2 11 i 12 + 12 i1 i2 +1/2 22 i2

2.Explain in detail about singly excited magnetic system. [MAY/JUNE 2014,

2

nee
MAY/JUNE 2011,NOV/DEC 2009]

r
Consider the attracted armature relay excited by an electric source. The field
produces a mechanical force Ff in the direction indicated which drives the mechanical ing
system. .ne
The mechanical workdone by the field when the armature moves a distance dx in
positive direction is
t
dWm=Ff dx
This energy is drawn from the field by virtue of change dx in field configuration. As
per the principle of energy conservation
Mechanical energy output=electrical energy input – increase in field energy
Ff dx=id =dW f
Ff dx is the gross mechanical output, a part of which will be lost in mechanical friction.

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Wf= i -W f’ (i,x)
Then dW f=d( i )-dW f’ (i,x)
-[(∂W f ’/∂i) di+(∂W f ’/∂x) dx]

ww
dW f= i
dW f= i [i -((∂W f ’/∂i) di+(∂Wf ’/∂x) dx)]

w. E Ff dx=(∂W f ’/∂i) di+(∂W f ’/∂x) dx)

Because the incremental changes di and dx are independent and di is not present

asy
in the left hand side of equation, its coefficient on the ight-hand side must be zero.

En ∂W f ’/∂i – =0
= ∂W f ’/∂i

gi Ff= W f’ (i,x)/ ∂x
nee
This expression for mechanical force developed applies when I is an independent
variable. It is current excited system.
If(
r ing
Wf= W f(
.ne
d Wf =(∂W f /∂ ).d +(∂W f /∂ ).d
Substituting the equation
t
Ff dx=id - (∂W f /∂ ).d +(∂Wf /∂ ).d
Ff dx=- (∂W f /∂ ).d +(i-∂Wf /∂ )d
Since d , the independent differential, is not present on the left hand side of this
equation
i-∂W f /∂ =0
i=∂W f( /∂

Ff= -∂W f( /∂

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3. With neat diagrams, explain the mmf space wave of one phase of a three phase
distributed winding in a 2-pole machine and derive the expression for the
fundamental mmf wave of the distributed winding in it.[NOV/DEC 2012,NOV/DEC
2009]
 An efficient design and satisfactory magnitude of emf to be induced or generated
from an ac machine
 It is preferred to have distributed windings in the armature with number of slots
distributed over the periphery accommodating open coils of distributed type as an AC
machines found to have satisfactory.
MMF in a single coil winding
 A three phase ac machine is considered to possess a cylindrical rotor with a small

ww uniform air gap between the stator and rotor.

w. E
 Let the coils be full-pitched coils with each coil having n number of turns. It considers
the stator to be wound for two poles and to carry single turn full pitched coil.

asy
En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
 As the current as an alternating quantity, it sets up a magnetic field with lines of flux in
the direction. These lines found to flow from one end to another.
t
 It is conventional that always magnetic lines of flux flow from north pole to south pole.
Hence the part of the stator from which the flux lines proceed is assume that to be
north and the other end towards which the lux lines flow is assumed to be south.
 For the machine maintained at synchronous speed, the rotor iron surfaces should
have opposite poles induced so as to get attracted and rotate synchronism.
 So south pole is induced in rotor close to the north pole of stator and a north pole is
induced close to the south pole. The reluctance of the air gap is negligible then no
mmf is lost I magnetization.
 Hence one half of this mmf (Ni/2) is used to set up flux linkages from stator (N pole)
to rotor (S pole) through air gap and other half mmf

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 (Ni/2) is to established flux linkages from rotor (N pole) to stator(S pole).

 Total change in mmf for the flux to link stator end to end in any slot is given by,
MMF=Ni/2-(-Ni/2)
MMF=Ni

ww
w. E
 The fundamental becomes, mmf fa=4/π *Ni/2 cosθ

asy AT=Fp cosθ

Fp=4/π *(Ni/2)

En
MMF in a multiple coil distributed winding

gi
 It considers a wound rotor and a two layer winding in the stator with q

nee
slots/pole/phase. The mf developed in a single coil in each slot is super imposed to
get the resultant mmf distribution.
r ing
 The mf wave becomes a stepped wave that can be approximated to a sine wave.

.ne
 The machine is designed for two pole arrangement, then half the ampere conductors
of the middle slot of a phase group contributes to establish north pole.

t
 As a result, the net mmf is calculated as the vector sum of mmf at individual slot pairs
separated by a pole pitch.
 The fundamental mmf wave are out of phase by
γ = πP/S rads

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ww
w. E
asy
En
gi nee
r ing
Nph=Number of turns per phase .ne
Ic=current in a coil
A=Number of parallel paths
t
At/parallel path=Nph*ic
AT/phase=Nph.ic.A
AT/ph=Nph.ia
Ia=ic*A
AT/phase/pole=Nph*ia/P
For distributed winding
AT/Ph/Pole=Nph*ia*Kb/P
Peak value of fundamental Fp=4/π *(Ni/P)*ia*Kb
MMF wave instantaneous value Fa=Fp cosθ

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Fa=4/π *(Ni/P)*ia*Kb* cosθ

This equation is satisfactory if the coils are full-pitched.
Fp=4/π *(Nph/P)*ia*Kb*Kp
Fa= Fp cosθ
Fa=4/π *(Nph/P)*ia*Kb*Kp* cosθ
Fa=4/π *(Nph/P)*ia*Kb* cosθ/2* cosθ
Kw=Kp*Kb
Fa=4/π *(Nph/P)*ia*Kw* cosθ
 From the basic properties chorded distributed windings help a lot I minimizing the
effect of harmonics.
Hence the current can be approximated as pure sin wave.

ww Ia=Im cosωt

w. E Fa=4/π *(Nph/P)*Im*Kw* cosωt cosθ

Fa=4/π *(Nph/P)* Irms*Kw* cosωt cosθ

asy =4 /π *(Nph/P)* Irms*Kw* cosωt cosθ

En Fa=Fm cosωt cosθ

Fm=4 /π *(Nph/P)* Irms*Kw

gi nee
4. Derive the expression of energy through in magnetic field.[MAY/JUNE 2014]
 When a balanced three phase supply with 120 degree electrical phase angle

r ing
separation is given to a balanced three phase winding with phases distributed in
space so that relative space difference is 2π/3, causes a resultant mmf to rotate in

.ne
the airgap between stator and rotor at a synchronous speed Ns=120f/p(rpm)

analysis. t
 But to justify this concept analytically, it is very important from both design and

 It considers that the three phase balanced supply allows the following balanced
currents to flow through the windings as
Ia=Im cosωt
Ib=Im cos(ωt-120)
Ic=Im cos(ωt-240)
 The principle of mutual inductance, these currents develop a magnetic field which is
also separated by 120 degree with respect to the magnetic axes.
Fa= Fm cosωtcosθ
Fb= Fm cos(ωt-120) cos(θ-120)

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Fc=Fm cos(ωt-240) cos(θ-240)

The resulting mmf is given by

ww F=Fa+Fb+Fc

w. E F(θ,t)= Fm cosωtcosθ+ Fm cos(ωt-120) cos(θ-120)+ Fm cos(ωt-240) cos(θ-240)

 By trigonometric relations

asy
F(θ,t)=3/2Fm cos(θ –ωt)+1/2Fm{(cos(θ +ωt)+ cos(θ +ωt-240)+ cos(θ +ωt-480)
cos(θ +ωt-480)+ cos(θ +ωt-480+360)+cos(θ +ωt-120)

En
Fm=3/2Fm cos(θ –ωt)+1/2Fm{(cos(θ +ωt)+ cos(θ +ωt-240)+ cos(θ +ωt-120)

gi
 Algebraic sum of three vectors with a progressive phase difference of 120 degree
equals to zero.
nee
F(θ,t)=3/2Fm cos(θ –ωt)
Here the peak value of the mmf developed
Fp=3/2Fm
r ing
Sustituting the expression of Fm from equation .ne
Fp=3/2{4

Fp=3*2
/π *(Nph/P)* Irms}

/π *(Nph/P)* Irms
t
F(θ,t)= 3*2 /π *(Nph/P)* Irms* cos(θ –ωt)
At ωt=0, the equation
F(θ,0)= 3*2 /π *(Nph/P)* Irms* cosθ
 The net three phase mmf wave positive developed,attains a maximum current along
the axis of phase ‘a’ when θ=0.
 When the three phase balanced winding is given a three phase balanced supply and
also proves that this mmf rotates in the airgap at the synchronous speed.
Ns=120f/P

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5.Derive the Torque equation of round rotor machine or AC Machines.

Consider a two pole machine i.e stator and rotor has two poles
F1=MMF produced by stator
F2=MMF produced by rotor.
FR=Resultant MMF
By cosine Rule,
FR2= F12=F22+2F1F2cosα-----------(1)
Assumptions:
The rotor is assumed to be smooth cylindrical, so that the air gap is unifom.

ww The MMF produced by stator and rotor is assumed to be sinusoidal.

The radial length of air gap(g) is very small when compared to the radius of

w. E
stator.
MMF in air gap, Fr= Hr * g

asy Hr = Fr/g.

En
The reluctance of air gap is negligible.
The sinusoidal MMF space wave produces sinusoidal flux density wave is in
phase gi
with it. nee
Let,
α-Angle between F1 and F2 r ing
D-Diameter of the air gap.
.ne
l- Axial length of air gap.
g-Radial length of air gap. t
Average Co-energy produced =

Total Co-energy produced= Average Co-energy produced * Volume

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For ‘P’ Pole machine,

Part C

ww
1. Two coupled coils have self and mutual inductances

w. E
; ; . Over a certain range of displacement x. The

first coil is excited by a constant current of 10A and second coil by a

asy
constant current of -5A. Find the mechanical work done if the x changes

En
from 0.5 to 1 and the energy supplied by each electrical sources.

gi
Solution:

nee
r ing
(i) .ne
t

(ii)

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(iii)

ww
w. E
asy
(iv) Net electrical input

En = = -16.667+8.333 = -8.333J

gi nee
2. Two windings one mounted on the stator and the other mounted on a rotor

r
have self-inductance of L11=4.5 H, L22=2.5 H, and L12=2.8 cos θ H, Where θ is

ing
the angle between the axis of winding. The resistances of the winding may

.ne
be neglected. Winding 2 is short circuited and the current in winding as a
function of time i1= 10 sin ωt A. Derive an expression for the numerical value
of the instantaneous torque on the rotor in N-m in terms of angle θ
Solution:
t
L11=4.5 H,
L22=2.5 H
L12=2.8 cos θ H
i1= 10 sin ωt A

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Given and
Using Equation 1,

ww
This is the instantaneous torque on rotor in Nm in terms of angle θ.

w. E
3. Derive the torque developed in doubly excited magnetic system.
Let

asy
En
gi nee
r ing
From circuit,
.ne
From Equation (2),
t

Subs (4) in (3),We get

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ww
w. E
Similarly,

asy
Subs (5) &(6) in (1)

En
gi nee
r ing
Subs (2) & (3) in (7),
.ne
t
Therefore torque is given by,

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UNIT IV
DC GENERATORS
PART-A
1.Write down the emf equation for d.c.generator?[MAY/JUNE 2015,MAY/JUNE
2009]

P-No of poles: Z-Total noof conductor

Ф-flux per pole, N-speed in rpm.
2. Why the armature core in d.c machines is constructed with laminated steel
sheets instead of solid steel sheets? .[MAY/JUNE 2013].

ww Lamination highly reduces the eddy current loss and steel sheets provide low

w. E
reluctance path to magnetic field.
3. Why commutator is employed in d.c.machines? [MAY/JUNE 2011,MAY/JUNE
2009]
asyConduct electricity between rotating armature and fixed brushes, convert

En
alternating emf into unidirectional emf (mechanical rectifier).

gi
4. Why pole shoe has been given a specific shape? [MAY/JUNE 2013].

nee
It is necessary that maximum area of the armature comes acrossthe flux produced
by the field winging. Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across flux,
which is necessary to produce larger induced emf.
r ing
5. How does D.C. motor differ from D.C. generator in construction? [MAY/JUNE
2013].
.ne
t
Generators are normally placed in closed room and accessed by skilled operators
only. Therefore, on ventilation point of view they may be constructed with large opening
in the frame. Motors have to be installed right in the place of use which may have dust,
dampness, inflammable gases, chemical.etc.to protect the motors against these
elements, the motor frames are made either partially closed or totally closed or flame
proof.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Hopkinson’s test?[MAY/JUNE
2014]
Advantages:
1.Power required for the test is small as compared to full load powers of the two
machines.

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2.The machines can be tested under full load conditions for long duration, the
performance of the machines regarding commutation and temperature rise can be
studied.
Disadvantage:
Two identical machines are required
7.What is the purpose of yoke in d.c machine? [MAY/JUNE 2013].
1.It acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine and provides mechanical
support for the poles.
2.It carries magnetic flux produced by the poles
8. Why is Swinburne’s test preferred to determine the efficiency of a dc machine?
[MAY/JUNE 2012,NOV/DEC 2009]

ww This method involves purely electrical measurements which are capable of being

w. E
carried out with a high degree of accuracy.
This method requires only a small fraction of the rated output the motor.

asy
9.Under what circumstances does a dc shunt generator fails to generate?
Absence of residual flux, initial flux setup by field may be opposite in direction to

En
residual flux, shunt field circuit resistance may be higher than its critical field resistance,

gi
load circuit resistance may be less than its critical load resistance

nee
10. Define critical field resistance of dc shunt generator?
Critical field resistance is defined as the resistance of the field circuit which will

r ing
cause the shunt generator just to build up its emf at a specified field.
11. Specify the role of inter-poles in DC machines. [APRIL/MAY 2015]
.ne
In modern DC machines inter-poles are provided to improve the commutation.
12. What is meant by residual emf in dc generator? [APRIL/MAY 2015]
t
It is induced emf in the self-excited dc generator due to the residual magnetism.
PART-B
1.Describe the construction and principle of operation of DC generator.
[MAY/JUNE 2013].
Construction:
DC Generators or Dynamos are still in general use for many industrial
applications, and small ones for speed measurement - tachogenerators - in some
domestic gear as well as industrial. There are many types, with slightly different
variations in operation depending on their usage.The basics are a Field, Armature,
Commutator and Brushgear (plus casing & bearings).

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The combination of field system and casing could be called a stator.

ww
w. E
asy
En
The field system provides a magnetic field to fixed pole pieces that the armature

gi
rotates within. with some units, the field uses permanent magnets. With others, the field

nee
is wound and powered, as an electromagnet. This allows the output voltage or power to
be varied while the machine is run at fixed RPM.

r ing
The armature has a number of magnetic pole pieces made of a magnetically soft

.ne
iron (that does not retain any magnetic field) arranged around a shaft that supports it and
fits through the bearings in the casing. The pole piece area is often made from a stack of

t
thin iron laminations with insulated surfaces, to avoid the circulating currents that could
occur in a single large piece of metal. The poles are fitted with coils in a symmetrical
pattern, and as the armature turns through the magnetic field from the field windings,
voltage is induced in to the armature coils. The coils are connected to the commutator,
which has a set of 'finger' contacts embedded in insulation & is attached to the armature
shaft at on end of the windings.

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The brushes are fitted in holders attached to (but insulated from) the casing,
These are pressed against the commutator spring pressure, and pick up power from the
armature windings at the optimum position in their rotation. (If an armature coil was
directly connected to a load, the output would be AC - it would be working as an
alternator. The commutator constantly connects the output, via the brushes, to the
correct points in the armature windings to give a DC output.)
Above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC generator. A DC
generator consists two basic parts, stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC
generator are described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a generator or motor is called as yoke. Yoke is made up
of cast iron or steel. Yoke provides mechanical strength for whole assembly of the

ww
generator (or motor). It also carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

w. E
2. Poles: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of screws or welding. Poles are
to support field windings. Field winding is wound on poles and connected in series or

asy
parallel with armature winding or sometimes separately.
Pole shoe: Pole shoe is an extended part of the pole which serves two purposes, (i)to

En
prevent field coils from slipping and (ii)to spread out the flux in air gap uniformly
1.
gi
Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a generator. Armature core is

nee
cylindrical in shape on which slots are provided to carry armature windings.
2. Commutator and brushes: As emf is generated in the armature conductor’s

r ing
terminals must be taken out to make use of generated emf. But if we can't directly solder

.ne
wires to commutator conductors as they rotate. Thus commutator is connected to the
armature conductors and mounted on the same shaft as that of armature core.
Conducting brushes rest on commutator and they slide over when rotor (hence
t
commutator) rotates. Thus brushes are physically in contact with armature conductors
hence wires can be connected to brushes.
The rotor in a dc machine is called an armature. The armature has cylindrical steel
core that is composed of a stack of slotted laminations. Slots in laminations are
aligned axially along rotor or shaft. Armature windings are placed in slots.
The stator in a dc machine is the field part of the machine. Field poles are located
on stator and project inward. Each pole has a narrow iron core around which the exciting
winding or field coil is placed. Field coil may consist of two or more separate windings.
A pole shoe distributes pole flux over rotor surface across a narrow air gap. Leads
from the armature coils are connected to the commutator. Commutator consists of radial

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copper segments separated by an insulating material, usually mica. Current is conducted

to the armature by carbon brushes that are held against the surface of the commutator
by springs. Brushes wear with time, must be inspected regularly, and occasionally
replaced.
Copper commutator segments wear also and sometimes have to be resurfaced,
or “turned down.” If not, the harder mica protrudes above the copper, and the brushes
bounce, resulting in arcs that damage the commutator surface.
Recall from Module 3, DC Circuits, that there are three conditions necessary to induce a
voltage into a conductor.
1. A magnetic field
2. A conductor

ww3. Relative motion between the two A DC generator provides these three conditions to

w. E
produce a DC voltage output.
Theory of Operation

asy
A basic DC generator has four basic parts: (1) a magnetic field; (2) a single
conductor, or loop; (3) a commutator; and (4) brushes (Figure 3). The magnetic field may

En
be supplied by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. For now, we will use a

gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
permanent magnet to describe a basic DC generator.
A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the
magnetic poles.As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no
relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an
EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop. When we have relative motion between a
magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such
that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The
magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the rate at which the

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flux lines are cut, as given in equation (5-1). The stronger the field or the more flux lines
cut for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.
Eg = KΦN
where
Eg = generated voltage
K = fixed constant
Φ = magnetic flux strength
N = speed in RPM
The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the “left-hand
rule” for
generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the

ww
direction of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the thumb in the direction

w. E
of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow
(Figure 4). In the generator shown in Figure 4, for example, the conductor closest to the

asy
N pole is traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower
corner. Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in

En
a counter-clockwise direction in the loop.

gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
The commutator converts the AC voltage generated in the rotating loop into a DC
voltage. It also serves as a means of connecting the brushes to the rotating loop. The
purpose of the brushes is to connect the generated voltage to an external circuit. In order
to do this, each brush must make contact with one of the ends of the loop. Since the loop
or armature rotates, a direct connection is impractical. Instead, the brushes are
connected to the ends of the loop through the commutator.
In a simple one-loop generator, the commutator is made up of two semi cylindrical
pieces of a smooth conducting material, usually copper, separated by an insulating
material. Each half of the commutator segments is permanently attached to one end of
the rotating loop, and the commutator rotates with the loop.

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The brushes, usually made of carbon, rest against the commutator and slide along
the commutator as it rotates. This is the means by which the brushes make contact with
each end of the loop.
Each brush slides along one half of the commutator and then along the other half.
The brushes are positioned on opposite sides of the commutator; they will pass from one
commutator half to the other at the instant the loop reaches the point of rotation, at which
point the voltage that was induced reverses the polarity.
Every time the ends of the loop reverse polarity, the brushes switch from one
commutator segment to the next. This means that one brush is always positive with
respect to another.
The voltage between the brushes fluctuates in amplitude (size or magnitude)

ww
between zero and some maximum value, but is always of the same polarity in this

w. E
manner, commutation is accomplished in a DC generator.
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into

asy
direct current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of
dynamically induced emf.

En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves
in a magnetic field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), a dynamically induced emf is
produced in the conductor. The magnitude of generated emf can be given by emf
equation of DC generator. If a closed path is provided to the moving conductor, then
generated emf causes a current to flow in the circuit.
Thus in DC generators, as we have studied earlier, when armature is rotated with
the help of a prime mover and field windings are excited (there may be permanent field
magnets also), emf is induced in armature conductors. This induced emf is taken out via
commutator-brush arrangement.
2.Derive the EMF equation of a DC generator and explain about the significance of
back emf [APRIL/MAY 2015,MAY/JUNE 2013]
EMF equation
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Let
Ø = flux/pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
P = No. of generator poles
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
By Faradays law,

ww
w. E
asy
Consider that there is Z conductors placed in A parallel path, So the induced emf
is given by

En
gi nee
This is the induced emf in generator.
For lap winding, A=P r ing
.ne
For lap winding, A=2
t
Significance of back emf
A DC motor is also a generator at the same time and the voltage it would produce
under rotation when it's disconnected from the supply is the back emf, also called
counter emf because it's in opposite polarity to the supply voltage and tends to cause
outward current flow from machine to supply
A DC machine working as a motor will have its counter emf always less than the
supply voltage. The difference would depend on amount of mechanical load tied to the
motor. As a result, current would flow into the machine. When it's working as a generator

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the counter emf is more than supply voltage (0) and as a result current flows out of the
machine. Similarly, during regenerative braking the counter emf is more than supply
voltage and as a result current flows out of the machine.

ww
w. E
asy
It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux,
e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor. In a d.c. motor after a motoring action armature

En
starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. So there is a generating action

gi
existing in a motor.

nee
After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced emf
in the rotating armature conductors according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

r ing
induction. This induced emf in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the
supply voltage. This is according to the Lenz’s law which states that the direction of the
induced emf is always so as to oppose the cause producing it. .ne
t
In a DC motor, electrical input, i.e. the supply voltage is the cause and hence this
induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage. This emf tries to set up a current through the
armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is forcing
through the conductor.
So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back emf and
denoted as Eb. Though it is denoted as Eb., basically it gets generated by the generating
action which we have seen earlier in case of generators. So its magnitude can be
determined by the e.m.f. equation which is derived earlier. So

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3. Explain characteristics of DC generator. [NOV/DEC 2015,APRIL/MAY

2015,MAY/JUNE 2011]
Three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i) Open
Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External
Characteristic. These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.
1. OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC (O.C.C.) (E0/IF)
Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load
saturation characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf
at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at the given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just
the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all type of generators. The data for
O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping speed

ww
constant. Field current is varied and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded.

w. E
asy
En
gi nee
The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit
characteristics for all types of DC generators.
2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)
r ing
.ne
The internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load

t
generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is
always less than E0 due to armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the
drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-load voltage E0.
Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below O.C.C. curve.
3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
The external characteristic curve shows the relation between the terminal voltage
(V) and load current (IL). The terminal voltage V is less than generated emf Eg due to
voltage drop in the armature circuit.

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Therefore, the external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic
curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a
generator for a given purpose.

Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of

ww
generator.
If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, voltage will remain

w. E
constant for any load current.
Thus the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load

asy
current IL. Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction the on-load generated emf is

En
less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf EG
vs. load current IL i.e. internal characteristic. The curve AD represents the terminal

gi nee
voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.
Characteristics of DC Series Generator

r ing
.ne
t

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)

curve. This is because, in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with
armature and load. Hence, here load current is similar to field current. The curve OC and
OD represents internal and external characteristic respectively.

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ww When load resistance is decreased in DC shunt generator, the load current

w. E
increases. But, load resistance can be decreased upto a certain limit, beyond this limit
any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current and terminal

asy
voltage. Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted
line in above figure.

En
Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
The above figure shows the external characteristic of DC compound generators. If
series winding is adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded.
The external characteristic for over compounded generator is shown by the curve
AB in above figure.
If series winding is adjusted so that, terminal voltage remains constant even the
load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded.

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The external characteristic for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve
AC. If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat
compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external
characteristics for an under compounded generator is shown by the curve AD.
4. Explain in about detail about the effect of armature reaction of D.C machines.
[NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2009]
ARMATURE REACTION
“The effect of armature flux on main flux is called as armature reaction”In a
unloaded d.c machine armature current is vanishingly small and the flux per pole is
decided by the field current alone.
The uniform distribution of the lines of force gets upset when armature too carries

ww
current due to loading. In one half of the pole, flux lines are concentrated and in the other

w. E
half they are rarefied.
Qualitatively one can argue that during loading condition flux per pole will remain

asy
same as in no load operation because the increase of flux in one half will be balanced by
the decrease in the flux in the other half.

En
Since it is the flux per pole which decides the emf generated and the torque

gi
produced by the machine, seemingly there will be no effect felt so far as the performance

nee
of the machine is concerned due to armature reaction. This in fact is almost true when
the machine is lightly or moderately loaded.

r ing
The effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux

.ne
under main poles of a generator. The armature magnetic field has two effects:
(i) It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux and
(ii) It cross-magnetizes or distorts it.
t
The flux distribution of a bipolar generator when there is no current in the
armature conductors. The brushes are touching the armature conductors directly,
although in practice, they touch commutator segments,
It is seen that:
(a) the flux is distributed symmetrically with respect to the polar axis, which is the
line joining the centers of NS poles.

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(b) The magnetic neutral axis (M.N.A.) coincides with the geometrical neutral axis
(G.N.A.). Magnetic neutral axis may be defined as the axis along which no emf is

ww
w. E
asy
produced in the armature conductors because they move parallel to the lines of flux. Or

En
M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular to the flux passing through the armature .

gi
Brushes are always placed along M.N.A. Hence, M.N.A. is also called ‘axis of

nee
commutation’ because reversal of current in armature conductors takes place across this
axis. Vector OFm which represents, both magnitude and direction, the mmf of producing
the main flux.
r ing
The field (or flux) set up by the armature conductors alone when carrying current,

.ne
the field coils being unexcited. The current direction is downwards in conductors under
N-pole and upwards in those under S-pole.
t
However, at rated armature current the increase of flux in one half of the pole is
rather less than the decrease in the other half due to presence of saturation. In other
words there will be a net decrease in flux per pole during sufficient loading of the
machine.
This will have a direct bearing on the emf as well as torque developed affecting
the performance of the machine.
The armature mmf (depending on the strength of the armature current) is shown
separately both in magnitude and direction by the vector OFA. Under actual load
conditions, the two mmf exist simultaneously in the generator.

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It is seen that the flux through the armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical
about the pole axis, rather it has been distorted. The flux is seen to be crowded at the
trailing pole tips but weakened or thinned out at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which
is first met during rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and
the other as trailing pole tip).
The resultant mmf OF (The new position of M.N.A.) which is found by vectorially
combining OFm and OFA. And the new position of M.N.A which is always perpendicular
to the resultant mmf vector OF, is also shown in the figure. With the shift of M.N.A., say
through an angle θ brushes are also shifted so as to lie along the new position of M.N.A.
Due to this brush shift, the armature conductors and hence armature current is
redistributed.

ww All conductors to the left of new position of M.N.A.but between the two brushes,

w. E
carry current downwards and those to the right carry current upwards. The armature mmf
is found to lie in the direction of the new position of M.N.A. (or brush axis). The armature

asy
mmf is now represented by the vector OFA.
OFA can now be resolved into two rectangular components, OFD parallel to polar axis

En
and OFC perpendicular to this axis. We find that:

gi
(i) Component OFC is at right angles to the vector OFm representing the main

nee
mmf It produces distortion in the main field and is hence called the cross-magnetizing or
distorting component of the armature reaction.

r ing
(ii) The component OFd is in direct opposition of OFm which represents the main

.ne
mmf It exerts a demagnetizing influence on the main pole flux. Hence, it is called the
demagnetizing or weakening component of the armature reaction.

t
Apart from this, due to distortion in the flux distribution, there will be some amount
of flux present along the q-axis (brush axis) of the machine. This causes commutation
difficult. In the following sections we try to explain armature reaction in somewhat detail
considering motor and generator mode separately.
5.Explain in about detail about commutation of D.C machines. [NOV/DEC
2015,NOV/DEC 2012,MAY/JUNE 2009]
COMMUTATION
 The emf induced in the conductors are always sinusoidal and commutator converts
this sinusoidal emf into Unidirectional emf.

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“The reversal of current is likely to take place in short interval when a coil is
short circuited by a brush. So that transfer of current from one diction to other is
carried out without any sparking. This process is called commutation”
 Thus a process by which current in the shot circuited coil is reversed while it crosses
the MNA. The time during which the coil remains shot circuited is known as
commutation period. This period is generally the order of 0.0005 to 0.002sec.
 The commutation is said to be ideal when current changes from +I to zero and zero to
–I the commutation period.
 The sparking is produced between the commutation and brush if current is not
reversed by that time. This will lead to damage of commutator as well as brush.
Hence for satisfactory operation of DC machine proper commutation is required.

ww
 Consider coil B is about to be short circuited. The brush is about to come in

w. E
conduct with commutator segment ‘a’ suppose that coil is carrying current of 10 A so
that total brush current 20A as every coil meeting at the brush supplies half the brush

asy
current independent of lap or wave wound armature.
 The coil B is entering short circuit period. The current in the coil B has reduced from

En
10A to 5A as the other 5A flows via segment ‘a’. The total current remaining same at

gi
20A. But area of contact of the bush is more with segment ‘b’ than segment ‘a’.

nee
r ing
.ne
t

 The coil b is in the middle of its short circuit period the current I coil B is reduced to
zero.
 The current 10A pass to the brush directly from coils A and C.
 The total current again 20A and the contact area of brush with the segments ‘a’ and
‘b’ are equal.

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 The coil b is now under group of coils to the right of brush.

 The contact area of the brush with segment ‘b’ decreasing whereas with segment ‘a’
is increasing.
 Coil b is now carrying 5A in other direction. Thus current of 15A is passed segment ‘a’
to the brush while the other 5A is supplied by coil C and pass from segment ‘b’ to the
brush. Again the total current is 20A.
 Ideal commutation is assumed then current through coil B will reverse at the end of
commutation.
 The current flowing through coil B is only 8A instead of 10A. So difference I coil
current is 2A jumps directly through segment ‘b’ to the brush through air and produce
spark.

ww
Under commutation

w. E
 The current varies uniformly represented y straight line BC the commutation is said to
be linear commutation.

asy
 But it observes self-induced emf in the coil will try to maintain the current in the same
direction. The commutation is said to be under commutation.

En
Over commutation

gi
If reversal of current in the coil is faster than ideal or linear commutation than also

nee
sparking may be occur. This commutation is known as over commutation
PART C.

r ing
1. A 4 pole DC shunt generator with lap connected armature supplies 5KW at 230V.

.ne
The armature and field copper losses are 360W and 200W respectively. Calculate
the armature current and generated emf. [Apr/May 15]
Solution:
Power= 5KW
t
V=230V
Field copper losses=200W
Armature copper losses=360W

Field copper losses=200W

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Armature Current

Armature copper losses=360W

ww
w. E
asy
En
2. In a 400V, Dc compound generator the resistance of armature, series and shunt

gi
windings are 0.10,0.05 and 100 ohms respectively. The machines supply power

nee
to 20 resistive heaters, each rated 500W, 400 V. Calculate the induced emf and
armature current, when the generator is connected in (1) Short shunt (2) Long

r
shunt. Allow brush contact drop of 2V per brush. [Apr/May 15]
Solution: ing
Power= 500W(20 No)
.ne
=10,000W
V=400V t

(i) Long Shunt:

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(ii) Short Shunt:

ww
w. E
asy
En
gi nee
3.
r
Two shunt generator are connected in parallel to supply a load of 5000 A. Each

ing
machines have a armature resistance of 0.03 ohms and field resistance of 60

.ne
ohms. EMF in one machine is 600 V and other machines is 640 V. What power
does the machines supply? [Nov/Dec 15]
Solution: t

Generator 1

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1.0005V+0.03I1=600--------(1)
Generator 2

1.0005V+0.03I2=640--------(2)
Solving equations, we get
I2 = 5000 - I1
Solving we get
I2 =3166.66 A

ww I1 =1833.33 A
Substitute the valve of I2 in equation 2

w. E V=544.72 V
Power output of machine 1,

asy
=VI1

En
=544.7 * 1833.33
P1=998.65 KW

gi
Power output of machine 2,
=VI2 nee
=544.7 * 3166.66
P2=1724.94 KW r ing
.ne
t

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UNIT-V
DC MOTOR
PART-A
1.What is back emf in d.c. motor?[MAY/JUNE 2012,MAY/JUNE 2009]
 As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate
north and south pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors.
 The direction of the emf induced in the conductor is in opposite to current. As this
emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called as back emf.
2.Name the different methods of electrical braking of dc motors.
 Dynamic braking
 Regenerating braking

ww  Counter current braking or plugging

w. E
3. Why are carbon brushes preferred for dc machines?
 The high contact resistance carbon brushes help the current in the coil undergoing

asy commutation to attain its full value in the reverse direction at the end of
commutation.

En
 The carbon brushes also lubricate and give less wear and tear on commutator

gi
surface.

nee
4. What is the function of no-voltage release coil in D.C. motor starter? [NOV/DEC
2015]

r ing
As long as the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR

.ne
coil produce enough magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in ON
position against spring force. When the supply voltage fails or becomes lower than a

t
prescribed value then electromagnet may not have enough force to retain so handle will
come back to OFF position due to spring force automatically.
5. Enumerate the factors on which speed of a d.c.motor depends?
N= (V- IaRa)/Ф so speed depends on air gap flux, resistance of armature, voltage
applied to armature.
6. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in dc
generator?
Even after the field current is reduced to zero, the machine is left out with some
flux as
residue so emf is available due to residual flux.
7. What are the conditions to be fulfilled by for a dc shunt generator to build back

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emf?[MAY/JUNE 2012,MAY/JUNE 2009]

The generator should have residual flux, the field winding should be connected in
such a manner that the flux setup by field in same direction as residual flux, the field
resistance should be less than critical field resistance, load circuit resistance should be
above critical resistance.
8. How will you change the direction of rotation of d.c.motor?
Either the field direction or direction of current through armature conductor is
reversed.
9.Name any four applications of DC series motor.[MAY/JUNE 2013]
Electric traction, Mixies,Hoists, Drilling machines
10. What is the necessity of starter in dc motors?[NOV/DEC 2015]

ww When a dc motor is directly switched on, at the time of starting, the motor back

w. E
emf is zero. Due to this, the armature current is very high. Due to the very high current,
the motor gets damaged. To reduce the starting current of the motor a starter is used.

asy
11. Why DC series motor is suited for traction applications? [APRIL/MAY
2015,NOV/DEC 2015]

En
It provides high starting torque. So DC series motor is suited for traction
applications
gi PART-B
nee
1.Explain in detail about the working of starter with the help of diagram. [NOV/DEC
2015,APRIL/MAY 2015,NOV/DEC 2012] r ing
Three Point Starter
.ne
A “3-point starter” is extensively used to start a D.C shunt motor. It not only

t
overcomes the difficulty of a plain resistance starter, but also provides additional
protective features such as over load protection and no volt protection.
The diagram of a 3-point starter connected to a shunt motor is shown in figure.
Although, the circuit looks a bit clumsy at a first glance, the basic working principle is
same as that of plain resistance starter. The starter is shown enclosed within the dotted
rectangular box having three terminals marked as A, L and F for external connections.
Terminal A is connected to one armature terminal Al of the motor. Terminal F is
connected to one field terminal F1 of the motor and terminal L is connected to one supply
terminal as shown. F2 terminal of field coil is connected to A2 through an external
variable field resistance and the common point connected to supply (-ve).
The external armatures resistances consist of several resistances connected in

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series and are shown in the form of an arc. The junctions of the resistances are brought
out as terminals and marked. Just beneath the resistances, a continuous copper strip
also in the form of an arc is present.
There is a handle which can be moved in the clockwise direction against the

ww
w. E
asy
spring tension. The spring tension keeps the handle in the OFF position when no one

En
attempts to move it. Now let us trace the circuit from terminal L (supply + ve).

gi
The wire from L passes through a small electro magnet called OLRC, (the function

nee
of which we shall discuss a little later) and enters through the handle shown by dashed
lines.

r ing
Near the end of the handle two copper strips are firmly connected with the wire.
The furthest strip is shown circular shaped and the other strip is shown to be

.ne
rectangular. When the handle is moved to the right, the circular strip of the handle will
make contacts with resistance terminals 1, 2 etc.
t
On the other hand, the rectangular strip will make contact with the continuous arc
copper strip. The other end of this strip is brought as terminal F after going through an
electromagnet coil (called NVRC). Terminal F is finally connected to motor field terminal
Fl.
Working principle
In the operation of the starter, initially the handle is in the OFF position. Neither
armature nor the field of the motor gets supply. Now the handle is moved to stud number
1. In this position armature and all the resistances in series gets connected to the supply.
Field coil gets full supply as the rectangular strip makes contact with arc copper strip. As
the machine picks up speed handle is moved further to stud number 2. In this position

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the external resistance in the armature circuit is less as the first resistance is left out.
Field however, continues to get full voltage by virtue of the continuous arc strip.
Continuing in this way, all resistances will be left out when stud number 12 (ON) is
reached. In this position, the electromagnet (NVRC) will attract the soft iron piece
attached to the handle. Even if the operator removes his hand from the handle, it will still
remain in the ON position as spring restoring force will be balanced by the force of
attraction between NVRC and the soft iron piece of the handle. The no volt release coil
(NVRC) carries same current as that of the field coil. In case supply voltage goes off,
field coil current will decrease to zero. Hence NVRC will be de-energized and will not be
able to exert any force on the soft iron piece of the handle. Restoring force of the spring
will bring the handle back in the OFF position.

ww The starter also provides over load protection for the motor. The other

w. E
electromagnet, OLRC overload release coil along with a soft iron piece kept under it, is
used to achieve this. The current flowing through OLRC is the line current IL drawn by

asy
the motor. As the motor is loaded, Ia hence IL increases. Therefore, IL is a measure of
loading of the motor. Suppose we want that the motor should not be over loaded beyond

En
rated current. Now gap between the electromagnet and the soft iron piece is so adjusted

gi
that for IL ≤ Irated the iron piece will not be pulled up. However, if IL≤Irated force of

nee
attraction will be sufficient to pull up iron piece. This upward movement of the iron piece
of OLRC is utilized to de-energize NVRC. To the iron a copper strip is attached. During

r ing
over loading condition, this copper strip will also move up and put a short circuit between

.ne
two terminals B and C. Carefully note that B and C are nothing but the two ends of the
NVRC. In other words, when over load occurs a short circuit path is created across the

t
NVRC. Hence NVRC will not carry any current now and gets de-energized. The moment
it gets deenergised, spring action will bring the handle in the OFF position thereby
disconnecting the motor from the supply. Three-point starter has one disadvantage. If we
want to run the machine at higher speed (above rated speed) by field weakening (i.e., by
reducing field current), the strength of NVRC magnet may become so weak that it will fail
to hold the handle in the ON position and the spring action will bring it back in the OFF
position. Thus we find that a false disconnection of the motor takes place even when
there is neither over load nor any sudden disruption of supply.

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Four-Point Starter

ww The four-point starter eliminates the drawback of the three-point starter. In addition to

w. E
the same three points that were in use with the three-point starter, the other side of the
line, L1, is the fourth point brought to the starter when the arm is moved from the "Off"

asy
position. The coil of the holding magnet is connected across the line. The holding magnet
and starting resistors function identical as in the three - point starter.

En
The possibility of accidentally opening the field circuit is quite remote. The four - point

gi
starter provides the no-voltage protection to the motor. If the power fails, the motor is
disconnected from the line.
nee
2.Explain any two methods of testing of DC machines. [NOV/DEC2015, MAY/JUNE
2014]
Swinburne’s Test
r ing
.ne
For a d.c shunt motor change of speed from no load to full load is quite small.

t
Therefore, mechanical loss can be assumed to remain same from no load to full load.
Also if field current is held constant during loading, the core loss too can be
assumed to remain same.
In this test, the motor is run at rated speed under no load condition at rated voltage. The
current drawn from the supply IL0 and the field current If are recorded (figure 40.3). Now
we note that:
Input power to the Motor, Pm=VILo
Cu loss in the field circuit Pf1=VIf
Power input to the armature =VILo-VIf
=V(ILo-If)
=VIao

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Cu loss in the armature circuit =Iao2ra

Gross power developed y armature=VIao-Iao2rao
=(V-Ia0rao)Iao
=EboIao
Net mechanical output power, Pnet,mech =Eb Ia-Prot
Efficiecy of the loaded motor =(EbIa- Prot)/VIL
Since the motor is operating under no load condition, net mechanical output
power is zero. Hence the gross power developed by the armature must supply the core
loss and friction & windage losses of the motor. Therefore,
Pcore+Pfriction=(V-Iaora)Iao=EboIao
Since, both Pcore and Pfriction for a shunt motor remains practically constant from no

ww
load to full load, the sum of these losses is called constant rotational loss i.e.,

w. E Constant rotational loss,Prot=Pcore+Pfriction

In the Swinburne's test, the constant rotational loss comprising of core and friction loss is

asy
estimated from the above equation.
After knowing the value of Prot from the Swinburne's test, we can fairly

En
estimate the efficiency of the motor at any loading condition. Let the motor be loaded

gi
such that new current drawn from the supply is IL and the new armature current is Ia
Input power to the motor, Pm=VIL
nee
Cu loss in the field circuit P1=VIf
Power input to the armature =VIL-VIf r ing
=V(IL-If)
=Via .ne
Cu loss in the armature circuit =Ia2ra
Gross power developed y armature=Via-Ia2ra
t
=(V-IAra)Ia
=EbIa
Net mechanical output power, Pnet,mech =Eb Ia-Prot
Efficiecy of the loaded motor =(EbIa- Prot)/VIL
Hopkinson’s test
This as an elegant method of testing d.c machines. Here it will be shown that
while power drawn from the supply only corresponds to no load losses of the machines,
the armature physically carries any amount of current (which can be controlled with
ease). Such a scenario can be created using two similar mechanically coupled shunt

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machines. Electrically these two machines are eventually connected in parallel and
controlled in such a way that one machine acts as a generator and the other as motor. In
other words, two similar machines are required to carry out this testing which is not a bad
proposition for manufacturer as large numbers of similar machines are manufactured

ww
w. E
Procedure

asy
Connect the two similar (same rating) coupled machines as shown in figure With

En
switch S opened, the first machine is run as a shunt motor at rated speed. It may be

gi
noted that the second machine is operating as a separately excited generator because

nee
its field winding is excited and it is driven by the first machine. Now the question is what
will be the reading of the voltmeter connected across the opened switch S? The reading

r ing
may be (i) either close to twice supply voltage or (ii) small voltage. In fact the voltmeter
practically reads the difference of the induced voltages in the armature of the machines.

.ne
The upper armature terminal of the generator may have either + ve or negative polarity.

double the supply voltage t

If it happens to be +ve, then voltmeter reading will be small otherwise it will be almost

Since the goal is to connect the two machines in parallel, we must first ensure
voltmeter reading is small. In case we find voltmeter reading is high, we should switch off
the supply, reverse the armature connection of the generator and start afresh. Now
voltmeter is found to read small although time is still not ripe enough to close S for
paralleling the machines. Any attempt to close the switch may result into large circulating
current as the armature resistances are small. Now by adjusting the field current Ifg of the
generator the voltmeter reading may be adjusted to zero (Eg ≈ Eb) and S is now closed.
Both the machines are now connected in parallel
Loading the machines
After the machines are successfully connected in parallel, we go for loading the
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machines
i.e., increasing the armature currents. Just after paralleling the ammeter reading A will be
close to zero as Eg ≈ Eb. Now if Ifg is increased (by decreasing Rfg), then Eg becomes
greater than Eb and both Iag and Iam increase, Thus by increasing field current of
generator (alternatively decreasing field current of motor) one can make Eg > Eb so as to
make the second machine act as generator and first machine as motor. In practice, it is
also required to control the field current of the motor Ifm to maintain speed constant at
rated value. The interesting point to be noted here is that Iag and Iam do not reflect in the
supply side line. Thus current drawn from supply remains small (corresponding to losses
of both the machines). The loading is sustained by the output power of the generator
running the motor and vice versa. The machines can be loaded to full load current

ww
without the need of any loading arrangement

w. E
Calculation of efficiency
Let field currents of the machines be are so adjusted that the second machine is

asy
acting as generator with armature current Iag and the first machine is acting as motor with
armature current Iam as shown in figure 40.7. Also let us assume the current drawn from

En
the supply be I1. Total power drawn from supply is VI1 which goes to supply all the losses

gi
(namely Cu losses in armature & field and rotational losses) of both the machines
Power drawn from supply=VI1
nee
Field Cu loss for motor=VIfm
Field Cu loss for generator =VIfg r ing
Armature Cu loss for motor =I2aram
Armature Cu loss for generator=I2agrag .ne
t
Rotational losses of both the machines=VI1-(VIfm+VIfg+I2amram+I2agrag)
Speed of both the machines are same, it is reasonable to assume the rotational
losses of both the machines are equal; which is strictly not correct as the field current of
the generator will be a bit more than the field current of the motor, Thus, Once Prot is
estimated for each machine we can proceed to calculate the efficiency of the machines
as follows,
Rotational loss of each machine, Prot= [VI1-(VIfm+VIfg+I2amram+I2agrag)]/2
Efficiency of the motor
As pointed out earlier, for efficiency calculation of motor, first calculate the input
power and then subtract the losses to get the output mechanical power as shown below,
Total power input to the motor=power input to its field+ power input to the

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armature
Pinm=VIfm+VIam
Losses of the motor=VIfm+I2amram+Prot
Net mechanical output power Poutm=Ping-(VIfm+I2amram+Prot)
m=Poutm/Pinm
EFFICIENCY OF GENERATOR
Losses of the generator=VIfg+I2agrag+Prot
Net mechanical input power Ping=Poutg-(VIfg+I2agrag+Prot)
g=Poutm/Pinm
Advantages of Hopkinson's Test

ww
1. This test requires very small power compared to full-load power of the motor-generator
coupled system. That is why it is economical.

w. E
2. Temperature rise and commutation can be observed and maintained in the limit
because this test is done under full load condition.

asy
3. Change in iron loss due to flux distortion can be taken into account due to the

En
advantage of its full load condition
Disadvantages of Hopkinson's Test
1.
2.
gi
It is difficult to find two identical machines needed for Hopkinson's test.

nee
Both machines cannot be loaded equally all the time.
3.
r
It is not possible to get separate iron losses for the two machines though they are
different because of their excitations.
ing
4.
widely. .ne
It is difficult to operate the machines at rated speed because field currents vary

3.Explain in detail
2015,MAY/JUNE 2012]
about the Characteristics of DC t
motors.[APRIL/MAY

Generally, three characteristic curves are considered for DC motors which are, (i)
Torque vs. armature current (Ta - Ia), (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs.
torque. These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are
determined by keeping following two relations in mind. Ta α Φ.Ia and N α Eb/Φ
Characteristics of DC series motors
Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque
is directly proportional to armature current and flux, Ta α Φ.Ia. In DC series motors, field
winding is connected in series with armature. Thus, before magnetic saturation of the

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field, flux Φ is directly proportional to Ia. Therefore, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia 2.

At light loads, Ia as well as Φ is small and hence the torque increases as the square of
the armature current.
Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia. After magnetic
saturation of the field winding, flux Φ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportional to Ia only, T α Ia. Therefore, after
magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes straight line.The shaft torque (Tsh) is less
than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses.
In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square
of armature current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required
Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)

ww We know the relation, N α Eb/Φ. For small load current (and hence for small

w. E
armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be neglected. Thus, for
small currents speed is inversely proportional to Φ. As we know, flux is directly

asy
proportional to Ia, speed is also inversely proportional to Ia.
When armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That

En
is why a series motor should never be started without some mechanical load.But, at

gi
heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence speed is low which results in

nee
decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.
Speed vs. torque (N-Ta)

r ing
This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two

.ne
characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low

t
and vice versa. Characteristics of DC shunt motors
Torque vs. armature current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors we can assume the field flux Φ to be constant.
Though at heavy loads, Φ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature
reaction. But as we are neglecting the change in the flux Φ, we can say that torque is
proportional to armature current. Hence the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will

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be a straight line through origin. Since, heavy starting load needs heavy starting current,
shunt motor should never be started on a heavy load.
Speed vs. armature current (N-Ia)
As flux Φ is assumed constant, we can say N α Eb. But, back emf is also almost
constant, the speed remains constant. But practically, Φ as well as Eb decreases with
increase in load. But, the Eb decreases slightly more than Φ, and hence the speed
decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases by 5 to 15% of full load speed only.
And hence, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.

ww
w. E
asy
Characteristics of DC compound motor

En
DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt windings.In a compound

gi
motor series and shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction with

nee
shunt flux then the motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if series flux is

compounded. r
opposite direction as that of the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially

ing
Characteristics of both these types are explained below.
(a)Cumulative compound motor .ne
t
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required
but the load is likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy
load, whereas the shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high
speed when the load is suddenly removed. These motors are generally employed a
flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.

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(b)Differential compound motor:

In differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases
with increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may
increase slightly with increase in load. Differential compound motors are not commonly
use, but they find limited applications in experimental and research work.
4.What are the different methods of Speed control in DC motor.[MAY/JUNE
2014,MAY/JUNE 2013]
Back emf of a DC motor Eb is the induced emf due to rotation of the armature in
magnetic field. Thus value of the Eb can be given by the EMF equation of a DC
generator.

ww Eb = PØNZ/60A

w. E
(where, P= no. of poles, Ø=flux/pole, N=speed in rpm, Z=no. of armature conductors,
A=parallel paths)

asy
Eb can also be given as,
Eb = V- IaRa

En
thus from above equations

giN =Eb 60A/PØZ

but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constant
nee
N α KEb/Ø (where, K=constant)

r ing
thus, it shows speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional
to the flux per pole.
Speed control of Shunt motor .ne
1. Flux control method
t

It is seen that speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux. Thus by

decreasing flux speed can be increased and vice versa. To control the flux, a rheostat is
added in series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit diagram.
Adding more resistance in series with field winding will increase the speed, as it
will decrease the flux. Field current is relatively small and hence I 2R loss is small, hence

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this method is quiet efficient. Though speed can be increased by reducing flux with this
method, it puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of flux beyond the limit will
adversely affect the commutation
2. Armature control method
Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V- IaRa.
That is when supply voltage V and armature resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is
directly proportional to armature current Ia. Thus if we add resistance in series with
armature, Ia decreases and hence speed decreases. Greater the resistance in series
with armature, greater the decrease in speed.
3. Voltage Control Method
A) Multiple voltage control:

ww In this method the, shunt filed is connected to a fixed exciting voltage, and

w. E
armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed with the
help of a suitable switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage

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across the armature.
B) Ward-Leonard System:

En
This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required (e.g

gi
electric excavators, elevators )M2 is the motor whose speed control is required.M1 may

nee
be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.G is the generator directly coupled to
M1. In this method the output from the generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M 2

r ing
whose speed is to be controlled. The output voltage of the generator G can be varied

.ne
from zero to its maximum value, and hence the armature voltage of the motor M 2 is
varied very smoothly. Hence very smooth speed control of motor can be obtained by this
method.
Speed control of series motor
t
1. Flux control method
A) Field diverter:
A variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field. This variable resistor
is called as diverter, as desired amount of current can be diverted through this resistor
and hence current through field coil can be decreased. Hence flux can be decreased to
desired amount and speed can be increased.
B) Armature diverter:
Diverter is connected across the armature For a given constant load torque, if
armature current is reduced then flux must increase.

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As, Ta α ØIa
This will result in increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux Ø will
increase and subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.
C) Tapped field control:
Field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select different value of
Ø by selecting different number of turns.
5.Explain in detail about any two types of braking of DC Machines.
Rheostat braking
Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply with the switch S
connected to position 1. S is a single pole double throw switch and can be connected
either to position 1 or to position 2. One end of an external resistance Rb is connected to

ww
position 2 of the switch S as shown

w. E
asy
En
gi nee
Let with S in position 1, motor runs at n rpm, drawing an armature current Ia and

r ing
the back emf is Eb = kφ n. Note the polarity of Eb which, as usual for motor mode in

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opposition with the supply voltage. Also note Te and n have same clock wise direction.
Now if S is suddenly thrown to position 2 at t = 0, the armature gets disconnected

t
from the supply and terminated by Rb with field coil remains energized from the supply.
Since speed of the rotor cannot change instantaneously, the back emf value Eb is still
maintained with same polarity prevailing at t = 0-. Thus at t = 0+, armature current will be
Ia = Eb/(ra + Rb) and with reversed direction compared to direction prevailing during motor
mode at t= 0.
Obviously for t > 0, the machine is operating as generator dissipating power to Rb
and now the electromagnetic torque Te must act in the opposite direction to that of n
since Ia has changed direction but φ has not (recall Te ∝ φ Ia). As time passes after
switching, n decreases reducing K.E and as a consequence both Eb and Ia decrease. In
other words, value of braking torque will be highest at t = 0+, and it decreases
progressively and becoming zero when the machine finally come to a stop.

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Plugging or dynamic braking

. Here S is a double pole double throw switch. For usual motoring mode, S is
connected to positions 1 and 1'. Across terminals 2 and 2', a series combination of an
external resistance Rb and supply voltage with polarity as indicated is connected.
However, during motor mode this part of the circuit remains inactive.
To initiate braking, the switch is thrown to position 2 and 2' at t = 0, thereby
disconnecting the armature from the left hand supply. Here at t = 0+, the armature current
will be Ia = (Eb + V)/(ra + Rb) as Eb and the right hand supply voltage have additive
polarities by virtue of the connection. Here also Ia reverses direction producing Te in
opposite direction to n
Ia decreases as Eb decreases with time as speed decreases. However, Ia cannot

ww
become zero at any time due to presence of supply V. So unlike rheostat braking,

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substantial magnitude of braking torque prevails. Hence stopping of the motor is
expected to be much faster than rheostat breaking. But what happens, if S continuous to

asy
be in position 1' and 2' even after zero speed has been attained.

En
gi nee
r ing
.ne
t
The answer is rather simple; the machine will start picking up speed in the reverse
direction operating as a motor. So care should be taken to disconnect the right hand
supply, the moment armature speed becomes zero.
Regenerative braking
A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode if its speed
becomes sufficiently high so as to make back emf greater than the supply voltage i.e., Eb
> V. Obviously under this condition the direction of Ia will reverse imposing torque which
is opposite to the direction of rotation.
The normal motor operation is shown in figure 39.27 where armature motoring
current Ia is drawn from the supply and as usual Eb < V. Since Eb = kφ n1. The question
is how speed on its own become large enough to make Eb < V causing regenerative

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braking. Such a situation may occur in practice when the mechanical load itself becomes
active.
Imagine the d.c motor is coupled to the wheel of locomotive which is moving along
a plain track without any gradient Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n1 rpm.
However, when the track has a downward gradient, component of gravitational force
along the track also appears which will try to accelerate the motor and may increase its
speed to n2 such that Eb = kφ n2 > V.

ww
w. E
asy
En
gi
Direction of Ia reverses, feeding power back to supply. Regenerative braking here

nee
will not stop the motor but will help to arrest rise of dangerously high speed.

PART C
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1. A 400 V DC shunt motor has no load speed of 1450 rpm, the line current

.ne
being 9A. At full loaded condition, the line current is 75A. If the shunt field

load speed. [Apr/May 2015]

Solution:
t
resistance is 200 ohms and armature resistance is 0.5 ohms. Calculate full

V=400V
N1=1450 rpm
IL1=9A
IL2=75A
Rsh=200 ohms
Ra=0.5 A
N2=?

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Ia1= IL1 - Ish

=9-2 = 7A
Eb1=V-Ia1Ra
=400 – (7*0.5)
=396.5V
Ia2=IL2-Ish = 75 – 2
= 73 A
Eb2=V-Ia2Ra
=400 – (73*0.5)
= 363.5V

ww
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asy
2. A 230 V Dc shunt motor on no load runs at a speed of 1200 rpm and draws a
current of 4.5 A. The armature and shunt field resistance are 0.3 ohms and

En
230 ohms respectively. Calculate the back emf and speed, when loaded and

gi
drawing a current of 36A. [Apr/May 2015]
Solution:
nee
V=230V
N1=1200rpm r ing
IL1=4.5A
Ra=0.3A .ne
Rsh=230 Ohms
IL2=36 A
t
EB2=?
N2=?

=230 – (3.5*0.3)
=228.95V

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=230 – (35*0.3)
=219.5V

3. The Hopkinson test on two similar shunt machines gave the following data’s
line voltage =110V, line current 48A, Armature current 230A, field current 3A
and 3.5A for motor and generator respectively. Armature resistance is 0.035

ww ohms. Calculate efficiency for both machines.

Solution:

w. E I1=48A
I1+I2=233A

asy I4=3A

En
I2=185A
Armature Cu loss of Motor= (230)2*0.035=1851.5

giField Cu loss of motor= 110*3=330

Total loss of motor= 1851.5+330=2181.5
nee
Field Cu loss of Generator= 110*3.5= 385 r
Armature Cu loss of Generator= (188.5)2*0.035= 1243.6

ing
Total loss of Generator=1243.6+385=1628.6
Stray Loss= VI1+[ Total loss of motor+ Total loss of Generator] .ne
Ws=1469.9
Ws/2=1469.9/2=734.9
t
Efficiency of Motor:

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Efficiency of Generator:

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