THE DIFFERENTIALS

MATH146
Calculus 1
 Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to

• identify and follow the procedure to find the differentials of the
function;
• find the derivative of the given parametric equations;
• apply the concepts of derivatives to approximate formula namely nth
root, volume of shell among others; and
• determine length of an arc and radius of curvature.
 Lesson 6: The Differentials

The derivative of a function can often be used to approximate certain function values with
a surprising degree of accuracy. To do this, the concept of the differential of the
independent variable and the dependent variable must be introduced.

The definition of the derivative of a function y  f  x  as you recall is

f  x  x   f  x 
f'  x   lim
x 0 x
which represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve at some point
 x, f  x . If x is very small x  0 , then the slope of the tangent is
approximat ely the same as the slope of the secant line through  x, f  x .
 f  x  x   f  x  
That is f'  x     or equivalent ly
 x 
f '  x   x  f  x  x   f  x 
•
The differential of the independent variable x is written as
dx and is the same as the change in x, x. That is
dx  x, x  0
hence, f'  x   dx  f  x  x  - f  x 

The differential of the dependent variable y is written as dy,

and is defined to be
dy  f'  x   dx  f  x  x  - f  x 
Because y  f  x  x  - f  x 
therefore dy  f'  x dx  y
• The conclusion drawn from the preceding discussion is that
the differential of y dy is approximately equal to the exact
change in y y , provided that the chage in x x  dx is
relatively small.The smaller the change in x, the closer dy
will be to y, enabling you to approximate function values
close to f  x .
 Examples:
A. Find the differential of the function.

1 . 𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑦 = 12𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑥
= 12𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥 -differential of the function

2 4 𝑢2
2. 𝑥 = 5𝑡 − 7𝑡 4. 𝑧=
𝑢+2
𝑢+2 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 −𝑢2 (𝑑𝑢)
𝑑𝑥 = 4 5𝑡 2 − 7𝑡 3 10𝑡 − 7 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑧 =
(𝑢+2)2
2𝑢2 +4𝑢−𝑢2 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑢+2 2
𝑢2 +4𝑢
3. 𝑦 = 2 + 5𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑢+2 2
5
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2 2+5𝑥
5 𝑑𝑥
=
2 2+5𝑥
•
B. Use differentials to approximate the change in the area of a
square if the length of its side increases from 8 cm to 8.23 cm. The
differential dA is
dA  f ' x   dx  dA  2 x  dx

Because x is increasing from 6 to 6.23, you find that Δ x = dx = .23 cm;

hence, dA  26 cm 0.23cm 
dA  2.76 cm 2

The area of the square will increase by approximately 2.76 cm 2

as its side length increases from 6 to 6.23. Note that the exact
increase in area y  is 2.8129 cm 2 .
 3
C. Use differentials to approximate the value 26.55 of to the nearest thousandth.
Because the function you are applying is f  x   3 x , choose a convenient
value of x that is a perfect cube and is relatively close to 26.55, namely
x  27. The differential dy is
1
dy  f'  x dx yx 3

2
1 3 1
dy  x dx  2
dx
3 3
3x
Because x is decreasing from 27 to 26.55, then x  dx  -0.45

Hence , dy 
1
  0.45  
1
 
45
 
1
327 3
2
27 100 60

3 1
which implies that 26.55 will be approxima tely
60
1
less that 3
27  3; therefore 3
26.55  3 
60
3
26.55  3 - 0.0167  2.983
 Local Linear Approximation
• Referring to the previous graph, the line that approximates the graph of 𝑓 in the
vicinity 𝑃 𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 is the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥𝑜 , given by the equation
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑓′(𝑥𝑜 ) 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜
Since 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑓′ 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , this is called the local linear
approximation of 𝑓 at 𝑥𝑜 .
Example: Find the local linear application of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 at 𝑥0 = 1.
Since 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 1 2 𝑥 , from the above concept the local linear approximation of 𝑥 at a
point 𝑥𝑜 is
1
𝑥 ≈ 𝑥0 + 𝑥 − 𝑥0
2 𝑥0
Thus, the local linear application 𝑥0 = 1 is
1
𝑥 ≈1+ 𝑥−1
2
1
𝑦=1 + 𝑥−1
2
• Exercises:
• Use differentials to find the approximate values of the
4 3 4 17
following: 83.7 2. 122 3. 4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛280
81
1 2 1
−
5. 730 + 730 2 6. 33
3 5

7. Find the approximate change in the value of a cube side x caused by the increasing of
the sides by 2%.
8. If the radius of the sphere is increased by 3 in. with possible error of 0.01 in., find
approximately the greatest possible error and percentage error in the computed value of
the volume.
9.If the radius of a sphere can be measured to 0.05mm and the volume must be accurate to
6,000 cu.mm, how great a radius will the process be satisfactory?
10. An angle Ø is to be 30 degrees with a possible error of 10’. What is the relative error of
sinØ? Note:  Re lative Error  y 
 y 

CHAIN RULE FOR PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
THE CHAIN RULE

Suppose a curve is defined by the parametric equations

x  f t  and y  g t 
dy
The Chain Rule states that the derivative on the parametric
dx
dy dx
curve is the ratio of to . Higher derivatives are found
dt dt
in a similar manner.
dy d  dy 
 
dy dt d 2 y dt  dx 
In symbols,  and 2

dx dx dx dx
dt dt
EXAMPLE : Find the derivatives of the following parametric
equations :

1. x  2cos t, y  2 sint 2. x  cos 3t, y  sin 3t

Solution : Solution :
dx dy dx dy
 2 sin t and  2 cos t  3 sin 3t and  3 cos 3t
dt dt
dt dt
dy
dy dy dt 3cos3t
dy dt 2cost     cot 3t
    cot t dx dx - 3sin3t
dx dx - 2sint dt
dt
3. x  cos t  2 , y  sin t  2  4. x  8cost  5cos4t, y  8sin t - 5sin4t

Solution :
Solution :
dx
 8 sin t  20 sin 4t and
  sin t  2  and  cost  2 
dx dy
dt
dt dt dy
dy  8 cos t  20 cos 4t
dt
cost  2 
  cot t  2 
dy dt dy
 
dx dx  sin t  2  dy dt
 
8 cos t  20 cos 4t
dt dx dx  8 sin t  20 sin 4t
dt
4 2 cos t  5 cos 4t 

4  2 sin t  5 sin 4t 
2 cos t  5 cos 4t

 2 sin t  5 sin 4t
5. Find the tangent line s  to the parametric curve :
x  t 5  4t 3 and y  t 2 at 0,4 .

dy
We have to find the derivative and find , so that
dx
we can get the slope of the tangent line.
dy
dy dt 2t 2t 2
  4  2 2 
dx dx 5t  12t 2
  
t 5t  12 t 5t 2  12 
dt
Now, at 0 ,4  the parametric equation of the curve becomes
0  t 5  4t 3  t 3 t 2  4   0
t 3  0, t 2  4  0
t  0, t  2
dy
at t  0, is not defined
dx
dy 2 1
at t  2,  

dx 2 52 2  12 8 
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at 0,4 
1
is m 
8
1 1
thus the equation of tangent line is  y - 4  x  y  x  4
8 8
dy 2 1
Now, at t  2 ,   

dx  2 5 2 2  12 8 
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at 0,4  is m  
1
8
1 1
thus the equation of second tangent line is  y - 4   x  y   x  4
8 8
• Find the derivatives of the following parametric equations :
1. x= 2cos t , y= 2 sin t
2. x= cos 3t , y= sin 3t
3. x = cos (t+2) , y= sin (t +2)
4. x=8 cos t +5 cos 4t , y= 8 sin t – 5 sin 4t
5. 𝑥 = 2 + 2𝑡 3 , 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑡 2
𝑧 𝑧
6. 𝑦 = , 𝑥=
1−𝑧 1−𝑧 2
𝑢 𝑢2
7. 𝑥 = , 𝑦=
1+𝑢3 1+𝑢3
 Differential of Arc length in Rectangular Coordinates
2
 dy 
1.ds  1   dx
 dx 

2
 dx 
2.ds  
 dy 
  1dy
 
• For curve in rectangular coordinates, find 𝑑𝑠 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥.
4𝑎 2
1. 𝑦2 = 4𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑠 = 1 + 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑎 4𝑎2
2𝑦 = 4𝑎 ; = = 1 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 4𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑎
𝑑𝑠 = 1+ 𝑑𝑥 = 1+ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2𝑎 2 𝑥+𝑎
= 1+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
• For the given curve in rectangular coordinates, find 𝑑𝑠 in terms of 𝑦
and 𝑑𝑦.
1. 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 𝑦
2𝑦 = 4𝑎 ; = =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 4𝑎 2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑠 = + 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦

𝑦 2 𝑦2
𝑑𝑠 = + 1 𝑑𝑦 = + 1 𝑑𝑦
2𝑎 4𝑎2
4𝑎𝑥
= + 1 𝑑𝑦
4𝑎2
𝑦 2 +4𝑎2
ds = 𝑑𝑦
2𝑎
•

• Exercises. For each of the following curves in rectangular coordinates,

find ds in terms of x and dx; in terms of y and dy.
1.𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

2.𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥

3. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
 Formulas for Curvature in Rectangular Coordinates.
a) For a curve y=f(x), the curvature is expressed in rectangular coordinates as:
𝑦′′
𝐾= 3
1+ 𝑦′ 2 2

where y’ and y’’ are the first and second derivatives respectively, of y with
respect to x.
b) If the independent variable is y, that is x=g(y) the formula is :
 x' '
K 
1  
3
2
x' 2

where x’ and x’’ are the first and second derivatives respectively , of x with
respect to y.
•

• Example:
1. Find the curvature of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at (1,1). 2. Find the curvature of 𝑦 2 2 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑡 (1,1)
Solution. Solution.
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 ; 𝑎𝑡 1,1 , 𝑦 ′ = 3 for 𝑦 ′ : −𝑦 2 + 2 − 𝑥 2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 , 𝑎𝑡 1,1 ; 𝑦 ′ = 2
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 ; 𝑎𝑡 1,1 , 𝑦 ′′ = 6 for𝑦 ′′ : −2𝑥𝑦 + 2 − 𝑥 2𝑦𝑦 ′′ + 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑦′ 2
To find the amount of curvature, K −2𝑦𝑦 ′ = 6𝑥, 𝑎𝑡 1,1 ; 𝑦 ′′ = 3
𝑦′′ 6 3
𝐾= 3 = 3 𝐾= 3
1+ 𝑦′ 2 2 1+ 3 2 2 2
1+2 2
6 6 10 3 3 5
= 3 = = 3 =
100 25
102 52
3 10
=
50
 Radius of Curvature
• To find the radius of curvature,
1
𝑅=
𝐾
3
1+(𝑦′)2 2
hence, 𝑅 =
𝑦′′
1
Example: Find the radius of curvature R for the curve 2𝑦 = 𝑥2 at (1, ).
2
1
Solution. 𝑦′ = 𝑥; 𝑎𝑡 1, , y′ = 1
2
′′ 1
𝑦 = 1; 𝑎𝑡 1, , 𝑦 ′′ = 1
2
3
1+1 2
𝑅=
1
= 2 2 units.
Exercises.
Find the curvature and radius of curvature of each curve at the point
indicated.

1. 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 𝑎𝑡 2,4

2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 𝑎𝑡 (2,1)

3. 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 = 12𝑎𝑡 4,1

4. 𝑥𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑡 (2,1)