1

DEFINITION OF TILLAGE
Tillage is the mechanical manipulation
of soil for any desired purpose. In agriculture,
the term is usually restricted to the changing of
soil conditions for the enhancement of crop
production.

Tillage means the preparation of the growth zone in the soil

(about 10 to 90 cm of the top layer of soil) for plant development.
As large areas of the surface of the earth are subject to tillage,
man has tried to ease the cumbersome and time-critical work of
tillage and developed machines which allow in most places of the
world to perform this task with ease and efficiency.

GENERAL IMPORTANCE OF TILLAGE

The tillage objectives is to achieve the desired soil condition
produced by one or more tillage operations. The primary objectives
includes;

 Elimination and permanent control of the original

vegetation (weeds)
 Creation of conditions favoring the germination, and
emergence and growth of the cultivated plants; and
 Conservation and improvements of the soil as the
growth medium cultivated crops.

The task of tillage is to prepare soils for productive use.

Usually tillage is limited to the arable layer of soil, which contains
organic matter and where plant life actually can occur. Tillage has
to be performed to clear virgin soils of plants and animals for
agricultural use. Furthermore, it must be performed to bring the
seedlings into the soil and procure for them a good environment for
further development.

Another objective of tillage is to control weeds and animals

living in the soil, such as mice or slugs. This is, compared to the use
of chemical means, an energy and time consuming way to control
pests. Another important point is surface leveling because most

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operations in mechanized agriculture depend on level surfaces.

Irregularities in the soil niveau may be caused by traffic on the soil,
harvesting or climatic effects. Together with this goes the need to
distribute clods and porosity according to plant need.

The seeds should be covered by small clods for protection

while around the seeds, fine soil should prevail. Under the seeds,
porosity must not be too high, while smaller and larger clods should
give structure to the soil. Producing this distribution of smaller and
larger clods (stratified seedbed) is one of the main objectives of
primary tillage. Producing fine soils for the environment of the
seedling and the structure of the seedbed is the main objective of
secondary tillage and seedbed preparation. Warming up the soil and
bringing air to deeper layers stimulates life in the soil. At the same
time, loosening makes it easier for plant roots to penetrate into
deeper soil layers. An optimum porosity will also facilitate the
infiltration of air and water for the plant roots, and the ascension of
water from deeper soil layers during dry periods. Loosening the
subsoil may be necessary to break up a hardpan, which can be
created by trafficking and smearing the bottom of the tillage zone as
it happens with plowing or which may develop naturally as in
sodopol soils. Finally, it can be necessary to undertake soil
improvements such as bringing down organic matter into the sterile
subsoil or bringing up sand/clay subsoil into arable layers containing
too much sand/clay in their texture.

APPROPRIATE TILLAGE ACCORDING TO

SOIL CONDITION

An important characteristic of
agricultural soil is its texture. It is
usual to divide the smallest mineral
particles forming the soil matrix into
the three diameter classes:

 sand (particles between 2 mm and 0.05 mm),

 silt (particles between 0.05 mm and 0.002 mm), and
 clay (particles smaller than 0.002mm).

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Gravel and cobbles (over 2mm) appear in agricultural soils but are
usually unwanted because they make tillage hazardous and keep
little organic matter. Sand-sized and larger particles can be
fractionated by sieving.

Soil type has great influence on its workability. Tillage on

sands and sandy soils (light soils) is easy at all moisture contents.
But water storage capacity is low while infiltration rate and water
conductivity are high. This can be an advantage for irrigated soils
as there is only little danger of salt residues. Due to high water
conductivity and easy warming as a result of a low heat capacity,
organic matter is reduced fast and the content of nutrients and
humus is comparatively low. Yields on these soils are usually lower
than on other soil types.

Silty and loamy soils (medium soils) are usually the most
advantageous agricultural soils. Their ability to hold water is still
high enough for plant growth, and they show sufficiently large pores
for good aeration. Their nutrition content is comparatively high, and
the limits of their workability are much wider than with clay soils.
They are usually soils where the highest yields can be achieved.

Because of its influence on soil properties, clay takes in a

greater area of the textural triangle than sand. Clay soils (heavy
soils) are difficult to cultivate as the soil becomes very hard at low
moisture contents, rendering tillage operations almost impossible.
At high moisture contents, plastification will make crumbling almost
impossible and produce very high draft forces for tillage implements
together with severe smearing at the soil-tool interfaces. Thus,
these soils can be worked only in a limited range of moisture
contents. Water conductivity is low so clay soils can be wet in a
humid climate. Porosity is high, but most pores are fine pores that
do not allow sufficient aeration. The ability to of such soils. These
soils can be meliorated by incorporating sand from deep soil layers
or by deep loosening.

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SPECIFIC TILLAGE OPERATION

 anchoring - tillage to partially bury and thereby prevent
movement of materials such as plant residues or artificial
mulches
 bedding/ridging /listing - tillage which forms a ridge and
furrow soil configuration
 bulldozing - pushing or rolling of soil by a steeply inclined
blade
 chisel plowing - tillage in which a narrow curved shank is
used (NOTE Chisel plowing at depths greater than 350 mm
is termed subsoiling)
 combined tillage operations - operations simultaneously
utilizing two or more different types of tillage tools or
implements (subsoil-lister, lister-planter, or plow-planter
combinations) to simplify, control, or reduce the number of
trips over a field)
 harrowing - operation which pulverizes, smoothens, and
makes the soil ready for planting (NOTE It is commonly used
before seeding)
 incorporating /mixing - operation which mix or disperse
foreign materials, such as pesticides, fertilizers or plant
residues into the soil
 middle breaking/hilling-up - operation wherein a lister is
used in a manner that forms a furrow midway between two
previous rows of plants
 Off barring - operation that cuts and throws the soil away from
the base of plants (NOTE: this is the reverse of middle
breaking or hilling-up.)
 moldboard plowing - operation which is performed to cut the
soil with partial or complete soil inversion
 residue processing - operation that cut, crush, anchor or
otherwise handle residues in conjunction with soil
manipulation
 Subsoiling - deep tillage, below 350 mm for the purpose of
loosening soil for root growth and/or water movement.
 vertical mulching - operation in which a vertical band of
mulching material is injected into the slit immediately behind a
tillage tool shank

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TILLAGE SYSTEM
Tillage machines typically are grouped together in tillage
systems, which can be of various levels of intensity. One tillage
system comprises all the machines necessary for primary and
secondary tillage and enable to perform seeding or planting. Plows
and chisel plows have the highest energy requirements. Reducing
the intensity of tillage will considerably reduce the energy required
per m tillage width. In addition, soil type and moisture are important
for the actual energy requirement and must be taken into account.
The numbers given are only relevant for the tractor power
requirement caused by the tillage implement. The tractor itself needs
further power to overcome rolling and slope resistance. The values
given are valid for four-wheel drive tractors. In the case of a two-
wheel drive tractor, it is necessary to add between 2–5 kW to the
total energy requirement to account for the rolling resistance of the
front axle.

 Conventional tillage is a system

traditionally performed in
preparing a seedbed for a given
crop and grown in a given
geographical area.

 Conservation tillage is a system that maintains a minimum

of 30% residue cover on the soil surface after planting or
maintains at least 1,100 kg/ha of flat small grain residue
equivalent on the soil surface during the critical erosion
period

The reference system for tillage is still the conventional tillage

system, which is based on a high intensity of soil engagement and
inversion of the soil. Its characteristic implement is the moldboard
plow. As plowing produces comparatively large aggregates and a
rough soil surface, it must be followed by secondary tillage in order
to prepare a seedbed. The main advantage of the system is to
produce controlled soil conditions, a thorough loosening and a field
clear of plant residues. Organic matter and weed seeds or
shattered seeds are buried.

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 Minimum tillage is a system wherein least soil manipulation is

performed mulch tillage system in which tillage of the total soil
surface is performed in such a way that plant residue is
specifically left on or near the soil surface
 Optimum tillage is an idealized system which permits a
maximized net return for a given crop under given conditions
 Precision tillage a system subsoiling under the plant row prior
to planting usually intended for subsurface drainage
 Reduced tillage is a system in which the primary tillage
operation is performed in conjunction with special planting
procedures in order to reduce or eliminate secondary tillage
operations
 Reservoir tillage is a system in which a large number of
depressions or small reservoirs are formed to hold rain or
sprinkler applied water
 Ridge tillage is a system in which the ridges are formed during
cultivation or after harvest and maintained from year to year in
the same location. Seeding is done on the ridge top.
 Strip tillage is a system in which only isolated bands of soil is
tilled.

TILLAGE CLASSIFICATION

Primary Seconary
TILLAGE
Tillage Tillage

Primary tillage is a tillage, which constitutes the initial major soil-

working operation, normally designed to reduce soil strength, cover
plant materials, and rearrange aggregates.

Secondary tillage is a tillage, following primary tillage, which are

designed to control weed growth and to create specific soil surface
configurations before seeding.

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Basic Elements and Materials of

Tillage Tools
The main active part of almost any tool is the edge. Other
parameters such as the shape, the speed of the tool action, the depth
and the forward speed in addition to the soil physical properties have
a great effect on the resulting soil structure. The most important form
for tillage tools is the wedge. When entering the soil the force applied
to the tool is multiplied before acting on the soil, thus causing either
soil failure under dry conditions (crumbling) or plastic deformation in
wet soils. Usually soil failure is the desired effect while plastic
deformation is an unwanted effect unless applied for puddling in
paddy field tillage.

For soil-loosening, usually only half a wedge is used in order

to avoid friction forces on a second soil tool contact interface. Thus,
the normal form of a soil-loosening implement will be the raked blade.
It can be shown that the soil before such a raked blade fails in a way
that a curved slip line starts at the tip of the tool and goes from there
to the soil surface. This pattern is valid for comparatively wide tools
as side effects are neglected. For small tools, side effects must be
taken into account. It is usually suitable for elements that break the
soil without turning it, such as cultivators, sweeps and other tines or
(bulldozer and) excavator blades. If the tool is comparatively small,
the soil will start from a certain depth to flow around the tool instead
of breaking before it, which will cause compaction around the tool
instead of loosening. For plows, there are empirical formulate which
were basically developed by Goriachkin and which state a quadratic
relationship between the plowing resistance and the working speed.

Secondary tillage, whether performed with drawn implements

or with animated tools, is always worked on pre-loosened soils where
individual clods must be further reduced to smaller aggregates.
Tillage machines that use drawn tines are performing this mainly by
cutting, breaking, and milling and to a smaller extent by beating and
throwing soil aggregates. Their effect usually becomes stronger with
speed. At the same time, tools with drawn tines are able to separate
the different size classes of the soil. Implements with driven tools
usually

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break clods by beating them and throwing them against some

surface from where they will rebound. Driven tillage tools usually do
not separate soil into size classes, but their size reduction effect is
rather larger than that of drawn implements. So far, a complete
theoretical prediction model for secondary tillage machines is still
missing.

Following frequent use, the tool edge of tillage tools

undergoes wear, which result in a parabolic edge profile, depending
on the wearing material, the thickness of the tool and the conditions
of use. Wear resistance increases as the hardness of the wearing
material exceeds about 80% of the hardest particles of the soil. DIN
11100 recommended at least 500 HV. Presently, the use of a
protecting layer of carbide or other hard materials on the nozzle of
the share can be found. In terms of wear, the lifetime of a disk can
be doubled by this measure.

DRAWN
IMPLEMENT

SHARE AND MOLDBOARD

The share and the moldboard are the main engaging parts of
the moldboard plow. The share is a plane part with trapezoidal
shape. It cuts the soil horizontally and lifts it. Common types are
regular, winged plane, bar-point and share with mounted or welded
point. The regular share conserves a good cut but is recommended
on stone free soils. The winged plane, share is used on heavy soil
with a moderate amount of stones. The bar-point share can be used
in extreme conditions (hard and stony soils). The use of the share
with mounted point is somewhere between the last two types. The
function of the moldboard is to lift the soil cut by the share and to let
it undergo an action of torsion and inversion. The intensity of this
action depends on the type of the moldboard. At present three types
are mostly used: helicocylindrical (universal), digger (cylindrical), and
helical (semi digger).

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The standard (universal) type

is by far the most widely used one
because of its adaptation to almost
all situations and soil types, except in
the most extreme conditions

The cylindrical moldboard is

very intense in its action (bulldozer
action). On the other hand, the semi
digger type is well suitable for rapid
and returning action but limited on
the depth.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHARES

Trapezoidal – It has a point that is reinforced to allow re-sharpening

and re-forging. It is used for light soil and straight cuts.

Pointed – It is used for medium to heavy soil. This is better than

trapezoidal shape for breaking up the soil, penetration, support
resistance to wear and susceptibility to damage from stone. It can
be re-sharpened and re-forged.

Gunnel-Type - The share point and cutting edge are supported by a

vertical, V-shaped flange. The flange is used to provide extra
material for forging. The share is very rigid and resistant to wear and
suitable for difficult condition.

Chisel Point – It is used for heavy or stony soil. The share is similar
to the pointed-type except that instead of the forgeable point, it has
a chisel that can be adjusted and used on both sides.

DISKS

Disks used for plowing and harrowing are made out of a

portion of a sphere, thus creating the disk shape. Their common
dimensions are 410–1270 mm in diameter and a thickness of 4.5–9
mm and a curvature of about 2.5 times the diameter for the plow and
1.2 times the diameter for harrows. The disk will wear externally,
showing a parabolic profile with external bevel. To facilitate the
penetration into hard soil, the disk could be made with indentation.
However, moist residues can limit the penetration.

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Disks can be used for disk harrows or disk plows. For harrow disks,
the tilt angle is zero. The disk angle can be adjusted from 15± to 25±.
In the case of a disk plow, the tilt angle can be adjustable from 10±
to 25±, the disk angle can be either fixed or adjustable (40± to 50±).

The disk action on the soil is somewhat similar to that of the

cylindrical moldboard type. The double obliquity placement of the
disk causes its rotation once it is moved forward. This movement
facilitates the cutting of the soil and its lateral displacement as a
result of soil-metal friction and the soil aggregate acceleration. The
working depth depends on both disk angle and the weight per body.
There are two types of harrow disks: medium harrows with less than
80 kg/disk and heavy ones having more than 120 kg/disk.

CHISEL-TYPE TOOLS

The soil-engaging components of a chisel-type are

symmetrical, plane or concave. They till the soil profile to a certain
depth, leaving plant residues near the surface. They can be used to
loosen the soil, break up compacted layers, slightly bury organic
residues, without soil inversion, and in certain cases, control weeds
and surface crusting. There are different share types. The rake angle
varies between 20± and 60±. The chisel share and the diamond-
pointed share are strong and commonly used. The regular tine is also
very used, but it is less strong and does less burying. The twisted
share and duck foot share are used in stubble tillage because of their
mixing effect. The sweep tine is popular for weed control and surface
crust breaking. They also are used in situations where water
conservation is needed, in fallow fields, and to maintain row crops.
The winged tine is used in conservation tillage and if a short machine
is desired as one single tool, it can loosen a comparatively large band
of soil. The wings only loosen soil without mixing the layers so the
structure of soil is kept intact. If mixing is desired, a straight or a chisel
share must be used instead of the chisel. For harrows and cultivators
the soil-engaging components are made of rigid tine or spring-tine
type. The second type has a better performance and is sometimes
combined with a rotary harrow. The spring tines sort and level
aggregates. Sometimes they are reinforced with a flat or a helical
spring. The tool is a chisel-type share, simple or double tine or duck
foot share.

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PTO-DRIVEN IMPLEMENTS

Contrary to drawn implements, PTO-driven implements act

intensively on the soil, rather independently of the forward speed of
the tractor. This allows the rapid achievement of the desired soil
structure. However, this forced action can lead to soil structure
damage, including very fine aggregates in dry crumbling soil, smear
or compaction under the worked soil layer in wet conditions and the
destruction of fauna which is beneficent to the soil. Weise
investigated the crumbling effect of different types of tools for PTO-
driven implements: blade with or without a sharpened edge (twisted,
curved or L-shaped blade); tines with a corner and special tines with
a complex shape. In weak-structured soil, drop-shaped tines and
blades without a sharpened edge are recommended. Twisted and
curved blades are suitable for stubble tillage. Special and L-shaped
blades are used more and more for primary tillage but still used for
secondary tillage under hard soils conditions.

TILLAGE IMPLEMENT
(General Purpose Equipments)
These are implements performing functions simultaneously
that of initial cutting, breaking and pulverizing the soil. The following
are examples of general-purpose implements

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Plow-harrow - implement which works

under the combined principles of the
regular disc plow and harrow. It has a
frame, wheel arrangement and depth
adjustment of the disc plow but the disc are
assembled on a single shaft and turn as a
unit similar to a gang of disc harrow.

Rotary tiller - implement used for

broadcast or strip tillage and is also used
as chemical incorporator and as row crop
cultivator. It consists of power-driven shaft,
transverse to the direction of travel,
equipped with curved knives that slice
through the soil, chop surface residue and
mix all materials in the disturbed layer.

Spiral plow/rotary plow - implement

which consists of two horizontal power
driven spiral flanged shafts which rotate
vertically. The two shafts are placed end-
to-end and oriented to throw the soil
outward.

Moldboard plow - implement which cuts,

partially or completely inverts a layer of soil
to bury surface materials, and pulverizes
the soil. It consists of cutting edge,
stabilizer and curved surface.

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TILLAGE IMPLEMENT
(Primary Tillage Equipments)
These are the implements used for cutting, displacing and/or
shattering the soil to reduce soil strength and to bury or mix plant
materials, pesticides, and fertilizers in the tillage layer

Chisel plow - is the implement which shatters the soil without

complete burial or mixing of surface materials. Multiple rows of
staggered curved shanks are mounted either rigidly, with spring-
cushions, spike, or shovel tools are attached to each shank.

Disc plow - implement with individually mounted concave disc blades

which cut, partially or completely invert a layer of soil to bury surface
material, and pulverize the soil. Blades are attached to the frame in a
tilted position relative to the frame and to the direction of travel for
proper penetration and soil displacement.

 Right-hand plow - turns the furrow slice to the right of the

plow
 Left-hand plow - turns the furrow slice to the left of the
plow
 Two-way plow - eliminates back and dead furrows and is
used for surface irrigation (NOTE It consists of both the
right-hand and left-hand plows, with one type being used
at a time.
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Subsoiler - implement for

intermittent tillage at
depths sufficient to shatter
compacted subsurface
layers. It is equipped with
widely spaced shanks
either in-line or staggered
on a V-shaped frame.

TILLAGE IMPLEMENT
(Secondary Tillage Equipment)
These are implements used for tilling the soil to a shallower
depth than primary tillage implements, provide additional
pulverization, mix pesticides and fertilizers into the soil, level and firm
the soil, close air pockets, and eradicate weeds

Comb-tooth harrow - implement used

for breaking clods after initial plowing,
for subsequent operations prior to
transplanting and for puddling and
leveling. It consists of a row of teeth
that works like a rake.

Disc harrow - implement used to

pulverize the soil to attain a better soil
tilth for the seed germination and
growth. It consists of two or four gangs
of concave steel disc.

 Single-action disc harrow - consists of two gangs of

discs, placed end-to-end at an angle, which throw the
soil in opposite directions
 Double-action disc harrow - tandem disc harrow
consists of two or more gangs, in which a set of two
gangs follows behind the front gangs and is arranged
in such a way that the discs on the front gangs throw
the soil in one direction (usually outward) and the
discs on the rear gangs throw the soil in the opposite
directions

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 Offset disc harrow - consists of two gangs wherein

one gang is located behind the other at an angle and
the harrow is operated in an offset position in relation
to the tractor

Field cultivator - implement for

seedbed preparation, weed
eradication, or fallow cultivation
subsequent to some form of primary
tillage. It is equipped with spring steel
shanks or teeth (generally spaced 150-
230 mm in a staggered pattern) which
has an integral forged point or
mounting holes for replaceable shovel
or sweep tools.

Packer- implement for crushing soil

clods and compacting the soil. It
consists of one or two in-line gangs of
rollers such as lugged wheels or any
one of various shaped ridged wheels.

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Roller-harrow - implement used for seedbed preparation which

crushes soil clods and smooths and firms the soil surface. It consists
of an in-line gang of ridged rollers, followed by one or more rows of
staggered spring cultivator teeth, followed by a second in-line gang
of ridged rollers.

Rotary hoe - implement for dislodging

small weeds and grasses and for
breaking soil crust and is used for fast,
shallow cultivation before or soon after
crop plants emerge. Rigid curved teeth
mounted on wheels toll over the soil,
penetrating almost straight down and
lifting soil as they rotate. Hoe wheels
may be mounted in multiple gangs or
as short gangs on spring loaded arms
suspended from the main frame.

Row crop cultivator - implement

wherein the frame and cultivating tools
are designed to adequately pass
through standing crop rows without
crop damage. Gangs of shanks are
often independently suspended on
parallel linkages with depth-controlling
wheels to provide floatation with the
soil surface.

Spike-tooth harrow - implement

consisting of long spikes attached
rigidly to cross bars and staggered to
attain maximum stirring and raking of
soil

Spring-tooth harrow - implement

consisting of long, flat and curved teeth
made of spring steel. The teeth are
fastened to cross bars with the other
end pointed to give good soil
penetration.

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Cultivating tillage implement - implement performing shallow post-

plant tillage to aid the crop by loosening the soil and/or by mechanical
eradication of undesired vegetation

 Continuous-tool bar cultivator - implement consisting of tool

bars that extend across the top of the rows, which allow lateral
adjustments of the tools for different row spacing
 Separated gang cultivator - implement consisting of tool bars
that drop down between the rows to provide maximum vertical
clearance for the plants

Trailing – The implement is attached to the tractor hitch and is being

adjusted mechanically both for vertical and horizontal operation.
Semi-Mounted – It is called as direct connected implement wherein the
front of the implement is connected to the tractor while the furrow wheel of
the implement supports the rear end.
Integral Mounted – The implement is mounted at the rear of the tractor
where it is lifted or picked up by is hydraulic system.

 Soil type
 Condition of the soil (Moisture content, bulk density, and structure)
 Shape working depth, and speed of tool
 Climatic condition
 Extent to which the power source and implement or tool match
 Correct adjustment or use of the implement.

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 It is the amount of pull required to move the plow.

 Plow draft is dependent on the size of the plow and the depth of
plowing.
 In plowing at least ¾ of the available power should be used
 One moldboard plow bottom requires about 10-20 hp in order to pull
the implement

 Soil condition
 Topography
 Adjustment of plow
 Hitch of the tractor
 Depth and rate of plowing
 Sharpness of shares, coulters, and jointers

 It is the point where all the horizontal and vertical forces meets
together.
 Plow Center Resistance
 Moldboard – at the intersection between the share and the
moldboard and to the right of the shin.
 Disk – at the left and below the center of the disk and is closer
to the furrow wall.

 Angle of disk gang

 Weight of the harrow
 Sharpness of disks
 Size of disks
 Concavity of disk
 Angle of hitch

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FORMULAS FOR TILLAGE

Plow Area of Cut Ac − area of cut of plow , m2
Wc − width of cut , m
Ac = Wc DC Dc − depth of cut , m

Draft of Plow F − draft of plow , kg

Ac − area of cut , m2
F = Ac δs δs − specific resistance of soil , kg/m2

Drawbar Horsepower DHP − drawbar horsepower

F − draft of plow , kg
FxV FxV V − velocity of implement, m/s
DHP = =
76.2 33,000

Theoretical Field Ct − theoratical field capacity, ha/hr

Capacity Wi − width of implement, m
Vi − implement speed, kph
Ct = 0.1 x Wi x Vi

Effective Field Ce − effective field capacity, ha/hr

Capacity Ct − theoratical field capacity, ha/hr
ξf − field effeciency, decimal
Ce = Ct x ξf

Field Efficiency ξf − field effeciency, %

Ce − effective field capacity, ha/hr
Ce Ct − theoratical field capacity, ha/hr
ξf = x 100
Ct

Number of Implement NI − number of implement units

Unit Af − area of farm, ha
To − total operating time to finish
Af operation, hr
NI =
To x Ce Ce − effective field capacity of
implement, ha/hr

Time to Finish Tillage To − total operating time to finish

Operation operation, hr
Af − area of farm, ha
Af Ce − effective field capacity, ha/hr
To =
NI x Ce NI − number of tillage implement

Width of Cut of Disc W – with of cut , m

Plow N – number of disk
S – disk spacing, mm
0.95 x N x S + D D – diameter of disk, mm
W=
1000

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FORMULAS FOR TILLAGE

Width of Cut for Disc Harrows
Single Action W – with of cut , m
N – number of disk
0.95 x N x S + 0.3D S – disk spacing, mm
W=
1000 D – diameter of disk, mm

Tandem Type W – with of cut , m

N – number of disk
0.95 x N x S + 1.2D S – disk spacing, mm
W=
1000 D – diameter of disk, mm

Offset Type W – with of cut , m

N – number of disk
0.95 x N x S + 0.6D S – disk spacing, mm
W=
1000 D – diameter of disk, mm

Draft of Moldboard Plow

D − unit draft of implement,
D = 7.0 + 0.049S 2 ∶ silty clay N/cm2
D = 6.0 + 0.053S 2 ∶ clay loam S – implement speed, kph
D = 3.0 + 0.021S 2 ∶ loam
D = 3.0 + 0.056S 2 ∶ sandy silt
D = 2.8 + 0.013S 2 ∶ sandy loam
D = 2.0 + 0.013S 2 ∶ sand

Fuel Consumption Rate FC – fuel consumption, lph

V – volume of fuel consumed, l
V T – total operating time, hr
FC =
t

Specific Fuel Consumption SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption,

li/hr-hp
FC FC – fuel consumption, li/hr
SFC =
AHP AHP – axle power, hp

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Compute the drawbar pull and drawbar horsepower of a single
bottom moldboard plow on a clay loam soil having an effective width
of cut of 0.3 m and a depth of cut of 15 cm. The plowing speed is 5
kph. Assume a soil draft for clay loam soil of 8 psi.

Given: Width of cut - 0.3 m

Depth of cut - 0.15 m
Plowing speed - 5 kph
Soil draft - 8 psi

Required: Drawbar pull and drawbar horsepower

Solution:

lb 1 in2 10,000 cm2 1 kg kg

8 2( ) ( ) ( ) = 5,636.37
in 6.4516 cm2 1m2 2.2 lb m2

km 1000 m 1 hr m
5 ( )( ) = 1.39
hr 1 km 3600 sec s

kg
F = 0.15m x 0.30m x 5,636.37
m2
= 𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟔𝟒 𝐤𝐠
F x V 253.64 kg x 1.39 m/s
DHP = =
76.2 76.2
= 𝟒. 𝟔𝟑 𝐡𝐩

A 3 bottom plow is plowing at a speed of 8 kph. The effective

width per plow bottom is 25 cm. If the plowing efficiency is 80%,
compute the theoretical and effective field capacity of the implement.
Given: No. of plow bottom - 3
Plowing speed - 8 kph
Effective width per plow - 25 cm
Plowing efficiency - 80%

Required: Theoretical and effective field capacity

Solution:

Ct = 0.1 x 0.25 m x 3 x 8 kph

= 𝟎. 𝟔 𝐡𝐚/𝐡𝐫

Ce = 0.6 ha/hr x 0.80

= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝐡𝐚/𝐡𝐫

Compute the drawbar pull and drawbar horsepower of a four

(4)-bottom moldboard plow on a clay loam soil having an effective
width of cut of 0.3 m per bottom and a depth of cut of 0.15 m. The
plowing speed is 10 kph. (Soil draft for clay loam soil is assumed at
8 psi).

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Given: Plow - moldboard
No. of Plow - 4
Width of Cut - 0.3 m
Depth of Cut - 0.15 cm
Speed - 10 kph
Soil Draft - 8 psi

Required: Drawbar pull and Drawbar horsepower

Solution:
kg
F = 0.15 m x 0.30 m x 4 plows x 5636.37
m2
= 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒. 𝟓𝟓 𝐤𝐠

km 1000 m 1 hr m
10 ( )( ) = 2.78
hr 1 km 3600 sec s
F x V 1014.55 kg x 2.78 m/s
DHP = =
76.2 76.2
= 𝟑𝟕. 𝟎𝟏 𝐡𝐩

Assume that you are the Agricultural Engineer of a 500-

hectare corn farm with soil type that gives 10 psi draft when plowing
at a speed of 4 km/hr. Compute the drawbar horsepower required
to pull a three-disk plow with effective cut of 12 inches per disk at a
plowing depth of 6 inches.
Given: Area - 500 ha corn farm
Soil draft - 10 psi
Plowing speed - 4 kph
Plow bottom - 3 disk
Width of cut - 12 in. per disk
Plowing depth - 6 inches
Required: Drawbar horsepower
Solution:
lb km 1000m hr
DPH = [3 x 12in x 6in x 10 2
x4 x x ]
in hr km 3600 sec
/ 76.2 kg − m/sec − hp
= 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑 𝐡𝐩

A single bottom moldboard plow is to be designed to be drawn

by a 16 hp power tiller. The required depth of plowing is 15 cm at a
speed of 6 kph. If the soil is a clay loam type with specific draft of 8
psi, what would be the width of the plow? Assume a 50% drawbar
load of the rated engine hp of the power tiller.
Given: Rated engine power –16 hp
Drawbar load-50% of the engine power
Required depth of plowing –15 cm
Soil draft-8 psi
Design speed –6 kph

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Required: Design width of the plow

Solution:

DHP x 76.2
F=
V
16 𝑥 76.2
F=
km 1000 m 1 hr
16 ( ) (3600 sec)
hr 1 km
= 𝟐𝟕𝟒. 𝟑𝟐 𝐤𝐠

Ap = Fp / δs
1 kg 1in2 10000cm2
= 274.32 kg/ 8 psi ( )( )( )
2.2 lb 6.4516 cm2 1m2
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝐦𝟐

Wp = Ap / Dp
= 0.0486 m2/ 0.15 m
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 𝐜𝐦

Compute the power required to draw a two bottom moldboard

plow having a width and depth of cut of 15 cm and 10 cm per bottom,
respectively. The soil is a clay loam type with specific draft of 5 psi.
The design plowing speed 5 kph.
Given: No. of plow bottom –2
Width of Cut -15 cm
Depth of Cut-10 cm
Soil draft –5 psi;
Plowing speed –5 kph

Required: drawbar horsepower

Solution:

A = Wp x Dp
= (0.15 m x 0.10 m) 2 plow
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝐦𝟐

F= Axδ
= (0.03 m2)(5psi x 1kg/2.2lb x (in/2.54 cm)2x (100 cm/m)2
= (0.03 m2) (3,523.6 kg/m2)
= 105.71 kg x 2.2 lb/kg
= 𝟐𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝐥𝐛

DHP = [F x V ]/33,000
= [232.55 lb x 273.40 ft/min] / [33,000 ft − lb/min]
= 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑 𝐡𝐩

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A 16-hp rotary tiller is tilling at 10-cm depth. Its rotating tiller

has 0.5-m width. What is the specific power output of the machine if
it is traveling at 0.5-mps speed? Assume a 0.80 power transmission
efficiency for the tiller.
Given: Power Input - 16 hp
Depth of Cut - 10 cm
Width of Cut - 0.5 m
Speed of Tiller - 0.5 m/sec
Power Trans Eff - 0.80

Required: Specific Power Output

Solution:
(16 Hp x 0.80 x 746 watt/Hp)
𝐒𝐏𝐎 =
[100 cm/m (50 cm) (10 cm) (0.5 m/sec)]
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟐 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬/𝐜𝐦𝟑

In a 200-hectare corn project, the field has to be tilled within

30 days. What size of a heavy-duty offset-disk harrow should be
selected if the tractor to be used will be operated at 5-kph speed?
Assume a 75% field efficiency and an 8-hour working day.

Given: Area - 200 hectares

Tilling period - 30 days
Implement velocity - 5 kph
Field efficiency - 75%
Operating time - 8 hours per day

Required: Size of Heavy-duty Offset-disk Harrow

Solution:

RFC = A /[Pt x OT x Eff]

= 200 hectares/[30 days x 8hr/day x 0.75]
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝐡𝐚/𝐡𝐫

W = RFC / [0.1 x V]
= 1.11 ha/hr / [0.1 x 5 kph]
= 𝟐. 𝟐 𝐦

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PRE-TEST
TILLAGE
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. Classification of tillage which are designed to control weed growth and

to create specific soil surface configurations before seeding.
a. Primary tillage
b. Conventional tillage
c. Secondary tillage
2. Tillage system that is traditionally performed in preparing a seedbed for
a given crop and grown in a given geographical area.
a. Conservation tillage
b. Conventional tillage
c. Mulch tillage
3. A primary tillage implement which shatters the soil without complete
burial or mixing of surface materials.
a. Chisel plow
b. Moldboard plow
c. Disc plow
4. Chisel plowing at a depths greater than 350 mm.
a. Anchoring
b. Subsoiling
c. Harrowing
5. It is a tillage, which constitutes the initial major soil-working operation,
normally designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials, and
rearrange aggregates.
a. Primary tillage
b. Conventional tillage
c. Secondary tillage
6. The ____ is a plane part with trapezoidal shape. It cuts the soil
horizontally and lifts it.
a. share
b. chisel
c. edge
7. It is the mechanical manipulation of soil for any desired purpose.
a. Land grading
b. Plowing
c. Tillage
8. It is a system that maintains a minimum of 30% residue cover on the soil
surface after planting or maintains at least 1,100 kg/ha of flat small grain
residue equivalent on the soil surface during the critical erosion period.
a. Conservation tillage
b. Conventional tillage
c. Mulch tillage
9. Soil Particle between 2 mm and 0.05 mm.
a. Sand
b. Silt
c. Clay

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10. It is the theoretical area that can be covered by plow per unit time.
a. Effective field capacity
b. Field efficiency
c. Theoretical field capacity
11. Which of the following is a primary objective of tillage?
a. To eliminate and to permanently control the growth of weeds;
b. To create a favorable condition for germination, emergence and
growth of the cultivated plants
c. To conserve and to improve the soil as medium for the growth of
cultivated crops.
d. All of the above
12. Primary tillage operation includes:
a. pulverizing
b. mulching
c. plowing
d. all of the above
13. Secondary tillage operation includes:
a. listing
b. subsoiling
c. harrowing
d. All of the above
14. A primary tillage operation that manipulates the soil to a depth greater
than 300 mm.
a. Reservoir tillage
b. Deep tillage
c. Ridge tillage
d. None of the above
15. A primary or secondary tillage implement used for broadcast or for strip
tillage and also used as a chemical incorporator prior to planting.
a. Roller tiller
b. Roller harrow
c. Packer
d. None of the above

16. – 20. ESSAY:

Explain how does the soil type affects the workability of the tillage
operation?

21 -25 (5 POINTS)
What is the required drawbar pull of a 5-meter tractor-drawn spike-tooth
harrow with 89 kg/m specific draft? What is the drawbar horsepower of
the implement if it is running at 6-kph speed?

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KEY TO CORRECTION
PRE - TEST
II. Multiple Choice
1. secondary tillage
2. conventional tillage
3. chisel plow
4. Subsoiling
5. primary tillage
6. share
7. tillage
8. conservation tillage
9. sand
10. theoretical capacity
11. ALL OF THE ABOVE
12. ALL OF THE ABOVE
13. ALL OF THE ABOVE
14. Deep tillage
15. Rotary tiller
III. Essay
IV. Problem Solving

Given:
Width of implement - 5 m
Specific draft - 89 kg/m
Speed - 6 kph

Required: Drawbar Pull

Solution:

F = Ds W
kg
F = (89 ) (5m)
m
F = 445 kg

km 1000 m 1 hr
FV (445 kg) (6 ) ( 1 km ) (3600 s)
DHP = = hr
76.2 76.2
DHP = 9.73 hp

AE 12: Agricultural Mechanization and Machinery

Management