Name: Khesler D.

Ramos

Curriculum and Section: Teacher Certificate Curriculum - C

Topic: Process Theories

Instructor: Mr. Kier L. Ecle

Process theory is a system of ideas that explains how an entity changes and develops.

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states
that individual’s behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is based on “law of effect”, i.e,
individual’s behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s
behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.

Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner
feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what
happens to an individual when he takes some action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external
environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate
the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individual’s
behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of individual’s behaviour.

The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of the employees:

 Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an

individual shows positive and required behaviour. For example - Immediately
praising an employee for coming early for job. This will increase probability of
outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily. If and only if the employees’ behaviour improves, reward can said to
be a positive reinforcer. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a
behaviour. It must be noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the
greater reinforcement value it has.

 Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing

negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement
can be used for increasing desirable / required behaviour.

 Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the

probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words,
punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable
behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational
rules. Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from alternative
source.

 Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies

lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by removing reward for that kind of
behaviour. For instance - if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration
for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful
consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory?

In 1964, Canadian professor of psychology Victor Vroom developed the Expectancy Theory. In
it, he studied people’s motivation and concluded it depends on three
factors: Expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Abraham Maslow and Frederick
Herzberg also researched the relation between people’s needs and the efforts they make.
Vroom distinguishes between the effort people put in, their performance and the final result. His
theory primarily relates to motivation within a work environment. When employees can make
choices in their work, Victor Vroom argues that they will mostly choose that what motivates
them the most.

Expectancy

This is about what employees expect from their own efforts and the relation to good
performance. Part of this expectation is the level of difficulty he experiences. An organisation
can respond to that by finding out which factors can motivate the employee to deliver his best
possible performance. Those factors can be facilities, training or support from a supervisor who
builds his employees’ confidence. Victor Vroom indicates that, in general, more effort leads to
better performance. Employees can be stimulated to make an effort by offering them a juicy
carrot if they complete their task properly and quickly. Of course, it’s also important that they
have the right resources at their disposal, that the employees have the necessary skills and that
management provides the right level of support.

Instrumentality

Each employee is a cog in the machine and an instrument that contributes to the business
results. From that perspective, instrumentality isn’t difficult to grasp. It’s about the
employee’s performance being good enough to achieve the desired result. An organisation can
stimulate this by actually making good on promises of additional rewards such as bonuses
or promotion. The employee has to believe that if he performs well, appreciation will be shown
for the results. Transparency throughout the reward process is an important condition for
instrumentality.

Valence

The final result that employees achieve is valued differently by each individual. This value is
based on their own basic needs. As such, it’s a good idea for an organisation to find out what an
individual employee values and what his personal needs are. One might value money, while
another values more days off.

Adams Equity Theory

The Adams Equity Theory was developed by the American psychologist John Stacey Adams in
1963. It’s about the balance between the effort an employee puts into their work (input), and the
result they get in return (output).
Fairness

The Adams Equity Theory shows why salary and benefits alone don’t determine an employee’s
motivation. It explains why a promotion or raise rarely has the desired effect. It can even
undermine the motivation of other employees. Employees place great importance on being
treated fairly and equally. This ensures that they’ll be motivated at work. It’s treating different
employees differently and unfairly that leads to bad blood and will damage a lot of people’s
motivation. After all, we all wanted to be treated fairly. When that’s not the case, employees will
be unhappy, which can manifest itself in different ways. For instance, they won’t perform
optimally, and there’ll be a risk of high employee turnover as employees choose to try their luck
at another employer. That’s why fair treatment of everyone involved is essential.

Input

The input referred to in Adams Equity Theory includes both the quantity and the quality of the
contributions employees make to carrying out their work. They spend time, energy, and
engagement at work. They work hard, share ideas, trust their superiors and support their co-
workers. It’s about the effort they put into the organisation. The number of examples are
endless, but the most common forms of input are listed below:

Effort

Every day employees make an effort by coming into work and carrying out their job and tasks.
No effort means no work. It’s the most basic level of input.

Skills

Employees have skills they use to carry out their job competently and professionally. They’ve
gained these skills through training and experience.

Knowledge

This is valuable input employees accrue through schooling and training, being interested in their
field, and by developing and evolving.

Experience

Employees can’t make good use of their knowledge without experience. That’s why experience
is considered to be very valuable input with a remarkable characteristic. Moreover, experience
can’t easily be replaced.
Social skills

Employees take part in company outings, celebrate each other’s birthdays, and are able to
create pleasant working conditions by engaging each other in conversation. By treating each
other with empathy, employees ensure that they’re part of the group and therefore the
organisation as a whole. Acceptance is also part of this. By accepting and tolerating the
behaviour of others, employees can foster mutual respect.

Loyalty

This includes everything related to personal sacrifice. An employee who remains loyal to his
organisation, despite a job offer at another organisation, is loyal. Employees who work late
every day and sacrifice their own free time are loyal too.

Output

Employees’ output can generally be divided into 1) financial rewards, 2) immaterial rewards.
The most common forms of output are discussed based on this division.

1. Financial rewards

Salary

This is considered the most important output for employees. In return for all their input, they get
a fixed amount of money that’s paid by the company every month.

Bonus

The extra money on top of the salary as a bonus is also considered a financial reward. Bonuses
can be based on commission or targets. The harder an employee works, the higher this bonus.

Profit sharing

Profit sharing also falls under this type of output. When the whole organisation and all its
employees work hard, this results in a shared reward at the end of the year.

2. Immaterial rewards

Recognition

Employees want to be intrinsically motivated. This means they feel it’s important that their hard
work is recognised. When a co-worker takes credit for an employee’s work, this leads to a
massive imbalance in the Equity Theory. It’s important for managers to be aware of this factor
and actively give employees the recognition they deserve.
Challenge

Employees enjoy interesting and important challenges in their work. This makes them feel proud
of the work they do and committed to the organisation.

Responsibility

This ensures employees experience a sense of ownership and control in their work. This
responsibility makes them feel confident and gives them the freedom to organise and carry out
their work as they see fit. As a result, responsibility leads to intrinsic motivation. The employees
feel that they matter in the organisation.

Balance

The core of the Adams Equity Theory is that there needs to be a balance between employee
input and output. What an employee brings to an organisation needs to be relatively equal to
what they get out of it. In return for a monthly salary, employees bring knowledge, skills, effort,
experience, loyalty, and much more to the table.

Equity

Finding equitable and just treatment is something that is always relevant for employees. They’ll
always compare their own efforts (input) and the rewards they get for this (output) to their co-
workers’ input and output, striving for equity.

Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory?

In the sixties, Edwin Locke and Gary Latham conducted research into setting goals. This
resulted in the goal-setting theory, which shows how goals and feedback can be highly
motivating factors for employees. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory was created based on five
principles.

1. Clarity

 A clear goal can be measured; no room for misunderstandings;

 Explicit goals with regard to which result is desired and how it will be measured;
 Comparable to the SMART principles that help to understand the task, measuring the
results and achieving success.

2. Challenge

Setting challenging goals demands an accurate balance to guarantee the right level of
challenge. Goals that are either too easy or too difficult negatively influence the motivation and
decrease performance. The highest level of motivation is reached when goals are somewhere
between easy and difficult.

 Setting challenging goals demands an accurate balance to guarantee the right level
of challenge;
 Goals that are too easy or too difficult negatively impact motivation and may reduce
the performance;
 The highest level of motivation is achieved upon the right balance between easy and
difficult.

3. Effort

 Fully understanding and coordinating the set goals;

 Motivation due to own input when setting goals;
 People have the tendency to work harder for a goal when they were involved in
setting it, particularly in a team;
 Staying motivated as long as the goal is actually achievable and is in accordance
with the aspirations of all those involved

4. Feedback

In addition to selecting the right goal, you must also listen to feedback to determine whether
you’re doing it right. This allows you to adjust the goal and your approach to achieve it.
Feedback doesn’t necessarily have to come from other people. Feedback can also come from
within.

 Listening to feedback to check whether you’re headed in the right direction;

 If necessary, adjusting the goal and approach to achieve the goal;
 Feedback both from others and yourself.

5. Task complexity

 Takes into account the complexity of the goals, given the fact that complexity can
influence morale, productivity and motivation;
 Complex goals can be overwhelming to people;
 Make sure there’s enough time, allowing everyone enough time to work towards the
goal and improve the performances;
 If necessary, adjusting the complexity and level of difficulty of the goal.