Disaster Management in India—An Overview 1

1
Disaster Management in India—
An Overview

INTRODUCTION
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters
on account of its unique geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts,
cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been a recurrent
phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes
of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to
floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 68%
of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000,
an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30
million people were affected by disasters every year. The loss
in terms of private, community and public assets has been
astronomical.
At the global level, there has been considerable concern
over natural disasters. Even as substantial scientific and
material progress is made, the loss of lives and property due
to disasters has not decreased. In fact, the human toll and
economic losses have mounted. It was in this background that
the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the
decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives and
property and restrict socio-economic damage through concerted
international action, specially in developing countries.
The super cyclone in Orissa in October, 1999 and the Bhuj
earthquake in Gujarat in January, 2001 underscored the need
to adopt a multi dimensional endeavour involving diverse
scientific, engineering, financial and social processes; the need
to adopt multi disciplinary and multi sectoral approach and
2 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 3

incorporation of risk reduction in the developmental plans and (f) Specific schemes addressing mitigation
strategies. (g) Preparedness measures
Over the past couple of years, the Government of India (h) Capacity building
have brought about a paradigm shift in the approach to disaster (i) Human Resource Development and, above all,
management. The new approach proceeds from the conviction community participation. These are detailed in the
that development cannot be sustainable unless disaster following chapters.
mitigation is built into the development process. Another corner
stone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi- INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK
disciplinary spanning across all sectors of development. The The institutional and policy mechanisms for carrying out
new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in response, relief and rehabilitation have been well-established
mitigation are much more cost effective than expenditure on since Independence. These mechanisms have proved to be robust
relief and rehabilitation. and effective insofar as response, relief and rehabilitation are
Disaster management occupies an important place in this concerned. The changed policy/approach, however, mandates a
country's policy framework as it is the poor and the under- priority to pre-disaster aspects of mitigation, prevention and
privileged who are worst affected on account of calamities/ preparedness and new institutional mechanisms are being put
disasters. in place to address the policy change.
The steps being taken by the Government emanate from Mitigation, preparedness and response are multi-
the approach outlined above. The approach has been translated disciplinary functions, involving a number of Ministries/
into a National Disaster Framework [a roadmap] covering Departments. Institutional mechanisms which would facilitate
institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention strategy, early this inter-disciplinary approach are being put in place. It is
warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness and response proposed to create Disaster Management Authorities, both at
and human resource development. The expected inputs, areas the National and State levels, with representatives from the
of intervention and agencies to be involved at the National, relevant Ministries/Departments to bring about this coordinated
State and district levels have been identified and listed in the and multi-disciplinary with experts covering a large number
roadmap. This roadmap has been shared with all the State of branches.
Governments and Union Territory Administrations. Ministries The National Emergency Management Authority is proposed
and Departments of Government of India, and the State to be constituted. The organization will be multi-disciplinary
Governments/UT Administrations have been advised to develop with experts covering a large number of branches. The National
their respective roadmaps taking the national roadmap as a Emergency Management Authority is proposed as a combined
broad guideline. There is, therefore, now a common strategy Secretariat/Directorate structure - a structure which will be an
underpinning the action being taken by all the participating integral part of the Government while, at the same time,
organisations/stakeholders. retaining the flexibility of a filed organization.
The changed approach is being put into effect through: The Authority will be headed by an officer of the rank of
(a) Institutional changes Secretary/ Special Secretary to the Government in the Ministry
(b) Enunciation of policy of Home Affairs with representatives from the Ministries/
Departments of Health, Water Resources, Environment &
(c) Legal and techno-legal framework
Forest, Agriculture, Railways, Atomic Energy, Defence,
(d) Mainstreaming Mitigation into Development process Chemicals, Science & Technology, Telecommunication, Urban
(e) Funding mechanism Employment and Poverty alleviation, Rural Development and
4 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 5

Indian Meteorological Department as Members. The authority Departments of Disaster Management with an enhanced area
would meet as often as required and review the Status of of responsibility to include mitigation and preparedness apart
warning systems, mitigation measure and disaster from their present responsibilities of relief and rehabilitation.
preparedness. When a disaster strikes, the Authority will The changeover has already happened in 11 States/UTs -
coordinate disaster management activities. The Authority will Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh,
be responsible for:- Rajasthan Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Nagaland, Andaman &
o Providing necessary support and assistance to State Nicobar Administration, Sikkim and Lakshadweep. The change
Governments by way of resource data, macro- is under process in other States. The States have been advised
management of emergency response, specialized to restructure/re-group the officers/staff within the Department
emergency response teams, sharing of disaster related of Disaster Management with definite functions to pursue the
data base etc. holistic approach to disaster management. The four functional
o Coordinating/mandating Government's policies for groups to be assigned with specific tasks within the departments
disaster reduction/mitigation are as indicted below:-
o Ensuring adequate preparedness at all levels * Functional Group 1: Hazard Mitigation
o Coordinating response to a disaster when it strikes * Functional Group 2: Preparedness and Capacity Building
o Assisting the Provincial Government in coordinating * Functional Group 3: Relief and Response
post disaster relief and rehabilitation * Functional Group 4: Administration and Finance
o Coordinating resources of all National Government At the district level, the District Magistrate who is the chief
Department/agencies involved. coordinator will be the focal point for coordinating all activities
o Monitor and introduce a culture of building requisite relating to prevention, mitigation and preparedness apart from
features of disaster mitigation in all development plans his existing responsibilities pertaining to response and relief.
and programmes. The District Coordination and Relief Committee is being
o Any other issues of work, which may be entrusted to it reconstituted/ re-designated into Disaster Management
by the Government. The States have also been asked Committees with officers from relevant departments being added
to set up Disaster Management Authorities under the as members. Because of its enhanced mandate of mitigation
Chief Minister with Ministers of relevant Departments and prevention, the district heads of the departments engaged
[Water Resources, Agriculture, Drinking Water Supply, in development are now being included in the Committee so
Environment & Forests, Urban Development, Home, that mitigation and prevention is mainstreamed into the district
Rural Development etc.] as members. 10 States and plan. The existing system of drawing up preparedness and
UTs - Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, response plans will continue. There will, however, also be a
Orissa, Gujarat, Kerala, Nagaland, Delhi, A&N long term mitigation plan. District Disaster Management
administration and Chandigarh Administration have Committees have already been constituted in 256 districts and
notified the authority. The other States are in the process are in the process of being constituted in the remaining districts.
of setting up similar authorities. Similarly, sub-divisional and Block/Taluka level Disaster
Re-structuring of the Relief Department in the States: At Management Committees are also being constituted. At the
the State level, the work of post calamity relief was being village level Disaster Management Committees and Disaster
handled by the Departments of Relief & Rehabilitation. The Management Teams are being constituted. Each village in multi-
Government of India is working with the State Governments hazard prone district will have a Disaster Management Plan.
to restructure the Departments of Relief & Rehabilitation into The process of drafting the plans at all levels has already
6 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 7

begun. The Disaster Management Committee which draws up mitigation, while the Government of India provides assistance
the plans consists of elected representatives at the village level, where necessary as per the norms laid down from time to time
local authorities; Government functionaries including doctors/ and proposes that this overall framework may continue.
paramedics of primary health centres located in the village, However, since response to a disaster requires coordination of
primary school teachers etc. resources available across all the Departments of the
The plan encompasses prevention, mitigation and Government, the policy mandates that the Central Government
preparedness measures. The Disaster Management Teams at will, in conjunction with the State Governments, seek to ensure
the village level will consist of members of youth organisations that such a coordination mechanism is laid down through an
like Nehru Yuvak Kendra and other nongovernmental appropriate chain of command so that mobilization of resources
organisations as well as able bodied volunteers from the village. is facilitated.
The teams are provided basic training in evacuation, evacuation, The broad features of the draft national policy on disaster
search and rescue, first aid trauma counseling etc. The Disaster management are enunciated below:-
Management Committee will review the disaster management (i) A holistic and pro-active approach towards prevention,
plan at least once in a year. It would also generate awareness mitigation and preparedness will be adopted for disaster
among the people in the village about dos' and don'ts for specific management.
hazards depending on the vulnerability of the village. A large (ii) Each Ministry/Department of the Central/State
number of village level Disaster Management Committees and Government will set apart an appropriate quantum of
Disaster Management Teams have already been constituted. funds under the Plan for specific schemes/projects
Disaster Management Policy: Disaster management is addressing vulnerability reduction and preparedness.
a multidisciplinary activity involving a number of a number of (iii) Where there is a shelf of projects, projects addressing
Departments/agencies spanning across all sectors of mitigation will be given priority. Mitigation measures
development. Where a number of Departments/agencies are shall be built into the on-going schemes/programmes
involved, it is essential to have a policy in place, as it serves
(iv) Each project in a hazard prone area will have mitigation
as a framework for action by all the relevant departments/
as an essential term of reference. The project report will
agencies.
include a statement as to how the project addresses
A National policy on disaster management has been drafted, vulnerability reduction.
and is in the process of consultations. In the line with the (v) Community involvement and awareness generation,
changed focus, the policy proposes to integrate disaster particularly that of the vulnerable segments of
mitigation into development planning. The policy shall inform population and women has been emphasized as
all spheres of Central Government activity and shall enjoin necessary for sustainable disaster risk reduction. This
upon all existing sectoral policies. The broad objective of the is a critical component of the policy since communities
policy are to minimize the loss of lives and social, private and are the first responders to disasters and, therefore,
community assets because of natural or man-made disasters unless they are empowered and made capable of
and contribute to sustainable development and better standards managing disasters, any amount of external support
of living for all, more specifically for the poor and vulnerable cannot lead to optimal results.
section by ensuring that the developments gains are not lost
through natural calamities/ disaster. (vi) There will be close interaction with the corporate sector,
nongovernmental organisations and the media in the
The policy notes that State Governments are primarily national efforts for disaster prevention/vulnerability
responsible for disaster management including prevention and reduction.
8 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 9

(vii) Institutional structures/appropriate chain of command Bihar, have already enacted such a law. Other States are in
will be built up and appropriate training imparted to the process.
disaster managers at various levels to ensure coordinated Disaster Management Code: In line with the changed
and quick response at all levels; and development of approach, the State Governments have also been advised to
inter-State arrangements for sharing of resources during convert their Relief Codes into Disaster Management Codes by
emergencies. building into it the process necessary for drawing up disaster
(viii) A culture of planning and preparedness is to be management and mitigation plans as well as elements of
inculcated at all levels for capacity building measures. preparedness apart from response and relief. A Committee
(ix) Standard operating procedures and disaster constituted under the Executive Director, National institute of
management plans at state and district levels as well Disaster Management has drafted a Model Disaster
as by relevant central government departments for Management Code which is being circulated to the States so
handling specific disasters will be laid down. as to assist them in this process. Some States have constituted
(x) Construction designs must correspond to the committees to revise the codes as per GOI guidelines. The
requirements as laid down in relevant Indian Standards. revised codes will ensure that the process of drawing up disaster
management plans and mitigation and preparedness measures
(xi) All lifeline buildings in seismic zones III, IV & V -
get institutionalized.
hospitals, railway stations, airports/airport control
towers, fire station buildings, bus stands major DISASTER PREVENTION AND MITIGATION
administrative centres will need to be evaluated and, The Yokohama message emanating from the international
if necessary, retro-fitted. decade for natural disaster reduction in May, 1994 underlined
(xii) The existing relief codes in the States will be revised the need for an emphatic shift in the strategy for disaster
to develop them into disaster management codes/ mitigation. It was inter alia stressed that disaster prevention,
manuals for institutionalizing the planning process with mitigation, preparedness and relief are four elements which
particular attention to mitigation and preparedness. contribute to and gain, from the implementation of the
xiii) To promote international cooperation in the area sustainable development policies.
of disaster response, preparedness, and mitigation in These elements alongwith environmental protection and
tune with national strategic goals and objectives. sustainable development, are closely inter related, and it was
The States have also been advised to formulate State DM therefore, recommended that Nations should incorporate them
Policies with the broad objective to minimize the loss of lives in their development plans and ensure efficient follow up
and social, private and community assets and contribute to measures at the community, sub-regional, regional, national
sustainable development. The States of Gujarat and Madhya and international levels. The Yokohama Strategy also
Pradesh have States Policies for Disaster Management in place emphasized that disaster prevention, mitigation and
while other States are in process. preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving
the goals and objectives of vulnerability reduction. Disaster
LEGAL AND TECHNO-LEGAL FRAMEWORK
response alone is not sufficient as it yields only temporary
Disaster Management Act: The States have been advised results at a very high cost. Prevention and mitigation contribute
to enact Disaster Management Acts. These Acts provide for to lasting improvement in safety and are essential to integrated
adequate powers for authorities coordinating mitigation, disaster management.
preparedness and response as well as for mitigation/prevention
measures required to be undertaken. Two States Gujarat & Mainstreaming Disaster Management into
Development: The Government of India have adopted
10 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 11

mitigation and prevention as essential components of their representatives and officials are being trained in flood disaster
development strategy. The Tenth Five Year Plan document has management under the programme. Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal,
a detailed chapter on Disaster Management. The plan Assam and Uttar Pradesh are among the 17 multi-hazard
emphasizes the fact that development cannot be sustainable prone States where this programme is being implemented with
without mitigation being built into developmental process. Each assistance from UNDP, USAID and European Commission.
State is supposed to prepare a plan scheme for disaster Earthquake Risk Mitigation: A comprehensive programme
mitigation in accordance with the approach outlined in the has been taken up for earthquake risk mitigation. Although,
plan. In brief, mitigation is being mainstreamed into the BIS has laid down the standards for construction in the
developmental planning. seismic zones, these were not being followed. The building
Financial Arrangement: As indicated in the earlier construction in urban and suburban areas is regulated by the
chapter, the Finance Commission makes recommendations with Town and Country Planning Acts and Building Regulations. In
regard to devolution of funds between the Central Government many cases, the Building regulations do not incorporate the
and State Governments as also outlays for relief and BIS codes. Even where they do, the lack of knowledge regarding
rehabilitation. The earlier Finance Commissions were mandated seismically safe construction among the architects and engineers
to look at relief and rehabilitation. as well as lack of awareness regarding their vulnerability among
The Terms of Reference of the Twelfth Finance Commission the population led to most of the construction in the urban/sub-
have been changed and the Finance Commission has been urban areas being without reference to BIS standards.
mandated to look at the requirements for mitigation and In the rural areas, the bulk of the housing is non-engineered
prevention apart from its existing mandate of looking at relief construction. The mode of construction in the rural areas has
and rehabilitation. A Memorandum has been submitted to the also changed from mud and thatch to brick and concrete
Twelfth Finance Commission after consultation with States. construction thereby increasing the vulnerability. The increasing
The Memorandum proposes the creating of a disaster mitigation population has led to settlements in vulnerable areas close to
fund, which will assist the States in taking mitigation measures the river bed areas which are prone to liquefaction. The
like retrofitting of lifeline buildings, coastal shelterbelt Government have moved to address these issues.
plantation etc. National Core Group for Earthquake Risk Mitigation:
The Government of India have issued guidelines that where A National Core Group for Earthquake Risk Mitigation has
there is a shelf of projects, projects addressing mitigation will been constituted consisting of experts in earthquake engineering
be given a priority. It has also been mandated that each project and administrators. The Core Group has been assigned with
in a hazard prone area will have disaster prevention/mitigation the responsibility of drawing up a strategy and plan of action
as a term of reference and the project document has to reflect for mitigating the impact of earthquakes; providing advice and
as to how the project addresses that term of reference. guidance to the States on various aspects of earthquake
Flood Preparedness and Response: In order to respond mitigation; developing/organizing the preparation of handbooks/
effectively to floods, Ministry of Home Affairs have initiated pamphlets/type designs for earthquake resistant construction;
National Disaster Risk Management Programme in all the working out systems for assisting the States in the seismically
flood-prone States. Assistance is being provided to the States vulnerable zones to adopt/integrate appropriate Bureau of
to draw up disaster management plans at the State, District, Indian Standards codes in their building byelaws; evolving
Block/Taluka and Village levels. Awareness generation systems for training of municipal engineers as also practicing
campaigns to sensitize the all the stakeholders on the need for architects and engineers in the private sector in the salient
flood preparedness and mitigation measures. Elected features of Bureau of Indian Standards codes and the amended
byelaws; evolving a system of certification of architects/engineers
12 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 13

for testing their knowledge of earthquake resistant construction; to earthquake risk mitigation and establish a protocol for revision
evolving systems for training of masons and carry out intensive by BIS.
awareness generation campaigns. Hazard Safety Cells in States: The States have been
Review of Building Bye-laws and their Adoption: advised to constitute Hazard Safety Cells (HSC) headed by the
Most casualties during earthquakes are caused by the collapse Chief Engineer, State PWD with necessary engineering staff
of structures. Therefore structural mitigation measures are the so as to establish mechanism for proper implementation of the
key to make a significant impact towards earthquake safety in building codes in all future Govt. constructions, and to ensures
our country. In view of this the States in earthquake prone the safety of buildings and structures from various hazards.
zones have been requested to review, and if necessary, amend The HSCs will also be responsible for carrying out appropriate
their building bye-laws to incorporate the BIS seismic codes for design review of all Government buildings to be constructed in
construction in the concerned zones. Many States have initiated the State, act as an advisory cell to the State Government on
necessary action in this regard. An Expert Committee appointed the different aspects of building safety against hazards and act
by the Core Group on Earthquake Risk Mitigation has already as a consultant to the State Government for retrofitting of the
submitted its report covering appropriate amendments to the lifeline buildings. Rajasthan, West Bengal, Delhi and
existing Town & Country Planning Acts, Land Use Zoning Chhatisgarh have already constituted these cells and other
Regulation, Development Control Regulations & Building States are in the process.
Bylaws, which could be used by the State Governments & the National Programme for Capacity Building of
local bodies there-under to upgrade the existing legal Engineers and Architects in Earthquake Risk Mitigation:
instruments. Two National Programmes for Capacity Building in Earthquake
The Model Building Bylaws also cover the aspect of ensuring Risk Mitigation for Engineers and Architects respectively, have
technical implementation of the safety aspects in all new been approved to assist the State Govts in building up capacities
constructions & upgrading the strength of existing structurally for earthquake mitigation. Under these two programmes 10,000
vulnerable constructions. To facilitate the review of existing engineers and 10,000 architects in the States will be given
building byelaws and adoption of the proposed amendments by training in seismically safe building designs and related techno-
the State Governments & UT administrations, discussion legal requirements. Assistance is being provided to the State/
workshops at regional level in the country are being organized. UTs to build the capacities of more than 125 State Engineering
It is expected that all planning authorities and local bodies will Colleges and 110 Architecture Colleges to be able to provide
soon have development control regulations and building byelaws advisory services to the State Govts to put in place appropriate
which would include multi-hazard safety provisions. techno-legal regime, assessment of building and infrastructures
Development and Revision of Codes: There are Bureau and their retrofitting. These institutions will function as State
of Indian Standard (BIS) codes which are relevant for multi- Resource Institutions. Twenty-one Engineering and Architecture
hazard resistant design and construction. Some of the codes Institutions have been designated as National Resource
need to be updated. There are some areas for which codes do Institutes to train the faculty members of selected State
not exist. An action plan has been drawn up for revision of Engineering and Architecture colleges. 450 engineering faculty
existing codes, development of new codes and documents/ members and 250 architecture faculty members of these State
commentaries, and making these codes and documents available Resource Institutions will be trained during the current year.
all over the country including on-line access to these codes. An Training of Rural Masons: A programme to assist the
Apex committee consisting of representatives of Ministry of States/UTs in training and certification of 50000 masons has
Consumer Affairs, BIS and MHA has been constituted to review been formulated in conultation with Housing and Urban
the mechanism and process of development of codes relevant Development Corporation (HUDCO) and the Ministry of Rural
14 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 15

Development. The training module for masons to include multi- financing/refinancing construction activities in seismically
hazard resistant construction has also been prepared by an vulnerable zones.
expert committee, and revised curriculum will be introduced National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project: An
in the vocational training programme of Ministry of Human Earthquake Mitigation Project has been drawn up, with an
Resource Development. estimated cost of Rs.1132 crore. The project has been given in-
Earthquake Engineering in Undergraduate principle clearance by the Planning Commission. The
Engineering/Architecture Curricula: The role of engineers programme includes detailed evaluation and retrofitting of
and architects is crucial in reducing earthquake risks by lifeline buildings such as hospitals, schools, water and power
ensuring that the construction adhere to the norms of seismic supply units, telecommunication buildings, airports/airport
safety. In view of this, the elements of earthquake engineering control towers, railway stations, bus stands and important
is being integrated into the undergraduate engineering and administrative buildings in the States/UTs in seismic zones IV
architecture courses. Model course curricula have been and V. The programme also includes training of masons in
developed for adoption by various technical institutions and earthquake resistant constructions, as well as, assistance to
universities. and circulated to the Universities and Technical the State Governments to put in place an appropriate techno
Institutions for integration into the under graduate curriculum. legal regime.
Ministry of Home Affairs is working with All India Council of Accelerated Urban Earthquake Vulnerability
Technical Education (AICTE) and Council of Architecture (COA) Reduction Programme: An accelerated urban earthquake
for introduction of revised curricula for engineering and vulnerability reduction programme has been taken up in 38
architecture course from 2005-2006. cities in seismic zones III, IV & V with population of half a
Retrofitting of Lifeline Buildings: While these mitigation million and above. These cities are Dehradun, Delhi, Jamnagar,
measures will take care of the new constructions, the problem Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Surat, Greater Mumbai, Bhiwandi, Nasik,
of unsafe existing building stock would still remain. It will not Pune, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Chennai, Patna, Asansol,
be possible to address the entire existing building stock, therefore Guwahati, Vadodara, Koimbatore, Ahmedabad, Agara,
the life line buildings like hospitals, schools or buildings where Varanasi, Bareily, Meerut, Lucknow, Kanpur, Kolkatta,
people congregate like cinema halls, multi-storied apartments Srinagar, Jammu, Indore, Jabalpur, Amritsar, Jalandhar,
are being focussed on. The States have been advised to have Vijayawada, Dhanbad, Mangalore, Kochi, Kozhikod and
these buildings assessed and where necessary retrofitted. Trivandrum. 474 Orientation programmes have been organized
The Ministries of Civil Aviation, Railways, for senior officers and representatives of the local planning and
Telecommunication, Power and Health and Family Welfare development bodies to sensitize them on earthquake
have been advised to take necessary action for detailed preparedness and mitigation measures.
evaluation and retrofitting of lifeline buildings located in Training programmes have been organized for engineers
seismically vulnerable zones so as to ensure that they comply and architects to impart knowledge about seismically safe
with BIS norms, Action plan have been drawn up by these construction and implementation of BIS norms. So far 1088
Ministries for detailed vulnerability analysis and retrofitting/ engineers and 825 architects have been trained. For enhanced
strengthening of buildings and structures. The Ministry of school safety, education programmes have been organized in
Finance have been requested to advise the financial institutions schools, colleges and other educational institutions. About 370
to give loans for retrofitting on easy terms. Accordingly the educational institutions have been visited by the earthquake
Ministry of Finance had advised Reserve Bank of India to issue disaster management specialist in these cities. This programme
suitable instructions to all the Banks and Financial Institutions will be further extended to 166 earthquake prone districts in
to see that BIS codes/bye laws are scrupulously followed while seismic zones IV & V. Awareness generation programmes,
16 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 17

community and neighbourhood organizations have been started cyclone warning formats have been revised to ensure that the
in these cities. These cities are also being assisted to review warning is more meaningful to the community at risk. A project
and amend their building bye-laws to incorporate multi hazard has been taken up with the United States for upgradation of
safety provisions. City Disaster Management Plans are being models for cyclone track prediction.
developed under the project. Nine Cities have prepared city National Cyclone Mitigation Project: A project for
Disaster Management Plans so far. Cyclone Mitigation (estimated cost Rs.1050 crore) has been
Mainstreaming Mitigation in Rural Development drawn up in consultation with the cyclone prone States. This
Schemes: Rural housing and community assets for vulnerable project envisages construction of cyclone shelters, coastal shelter
sections of the population are created on a fairly large scale by belt plantation in areas which are prone to storm surges,
the Ministry of Rural Development under the Indira Awas strengthening of warning systems, training and education etc.
Yojna(IAY) and Sampooran Grameen Rojgar Yojna(SGRY). This project has also been given inprinciple clearance by the
About 250 thousand small but compact housing units are Planning Commission and is being taken up with World Bank
constructed every year, besides community assets such as assistance. Landslide Hazard Mitigation: A National Core
community centres, recreation centres, anganwadi centres etc. Group has been constituted under the Chairmanship of
Technology support is provided by about two hundred rural Secretary, Border Management and comprising of Secretary,
housing centres spread over the entire country. The Ministry Department of Science and Technology, Secretary, Road
of Home Affairs is working with the Ministry of Rural Transport & Highways, and the Heads of Geological Survey of
Development for changing the guidelines so that the houses India and National Remote Sensing Agency for drawing up a
constructed under IAY or school buildings/community buildings strategy and plan of action for mitigating the impact of
constructed under SGRY are earthquake/cyclone/flood resistant; landslides, provide advise and guidance to the State
as also that the schemes addressing mitigation are given priority Governments on various aspects of landslide mitigation, monitor
under SGRY. Ministry of Rural Development are carrying out the activities relating to landslide mitigation including landslide
an exercise for this purpose. This initiative is expected to go hazard zonation and to evolve early warning systems and
a long way in popularization of seismically safe construction protocols for landslides/landslide risk reduction.
at village/block level The Government have designated Geological Survey of India
Core Group on Cyclone Mitigation: A National Core (GSI) as the nodal agency responsible for coordinating/
Group on Cyclone Monitoring & Mitigation has been constituted. undertaking geological studies, landslides hazard zoantion,
Experts from Indian Meteorological Department, National monitoring landslides/avalanches, studying the factors
Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, Central Water responsible and suggesting precautionary and preventing
Commission, National Remote Sensing Agency and Indian Space measures. The States/UTs have been requested to share the list
Research Organisation have been made the Members of the of habitations close to landslide prone areas in order to
Core Group, besides administrators from the relevant Ministries/ supplement GSI's on going assessment of such areas based on
Departments and State Governments vulnerable to cyclones. the Survey of India's Toposheet and their existing data dbase
The Group has been assigned the responsibility of looking at on landslide for the purpose of landslide hazard zonation being
warning protocols for cyclones; coordination mechanism between carried out by them. A national strategy for mitigating landslide
different Central and State Ministries/Departments/ hazard in the county is being drawn up in consultation with
Organisations; mechanism for dissemination of warning to the all the agencies concerned.
local people and; cyclone mitigation measures required to be Disaster Risk Management Programme: A Disaster
taken for the coastal States. The Group will also suggest short- Risk Management Programme has been taken up in 169 districts
term and long-term measures on technology up-gradation. The in 17 multi-hazard prone States with the assistance from UNDP,
18 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 19

USAID and European Union. These States are Assam, community has been very helpful even in normal situations
Arunachal Pradehs, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Maharashtra, when isolated instances of drowning, burns etc. take place.
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nalaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil With the creation of awareness generation on disaster
Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal, mitigation, the community will be able to function as a well-
Under this project, the States are being assisted to draw up knit unit in case of any emergency.
State, district and Block level disaster management plans; Mock drills are carried out from time to time under the
village disaster management plans are being developed in close supervision of Disaster Management Committees. The
conjunction with the Panchayati Raj Institutions and disaster Disaster Management Committees and Disaster Management
management teams consisting of village volunteers are being Teams have been established by notifications issued by the
trained in preparedness and response functions such as search State Governments which will ensure that the entire system
and rescue, first aid, relief coordination, shelter management is institutionalized and does not disintegrate after the conclusion
etc. States and District level multi-hazard resistant Emergency of the programme. The key points being stressed under this
Operation Centres (EOCs) are also being set up under the programme are the need to ensure sustainability of the
programme. Equipment needs for district and State Emergency programme, development of training modules; manuals and
Operation Centres have been identified by the State nodal codes, focused attention to awareness generation campaigns;
agencies and equipment is being provided to equip these EOCs. institutionalization of disaster management committees and
Orientation training of masons, engineers and architects in disaster management teams, disaster management plans and
disaster resistant technologies have been initiated in these mock-drills and establishment of techno-legal regimes.
districts and construction of model demonstration buildings
Human Resource Development: Human Resource
will be started soon.
Development at all levels is critical to institutionalization of
Under this programme Disaster Management Plans have disaster mitigation strategy. The National Centre for Disaster
been prepared for 8643 villages, 1046 Gram Panchayat, 188 Management at the national level has been upgraded and
blocks and 82 districts. More than 29000 elected representatives designated as the National Institute of Disaster Management.
of Panchayati Raj Institutions have already been trained, besides It is being developed as a Regional Centre of Excellence in Asia.
imparting training to members of voluntary organizations. About The National Institute of Disaster Management will develop
18000 Government functionaries have been trained in disaster training modules at different levels, undertake training of
mitigation and preparedness at different levels. 865 engineers trainers and organize training programmes for planners,
and 425 architects have been trained under this programme administrators and command functionaries. Besides, the other
in vulnerability assessment and retrofitting of lifeline buildings. functions assigned to the National Institute of Disaster
600 master trainers and 1200 teachers have already been trained Management include development of exhaustive National level
in different districts in disaster preparedness and mitigation. information base on disaster management policies, prevention
Disaster Management Committees consisting of elected mechanisms, mitigation measures; and providing consultancy
representatives, civil society members, Civil Defence volunteers to various States in strengthening their disaster management
and Government functionaries have been constituted at all systems and capacities as well as preparation of disaster
levels including village/urban local body/ward levels. Disaster management plans and strategies for hazard mitigation and
Management Teams have been constituted in villages and are disaster response.
being imparted training in basic functions of first aid, rescue, It has been decided to incorporate elements of disaster
evacuation and related issues. The thrust of the programme is management in the training curricula of Civil Services. For the
to build up capabilities of the community since the community three All India Services (IAS, IPS and Indian Forest Service),
is invariably the first responder. Capacity building of the training curricula have already been drawn up and integrated
20 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 21

into the training curricula of these All India Services with message of disaster risk reduction. Slogans and messages for
effect from 2004-2005. For other Civil Services at the national this purpose have already been developed and have been
and state levels, training modules are being developed to be communicated to concerned Ministries/agencies for printing
included from the next year. and dissemination. The mass media campaign will help build
NDM Cells in Administrative Training Institutes: the knowledge, attitude and skills of the people in vulnerability
Disaster Management faculties have already been created in reduction and sustainable disaster risk management measures.
29 State level training institutes located in 28 States. These Disaster Awareness in School Curriculum: Disaster
faculties are being directly supported by the Ministry of Home management as a subject in Social Sciences has been introduced
Affairs. The State Training Institutions take up several focused in the school curriculum for Class VIII & IX. The Central Board
training programmes for different target groups within the of Secondary Education (CBSE) which has introduced the
State. The Disaster Management faculties in these Institutes curriculum runs a very large number of schools throughout the
are being further strengthened so as to enable them to develop country and the course curriculum is invariably followed by the
as Institutes of Excellence for a specific disaster. Assistance to State Boards of Secondary Education. Teachers are being trained
the State level training institutes will be provided by the to teach disaster management Syllabus for Class X is being
National Institute of Disaster Management in the development finalized and will be introduced in the course curriculum soon.
of training/capsules training modules for different functionaries The State Governments have been advised to take similar steps
at different levels. vis-à-vis their school boards. Several States Governments have
Awareness Generation: Recognizing that awareness already introduced the same curriculum in Class VIII. Ministry
about vulnerabilities is a sine qua non for inducing a mindset is working with the Council of Board of School Education
of disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness, the (COBSE) to facilitate inclusion of disaster management in public
Government has initiated a nation-wide awareness generation education in all 39 School Boards in the country.
campaign as part of its overall disaster risk management Information, Education and Communication: In order
strategy. In order to devise an effective and holistic campaign, to assist the State Governments in capacity building and
a steering committee for mass media campaign has been awareness generation activities and to learn from past
constituted at the national level with due representation of experiences including sharing of best practices, the Ministry of
experts from diverse streams of communication. The Committee Home Affairs has compiled/prepared a set of resource materials
has formulated a campaign strategy aimed at changing peoples' developed by various organisations/institutions to be replicated
perception of natural hazards and has consulted the agencies and disseminated by State Governments based on their
and experts associated with advertising and media to instill a vulnerabilities after translating it into the local languages. The
culture of safety against natural hazards. voluminous material which runs into about 10000 pages has
Apart from the use of print and electronic media, it is been divided into 4 broad sections in 7 volumes. These sections
proposed to utilize places with high public visibility viz. hospitals, cover planning to cope with disasters; education and training;
schools, railway stations and bus terminals, airports and post construction toolkit; and information, education and
offices, commercial complexes and municipality offices etc. to communication toolkit including multi-media resources on
make people aware of their vulnerabilities and promote creation disaster mitigation and preparedness.
of a safe living environment. The Planning section contains material for analyzing a
A novel method being tried is the use of government community's risk, development of Preparedness. Mitigation
stationery viz. postal letters, bank stationery, railway tickets, and disaster management plans, coordinating available
airline boarding cards and tickets etc. for disseminating the resources and implementing measures for risk reduction. Model
bye-laws, DM Policy, Act and model health sector plan have
22 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 23

also been included. Education and Training includes material professional and rapid which may have reduced the loss of
for capacity building and upgradation of skills of policy makers, lives. Specialist search and rescue teams from other countries
administrators, trainers, engineers etc. in planning for and did reach Bhuj. However, precious time was lost and even with
mitigating against natural disasters. Basic and detailed training these specialist teams it was not possible to cover all severely
modules in disaster preparedness have been incorporated along affected areas as quickly as the Government would have desired.
with training methodologies for trainers, for community It was, therefore, decided that we should remove these
preparedness and manuals for training at district, block, inadequacies and be in a stage of preparedness at all times.
panchayat and village levels. For creating a disaster-resistant Specialist Response Teams: The Central Government
building environment, the Construction Toolkit addresses the are now in the process of training and equipping eight battalions
issue of seismic resistant construction and retrofitting of existing of CPMFs as specialist response teams. Each team consists of
buildings. BIS Codes, manuals and guidelines for RCC, Masonry 45 personnel including doctors, paramedics, structural engineers
and other construction methodologies as also for repair and etc and thus there will be 144 Specialist Search and Rescue
retrofitting of masonry and low-rise buildings have been Teams in the earmarked eight battalions. The process of training
included. and equipping of the 144 specialist search and rescue teams
The IEC material seeks to generate awareness to induce etc has begun. 18 teams have been trained so far.
mitigation and preparedness measures for risk reduction. These teams are being trained in collapsed structure search
Material and strategies used by various States and international and rescue, medical first response, rescue and evacuation in
organizations, including tips on different hazards, have been flood and cyclone, under water rescue etc. In effect they will
incorporated along with multi-media CDs on disasters. The have the capability to operate in all types of terrain in all
material has been disseminated to all the State Governments/ contingencies/disasters. It is proposed to group together the
UT Administrations with the request to have the relevant eight battalions of CPMFs earmarked for specialized emergency
material, based on the vulnerability of each district, culled out, response as "National Emergency Response Force". These
translated into local languages and disseminate widely down specialist response teams are being provided modern equipments
to the village level. and also dog squads for search and rescue. They will be provided
PREPAREDNESS with special uniforms made of fire retardant materials with
enhanced visibility in low light and having equipment carrying
Mitigation and preparedness measures go hand in hand for
capacity.
vulnerability reduction and rapid professional response to
disasters. The Bhuj earthquake in January, 2001 brought out Apart from specialist search & rescue units, it has been
several inadequacies in the system. Professionally trained search decided that all personnel of Central Police Organizations should
and rescue teams were not available; specialized dog squad to also be imparted training in search and rescue so that they can
look for live bodies under the debris were not available; and be requisitioned to the site of incident without loss of time.
there was no centralized resource inventory for emergency Pending arrival of the specialist teams, the battalions located
response. Although army played a pivotal role in search and near the site of incident would be deployed immediately. For
rescue and also set up their hospital after the collapse of this purpose, a curriculum has already been drawn up and
Government hospital at Bhuj, the need for fully equipped mobile integrated into the training curriculum of CPMFs.
hospitals with trained personnel was felt acutely. Setting up of Search and Rescue Teams in States: The
Despite these constraints, the response was fairly well States have been advised to set up their own Specialist Teams
organized. However, had these constraints been taken care of for responding to disasters. Ministry of Home Affairs will provide
before hand, the response would have been even more assistance for the training of the State trainers. Many States/
24 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 25

UTs have initiated action for setting up of specialized SAR emergencies. Therefore capacity building through in-service
units. Ten States have identified the Training Centers for training of the current heath managers and medical personnel
training in Search and Rescue in the States. They have also in Hospital Preparedness for emergencies or mass causality
identified trainers who will be imparted training at CPMF incident management is essential. At the same time in order
training institutions. Some states e.g. Maharashtra, Orissa, that, the future health managers acquire these skills it is
Gujarat and Delhi have trained search and rescue teams. It has proposed to include health emergency management in the
been provided that 10% of the annual inflows into the CRF can undergraduate and post graduate medical curricula. In
be used for the procurement of search and rescue equipment consultation with Medical Council of India(MCI), two committees
and communication equipment. States have been advised to have been constituted for preparation of curriculum for
include training in search and rescue in the training of State introduction of emergency health management in MBBS
Armed Police. curriculum, and preparation of in-service training of Hospital
Regional Response Centres: Fourteen Regional Response Managers and Professionals. Rajiv Gandhi University of Health
Centres (RRCs) are being set up across the country to enable Sciences Karnataka have been identified as the lead national
immediate response to floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides resource institution for the purpose.
etc. Standard cache of equipment and relief materials will be Incident Command System: In order to professionalize
kept in these RRCs and Specialist Response Teams will be emergency response management, it is proposed to introduce
stationed during the flood/cyclone seasons for immediate the Incident Command System in the country. This system
assistance to the State Governments. Caches of equipments are provides for specialist incident command teams with an Incident
being procured and all RRCs will be operational soon. Commander and officers trained in different aspects of incident
A Steering Committee has been constituted in the Ministry management - logistics, operations, planning, safety, media
to oversee the creation of capabilities for emergency response. management etc. The LBSNAA Mussoorrie has been designated
as the nodal training institution. Three programmes for the
Health Preparedness: A 200 bedded mobile hospital, fully
training of trainers have so far been held at LBSNAA and 42
trained and equipped is being set up and attached to a leading
officers have been trained in Basic and Intermediate ICS course
Government hospital in Delhi. Three additional mobile hospitals
and 29 officers trained in Planning Sections module.
with all medical and emergency equipments are proposed to be
located in different parts of the country. These mobile hospitals Emergency Support Function Plans: It is seen that the
will also be attached to the leading Government hospitals in relevant departments start constituting teams/mobilizing
the country. This will enable the mobile hospitals to extend resources only after the crisis/disaster has struck, leading to
assistance to the hospitals with which they are attached in delays. The relevant departments/agencies have been asked to
normal time. They will be airlifted during emergencies with draw up Emergency Support Function (ESF) Plans and
additional doctors/paramedics taken from the hospitals with constitute response teams and designate resources in advance
which the mobile hospitals are attached to the site of disaster. so that response is not delayed. Ministries/ Departments have
drawn up their ESF Plans and communicated it to MHA. States
Hospital Preparedness and Emergency Health
have also been asked to take similar steps. Similarly States
Management in Medical Education: Hospital preparedness
have been advised to finalize pre-contract/agreement for all
is crucial to any disaster response system. Each hospital need
disaster relief items so as to avoid delays in procuring relief
to have an emergency preparedness plan to deal with mass
items after disaster situations.
casualty incidents and the hospital administration/ doctor
trained for this emergency. The curriculum for medical doctors India Disaster Resource Network: A web-enabled
does not at present include Hospital Preparedness for centralised data base for the India Disaster Resource Network
has been operationalized. The IDRN is a nation-wide electronic
26 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 27

inventory of essential and specialist resources for disaster five on-site emergency coordination kits in ready-to-use mode.
response both specialist equipment and specialist manpower Staffs in the NEOC have been trained. A State-of-the-art
resources. The IDRN list out the equipments and the resources underground and all-hazard resistant, National EOC with
by type and by the functions it performs and it gives the contact superior structural features and communication facilities is
address and telephone numbers of the controlling officers in- being set up. A Committee of CPWD/BARC/DRDO has been
charge of the said resources. The IDRN is a live system providing constituted to finalize the design parameters. It is likely to be
for updating of inventory once in every quarter. Entries into commissioned by 2006.
the inventory are made at district and State level. National Emergency Communication Network: The
The network ensures quick access to resources to minimise communication network between the national and the state
response time in emergencies. The list of resources to be updated EOCs and the site of the emergency/crises are currently based
in the system has been finalized. It has 226 items. About 69,329 on the DOT network. It has been observed that in a calamity/
records in 545 districts throughout the country have already hazard, communication is the first casualty. It has therefore
been uploaded since September 1, 2003 when the India Disaster been decided to put in place multi-mode and multi-channel
Resource Network was formally inaugurated. The system will communication systems so that enough redundancy is available.
give, at the touch of the button, location of specific equipments/ It has been decided that the POLNET will also be used for
specialist resources as well as the Controlling authority for that disaster management; and for this the POLNET communication
resource so that it can be mobilized for response in the shortest facility will be extended to SDMs and Collectors as well as the
possible time. The data base will be available simultaneously Emergency Operation Centers. For emergency communications,
at the district, state and national levels. discussions have also been held with the Department of Space
Emergency Operation Centres: The States are being (ISRO). They will be making available alternate satellite
assisted to set up control rooms/emergency operations centres communication units to connect with State EOCs and mobile
at the State and district level. Assistance for this is being given units which can be transported to the site of a disaster.
under the GOI - UNDP project in the States covered by the A Group had been set up for drawing up a communication
project. Assistance under the Modernization of Police Scheme plan for disaster management and the said Group has submitted
is also available for setting up EOCs. The control rooms, which its report. This provides for a dedicated communication system
will function round the clock, will be composite control rooms for disaster management with built in redundancies. Phase I
to look after law and order issues as well as disaster of the National Disaster Management Communication Plan to
management. Equipments are also being provided for these provide satellite based mobile voice/data/video communication
control rooms under the disaster risk management programme. between National EOC/State EOCs/ mobile EOCs and remote
Hazard zone-wise standard layout, structural design and disaster/emergency sites is under implementation and is
construction drawings have been developed for State and District expected to be completed by October, 2004. Phase II of the
EOCs and shared with all the States. Construction work has communication plan to connect National/State/District EOCs
stated for multi-hazard resistant EOCs in six States and 64 with disaster/emergency sites is proposed to be completed by
districts. March, 2006. The communication backbone to be used will
National Emergency Operation Centre: To coordinate include terrestrial link (DOT), POLNET, NICNET, ISDN and
the entire disaster/emergency operations effectively, the existing SPACENET
Control Room at the national level has been being upgraded Development of a GIS-based National Database for
as National Emergency Operations Center (NEOC). The Disaster Management: The Geographical Information System
National EOC is equipped with satellite phones, GPS, (GIS) data base is an effective tool for emergency responders
computers, emergency lights, GIS information system etc in to access information in terms of crucial parameters for the
28 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 29

disaster affected areas. The crucial parameters include location including preparedness. A proposal in this regard has been
of the public facilities, communication links and transportation finalized and is under consideration of the Government.
network at national, state and district levels. The GIS data Handling of Hazardous Materials: In the light of the
base already available with different agencies of the Government experience of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, the Ministry of Home
is being upgraded and the gaps are proposed to be bridged. A Affairs has been interacting with Ministry of Environment &
project for this purpose is being drawn up with a view to Forests and new guidelines have been sent to the States for
institutionalize the arrangements. industries handling hazardous materials. It has been prescribed
The data base will provide multi layered maps on district that onsite and offsite disaster response plans for the industries
wise basis. These maps taken in conjunction with the satellite dealing with hazardous material be updated in consultation
images available for a particular area will enable the district with District Administration and that this may be rehearsed
administration as well as State Governments to carry out hazard once every year. It has also been prescribed that these industries
zonation and vulnerability assessment, as well as coordinate will carry out awareness campaign for the population in the
response after a disaster. Recognizing the crucial importance vicinity regarding the dos/don'ts in case of any accident involving
of Geographical Information System (GIS) as a decision support hazardous material
tool for disaster management, the Ministry of Home Affairs
With the development of disaster management committees
proposes to establish a GIS database, 'National Database for
and disaster management teams at all levels including village/
Disaster Management (NDDM)', which will assist in hazard
urban local body/ward level, the stage will be set for
zonation, risk assessment, preparedness and emergency
comprehensive preparedness measures to be taken with active
response management.
participation of the community and non-governmental
Strengthening of Fire Services: In order to further organizations.
strengthen the capacity for response, the fire services are
Special Focus to Northeastern States: A special focus
proposed to be developed into multi hazard response units as
is being given to North-Eastern States and the Andaman &
is the normal practice in several other countries A project for
this (with an estimated cost of Rs 2457 crores) has been drawn Nicobar Islands. The North-Eastern Council has been made the
up. The Planning Commission has given in-principle clearance nodal agency for the NE States. The NEC has been provided
to the project. The exercise for mobilization of resources is with a resource person/advisor in disaster management. A
being undertaken. It is proposed to provide rescue tenders in detailed presentation on the vulnerabilities of the NE region
addition to fire tenders to each fire unit and fill up all gaps upto and the need for comprehensive disaster management plan has
subdivisional level. Hazmat vans will be provided to State been made in the Governing Body of NE Council. An action
capitals and metropolitan cities. This will necessitate plan has been drawn up by NEC and a declaration namely
recruitment of additional fire men and drivers and intensive "Shillong Declaration" has been adopted by States in the NE
training required to be provided to enable them to function as region for integrating disaster management with development
efficient of all purpose response units. planning. 140 officials and non-officials have been trained in
disaster management to act as resource persons for the NE
Strengthening of Civil Defence: India has a large
region. State and district level sensitization and training
network of Civil Defence and Home Guards volunteers. The
programmes are being carried out.
existing strength is about 1.2 million. However, this organization
has not so far been associated with disaster mitigation, With the mitigation and preparedness measures outlined
preparedness and response functions. It is proposed to revamp in this and earlier section in position, it is expected that natural
the Civil Defence organization to enable them to discharge a hazards could be handled more efficiently so as to ensure that
key responsibility in all the facets of disaster management these hazards did not get converted into disasters.
30 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 31

CONCLUSION these measures in place, we could say with confidence that

Disaster Management requires multi-disciplinary and pro- disasters like Orissa cyclone and Bhuj earthquake will not be
active approach. Besides various measures for putting in place allowed to recur in this country; at least not at the cost, which
institutional and policy framework, disaster prevention, the country has paid in these two disasters in terms of human
mitigation and preparedness enunciated in this paper and lives, livestock, loss of property and means of livelihood.
initiatives being taken by the Central and State Governments, Our vision 2020 is to build a safer and secure India through
the community, civil society organizations and media also have sustained collective effort, synergy of national capacities and
a key role to play in achieving our goal of moving together, people's participation. What looks a dream today will be
towards a safer India. The message being put across is that, transformed into reality in the next two decades. This is our
in order to move towards safer and sustainable national goal and we shall strive to achieve this goal with a missionary
development, development projects should be sensitive towards zeal. The path ahead, which looks difficult today, will become
disaster mitigation. a lot easier as we move along together.
Our mission is vulnerability reduction to all types of hazards,
MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS [NDM DIVISION]
be it natural or manmade. This is not an easy task to achieve,
keeping in view the vast population, and the multiple natural 1. A review of the disaster management mechanism was
hazards to which this country is exposed. However, if we are carried out by the Government of India after the Bhuj
firm in our conviction and resolve that the Government and the earthquake. It was noted that there was need for building
people of this country are not prepared to pay the price in terms up holistic capabilities for disaster management - so as
of massive casualties and economic losses, the task, though to be able to handle both natural and man-made
difficult, is achievable and we shall achieve it. disasters. It was accordingly decided that the subject of
Disaster Management be transferred from the Ministry
We have taken the first few but significant steps towards
of Agriculture to the Ministry of Home Affairs (excluding
vulnerability reduction, putting in place prevention and
drought and epidemics and those emergencies/disasters
mitigation measures and preparedness for a rapid and
which were specifically allotted to other Ministries).
professional response. With a massive awareness generation
The Government (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961
campaign and building up of capabilities as well as
were accordingly amended in February, 2002. The actual
institutionalization of the entire mechanism through a techno
legal and techno financial framework, we are gradually moving transfer of work took place in June, 2002.
in the direction of sustainable development. 2. India has been very vulnerable to natural hazards and
calamities. The Bhuj earthquake accounted for 13805
The various prevention, mitigation measures outlined above
are aimed at building up the capabilities of the communities, deaths, the super cyclone in Orissa accounted for 9885
voluntary organisations and Government functionaries at all deaths. Government are of the view that if appropriate
levels. Particular stress is being laid on ensuring that these mitigation measures had been taken these casualties
measures are institutionalized considering the vast population could have been reduced significantly.
and the geographical area of the country. This is a major task 3. Each year disasters also account for loss of thousands
being undertaken by the Government to put in place mitigation of crores in terms of social and community assets. It is
measures for vulnerability reduction. This is just a beginning. clear that development cannot be sustainable without
The ultimate goal is to make prevention and mitigation a part building in mitigation into the planning process. Keeping
of normal day-to-day life.. We have a firm conviction that with the above factors in view, the Government of India have
32 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 33

brought about a change in policy which emphasizes preparedness State Governments/ UT Administration. Setting
mitigation, prevention and preparedness. With the up State Disaster Management Authorities
approval of the Government, a strategic roadmap as (i) State Disaster Management Authority to be headed by
given in the succeeding pages has been drawn up for the Chief Minister.
reducing the country's vulnerability to disasters. Action (ii) The Authority to lay down policies and monitor
for reducing our vulnerabilities to disasters shall be mitigation, prevention and preparedness as also oversee
taken in accordance with the roadmap. The roadmap response. Ministers for Agriculture, Home, Disaster
will be reviewed every two years to see if any change Management, Water Resources, Health, Road &
in direction is necessary. Transport, Civil Supplies, Environment & Forests, Rural
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK Development, Urban Development and Public Health
Engineering Departments as Members.
Institutional Mechanisms
Expected Outputs Areas of intervention Agencies/sectors to Disaster Mitigation/Prevention
be involved and resource linkages. Disaster mitigation/prevention to be mainstreamed into
Nodal agency for disaster management at the national the development process.
level with appropriate systems (i) Each Ministry /Department which has a role in
(i) Constitution of National Emergency Management mitigation /prevention will make appropriate outlays
Authority with appropriate legal, financial and for schemes addressing mitigation/prevention
administrative powers. (ii) Where there is a shelf of projects /schemes, projects /
(ii) Roles and responsibilities of the NEMA: schemes contributing to mitigation to be given a priority.
- Coordinating multihazard mitigation, prevention, (iii) Wherever possible Ministries / Department of Govt. of
preparedness and response programmes. India / State Governments /UT Administration schemes/
projects in areas prone to natural hazards to be so
- Policies for disaster risk reduction and mitigation
designed as to contribute to mitigation, and
- Preparedness at all levels.
preparedness.
- Coordination of response
(iv) Projects in vulnerable areas/areas prone to natural
- Coordination of post disaster relief and hazards to be designed to withstand natural hazards.
rehabilitation. Techno-legal regime
- Amendment of existing laws, procedures, (i) Regular review of building codes and its
instructions. dissemination
Ministries/ Departments of Health, Water Resources, (ii) Construction in seismic zones III, IV and V to be as
Environment and Forests, Agriculture, Railways, Atomic per BIS codes/National Building Codes.
Energy, Defence, Chemicals, Science & Technology, Rural (iii) Construction in areas vulnerable to cyclones to be
Development, Road Transport & Highways etc. so designed as to withstand the wind hazard as per
Creation of State Departments of Disaster Management BIS codes/National Building Codes.
Departments of Relief & Rehabilitation to be redesignated as (iv) Comprehensive review and compliance of
Department of Disaster Management with enhanced areas of
- Town and Country Planning Acts
responsibility to include mitigation, prevention and
34 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 35

- Development Control Regulations (ii) Mandate safe construction.

- Planning and Building Standards Regulations (iii) Coordinated action by all relevant Departments as per
Bureau of Indian Standards/Ministry of urban policy
Development State Urban Development Environment & Forests, Rural Development, Urban
Department / Urban Local Bodies State Urban Development and other relevant Ministries to be consulted.
Development Department / Urban Local Bodies States to enunciate Policy on Disaster Management.
State Urban Development Department / Urban
(i) Mainstreaming disaster management into planning and
Local Bodies
development process.
(v) Put in place appropriate technofinancial regime
(ii) Mandate safe construction.
(vi) Capacity enhancement of Urban Local Bodies to enforce
(iii) Coordinated action by all relevant Departments as per
compliance of technolegal regimes State Urban
policy
Development Department / Urban Local Bodies
State Governments State Disaster Management Codes
State Governments Land-use Planning and Zoning
Amendment of existing relief codes/scarcity codes/famine codes
regulations
to incorporate mitigation, preparedness and planning measures
(i) Legal framework for Land-use planning and zoning at all levels from community to State, constitution of Emergency
regulations to be reviewed. Support Teams /Disaster Management Teams /Committees /
(ii) Zoning regulations to be enforced. Ministry of Urban State Disaster Management Authorities, delegation of
Development Department of Land Resources[MORD] administrative and financial powers to disaster incident
Ministry of Environment and Forests[GOI] State managers etc, protocol to update the inventory of resources and
Governments Plan schemes for vulnerability reduction plans, State Governments.
and preparedness. State Governments. to formulate Plan
Preparedness and Response
Schemes and submit to Planning Commission State
Governments National Emergency Response Force/ Specialist Response
teams:
Legal/Policy Framework
(i) Designation of units for conversion into Specialist
Disaster Management to be listed in List - III - [Concurrent Response Teams.
List] of Seventh Schedule to the Constitution
(ii) Designation of training centres. (iii) Training of trainers.
(i) Bill to be drafted.
(iv) Procurement of equipment
(ii) Bill to be brought
(v) Training of teams. Ministry of Home Affairs
before Parliament Ministry of Home Affairs/ Ministry of
Central Industrial Security Force/ Indo- Tibetan Boarder
Law (Legislative Department) State Disaster Management Acts
Police/ Border Security Force/ Central Reserve Police Force
Model Act to be circulated to the States. Ministry of Home
Specialized Response Teams at State level:
Affairs State Governments National Policy on Disaster
Management (i) Designation of units for conversion into Specialist
Response Teams.
(i) Mainstreaming disaster management into planning and
development process. Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry (ii) Designation of training centres.
of Finance, Planning Commission, Ministry of (iii) Training of trainers.
36 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 37

(iv) Procurement of equipment using CRF resources India Disaster Resource Network
(v) Training of teams. (i) A web enabled GISbased resource inventory listing out
State Department of Disaster Management/State Home all the necessary resources for emergency response
available at the district and State level throughout the
Department State Police Training College/ State Fire Training
country so that resources can be mobilized at short
Institute.
notice.
National Network of Emergency Operation Centers (ii) Set up servers, draw up and install programmes, input
[NNEOCs] data.
Setting up Emergency Operations Centre[EOC] at National (iii) Half yearly updating Ministry of Home Affairs State
level: Governments.
(i) Multi- hazard resistant construction. Communication linkages which will be functional even post-
(ii) Communication system linkages. disaster.
(iii) Mobile EOCs for onsite disaster information (i) Draw up communication plan.
management (ii) Obtain sanctions.
Central Public Works Department Department for Central (iii) Put communication network in place.
Public Works Ministry of Home Affairs State level EOC Ministry of Home Affairs Directorate Coordination of Police
Wireless State Governments Regional Response Centres:
(i) Multi- hazard resistant construction.
(i) Identify location of Regional Response Centres.
(ii) Communication system linkages.
(ii) Identify caches of equipment required.
(iii) Mobile EOC for onsite disaster management information
(iii) Obtain sanctions.
State Governments District level EOC
(iv) Put teams and caches of equipments in place.
(i) Multi- hazard resistant construction.
Ministry of Home Affairs Border Security Force/ Indo-
(ii) Communication system linkages. Tibetan Border Police /Central Reserve Police Force/ Central
State Governments Putting Incident Command System in Industrial Security Force Training in response to be made a
Place part of training curriculum of CPMFs and State Police Forces.
(i) Designate nodal training centres. (i) Draw up capsules.
(ii) Putting in place protocols/SOPs for Incident Command (ii) Train trainers
System. Ministry of Home Affairs State Governments State Disaster
Ministry of Home Affairs/ Department of Personal and Management Plans:
Training/ Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of (i) Plan to be drafted under the supervision of the Chief
Administration / State Governments/ Administrative Training Secretary.
Institutes Emergency Support Function Plan (i) departments/ (ii) Plan will include mitigation, preparedness and response
agencies which perform emergency support functions to draw elements.
up ESF plans, constitute teams, Central Government Ministries/ (iii) The plan will be multi-disciplinary to be drawn up in
Departments State Governments and set apart resources in conjunction/consultation with all relevant Departments
advance so that postdisaster response is prompt. concerned with mitigation, preparedness and response.
38 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 39

(iv) Plan to be updated once a year. (iii) Such plans to be made integral to annual development
State Governments/ State Disaster Management Authorities plan of local bodies
District Disaster Management Plans: (iv) Mitigation plans of the community and Panchayats to
(i) To be drawn up under the supervision of District receive priority under various rural development
Magistrate/Collector and to include mitigation, schemes administered by Panchayats and Urban local
preparedness and response. bodies State Governments/ District Administration/
Panchayati Raj Institution /Urban Local Bodies
(ii) Emergency Support Functions by various Departments
to be included. Early Warning Systems
(iii) To be drawn up in consultation with all State (i) State of the art sensors to be set up.
Governments/ State Disaster Management Authorities (ii) Hazard monitoring, tracking and modelling.
relevant Departments. (a) IMD/CWC to carry out a review of sensors available
(iv) District inventory of resources to be maintained. and draw up plans for strengthening the system.
Block Disaster Management Plans: (b) Models to be updated to improve prediction accuracy.
(i) To be drawn up under the supervision of District Indian Meteorological Department/ Central Water
Magistrate/Collector and to include mitigation, Commission/ National Centre for Medium Range Weather
preparedness and response. Forecasting Warning Protocols:
(ii) Emergency Support Functions by various Departments (i) Warning protocols to be user friendly.
to be included. (ii) Warning to be communicated as quickly as possible to
(iii) To be drawn up in consultation with all relevant the States/districts/community.
Departments. (iii) Protocols should be simple to understand.
(iv) District inventory of resources to be maintained. (iv) Districts to set up protocols for communication of early
State Governments/ State Disaster Management Authorities warning to the community.
/ Block Development Administration Community based (v) Panchayats/local bodies to be used for early warning
mitigation, preparedness and response plans: communication.
(i) Enhance community capacity in multi-hazard prone (vi) Communication linkages for early warning.
States and districts to respond effectively to disasters- Ministry of Home Affairs/ State Governments /Indian
special attention to be given to empowering and capacity Meteorological Department/ Central Water Commission/
building of vulnerable communities and groups including National Remote Sensing Agency/ Information and
women. Broadcasting/ Doordarshan/ All India Radio.
(ii) Set up and train village/ Panchayat (for rural areas) and Human Resource Development & Capacity Building
wards/municipal council/corporations (for urban areas) Training for services /cadres/ agencies involved in mitigation,
disaster management committees and disaster preparedness or response.
management teams e.g. -Identification of safe shelters
(i) Training needs analysis/ Human Resource Development
and management -Stockpiling of relief materials etc. -
Plan
early warning dissemination -first-aid and counselling
-assist in search and rescue (ii) Drawing up of capsule courses for Ministry of Home
Affairs State Governments training.
40 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 41

(iii) Training of trainers. Ministry of Home Affairs /State Governments Ministry of

(iv) National Institute for Disaster Management to be Home Affairs /State Governments Ministry of Home Affairs
strengthened. Non-government community-based organizations involved in
(v) Setting up /strengthening training institutions in state awareness generation and community participation in disaster
faculties of Disaster Management in Administrative preparedness and mitigation planning
Training Institutes (i) Facilitate network of non-govt community based
Training of IAS/IPS, State Administrative Service Officers/ organizations at national/State/district levels
State Police. (ii) Co-opted into the planning process and response
(i) Training curriculum for IAS/IPS and State mechanisms at all levels.
Administrative Service Officers/State Police Officers to Corporate sectors involved in awareness generation and
include capsules in disaster management. disaster preparedness and mitigation planning Sensitisation,
(ii) Training of Block/Village level staff training and co-opting corporate sector and their nodal bodies
(iii) Training of PRIs. in planning process and response mechanisms
Administrative Training Institutes /State Institutes of Rural Ministry of Home Affairs/ Federation of Indian Industries
Development and District Institutes of Education and Training Inter-state arrangements for sharing of resources during
to be used. Engineers/Architects Curriculum for undergraduate emergencies and lessons learnt
engineering and B.Arch courses to be amended to include (i) Arrangements for inter-State sharing of resources to be
mitigation technologies in general and elements of earthquake incorporated in State
engineering in particular State Governments All India Council (ii) Inter-state exposure visits to be facilitated for learning
for Technical Education Indian Institute of Technologies from the experiences of other States
Professional bodies Health Professionals Include crisis
prevention, response and recovery and trauma management in Research and Knowledge Management
the MBBS curriculum. Institutionalise knowledge and lessons learnt in the process
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare Medical Council of of working on the national roadmap:
India Youth organisation NCC, NSS, Scouts & Guides to include (i) Assessment and evaluation of ongoing programmes and
disaster response, search and rescue in their orientation/training activities regular documentation of key lessons
programmes. Ministry of Youth and Sports Ministry of (ii) Establish India Disaster Resource Network as knowledge
Defence Masons Mason training for safe construction Ministry portal to pool and exchange information and knowledge
of Rural Development/ Department of Urban Development/ among all concerned institutions and organization.
State Governments School curriculum To include disaster Ministry of Home Affairs Develop national disasters
awareness. database
Central and State Boards of Education National mass media (i) Systematic inventorization of disasters
campaign for awareness generation Design and develop a
(ii) Trend analysis and reporting
communication strategy for awareness campaign Use audio,
visual and print medium to implement awareness campaign National Institute for Disaster Management Promote
Development of resource materials on mitigation, preparedness research in national, state and regional institutions in the
and response. areas of disaster risk reduction
42 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 43

(i) mitigation technologies for housing, roads and bridges, Plan. A specific, centrally sponsored scheme on disaster
water supply and sewerage systems, power utilities, management also exists. The Plan thus already has a defined
(ii) cost-effective equipments for specialized rapid response role in dealing with the subject.
and preparedness in --temporary and transition shelter Recently, expert bodies have dwelt on the role of the
in post-disaster situations Ministries / Departments of Planning Commission and the use of plan funds in the context
Central Government --search and rescue equipments - of disaster management. Suggestions have been made in this
-provision of drinking water, emergency health and regard by the Eleventh Finance Commission, and also the High
sanitation in postdisaster situations -post-trauma stress Powered Committee on Disaster Management. An approach on
management and care planning for safe development needs to be set out in the light
(iii) promote participation of corporate sector in finding out of these suggestions.
technological solutions for disaster risk reduction This chapter reflects the considerations outlined above. It
briefly outlines the global context and the Indian experience
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
of disasters, sets out the institutional and financial arrangements
The Development Perspective for disaster management and the response towards these in the
Five Year Plan documents have, historically, not included country, looks at directions for improvement, and concludes
consideration of issues relating to the management and with a strategy to facilitate planning for safe national
mitigation of natural disasters. The traditional perception has development in the Tenth Plan period.
been limited to the idea of "calamity relief", which is seen The Global Context
essentially as a non-plan item of expenditure. However, the
impact of major disasters cannot be mitigated by the provision There has been an increase in the number of natural
of immediate relief alone, which is the primary focus of calamity disasters over the past years, and with it, increasing losses on
relief efforts. Disasters can have devastating effects on the account of urbanisation and population growth, as a result of
economy; they cause huge human and economic losses, and can which the impact of natural disasters is now felt to a larger
significantly set back development efforts of a region or a State. extent. According to the United Nations, in 2001 alone, natural
disasters of medium to high range caused at least 25,000 deaths
Two recent disasters, the Orissa Cyclone and the Gujarat
around the world, more than double the previous year, and
Earthquake, are cases in point. With the kind of economic
economic losses of around US $ 36 billion.
losses and developmental setbacks that the country has been
suffering year after year, the development process needs to be These figures would be much higher, if the consequences
sensitive towards disaster prevention and mitigation aspects. of the many smaller and unrecorded disasters that cause
There is thus need to look at disasters from a development significant losses at the local community level were to be taken
perspective as well. into account. Devastations in the aftermath of powerful
earthquakes that struck Gujarat, El Salvador and Peru; floods
Further, although disaster management is not generally
that ravaged many countries in Africa, Asia and elsewhere;
associated with plan financing, there are in fact a number of
droughts that plagued Central Asia including Afghanistan,
plan schemes in operation, such as for drought proofing,
Africa and Central America; the cyclone in Madagascar and
afforestation, drinking water, etc., which deal with the
Orissa; and floods in Bolivia are global events in recent memory.
prevention and mitigation of the impact of natural disasters.
However, what is disturbing is the knowledge that these trends
External assistance for post-disaster reconstruction and
of destruction and devastation are on the rise instead of being
streamlining of management structures also is a part of the
kept in check.
44 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 45

Natural disasters are not bound by political boundaries and developmental activity is a cause for increased losses during
have no social or economic considerations. They are borderless disasters. In the case of India, the contribution of overpopulation
as they affect both developing and developed countries. They to high population density, which in turn results in escalating
are also merciless, and as such the vulnerable tend to suffer losses, deserves to be noted. This factor sometimes tends to be
more at the impact of natural disasters. For example, the as important as physical vulnerability attributed to geography
developing countries are much more seriously affected in terms and infrastructure alone.
of the loss of lives, hardship borne by population and the The continent of Asia is particularly vulnerable to disaster
percentage of their GNP lost. Since 1991, two-third of the strikes. Between the years 1991 to 2000 Asia has accounted for
victims of natural disasters were from developing countries, 83 per cent of the population affected by disasters globally.
while just 2 per cent were from highly developed nations. Those While the number of people affected in the rest of the world
living in developing countries and especially those with limited were 1,11,159, in Asia the number was 5,54,439.Within Asia,
resources tend to be more adversely affected. With the alarming 24 per cent of deaths due to disasters occur in India, on account
rise in the natural disasters and vulnerability per se, the world of its size, population and vulnerability. Floods and high winds
community is strengthening its efforts to cope with it. account for 60 per cent of all disasters in India. While substantial
As a number of the most vulnerable regions are in India, progress has been made in other sectors of human development,
natural disaster management has emerged as a high priority there is need to do more towards mitigating the effect of
for the country. Going beyond the historical focus on relief and disasters.
rehabilitation after the event, we now have to look ahead and Many parts of the Indian sub-continent are susceptible to
plan for disaster preparedness and mitigation, in order that the different types of disasters owing to the unique topographic
periodic shocks to our development efforts are minimized. and climatic characteristics. About 54 per cent of the sub-
The Indian Experience continent's landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes while about
4 crore hectares is vulnerable to periodic floods. The decade
Regional Vulnerabilities
1990-2000, has been one of very high disaster losses within the
Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of country, losses in the Orissa Cyclone in 1999, and later, the
people, their proximity to the hazard zone and standards of Gujarat Earthquake in 2001 alone amount to several thousand
safety maintained to counter the effects. For instance, some crore of Rupees, while the total expenditure on relief and
people are vulnerable to flood only because they live in a flood reconstruction in Gujarat alone has been to the tune of Rs
prone area. Physical vulnerability also relates to the technical 11,500 crore.
capacity of buildings and structures to resist the forces acting
Similarly, the country has suffered four major earthquakes
upon them during a hazard event.
in the span of last fifty years along with a series of moderate
The extent to which a population is affected by a calamity intensity earthquakes that have occurred at regular intervals.
does not purely lie in the physical components of vulnerability, Since 1988, six earthquakes have struck different parts of the
but is contextual also to the prevailing social and economic country. These caused considerable human and property losses.
conditions and it's consequential effect on human activities
Disasters lead to enormous economic losses that are both
within a given society. Research in areas affected by earthquakes
immediate as well as long term in nature and demand additional
indicates that single parent families, women, handicapped
revenues. Also, as an immediate fallout, disasters reduce
people, children and the aged are particularly vulnerable social
revenues from the affected region due to lower levels of economic
groups. The geophysical setting with unplanned and inadequate
activity leading to loss of direct and indirect taxes. In addition,
46 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 47

unplanned budgetary allocation to disaster recovery can hamper rescue operations without delay. The Ministry of Home Affairs
development interventions and lead to unmet developmental is the nodal Ministry for coordination of relief and response and
targets. overall natural disaster management, and the Department of
Disasters may also reduce availability of new investment, Agriculture & Cooperation is the nodal Ministry for drought
further constricting the growth of the region. Besides, additional management.
pressures may be imposed on finances of the government The following decision-making and standing bodies are
through investments in relief and rehabilitation work. responsible for disaster management at the Central level:
In the recent earthquake in Gujarat, more than 14,000 o Union Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister.
lives were lost, ten lakh houses were damaged and the asset o Empowered Group of Ministers, headed by the Deputy
loss has been indicated to be worth 15,000 crore. Prime Minister
Institutional Arrangements o National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), under
The country with its federal system of Government has the chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary.
specific roles for the Central and State Governments. However, o Crisis Management Group (CMG): under the
the subject of disaster management does not specifically find chairmanship of the Central Relief Commissioner
The country has an integrated administrative machinery comprising senior officers from the various Ministries
for management of disasters at the National, State, District and other concerned Departments which reviews
and Sub-District levels. The basic responsibility of undertaking contingency plans, measures required for dealing with
rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures in the event of natural a natural disaster, and co-ordinates the activities of the
disasters, as at present, is that of the State Governments Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation
concerned. The Central Government supplements the efforts to disaster preparedness response and relief.
of the States by providing financial and logistic support. o Technical Organizations, such as the Indian
Central Level Meteorological Department (cyclone/earthquake),
Central Water Commission (floods), Building and
The dimensions of response at the level of the Central
Material Promotion Council (construction laws), Bureau
Government are determined in accordance with the existing
of Indian Standards (norms), Defence Research &
policy of financing relief expenditure and keeping in view the
Development Organization (nuclear/biological),
factors like:
Directorate General Civil Defence provide specific
(i) the gravity of a natural disaster; technical support to coordination of disaster response
(ii) the scale of the relief operation necessary; and and management functions.
(iii) the requirements of Central assistance for augmenting o The setting up of a National Disaster Management
financial resources and logistic support at the disposal Authority (NDMA) is being contemplated by the Ministry
of the State Government. of Home Affairs as the proposed apex structure within
The Contingency Action Plan (CAP) identifies initiatives the government for the purpose. Amongst other major
required to be taken by various Central Ministries and Public organizational initiatives, it is proposed to:
Departments in the wake of natural calamities. It sets down (a) establish a specialised and earmarked response team
the procedures and determines the focal points in the for dealing with nuclear/ biological/chemical
administrative machinery to facilitate launching of relief and disasters;
48 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 49

(b) establish search and rescue teams in each State; stakeholders who are involved in disaster management at
(c) strengthen communication systems in the North various levels in the country. These include the police and
Eastern Region. para-military forces, civil defence and home-guards, fire services,
ex-servicemen, nongovernment organisations (NGOs), public
State Government
and private sector enterprises, media and HAM operators, all
The responsibility to cope with natural disasters is of whom have important roles to play.
essentially that of the State Government. The role of the Central
Armed Forces
Government is supportive in terms of supplementation of
physical and financial resources. The Chief Secretary of the The Indian Armed Forces are supposed to be called upon
State heads a state level committee which is in overall charge to intervene and take on specific tasks only when the situation
of the relief operations in the State and the Relief Commissioners is beyond the capability of civil administration. In practice, the
who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation measures in Armed Forces are the core of the government's response capacity
the wake of natural disasters in their States function under the and tend to be the first responders of the Government of India
overall direction and control of the state level committee. In in a major disaster. Due to their ability to organize action in
many states, Secretary, Department of Revenue, is also in- adverse ground circumstances, speed of operational response
charge of relief. State Governments usually have relief manuals and the resources and capabilities at their disposal, the Armed
and the districts have their contingency plan that is updated Forces have historically played a major role in emergency
from time to time. support functions such as communications, search and rescue
operations, health and medical facilities, transportation, power,
District and Local Level
food and civil supplies, public works and engineering, especially
The district administration is the focal point for in the immediate aftermath of disaster.
implementation of all governmental plans and activities. The
Disaster management plans should incorporate the role
actual day-to-day function of administering relief is the
expected of them so that the procedure for deploying them is
responsibility of the Collector/ District Magistrate/Deputy
smooth and quick.
Commissioner who exercises coordinating and supervising
powers over all departments at the district level. Though it may External Linkages
not be a common phenomenon, there exists by and large in The Government of India is a member of various
districts also a district level relief committee consisting of officials international organisations in the field of disaster response and
and non- officials. relief. While, as a policy, no requests for assistance or appeals
The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments recognise are made to the international community in the event of a
Panchayati Raj Institutions as 'Institutions of self- government'. disaster, assistance offered suo moto is accepted. Linkages
The amendment has also laid down necessary guidelines for exist with the following organisations:
the structure of their composition, powers, functions, devolution (a) UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
of finances, regular holding of elections and reservation of seats (UN OCHA), which has been made responsible by UN
for weaker sections including women. These local bodies can General Assembly mandate for all international disaster
be effective instruments in tackling disasters through early response.
warning system, relief distribution, providing shelter to the (b) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),
victims, medical assistance etc. Other than the national, state, responsible for mitigation and prevention aspects of
district and local levels, there are various institutional disaster management.
50 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 51

(c) UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) capitals, with trained staff and modern equipment such
System. Streamlining Institutional Arrangements for as thermal imagers, acoustic detection devices etc. This
Disaster Response is of immediate relevance since a major weakness
Institutional arrangements for disaster response are the exposed in the Gujarat earthquake was a lack of
heart of disaster management systems. There is no dearth of specialised urban search and rescue capability in India.
personnel, both civilian and military, experienced in handling (e) Media policy geared to handling the growing
situations arising out of natural disasters. However, there phenomenon of real time television reporting, which
certainly is a pressing need for improvement and strengthening generates enormous political pressures on a government
of existing institutional arrangements and systems in this regard to respond rapidly and efficiently. This needs attention
to make the initial response to a disaster more effective and since the effect is going to increase, not decrease in
professional. Most of the resources and expertise needed already future.
exist with the Government. What needs to be streamlined is (f) Closer interface with and better understanding of the
how they should be integrated, trained and deployed. Some of international system for disaster response, and putting
the areas where improvement is urgently needed are: in place, systems for dealing with international
(a) Integrated planning for disasters, including the assistance once it comes in e.g., customs, immigration,
integration of relevant Armed Forces formations into foreign policy implications etc. A greater appreciation
disaster management planning at all levels from District is needed of the speed and automation of modern
to State and Central Government. international response to a natural disaster. Closer
(b) Setting up of a modern, permanent national command interaction is required between of the Ministry of
centre or operations room, with redundant External Affairs and the relevant inter-national agencies
communications and data links to all State capitals. The concerned with disaster response.
national command centre or operations room needs to (g) Standard procedures for dealing with domestic
be manned on a 24-hour basis by professionals to cater humanitarian and relief assistance from non-government
for instant integrated response. There needs to be a sources. Procedures and systems need to be set out to
properly equipped operations room at the State level as avoid confusion and ensure best utilisation of the
well. assistance being offered, just as in the case of systems
(c) Establishment of a national stand by, quick reaction for international assistance.
team composed of experienced professionals, both (h) Modern unified legislation for disaster management. In
military and civilian, drawn from Central and State view of the current division of responsibilities between
Government staff to respond immediately by flying in the State and Central Government into state, central
a matter of hours an experienced response team to the and concurrent lists, there is a need to create a body
locations when a disaster strikes. This team can be of legislation dealing with response to natural disasters
organized and run professionally on the same lines as and other emergencies, clearly delineating
the United Nations Disaster Assessment and responsibilities and powers of each entity and specifying
Coordination (UNDAC) teams. what powers or actions would need to be triggered on
(d) Creation of urban search and rescue capacity at all declaration of a disaster by the Government of India or
levels, by establishing a fully equipped Search and a State Government. This legislation should also
Rescue unit, as part of the fire service in all State incorporate the current legislation dealing with chemical
52 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 53

emergencies that has been created by the Ministry of balances available in its own Calamity Relief Fund. The
Environment so that all emergencies are dealt with assistance from NCCF is available only for immediate relief
under one law. The legislation should include clear and rehabilitation. Any reconstruction of assets or restoration
definitions of what constitutes a disaster at a national of damaged capital should be financed through re-allocation of
level. Plan funds. There is need for defining the arrangements in this
regard.
Financial Arrangements
The initial corpus of the National Fund is Rs.500 crore,
Financing of Relief Expenditures
provided by the Government of India. This fund is required to
The policy arrangements for meeting relief expenditure be recouped by levy of special surcharge for a limited period
related to natural disasters are, by and large, based on the on central taxes. An amount of about Rs.2,300 crore has already
recommendations of successive finance commissions. The two been released to States from NCCF. A list of items and norms
main windows presently open for meeting such expenditures of expenditure for assistance chargeable to CRF/NCCF in the
are the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and National Calamity wake of natural calamities is prescribed in detail from time to
Contingency Fund (NCCF). The Calamity Relief Fund is used time.
for meeting the expenditure for providing immediate relief to
Financing of Disaster Management Through Five Year
the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood and
Plans
hailstorm.
Although not specifically addressed in Five Year Plan
Expenditure on restoration of damaged capital works should
documents in the past, the Government of India has a long
ordinarily be met from the normal budgetary heads, except
history of using funds from the Plan for mitigating natural
when it is to be incurred as part of providing immediate relief,
disasters. Funds are provided under Plan schemes i.e., various
such as restoration of drinking water sources or provision of
schemes of Government of India, such as for drinking water,
shelters etc., or restoration of communication links for
employment generation, inputs for agriculture and flood control
facilitating relief operations. The amount of annual contribution
measures etc. There are also facilities for rescheduling short-
to the CRF of each State for each of the financial years 2000-
term loans taken for agriculture purposes upon certification by
01 to 2004-05 is as indicated by the Finance Commission. Of
the District/State administration. Central Government's assets/
the total contribution indicated, the Government of India
infrastructure are to be repaired/rectified by the respective
contributes 75 per cent of the total yearly allocation in the form
Ministry/Department of Government of India. Besides this, at
of a non-plan grant, and the balance amount is contributed by
the occurrence of a calamity of great magnitude, funds flow
the State Government concerned. A total of Rs. 11,007.59 crore
from donors, both local and international, for relief and
was provided for the Calamity Relief Fund from 2000-05.
rehabilitation, and in few cases for long-term preparedness/
Pursuant to the recommendations of the Eleventh Finance preventive measures. Funds for the latter purposes are also
Commission, apart from the CRF, a National Calamity available from multilateral funding agencies such as the World
Contingency Fund (NCCF) Scheme came into force with effect Bank. These form part of the State Plan.
from the financial year 2000-01 and would be operative till the
There are also a number of important ongoing schemes that
end of the financial year 2004-05. NCCF is intended to cover
specifically help reduce disaster vulnerability. Some of these
natural calamities like cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood
are: Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP),
and hailstorm, which are considered to be of severe nature
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert Development
requiring expenditure by the State Government in excess of the
Programme (DDP), Flood Control Programmes, National
54 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 55

Afforestation & Ecodevelopment Programme (NA&ED), to identify works of a capital nature to prevent the
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP), Crop recurrence of specific calamities. These works may be
Insurance, Sampurn Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), Food for funded under the Plan.
Work etc.
Planning for Safe National Development
Initiatives Proposed by Various Bodies Regarding
Development programmes that go into promoting
Financing Under the Plan
development at the local level have been left to the general
References have recently been made to the role of the Plan exercise of planning. Measures need also to be taken to integrate
in disaster management by the High Power Committee (HPC) disaster mitigation efforts at the local level with the general
on Disaster Management, as well as by the Eleventh Finance exercise of planning, and a more supportive environment created
Commission. The HPC was constituted in 1999 and submitted for initiatives towards managing of disasters at all levels:
its Report in October 2001. national, state, district and local. The future blue-print for
The HPC took an overview of all recent disasters (natural disaster management in India rests on the premise that in
as well as manmade) in the country and identified common today's society while hazards, both natural or otherwise, are
response and preparedness mechanisms on the basis of a series inevitable, the disasters that follow need not be so and the
of consultations with a number of government, non-government, society can be prepared to cope with them effectively whenever
national and international agencies and media organisations. they occur. The need of the hour is to chalk out a multipronged
An important recommendation of the Committee was that at strategy for total risk management, comprising prevention,
least 10 per cent of plan funds at the national, state and district preparedness, response and recovery on the one hand, and
levels be earmarked and apportioned for schemes which initiate development efforts aimed towards risk reduction and
specifically address areas such as prevention, reduction, mitigation, on the other Only then can we look forward to
preparedness and mitigation of disasters. "sustainable development."
The Eleventh Finance Commission too paid detailed Disaster Prevention And Preparedness Measures
attention to the issue of disaster management and, in its chapter Information and Research Network
on calamity relief, came out with a number of recommendations, Disaster prevention is intrinsically linked to preventive
of which the following have a direct bearing on the Plan: planning. Some of the important steps in this regard are:
(a) Expenditure on restoration of infrastructure and other (a) Introduction of a comprehensive process of vulnerability
capital assets, except those that are intrinsically analysis and objective risk assessment.
connected with relief operations and connectivity with (b) Building a robust and sound information database: A
the affected area and population, should be met from
comprehensive database of the land use, demography,
the plan funds on priority basis. infrastructure developed at the national, state and local
(b) Medium and long-term measures be devised by the levels along with current information on climate, weather
concerned Ministries of the Government of India, the and man-made structures is crucial in planning, warning
State Governments and the Planning Commission to and assessment of disasters. In addition, resource
reduce, and if possible, eliminate, the occurrences of inventories of governmental and non-governmental
these calamities by undertaking developmental works. systems including personnel and equipment help in
(c) The Planning Commission, in consultation with the State efficient mobilisation and optimisation of response
Governments and concerned Ministries, should be able measures.
56 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 57

(c) Creating state-of-the-art infrastructure: The entire education system has done successfully. In addition to
disaster mitigation game plan must necessarily be separate diploma/degree courses in disaster
anchored to frontline research and development in a management, the subject needs to be discussed and
holistic mode. State-of-the art technologies available taught as a specific component in professional and
worldwide need to be made available in India for specialised courses like medicine, nursing, engineering,
upgradation of the disaster management system; at the environmental sciences, architecture, and town and
same time, dedicated research activities should be country planning.
encouraged, in all frontier areas related to disasters like (b) The focus towards preventive disaster management and
biological, space applications, information technology, development of a national ethos of prevention calls for
nuclear radiation etc., for a continuous flow of high an awareness generation at all levels. An appropriate
quality basic information for sound disaster management component of disaster awareness at the school level will
planning, help increase awareness among children and, in many
(d) Establishing Linkages between all knowledge: based cases, parents and other family members through these
institutions: A National Disaster Knowledge Network, children. Curriculum development with a focus towards
tuned to the felt needs of a multitude of users like dissemination of disaster related information on a
disaster managers, decision makers, community etc., sustained basis, covering junior, middle and high schools
must be developed as the network of networks to cover may be worked out by the different school boards in the
natural, manmade and biological disasters in all their country.
varied dimensions, (c) Training facilities for government personnel involved in
Capacity Building, Training & Education disaster management are conducted at the national
Personnel involved in the exercise have to draw upon level by the National Centre for Disaster Management
knowledge of best practices and resources available to them. (NCDM) at the Indian Institute of Public Administration,
Information and training on ways to better respond to and in New Delhi which functions as the nodal institution
mitigate disasters to the responders go a long way in building in the country for training, research and documentation
the capacity and resilience of the country to reduce and prevent of disasters. At the State level, disaster management
disasters. Training is an integral part of capacity building as cells operating within the State Administrative Training
trained personnel respond much better to different disasters Institutes (ATIs) provide the necessary training.
and appreciate the need for preventive measures. The directions Presently, 24 ATIs have dedicated faculties. There is a
in this regard are: need for strengthening specialised training, including
training of personnel in disaster response.
(a) The multi-sectoral and multi-hazard prevention based
approach to disaster management requires specific (d) Capacity building should not be limited to professionals
professional inputs. Professional training in disaster and personnel involved in disaster management but
management should be built into the existing pedagogic should also focus on building the knowledge, attitude
research and education. Specialised courses for disaster and skills of a community to cope with the effects of
management may be developed by universities and disasters. Identification and training of volunteers from
professional teaching institutions, and disaster the community towards first response measures as well
management should be treated as a distinct academic as mitigation measures is an urgent imperative. A
and professional discipline, something that the American programme of periodic drills should be introduced in
58 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 59

vulnerable areas to enable prompt and appropriate Strengthening of Plan Activities

community response in the event of a disaster, which Given the pervasive nature of disasters and the widespread
can help save valuable lives. havoc caused by some of them, planned expenditure on disaster
Capacity building for effective disaster management mitigation and prevention measures in addition to the CRF is
therefore needs to be grounded and linked to the community required. The Central Sector Scheme of Natural Disaster
and local level responders on the one hand and also to the Management Programmes has been implemented since 1993-
institutional mechanism of the State and the Nation on the 94 by the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation with the
other. objective to focus on disaster preparedness with emphasis on
Community Level Initiatives mitigation and preparedness measures for enhanced capability
to reduce the adverse impact of disasters. The major activities
The goal of any disaster management initiative is to build
undertaken within this scheme include the setting up of the
a disaster resistant/resilient community equipped with safer
National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) at the Indian
living and sustainable livelihoods to serve its own development
Institute of Public Administration, creation of 24 disaster
purposes.
management faculties in 23 states, research and consultancy
The community is also the first responder in any disaster services, documentation of major disaster events and forging
situation, thereby emphasising the need for community level regional cooperation.
initiatives in managing disasters. To encourage such initiatives,
The Eighth Plan allocation of Rs 6.30 crore for this scheme
the following are required:
was increased to Rs. 16.32 crore in the Ninth Plan. Within this
(a) Creating awareness through disaster education and scheme, NCDM has conducted over 50 training programmes,
training and information dissemination are necessary training more than 1000 people, while 24 disaster management
steps for empowering the community to cope with centres with dedicated faculty have been established in the
disasters. states. Over 4000 people have been trained at the State level.
(b) Community based approach followed by most NGOs In addition, some important publications and audio-visual
and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) should be training modules have been prepared and documentation of
incorporated in the disaster management system as an disaster events has been done.
effective vehicle of community participation. Though limited in scope and outlays, the Scheme has made
(c) Within a vulnerable community, there exist groups that an impact on the training and research activities in the country.
are more vulnerable like women and children, aged and Creation of faculties in disaster management in all 28 states
infirm and physically challenged people who need special is proposed to be taken up in the Tenth Plan in addition to
care and attention especially during disaster situations. community mobilisation, human resource development,
Efforts are required for identifying such vulnerable establishment of Control Rooms and forging international
groups and providing special assistance in terms of cooperation in disaster management. There is also an urgent
evacuation, relief, aid and medical attention to them in need for strengthening the disaster management pedagogy by
disaster situations. creating disaster management faculties in universities, rural
Management of disasters should therefore be an interface development institutes and other organisations of premier
between a community effort to mitigate and prevent disasters research.
as also an effort from the government machinery to buttress Sustainability is the key word in the development process.
and support popular initiatives. Development activities that do not consider the disaster loss
60 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 61

perspective fail to be sustainable. The compounded costs of The Path Ahead

disasters relating to loss of life, loss of assets, economic activities, For addressing natural calamities such as floods and
and cost of reconstruction of not only assets but of lives can drought, there already exist a number of plan schemes under
scarcely be borne by any community or nation. which a lot is being done and can be done. State Governments
Therefore, all development schemes in vulnerable areas need to make full use of the existing plan schemes and give
should include a disaster mitigation analysis, whereby the priority to implementation of such schemes that will help in
feasibility of a project is assessed with respect to vulnerability overcoming the conditions created by the calamity. In some
of the area and the mitigation measures required for cases this implies possible diversion of the funds from other
sustainability. Environmental protection, afforestation schemes to those schemes the implementation of which will
programmes, pollution control, construction of earthquake help meeting the situation. There may also be need in a crisis
resistant structures etc., should therefore have high priority situation for certain re-appropriations/reallocations among the
within the plans. different departments.
The aim of a mitigation strategy is to reduce losses in the The Planning Commission will aim at responding quickly
event of a future occurrence of a hazard. Structural mitigation to the needs of the Central Ministries/Departments/States in
may comprise construction of individual disaster resistant matters relating to the Plan for meeting situations arising out
structures like retrofitted or earthquake-resistant buildings or of natural disasters, by enabling adjustment of schemes to
creation of structures whose function is primarily disaster meet the requirements as far as possible. A mechanism will be
protection like flood control structures, dykes, levees, infiltration evolved to take expeditious decisions on proposals which involve
dams etc. transfer of funds from one scheme to another, or any other
Mitigation measures on individual structures can be change which involves departure from the existing schemes/
achieved by design standards, building codes and performance pattern of assistance, new schemes and relaxation in procedures,
specifications. Building codes, critical front-line defence for etc. in the case of natural disasters.
achieving stronger engineered structures, need to be drawn up As the first responder in any disaster situation, however,
in accordance with the vulnerability of the area and implemented each State needs to build a team, skilled personnel, make
through appropriate techno-legal measures. provision for specialised equipments, efficient communication
Mitigation measures need to be considered in land use and network, and relevant, intelligent and easily accessible database.
site planning activities. Constructions in hazardous areas like There is also a need to consider creation of a plan scheme in
flood plains or steep soft slopes are more vulnerable to disasters. each state basically to meet the minimum requirements for
Necessary mitigation measures need to be built into the design strengthening communications and emergency control rooms,
and costing of development projects. thereby improving coordination and response to disasters. No
new institutional structures need be created in such a scheme.
Insurance is a potentially important mitigation measure in
disaster-prone areas as it brings quality in the infrastructure In particular, with regard to major disasters, it is also
& consciousness and a culture of safety by its insistence on necessary for disaster mitigation components to be built into
following building codes, norms, guidelines, quality materials all development projects. In order to save larger outlays on
in construction etc. Disaster insurance mostly works under the reconstruction and rehabilitation subsequently, a mechanism
premise of 'higher the risk higher the premium, lesser the risk would need to be worked out for allowing components that
lesser the premium', thus creating awareness towards vulnerable specifically help projects coming up in highly disaster prone
areas and motivating people to settle in relatively safer areas. areas withstand the impact of natural disasters as part of
62 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 63

approved project cost for projects financed under the Plan. The mitigation and preparedness as also coordinated
message for the Tenth Plan is that in order to move towards response when a disaster strikes.
safer national development, development projects should be (iii) It has been noticed that while the local administration
sensitive towards disaster mitigation. With the kind of economic has the requisite skills and capabilities for carrying out
losses and developmental setbacks that the country has been search and rescue in recurrent types of disaster like
suffering year after year, it makes good economic sense to flood, there is lack of capability for specialised search
spend a little extra today in a planned way on steps and and rescue. Each State may consider setting up
components that can help in prevention and mitigation of specialised search and rescue teams. The teams would
disasters, than be forced to spend many multiples more later need to be composite with one coy of the State Armed
on restoration and rehabilitation. The design of development Police trained and equipped to carry out specialised
projects and the process of development should take the aspect search and rescue; one mobile engineering unit with
of disaster reduction and mitigation within its ambit; otherwise, necessary equipment and one medical assistance team.
the development ceases to be sustainable and eventually causes These teams may be constituted and trained together
more hardship and loss to the nation. so as to function as a unit under the overall charge of
GUIDELINES TO STATE GOVERNMENTS a designated officer. Guidance/advise required with
reference to training and equipment will be provided by
(i) The State Department of Relief and Rehabilitation may
the Disaster Management Division of the Ministry of
be converted into Department of Disaster Management
Home Affairs, Government of India.
with the responsibility of looking at the whole cycle of
disaster management- prevention, mitigation, (iv) It has been decided that fire services may be trained
preparedness, response, relief and rehabilitation. Steps and equipped to function as all hazard response units
for prevention/mitigation will need to be taken across as in other countries. This will necessitate some
a number of Departments. The Department of Disaster additional equipment and training to the fire units for
Management will coordinate the steps taken by the carrying our search and rescue in all types of disasters.
different Department of the Government in these The Government of India will be initiating a separate
spheres. project for this.
(ii) Mitigation, preparedness and response are multi- (v) The Ministry of Home Affairs had advised the State
disciplinary activities involving a number of Governments that composite control rooms may be set
Departments. In order to ensure the fullest involvement up at the State level and at the district levels under the
of the relevant Departments, the State Government District Magistrates for coordinating law and order as
may consider setting up a State Disaster Management well as disaster management and that allocations under
Authority under the Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary the Modernisation of Police Forces Schemes may be
with the Secretaries of Departments of Water Resources, used for the this purpose. Steps may be taken to put
Health, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Roads, such control room in place quickly with standby
Communications, Rural Development, Public Works, communication systems.
Public Health Engineering, Finance and Home as (vi) Disaster mitigation concerns/ aspects may be made an
Members. The Secretary of the Department of Disaster essential term of reference for every plan project/
Management may be the member-Secretary. This development scheme in the areas vulnerable to disasters.
authority will ensure coordinated steps towards In other words, every plan project will need to state as
64 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India—An Overview 65

to how is addresses mitigation concerns. Plans/projects in case of disasters; disaster mitigation and response,
specifically addressing mitigation/ prevention may be search and rescues techniques etc. In-service training
given a priority. The Secretary of Department of Disaster may be organized for staff already in service.
Management may be made a member for all bodies/ (xii) Special efforts may be put in for education and
teams constituted for scrutinizing/approving projects/ awareness. This should include awareness of basic design
plans. requirements for constructing private housing in seismic
(vii) Funds available under the ongoing schemes may be zones IV and V as well as in the belt vulnerable to
used for mitigation/ preparedness. For example funds cyclones.
under the rural development scheme can be used for (xiii) AICTE have been advised to include engineering aspects
construction of cycle shelters in areas prone to cyclones. of disaster mitigation in the engineering courses at the
Similarly, sites and designs of primary school buildings undergraduate level. State Governments may take
in flood prone areas may be so selected so that they can similar action with reference to engineering colleges
serve as shelters in times of floods. The design under their universities.
requirements for primary school building and hospitals (xiv) CBSE have been advised to include basic disaster related
and other important public buildings in seismic zones material in text books for classes 8th, 9th and 10th - the
V and IV would need to be in accordance with BIS basic dos and don'ts / precaution to be taken etc. State
norms for construction in these zones. Government may advise their Secondary Boards of
(viii) Every hazard prone district may draw up specific hazard Education to include similar in their text books.
related plans. These plans may be reviewed/updated in
the months of April and May each year.
(ix) Every district located in area prone to hazard will need
to maintain an on line inventory of resources available
in the Government, public and private sector. This will
enable easy and quick mobilization of resources in case
of need. A State-wide on line resources inventory would
enable the mobilization of resources from neighbouring
districts in cases of need.
(x) State in seismic zone V and IV may ensure that the BIS
building codes for these zones have been adopted and
are rigorously enforced by the municipal bodies. All
construction in the Government sector in these areas
must conform to the BIS code.
(xi) The initial training curriculum of the field staff- VLWs,
Karamcharis, Patwaris, Talhatis, Block Agriculture
Officers, Block Animal Husbandry Officers other Block
Supervisors, State Civil Service Officers, Constables,
Sub-inspectors, Dy S.Ps etc. in the States vulnerable to
hazards may include capsules on basic dos and don'ts
66 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 67

Hazards
Hazards are defined as "Phenomena that pose threat to
people, structures or economic assets and which may cause a
disaster". They could be either man made or naturally occurring
in our environment (UNDRO). A natural hazard pertains to a
2 natural phenomenon which occurs in proximity and poses a
threat to people, structures and economic assets caused by
biological, geological, seismic, hydrological or meteorological
Earthquake Risk Management conditions or processes in the natural environment.
Classification of Hazards
INTRODUCTION There are four basic types of hazardous events that put
societies at risk. Those are:
The unique geo-climatic conditions of India make this region
particularly vulnerable to natural disasters. Indian subcontinent i. Those based in nature: Earthquake, Flood, Drought,
is among the world's most disaster prone areas. Hazard profile Cyclone, Tsunamis, Heat /cold wave, Landslides,
of India tells us that 59% of land is vulnerable to hazards like Hailstorm, Avalanche.
earthquakes, 8% of land is vulnerable to cyclones and 5% of ii. Those based in violence: War, armed conflict, physical
land is vulnerable to Floods. These disasters along with others assault, etc.
occur with unfailing regularity and the losses caused by them iii. Those based in deterioration: Declining health, education
continue to mount year after year. This fact emphasizes the and other social services, environmental degradation,
importance of protecting our buildings from hazards to prevent etc.
disastrous situations. iv. Those based in the failing of industrialized society:
This chapter introduces various types of disasters occurring Technological failures, oil spillage, factory explosions,
in India and general building safety guidelines to reduce their fires, gas leakage, transport collisions.
impact. Guidelines for protecting buildings from earthquake We are however concerned only with hazards which pose
disaster are discussed in detail in others chapters of the book threat to buildings viz. earthquake, floods, cyclones, tsunamis,
and hence are not covered here. landslides, fire etc.
Disasters Hazards Affecting Buildings
Disaster is the occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune, Earthquake: Earthquake is shaking of earth due to release
which disrupts the basic fabric, and normal functioning of a of strain energy due to breaking of crust or movement of tectonic
society. plate.
WHO defines disaster as 'any occurrence that causes Flood: Flood is submergence of a wide area because of
damage, economic destruction, loss of human life and heavy local rainfall or overflowing of river or damage to some
deterioration in health and health services on a scale sufficient water-body nearby.
to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected Cyclone: Cyclone is a large-scale closed circulation system
community or area.' A disaster is the product of a hazard such in the atmosphere with low barometric pressure and strong
as earthquake, flood or windstorm coinciding with a vulnerable wind that rotate counter-clockwise in northern hemisphere
situation, which might include communities, cities or villages. and clockwise in southern hemisphere.
68 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 69

Tsunamis: Tsunami is a shallow water waves that 3. River bed aggradations due to siltation and damming
propagate in great speeds transferring energy from the source of rivers;
across oceans and towards land. 4. Back flooding and seawater flooding;
Landslides: Any rapid down - slope movement of a mass 5. Reduction in the water carrying capacity and
of regolith and/or bedrock, under influence of gravity 6. Failure of natural and man made dams.
Fire: Fire is uncontrolled burning of forest trees or train
or building or shop. Measures for Flood Mitigation
The various measures adopted for flood mitigation may be
BUILDING SAFETY AGAINST HAZARDS categorized into two groups:
Characteristics of different hazards and precautionary
Structural
measures to be taken to protect our built environment from
different hazardous events are given here. The earthquake The general approach is aimed at preventing floodwaters
disaster is not covered here since it has been discussed in detail from reaching the potential damage centers, as a result of
in the subsequent chapters. which a large number of embankments came up along the
various flood prone rivers. The mainthrust of the flood protection
Floods programme in the form of structural measures is grouped into
India is highly vulnerable to floods and every year Ganga the following:
and Brahmputra basins experience floods affecting states of o Dams and reservoirs;
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and Orissa on regular
o Embankments, flood walls, sea wall;
basis. Flood hazard and disaster are brought on by human
development, affecting both the immediate floodplain and o Natural detention basin;
properties downstream and along the shore. Though o Channel improvement;
traditionally human settlements occurred near sources of water o Drainage improvement and
for drinking water, agriculture, transport and power generation, o Diversion of flood waters.
in recent decades development along waterways and shorelines
For effective functioning of all the physical measures taken,
has been spurred by the aesthetic and recreational value of
it is necessary that pre- and post monsoon checks must be made
these sites. The result has been the formation of a downward
and special repairs must be carried out prior to flood period.
spiral consisting of:
1. An increasing exposure to damage and destruction Non - Structural
wrought by the natural forces of flooding on human The non structural measures on the other hand, aim at
development. modifying the susceptibility of flood damage as well as modifying
2. The forces of flooding being amplified by development the loss burden. The various non - structural measures are:
activity insensitive to the dynamics of flooding. o Flood Plain Management;
Causes of Large Floods o Flood proofing including disaster preparedness and
response planning;
Different types of floods are flash floods, single-peak flood,
multiple flood and synchronized flood. Causes for these are: o Flood forecasting and warning;
1. Prolonged, heavy and wide spread monsoons; o Disaster Relief and
2. Avulsion and channel shift; o Flood fighting including Public Health Measures.
70 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 71

Cyclones These defects must be corrected in order to minimize the

The term cyclone denotes all tropical storms. It is known impact of cyclones in future.
as 'Hurricanes' in the Atlantic and the eastern pacific; 'Typhoons' Cyclone Shelters
in western pacific, 'Willy Willy' in Australia and 'Bagius' in One of the most successful means of reducing loss of human
Philippines. Damage is limited to 50-60 kms beyond coast line. lives during cyclones is the provision of cyclone shelters. In
In India from the year 1891 to1990 total 262 cyclones occurred densely populated coastal areas, where large scale evacuations
within a 50 km wide strip on the East Coast out of which 92 are not always feasible, community buildings and buildings
were severe. Less severe cyclonic activity is on West Coast used for gathering of large number of persons, like schools,
which is 33 cyclones in the same period out of which 19 were dharamshalas, hospitals, prayer halls, etc. can be used as cyclone
severe. The Indian subcontinent is the worst cyclone affected shelters. These buildings can be so designed, so as to provide
due to the following reasons: bland façade, with a minimum of apertures in the direction of
* Low depth ocean bed topography; prevailing winds. The shorter side of the building should face
* Coastal configuration and the storm.
* Wind and Cyclones. Alternately these buildings can be designed on a circular
The Orissa Cyclone (October 1999) / ellipsoidal plan, so as to impart least wind resistance. Earth
berms and green belts can be used in front of these buildings
Two massive cyclones hit the Orissa coast spaced in just
to reduce the impact of the storm. Mangrove, Palmyra,
two weeks. The events have been traumatic and demoralizing
Casuarina trees are found to be good barriers for cyclones.
for Orissa. The first cyclone on October 17 and 18, 1999,
These shelters should be located in relatively elevated areas
inundated the areas of Gopalpur, Brahmapur, Chhatrapur and
with provision for community kitchen, water supply and
Ganjam with more than 150 miles of wind and torrential rain.
sanitation. Another alternative although expensive is to have
The super cyclone of Friday, October 29, 1999, beat all records.
individual cyclone shelters attached for installation on flat
The winds went beyond 250 miles an hour, the sky went all
ground adjacent to the house. The shelter is installed 4 feet in
dark and there was frightening lightning with incessant rains.
the ground, the dirt from excavation is placed around the
The loss of life and property is estimated at five billion US
shelter to help increase the shelter's effectiveness in protecting
dollars.
its occupants.
The main reasons of failure in non - engineered buildings
are as follows: LANDSLIDES
o Poor site selection; Landslides are defined as the mass movement of rock,
o Inappropriate shape of building especially slope of the debris or earth down a slope. They are influenced by geological,
roof; geo-morphological, climatic, environmental, hydrological and
seismological conditions and by biological factors. In India the
o Large roof projections;
North Sikkim and Garhwal Himalayas are often affected by
o Poor construction practices; landslides with the average being 2 landslides / sq.km./year,
o Lack of continuity in walls and roof; with soil loss of 2500 ton/sq.km./year. In this region almost 80%
o Poor connections; of the landslides occur in 4 months of monsoon where annual
o Corrosion of steel bars and connections, and rainfall is from 3500 to 5000 mm. Situations of cloudburst
o Bad fabrication of wooden or steel trusses. (more than 1000mm rain in 24 hours) also trigger landslides.
72 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 73

Landslides are also very common in Nilgiri hills and Western * Cracking of floors, foundations or compound walls and
Ghats of India. The unprecedented rains in 1978 triggered over * A decrease in the population of burrowing animals.
100 landslides in Nilgiri hills while in Western Ghats also, the
frequency of landslides is on increase. Remedial Measures for Landslides
Two most important remedial measures which could be
Causes of Landslides taken for landslides are:
Various causes of landslides are: 1. Control Work: modification of the natural conditions
* Unstable geological conditions; such as topography, geology, groundwater etc.
* Indiscriminate construction activity; 2. Restraint Work: construction of structures such as surface
* Exceptionally heavy rainfall, cloudbursts, flash-floods; and sub- surface drainage works, removal of earth from
* Poor drainage due to urbanization and the unstable area, building buttress walls, piles, anchors,
retaining walls.
* Deforestation.
Four-fold strategy for control of landslides:
Categories of Landslides
* Reducing slope angle;
All landslides can be grouped into two categories * Placing additional supporting material at foot of slope;
* Rain induced slope failures and * Reducing load on slope by removing rock/soil high on
* Earthquake induced landslides. slope and
Mechanism of Land Sliding * Use of retention structures and removal of fluid by
drainage systems.
Mechanisms of land sliding include:
* Development of fissures (mostly subsequent to seismic TSUNAMI
events); Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning 'The Harbor Wave.'
* Widening of these and also inherent joints in the laterites Tsunami is a shallow water waves that propagate in great
occupying the plateau due to tremors/percolation of speeds transferring energy from the source across oceans
rainwater; towards the land. They have great destructive potential, as
* This gradually leads to a state of in-equilibrium. they are increasing in height as they approach land.

Prior Symptoms of Landslides Causes of Tsunamis

Some prior symptoms of landslides are: Tsunamis are usually caused by underwater earthquakes.
These often occur offshore at subduction zones (places where
* Development of new cracks or unusual bulges in probable
a tectonic plate that carries an ocean is gradually slipping
crown area;
under a continental-plate). Hence, a receding sea usually
* Development of springs, seepages or saturated ground precedes a tsunami wave. In most cases there is also drawdown
in the areas not wet earlier; of sea level preceding crest of the tsunami waves. Landslides
* Change in position, amount of discharge or amount of can also cause tsunamis by displacing large volumes of water.
turbidity of springs - a year or two prior to landslides; (For e.g.: On July 17 1998, more than 2100 people were killed
* Tilting of electricity poles, trees, fences, rods etc.; in Papua, New Guinea) If Volcano collapses and slides into the
* Sinking of roads or ground surfaces; ocean it may also create a very large tsunami wave. Hence we
can say that:
74 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 75

* They are caused by earthquakes or landslides. * Even though these waves transfer enormous amounts
* Tsunamis can be generated when the seafloor abruptly of energy in jetliner speeds they are completely harmless
deforms vertically displacing a large volume of water. in deep waters.
* Displaced water mass under the influence of gravity * Because of the low ratio between water depth and
forms waves around it in order to reach equilibrium. wavelength, the slope of tsunami waves is very small
giving them the ability to travel across oceans unnoticed.
* Tectonic earthquakes can cause tsunamis when a tectonic
place subsides or rises. * Because the rate of energy loss of a wave is inversely
related to its wavelength, tsunamis not only can travel
* Along plate faults is where vertical movements of plates
transoceanic distances in jetliner speeds, they can also
take place. Subduction zones are usually sources of
travel great distances without loosing significant
large tsunamis.
amounts of energy. (159 people died in Hawaii from
* During subduction earthquake, the offshore ocean tsunami waves generated almost 3700 km away in
bottom lifts up the land along the coast lowers down. Alaska's islands.)
The December 2004 Tsunami * As tsunami reaches the shore the water depth decreases
Sunday 26 December 2004: at 0100 GMT, an 8.9 magnitude and speed decreases significantly.
earthquake occured on the seafloor near Aceh in northern * Flux of energy carried remains almost constant, its
Indonesia. It created the fourth largest tsunami since 1900 crest height increases to account for the kinetic energy
hitting the coasts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, lost.
India, Sri Lanka, Maldives and even Somalia. * Sudden decrease of the wave speed from 700 kmph to
The epicentre of this great earthquake was near the triple 100kmph can result to an increase in crest height from
point junction of three major tectonic plates where large a couple of m to 20 m high wave. (During Okushiri
catastrophic earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred for tsunami in Japan in 1993 wave upto 31 m high were
millions of years. It occurred along the boundary where the reported. It killed 239 people.)
great tectonic plates of India and Australia collide and subduct * The tendency of tsunami waves to align parallel to the
underneath the Sunda and Eurasian plates. The total death shoreline they approach, may present a disadvantage
toll was above 2.5 lakh, which was aggravated by the fact that to a protruding headland as the waves tend to wrap
there was no warning. around it before they smash into it with great force.
Reasons for Disastrous Effects of Tsunamis Destructions Caused by Tsunamis
Tsunamis throughout history have been associated with Tsunami can cause destruction in three ways:
tragedy and loss of human lives. * Wave impact on structures
The disastrous effects of Tsunamis are because of the * Inundation
following facts: * Erosion
* Tsunamis behave like shallow water waves because of
Major forms of destructions brought out by Tsunamies are:
the very small ratio between water depth and their
* Flotation and drag forces have moved houses and
wavelength.
overturned railroad cars.
* The velocity of waves is dependent on depth. In 4000m
* Tsunami associated wave forces have demolished frame
water depth tsunami can travel at 720 kmph.
buildings and other structures.
76 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 77

* Tsunamis propagate inland with tremendous amount of Precautions during a Tsunami

power causing great destruction to structures as well During peace times proper education must be given to high
as coast morphology and vegetation. risk residents. And during tsunami people should be told to
* Strong tsunami induced currents have led to erosion of save themselves by moving quickly to higher grounds.
foundations and the collapse of bridges and seawalls.
FIRES
Tsunami Prediction and Alert System In India the direct & indirect annual losses due to fire is
Earthquake could not be predicted in advance and hence estimated at Rs 1200 crore and 20,000 fatal injuries. These fire
there is no direct technology which can predict a Tsunami. accidents & resulting losses are increasing with rapid rise in
However, with new technological advancements, once the industrialization and urbanization, due to several factors as
earthquake is detected it is possible to give alert well before high rise construction, congestion in squatter and slum pockets,
tsunamis reach land. inner city areas and changing life styles and materials used in
Such a system of warnings is in place across the Pacific constructions. Lack of proper building guidelines, enforcement
Ocean but not in the Indian Ocean. The mechanism is as given of the codes, improper installation& maintenance of active
below: systems, are aggravating our vulnerabilities to fires. The death
and destruction due to fire triggered by earthquakes are the
o Deep-ocean assessment and reporting of tsunamis
designer's inability to understand the sensitive relationship
(DART) System consists of special buoys strategically
between the built infrastructure and forces of nature/
placed along the seismic zone.
environment. Fires are caused as a combined effect of three
o At ocean floor a sensitive pressure detector is installed elements forming the triangle of fire.
that can detect pressure differences created by tsunamis
with wave heights of only a few centimeters. They can Fundamental Safety Mechanisms
distinguish tsunamis from other waves. 1. Structural fire protection
o Detector sends the signal to the buoy through an acoustic 2. Means of escape in case of fire
link and buoy transmits it through satellite to DART Classification of Fires
stations along the coast.
Building fires can be classified as
o This process takes place in less than a minute.
o Class A- Fires in solid fuel
Sophisticated computer software at the stations analyses
the signal and they calculate magnitude, direction and o Class B- Fires in inflammable liquids
speed of tsunami in a matter of minutes. o Class C- Fires in inflammable gases
o This allows plenty of time for communities to evacuate o Class D- fires in inflammable metals (e.g. Aluminum,
and also offers more confidence to the officials and Uranium)
coastal residents eliminating the false alarms associated o Class E- Fires caused by electrical faults.
with older systems. Structural fire Protection
o Even though DART technology is a great advancement, 1. Design Objective: Provide fire resistance for a reasonable
but alone cannot save lives. Since future destructive period of time which being anticipated in the given
tsunamis are inevitable coastal residences around the scenario & thereby will provide for
world should learn to recognize signs associated with
o Delay to the spread of fire;
incoming tsunamis.
78 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 79

o Ultimate collapse of the structure; o Public /private spaces;

o Reaction and egress time for persons in danger to o Storage and general premises - used for goods,
escape and materials, parking etc. and
o Enable fire fighting to be commenced. o Any premises not included in purpose groups
2. Building Classification: Buildings can be graded as to mentioned above would be placed in this
the amount of overall fire resistance required by taking classification.
into account the size of building, function character of 6. Area Zoning:
building and the fire load. o Escape route - a continuous path by way of a space,
o Grade 1 - (1 hr). Typical buildings within this grade room, corridor, staircase or other means of passage
are flats, offices, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, but excluding a lift, escalator, escape or fireman's
schools, museums and public libraries. ladder
o Grade 2 - (2hr) Moderate fire load, typical examples o Place of safety - an unenclosed space in the open air
are retail shops, factories and workshops. at ground level
o Grade 4 - (4 hr) High fire load, Typical examples are o Protected zone - comprises approach lobbies,
certain types of workshops and warehouses stairway and final exit lobby
3. Fire Resistance of Materials: Fire resistance of a building o Unprotected zone - sometimes called a clearway
element is given in minutes and is the time interval and is that portion of an escape route leading to a
from the start of the test until failure occurs in stability, protected zone.
integrity or insulation of the building. Means of Escape in Case of Fire
4. Building Regulations: The basic aim of relevant Building In the context of means of escape in the event of fire break
Regulations is to limit the spread of fire. This is achieved out, the building and its contents are of secondary importance.
by considering the The provision of a safe escape route should, however, allow at
o Functional use of building; the same time an easy access for the fire brigade using the
o Fire resistance of structural elements and surface same routes. Since these routes are protected, the risk of fire
finishes; spread is minimized. In practice the provision of an adequate
means of escape and structural fire protection of the buildings
o Size of the building or parts of a building and
and its contents are virtually inseparable.
o The degree of isolation between buildings or parts
1. Common Factors for Fire Escapes: Each building has to
of buildings.
be considered as an individual exercise but certain
5. Functional Classification of buildings: common factors prevail in all cases for e.g.
o Residences; o An outbreak of fire does not necessarily imply the
o Institutional - hospitals, schools and similar evacuation of the entire building;
establishments; o Persons should be able to reach safety without
o Office - any premises used for office purposes; assistance using the protected escape routes;
o Shops - commercial activities; o Rescue facilities of the local fire brigade should not
o Factory - generally as defined by relevant Factories be considered as part of the planning of means of
Act; escape, and
80 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 81

o All possible sources of an outbreak and the course o Fire resistance of the structure and of materials
the fire is likely to take should be examined and the used in the construction and finishes
escape routes planned accordingly o Vulnerability of proposed escape routes to smoke
2. Planning of Escape Routes: The various aspects to be and fire.
considered while designing means of escape are: o Fire load
o The user type; o Existence of openings in the floor, such as stairwells,
o Levels of risk; which would permit the passage of smoke, fire and
o Unfamiliarity with building layout; hot gases.
o Problems of smoke and Fire Protection Systems
o The reaction time available to evacuate the building. There are two types of fire protection systems viz. active
3. Fire Precautions: The basic fire escape principles and passive. These systems do not require power or water to
embodied in the National Building Code (NBC) are: contain fires.
o Limitation of travel distances; • Active : Involves the control of smoke spread, detection
o Escape route considered in 3 stages and communication process that informs the fire
outbreak and triggers some sort of counteraction towards
- Travel distance within rooms;
extinguishing the fire.
- Travel distance from rooms to a stairway or • Passive: A proactive approach taken at the building
final exit; design stage, aimed at addressing a comprehensive
- Travel within stairways and final exit. solution to the fire problem. It is an all encompassing
o Provision of a protected route which is defined as fire safety concept which embraces the passive measures
a route for persons escaping from fire which is in fire containment design in addition to augmenting
separated from the remainder of the building by the active measures.
fire-resisting doors (except doors to lavatories), fire
Passive Fire Protection Scope
resistant walls, partition and floors.
o Structural fire protection
4. Planning and Designing Escape Routes: Considerations
o Safe escape routes and refuge for occupants
for planning and designing of escape routes are:
o Compartmentation & containment of fire spread
o Number of persons who may reasonably be expected
to be on the premises; typical population densities o Preserving the function of active fire safety measures
are as follows: o Life safety of fire personnel
Offices - 3.7 m 2 per person where layout consists of Application of passive fire protection:
individual rooms and taken for the net floor area or o Structural Steel Protection - Strength reduces drastically
5 m2 per person for open planned offices calculated when temperature rises beyond 5000c, which is most
on the gross floor area common in uncontained fire. Risk of collapse increased.
Shops - 4.5 to 7 m2 per person of gross sales floor area o Mechanical and Electrical Enclosures - Electrically
but for ground floors of department and self operated system is well protected.
service food stores allow 0.5 to 1 m2 of net circulating o Fire Rated Partitions - Fire safe lobby and safe escape
area passage ways are critical to life safety.
82 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Risk Management 83

o Fire Rated Ceilings - Engineering services passing above (B) Recovery - the final phase of the emergency management
the unprotected ceiling - a source of fire propagation cycle. It continues until all systems return to normal,
o Fire Rated Ducts - When the smoke temperature is high or near normal. Short-term recovery returns vital life
the sheet metal ducts become distorted, making it useless support systems to minimum operating standards. Long-
for air flow or smoke extraction term recovery from a disaster may go on for years until
o Fire Stops/Seals - Barriers to prevent fire propagation. the entire disaster area is completely redeveloped; either
as it was in the past or for entirely new purposes that
Present Scenario is less disaster prone.
o Passive fire protection market in India is in the (C) Mitigation - activities, which actually eliminate or reduce
developing stage, concentrated on the passive fire the vulnerability or chance of occurrence or the effects
protection for load bearing structures using concrete
of a disaster.
mostly in the industrial segment.
(D) Preparedness - planning how to respond in case an
o In the commercial segment, virtually no passive fire
emergency or disaster occurs and working to increase
protection concept exists.
resources available to respond effectively.
o Although fire regulations followed in Indian market are
based on National Building Status Of Earthquake Monitoring
Codes (NBC) which follows the basic guidelines of the British Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is the nodal agency
Standards (BS), they are not product or application specific. dealing with measuring earthquakes in India. At present IMD
is maintaining a network of 51 seismological observatories.
Emergency Management
Twenty-four seismological observatories were upgraded with
Emergencies do not just appear one day, rather, they exist broadband digital seismographs during 1996-99. A Central
throughout time and have a life cycle of occurrence, and hence Receiving Station (CRS ) and a National Seismological Data
the management strategy should match the phases of an Base Centre (NSDC) have been established at New Delhi to
emergency in order to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover receive analyze and systematically archive the seismic data.
from its effects. Emergency management requires a close
working partnership among levels of the government (national, CONCLUSIONS
state, district and taluka), the private sector (business and India is prone to various types of natural hazards which
industry, voluntary organizations) and the general public. pose threat to our buildings in different ways. The losses caused
Emergency Management Cycle by them every year are continuously mounting and hence
protection of buildings from these hazards to minimize their
Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and Recovery are
disastrous effects is need of the time. Different types of measures
visualized as having a circular relationship to each other. Each
have to be taken at the building design stage in order to
phase results from the previous one and establishes the
increase there resilience to different hazards, which they are
requirements of the next one. The activities in one phase may
overlap those in the previous. Four phases of Emergency prone to. Disasters gives rise to emergency situations which
Management are: have response, recovery, mitigation, preparedness and disaster
as cyclic phases. Lot of research is being conducted in different
(A) Response - occurs during and immediately following a
aspects of disasters especially earthquakes owing to their
disaster. They are designed to provide emergency
peculiar un-predictive nature. Guidelines for the construction
assistance to victims of the event and reduce the
of earthquake resistant buildings have been provided in this
likelihood of secondary damage.
book.
84 Disaster Management in India Elementary Seismology 85

standard correction for the epicentral distance from

recording station. It is linearly related to the logarithm
of amount of energy released by an earthquake and
expressed in Richter Scale.
• Intensity: It is the rating of the effects of an earthquake
3 at a particular place based on the observations of the
affected areas, using a descriptive scale like Modified
Mercalli Scale. Epicenter: It is the point on the (free)
Elementary Seismology surface of the earth vertically above the place of origin
(hypocenter) of an earthquake. This point is expressed
by its geographical latitude and longitude.
INTRODUCTION • Hypocenter or Focus: It is the point within the earth
An earthquake is a spasm of ground shaking caused by a from where seismic waves originate. Focal depth is the
sudden release of energy in the earth's lithosphere. As most vertical distance between the hypocenter and epicenter.
earthquakes arise from stress build -up due to deformation of Earthquake Occurrence in the World
the earth's crust, understanding of seismicity depends heavily All places on the earth are not equally seismic. Earthquakes
on aspects of geology, which is the science of earth's crust, and are generally found to occur along specific regions called 'Seismic
also calls upon knowledge of the physics of the earth as whole Belts'. There are three main belts around the globe along which
i.e. geophysics. The particular aspect of geology which sheds majority of earthquakes have occurred. They are:
most light on the source of earthquakes is tectonics, which 1. Circum Pacific Belt or Ring of Fire;
concerns the structure and deformations of the crust and the
2. Alpide Belt and
processes which accompany it; the relevant aspect of tectonics
is referred to as seismotectonics. The chapter deals with basic 3. North and South in the Middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
understanding of all these fields for better understanding of Earthquake Occurrence in India
earthquakes. In India, the main seismic zone runs along Himalayan
EARTHQUAKES mountain range, northeast India, Andaman-Nicobar islands
and Rann of Kutch region.
Earthquakes are defined as, 'Ground shaking and radiated
seismic energy caused mostly by sudden slip on a fault, volcanic Table : Recent Significant Earthquakes
or any sudden stress change in the earth'. Year Place Magnitude Lives Lost
Important Definitions 2005 Pakistan 7.4 1,309 in India
Some of the important definitions involved in the 2004 Sumatra 9.3 10,749 in India
understanding of seismology are given below: 2001 Bhuj 7.7 13,805
1999 Chamoli 6.8 103
• Magnitude: It is the quantity to measure the size of an
1997 Jabalpur 6.0 39
earthquake in terms of its energy and is independent
1993 Latur 6.3 7,601
of the place of observation.
1991 Uttarkashi 6.6 769
• Richter Scale: Magnitude is measured on the basis of
Lives lost in last about 15 years 34,375
ground motion recorded by an instrument and applying
86 Disaster Management in India Elementary Seismology 87

Plate Tectonics little. As the tectonic forces continue to prevail, the plate margins
The theory of plate tectonics was originally proposed in exhibit deformation as seen in terms of bending, compression,
1912 by a German scientist, A. Wegner. Plate Tectonics is the tension and friction. The rocks eventually break giving rise to
theory supported by a wide range of evidence that considers an earthquake, because of building of stresses beyond the
the earth's crust and upper mantle to be composed of several limiting elastic strength of the rock.
large, thin, relatively rigid plates that move relative to one The building up of stresses and subsequent release of the
another. It is based on some theoretical assumptions that explain strain energy in the form of earthquake is a continuous process,
the forces, which cause accumulation of stresses inside the which keeps on repeating in geological time scale.
earth. These assumptions are as given below: Types of Faults:
o Drifting of continents and mountain building process Different types of faults are:
o Shortening of Earth's crust due to cooling and * Dip Slip Faults;
contraction.
* Normal;
o Disturbance of mass distribution on the Earth's surface
* Reverse;
as a result of erosion of high lands and deposition of
sediment in the sea. * Strike Slip Faults;
o Generation of heat by radioactive material inside the * Right Lateral and
Earth's crust. * Left Lateral.
The edges of the oceanic and/or continental plate boundaries Earthquake Hazard maps
mark the regions of destructive earthquake activity and volcanic Under the initiative of the Ministry of Urban Development,
activity. a Vulnerability Atlas of India was prepared in which the
About 80% of the seismic energy is released by earthquakes earthquake, cyclone and flood hazard maps for every state and
occurring along the plate boundaries. These earthquakes are Union Territory of India have been prepared to a scale of 1:2.5
called as inter-plate earthquake, directly associated with forces million.
related to the interaction of the plates. (Circum-Pacific belt,
Seismology
Mid-Atlantic ridge and Alpine- Himalayan belt)
The term 'Seismology' (Science of Earthquakes) is derived
Sporadically, earthquakes also occur at rather large
from Greek word Seismo, which means earthquake and logos
distances from the respective plate margins, these so called
which means science; hence the Seismology is Science of
intra-plate earthquake, show a diffuse geographical distribution.
Earthquakes.
(Central USA: New Madrid, 1812, Northeastern Continental
China: Tangshan, 1976 and central India: Latur, 1993). Seismology can be defined in two ways:
Earthquakes are usually caused when the underground 1. The science of earthquakes and the physics of the earth's
rocks suddenly break along a plane of weakness, called fault. interior
2. The science of elastic wave (seismic waves) i.e.
Faults
(a) Their origin (earthquakes, explosions etc.)
A fault is nothing but a crack or weak zone inside the
(b) Their propagation through the earth's interior and
Earth. When two blocks of rock or two plates rub against each
other along a fault, they don't just slide smoothly they stick a (c) Their recording, including the interpretation of
records
88 Disaster Management in India Elementary Seismology 89

The elastic waves, emanating from an earthquake permit 2. Intermediate-focus: Intermediate-focus earthquakes
the most reliable studies and conclusions about the internal (focal depth between 71 and 300 km) and
constitutions of the earth using the records of the seismograph 3. Deep-focus: Deep-focus earthquakes (focal depth greater
stations around the world. Source parameters of earthquake than 300 km) occur at subduction zones
help us to evaluate the tectonic force.
Classification based on Magnitude
In addition there is applied seismology, where we can also
Classification Magnitude (on Richter Scale)
distinguish between several branches, such as seismic
prospecting, i.e., the search by seismic method for economically Micro earthquake less than 3.0
significant occurrences of salt, oil, mineral ores. Furthermore, Slight 3.1-4.9
depth to bedrock measurements for construction purposes, etc. Moderate 5.0-6.9
The problem of distinguishing between earthquakes and Great 7.0-8.0
explosions can be considered as another branch of seismology.
Very Great Greater than 8.0
In brief, seismology deals with the following:
Classification based on Epicentral Distance
o The practical problem of understanding, reacting and
living with earthquakes Classification Range
o The use of earthquakes and other natural excitations Local shock < 4.0
of the earth to understand the nature of the terrestrial Near shock 4.0 to 10.0
forces involved and the structure of earth Distant shock 10.0 to 20.0
o The technology of seismic prospecting Teleseismic shock > 20.0
Causes of Earthquakes Earthquake Size
An earth shaking may occur due to various reasons: tectonic There are two methods of describing how large an
plate movements, volcanic activity, impact of meteorites, collapse earthquake is, as given below:
of caves, rock-burst in mines, land slides/ rock-falling, nuclear
1. The Intensity of an Earthquake: It is a subjective
explosion etc.
parameter that is based on an assessment of visible
An earthquake is a phenomenon related to strong vibrations effects. It is therefore depends on factors other than the
occurring on the ground due to sudden release of energy. actual size of the earthquake.
Classification of Earthquakes 2. The Magnitude of an Earthquake: It is determined
Most earthquakes originate within the crust. At depth instrumentally and is more objective measure of its
beneath the Moho, the number falls abruptly and dies down size.
to zero at a depth of about 700 km. Intensity: Intensity is the rating of the effects of an
earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of
Classification based on Focal Depth
the affected areas, using a descriptive scale. Large earthquakes
1. Shallow-focus : Shallow-focus earthquakes, which produce alterations to the Earth's natural surface features or
constitute about 80% of total activity, have their foci at severe damage to the man-made structures such as buildings,
a depth between 0 to 70 km and occur at oceanic ridges, bridges and dams. Even small earthquakes can result in
collision and subduction zones and transform faults disproportionate damage to the edifices when inferior
90 Disaster Management in India Elementary Seismology 91

construction methods or materials have been utilized. The waves. These are like ripples observed in a pond. The particle
intensity of earthquake at a particular place is classified on the motion within the transmitting medium is at right angles to
basis of the local character of the visible effect it produces. the direction of wave propagation. For example, the ripples one
Various types of scales have been developed for the classification observes when a stone is thrown in a pond. If a cork is placed
of intensity, one originally proposed in its original, known as in water it moves up and down while the wave travels at right
Modified Mercalli (MM) scale is in common use. In map intensity angles to the cork movement. So in any medium the longitudinal
is represented by lines representing equal intensities called as wave travels faster than the transverse wave and hence at any
isoseismals. point of observation one first observes longitudinal waves. And
Magnitude: The strength of an earthquake or strain energy as liquids do not have any rigidity, the transverse waves cannot
released by it is usually measured by a parameter called travel through them.
'magnitude' determined from the amplitudes and periods of Surface Waves
seismic waves of different types. A magnitude is a logarithmic Those waves that travel on the surface of the earth or
measure of size of an earthquake or explosion base on instrument elastic boundaries are called surface waves. They travel only
measurement. Depending upon the level of magnitudes, at the surface or at the boundary of two different media and
epicentral distance and the characteristics of seismographs, not into earth's interior.
there are mainly four magnitude scales in use. They are:
Energy Release
o Local (Richter) magnitude (ML)
The energy released at the time of earthquake is not same
o Body Wave magnitude (mb)
for all earthquakes. Some earthquakes are so small that they
o Surface wave magnitude (MS) can be detected only with the help of very sensitive instruments.
o Moment Magnitude (MW) However, the energy released at the time of a large earthquake
Seismic Waves is indeed enormous.
We know that, sudden release of energy causes an To measure the size of an earthquake, seismologists use the
earthquake. Part of energy released during an earthquake, at Richter magnitude scale. It is a measure of the total energy
its origin, fractures the rock in that region. The rest travels released during an earthquake and is determined by the
away from the focus in all directions in the form of elastic maximum amplitude of recorded seismic waves, instrumentally
waves. These are called seismic waves. The velocity of recorded, plus an empirical actor that takes into account the
propagation of these waves depends upon the density and the weakening of seismic waves as they spread away from the
elastic properties of the medium through which they travel. focus. This logarithmic scale is expressed in Arabic numerals.
Different types of seismic waves are described below: If the magnitude is increased by a factor of one, the energy
released is increased by a factor of 30. There is no longer limit
Body Waves
to the magnitude but the upper limit seems to be about 8.9,
Those waves that travel through rocks are called body as earthquakes with magnitude greater than this have not yet
waves. Body waves are of two kinds, longitudinal and transverse. been recorded.
Longitudinal waves: these are sometimes referred to as P
waves, or primary waves or push waves. As the wave advances SEISMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
each particle in the solid medium is displaced in the direction Many instruments have been designed to measure ground
of motion of these waves, as in the case of sound waves. shaking in detail. Some of them which are used in seismology
Transverse waves: these are also known as S waves or secondary are given below:
92 Disaster Management in India Elementary Seismology 93

Seismograph experiencing present day quiescent periods. India is highly

Elastic waves transmitted from a single earthquake can be prone to earthquakes and the main seismic zone runs along
recorded all over the world using earthquake recording Himalayan mountain range, northeast India, Andaman-Nicobar
instruments called seismographs. islands and Rann of Kutch region.
The prototype of the modern seismograph was built in The occurrences of earthquakes worldwide is best explained
Japan about 100 years ago. Basically, the seismograph has a by theory of Plate Tectonics supported by a wide range of
mass which is loosely coupled to the earth through a spring. evidence that considers the earth's crust and upper mantle to
The inertia of the mass keeps it fixed in position as the earth be composed of several large, thin, relatively rigid plates that
moves. move relative to one another. The tectonic forces build up when
two plates rub against each other along a fault which is a crack
Modern seismographs are quite complex in the construction
or weak zone inside the earth. The building of such stresses
and can record very feeble ground motions which have traveled
and subsequent release of the strain energy in the form of
long distances. They can magnify the ground motion upto million
earthquake is a continuous process, which keeps on repeating
times before recording it. A study of seismograms, that is, the
in geological time scale Earthquakes can be classified on the
records produced by seismographs, can yield information not
basis of focal depth, magnitude and epicentral distance. Size
only about the time and place of occurrence of an earthquake,
of earthquake can be measured in terms of magnitude and
but also about the rocks through which earthquake energy
intensity. Many instruments like seismograph, acceleraograph
travels.
and seismogram etc. have been designed to measure ground
Accelerograph shaking in detail.
Rate of change of velocity with time is known as acceleration Although lot of research is being conducted in the field of
and a strong motion earthquake instrument recording prediction of earthquakes, till date there is no reliable
accelerations is called as accelerograph. The record from an mechanism for earthquake prediction. Hence earthquakes occur
accelerograph showing acceleration as a function of time is without warning and cause widespread damages and
accelerograms. destructions.
Seismoscope
The first earthquake recorder described in any detail was
an artistic device invented by the Chinese scholar Chang heng
about 132 A.D. Balls were held in dragons' mouths connected
by linkages to a vertival pendulum. Shaking released the balls.
The instrument was seismoscope, because unlike a seismograph,
it could not give the complete time history of the earthquake
shaking but simply the direction of the principal impulse due
to earthquake.
CONCLUSIONS
Study of elementary seismology tells us the overall
underlying level of seismic hazard which may differ from the
available evidence of historical seismicity, notable in areas
94 Disaster Management in India Theory of Vibrations 95

motion is basically a function of the characteristics of the

earthquake waves.
Understanding of effects of ground motion on a building
would explain the building's response for the seismic force. Due
to ground shaking, buildings are subjected to inertia force,
4 which is described here:
INERTIA FORCE
Theory of Vibrations Building's mass is one of the most important parameter as
vibration of the building's mass generates inertial forces while
damaged by shaking. This leads to common saying that
INTRODUCTION Earthquake load is generated by the structure itself.
Vibration is a common phenomenon. Machines and engines Hence, Inertia forces are the product of mass and
in workshops or factories and household-appliances generate acceleration, i.e. F = M X A.
vibrations which often go unnoticed. Vibrations become more Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So a building
perceptible under unusual circumstances like strong gusts resting on it will experience motion at its base and the roof has
during turbulent winds, pressure waves due to explosions, a tendency to stay in its original position because of inertia.
operation of heavy machinery with moving parts, ground motions If the building were rigid, then every point in it would move
due to earthquakes, etc. These strong excitations have far by the same amount as ground. In normal building the walls
reaching implications for the safe design of structures. Though and columns are flexible and hence the motion of roof is different
the external excitations that lead to significant vibrations act from that of the ground.
only for a finite duration and that too only once in a while,
There is another impact of this inertia force. As the building
structure has to be designed with consideration for them to
bents or moves, vertical elements like column and wall moves
avoid damage and collapse. Structures can be made to withstand
out of plumb and get subjected to buckling. Thus they loose
these unusual dynamic loads with only an incremental increase
their capacity to carry gravity load as they are eccentrically
in investment.
loaded now and their load path assumption has changed. This
STRONG GROUND MOTION displaces the vertical loads from P to P1. Extreme displacement
Ground motion is reached to a building in different can cause collapse. This is to remember that a structural system,
waveforms: Body and Surface. The ground motion can be by definition, is required to provide a safe path to transfer the
quantified through different parameters like Acceleration, externally applied loads to the foundation level.
Velocity and Displacement. To determine forces and assessing While this load path is available naturally for the loads
relative seismic impact at different locations these are applied vertically, (as in case of gravity loads like dead loads),
prerequisite. a safe load path has to be provided for the loads applied
Both the amount of ground motion and the time to develop horizontally or laterally.
the motion are critical to the structure. The amount of ground STRUCTURES AS PERSONALITIES
motion at any particular location is basically a function of the
Every structure has a distinct personality. In the parlance
magnitude of the earthquake, the epicentral distance, and the
of theory of vibrations we term those as the natural period(s)
site-soil conditions. The time-factor or frequency of the ground
96 Disaster Management in India Theory of Vibrations 97

and damping. The natural periods (or natural frequencies, of structures with configuration plan and elevation. Due to
being the reciprocal of natural period) are by far the most these differences in natural characteristics it is important to
important set of personality traits that distinguish a structural avoid any coupling of such vastly different structural types.
system. The significance of these natural frequencies can be Natural Period of any building primarily depends on height.
ascertained from the fact that at only this finite number of Other than height attributor, construction material, building
frequencies, a simple harmonic motion of entire structure is configuration and proportioning influence any building's time
possible. period.
NATURAL PERIOD As a rule of thumb, T can be calculated as Building storey
To understand Natural Period of a building, a simple number divided by 10.
example can be cited - that is of a pendulum. A pendulum is RESONANCE
a heavy bob suspended from a (supposedly) weightless string.
If Natural Period of any vibrating structure matches with
The pendulum is set into vibratory motion (simple harmonic ground natural period (which is also shaking at its natural
motion, in this case) by releasing the bob from one of the period), then vibrations would be amplified and would result
extreme positions with no slack in the string. As the bob goes in resonance in the structure.
from one extreme position, crosses the mean position, goes to
The very act of tuning a radio receiver to a particular radio
another extreme position, comes back towards the mean position,
station (identified by the broadcast frequency) is an example
and then goes to the first extreme position again, it completes
of resonance. Here, the dynamic characteristic of receiver set
one cycle or oscillation. The time taken to complete one cycle/
is changed by means of a tuner (a variable capacitor) so that
oscillation is known as the time period or natural period, T of
the natural frequency of the internal LRC circuit/oscillator is
the pendulum.
tuned to the frequency at which that particular radio station
Natural frequency, w = Ö(k/m) …(3.1) is broadcasting the signals. This situation represents the case
Natural period, T = 2P /w …(3.2) of receiver oscillator being excited by the radio signals of the
The natural period depends on the length of the string with same frequency as the natural frequency of the oscillator
which the bob is suspended. It was demonstrated first by Galileo resulting into a multi-fold amplification of the input signal. The
and as the name suggests, the natural period is a characteristic radio signals of other frequencies broadcast by other stations
of a dynamical/vibratory system. At either of the extreme are also present in the environment but the receiver listens to
positions, the potential energy of the bob is at its maximum, only those signals, which are of the same frequency as the
while its kinetic energy is zero. As the bob reaches its mean natural frequency of the receiver. The signals of other
position, the kinetic energy is at its maximum with potential frequencies are not amplified, as the receptivity of the receiver
energy reducing to zero. This interchange in the form of energy for other frequencies is very low.
continues throughout the vibration. The situation of a structural system subjected to dynamic
This is similar for different structures too. Typically tall, loads is quite similar to that of a radio receiver. Fig 3.6 shows
slender structures have longer natural periods and are more three structural systems with different natural periods being
flexible in comparison with the shortly squat structures, which excited by an identical dynamic load. The condition of resonance
are characterized by short natural periods and are relatively occurs if the natural period Tn of a structural system coincides
stiffer. Though this analogy is a little too simplistic, it does help with the time period TS of the excitation. In such case, the
to elucidate the core issue, i.e. changes in dynamic characteristics structure with same natural period would experience large
98 Disaster Management in India Theory of Vibrations 99

amplitude vibrations and will probably not survive those structure can be assessed. This is referred as Single- degree-
vibrations unless specifically designed to care of this eventuality. offreedom system (SDOF).
The response of structures with natural periods different from The dynamic characteristics of such system are simply
the time period of the excitation is not alarming as the receptivity described by its natural period of vibration T (or frequency, w)
of these structures at the frequency (w) of the applied loading and its damping x. It can be analyzed as subjected to harmonic
is low. base motion or a more complex irregular and transient excitation
Force of earthquake.
T3 For a SDOF structure with a period of 0.8s and damping
T2 x = 0.02 has a maximum acceleration of approximately 0.9g
compared with a peak input ground motion of about 0.33g
T1
(from accelerogram records). This represents an amplification
T2 of 2.7 times at x = 0.02, whereas if the damping x = 0.05 the
T1 amplification can be seen to reduce to 1.8.
T3 MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM (MDOF) SYSTEMS
Resonance would be there when ground natural period, Ts In the dynamic analysis of structures assumptions made
matches with T1, T2, T3 or Tn. in SDOF is no longer valid. Discrete lumps of masses are
Different Types of Structures: Resonance may occur to assumed at the levels of different floors, which would be
a structure if periods of both the structure and ground vibration subjected to lateral displacements now. In Fig 3.9 a case of a
matches, which is unlikely The ground vibration depends on three storeyed building has been illustrated to discuss concepts
nature of soil. For a soft-clay ground, period is as high as 2 lying behind multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Each storey-
seconds. Stiffer soil may end up with a vibration of 0.4 seconds. mass represents one-degree- of- freedom with individual
So if the natural period of a building is more or less equal with dynamic equilibrium.
the ground soil, even a mild intensity shaking would result in
large building response. METHODS OF SEISMIC ANALYSIS FOR SDOF SYSTEMS
There are many methods for determining seismic forces in
DAMPING structures; broadly they can be categorized in two divisions:
Every structure is blessed with inherent quality termed as equivalent static force analysis and dynamic analysis. In
damping. This is nothing but the same quality which stops the equivalent static force analysis, the "total" horizontal force
half-door at the entrance of your principal's room. If we don't (base Shear) V is determined on a structure with following
provide a hinge-stopper, the door would swing for an indefinite equation:
period. Damping helps in attenuating the shaking vibration V = ma …(3.3)
induced in the structure. It is expressed as % and represented
by x. Where, m is the mass of the structure and, a is the seismic
horizontal acceleration. "a" is generally in the range of 0.05 to
Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Structure 0.20g.
The dynamic excitation of structures under earthquake can An important feature of equivalent static load calculation
be considered in a simple manner consisting of a mass on a method is that the calculated seismic forces are considerably
spring and under vibration, elastic or inelastic response of the less than those, which would actually occur, in higher earthquake
100 Disaster Management in India Theory of Vibrations 101

risk-prone areas. Dynamic analysis involves different techniques Here u0 and _ 0 are the initial displacement and velocity
like: respectively.
- direct integration of the equations of motion T = 2P /w
- normal mode analysis u0
- response spectrum analysis. The period of the above motion is T = 2P /w and the
In the Response Spectrum Analysis, modes of vibration are amplitude is R = Ö {(_0 / w) 2 + u2 0}
determined in period and shape. Maximum response magnitudes
Damped Vibration
corresponding to each mode are found with reference to a
response spectrum. An arbitrary rule is then used for The response of a damped SDOF structures to earthquake
superimposition of the responses in the various modes. The motion can be simplified and the effective earthquake force on
resultant moments and forces in the structure correspond to the structure can be presented as :
the envelopes of maximum values, rather than a set of Q(t) = m w V (t)
simultaneously existing values. The response spectrum method Thus the effective earthquake force (or base shear) is found
has the great virtues of speed and economy. in terms of the mass of the structure, its circular frequency and
NDAMPED AND DAMPED SDOF the response function V(t).
Seismic Responses RESPONSE SPECTRA
Seismic responses of undamped and damped SDOF systems Typically, in earthquake ground motions, the frequencies
are different. F(t) is a force varying with time, k is the total in the dynamic excitation can range from 0.5-25.0 Hz. Thus,
stiffness (spring) constant of resisting elements, c is the damping it can be a very tedious exercise to calculate the maximum
coefficient and u is the displacement. vibration response of a structural system to the applied
Generally the equation of dynamic equilibrium is excitation using different frequencies. The response of a
FI + FD + FS = F (t) structural system is governed by several waveforms in the
applied excitation with frequencies in the close vicinity of the
where the inertia force, FI = mÜ; the damping force,
natural frequency of the structural system. The required
FD = c_; and the elastic force, FS = ku.
maximum response can be computed in a routine manner by
Thus, mÜ + c_ + ku = F (t) solving the governing differential equation of motion for the
For the case of earthquake force the only external loading vibration. This can be a very tedious, even if a straight forward,
is in the form of an applied motion at ground level, i.e. ground exercise.
displacement ug. Due to inertia, relative displacement of ground, In order to simplify this and for a quick assessment of
u has occurred to the structure. This results in maximum effect of an applied dynamic load on a structure a
Total displacement of Ut, and ut = u + ug graphical tool, known as the response spectrum, is used. In
Thus, the total acceleration of the mass m is development of this tool, a set of different structures (or,
Ü t = Ü + Üg. oscillators with different natural periods) is selected. The
vibration response for each oscillator of this set is calculated
Free Vibrations (undamped) for the applied dynamic load. The absolute maximum value of
In the case of free vibration system, these equations can the response of an oscillator is plotted with respect to its natural
be solved, and the result is a simple harmonic motion (SHM). period. This maximum value is called the spectral velocity Sv,
102 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 103

or more accurately the spectral pseudo- velocity because it is

not exactly the maximum velocity of a damped system. So, the
maximum displacement or spectral displacement, Sd = Sv / w;
And the spectral acceleration (or, spectral pseudo-acceleration)
Sa = wSv.
From these relationships, the maximum earthquake
displacement response, umax = Sd
5
And, the maximum effective earthquake force or base shear Performance of Ground and
is Qmax = m. Sa
If these equations are evaluated for SDOF structures of
Buildings in Past Earthquakes
varying natural periods, a maximum velocity response curve
can be plotted. The curve resulting from joining these points
on the graph is known as the response spectrum. Now the INTRODUCTION
maximum response of any structure with natural period within Lives and properties of hundreds of millions of people
the range of curve can be easily read from this graph. The throughout the world are at a significant risk due to earthquakes.
response spectrum method is very convenient, for a quick Human settlements in highly seismic regions often display the
estimation of the maximum response of a structural system to influence of construction practices in less seismic areas, making
an applied dynamic excitation and is invariably used in all them more vulnerable to earthquakes. Earthquakes have
preliminary design calculations. occurred from millions of years and will continue in future. It
The velocity spectrum depicts averaged velocity response is impossible to prevent earthquakes from occurring, but it is
spectra based on the spectral intensity of the 1940 El Centro possible to mitigate the effects of strong earthquake shaking
earthquake. For general design purposes an averaged spectrum to reduce loss of life and damage. Clearly, there is a need to
as shown in the figure would be more appropriate. recall lessons repeatedly taught by past earthquakes.

CONCLUSIONS EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON GROUND AND SEA

This is forgoing text is a simplified compilation of the basic During an earthquake, seismic waves radiate away from
concepts of the dynamics of structures concentrating on bare the source and travel rapidly through the earth's crust. When
essentials only. Several issues complicate the actual vibration these waves reach the ground surface, they produce shaking.
analysis and a more rigorous, mathematical treatment is The strength and duration of shaking at a particular site not
necessary to deal with those issues as desirable to seek an only depends on the size and location of the earthquakes but
expert opinion on the dynamic behavior of structures at the also on the characteristics of the site. Extent of damage caused
planning stage itself. by an earthquake depends on the level of ground shaking. At
sites near the source of a large earthquake strong ground
This could lead to a considerable savings as against, trying
shaking can cause tremendous damage. Common earthquake
to make a design conform to acceptable vibration performance
damage on ground may be grouped into two categories: Damages
levels at a later stage.
due to tectonic surface processes: includes ground surface fault
rupture or simply surface rupture. Secondary effects: which are
defined as non-tectonic surface processes that are directly related
104 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 105

to earthquake shaking. Examples of secondary effects are Liquefaction

liquefaction, earthquake-induced slope failures, landslides and Most critical damage (due to earthquakes) on ground is
tsunamis. Hence, the effects of earthquakes on ground (and when soil deposits have lost their strength and appeared to
sea) which involve surface rupture, liquefaction, landslides, flow as liquids. This phenomenon is termed as liquefaction in
and tsunamis are discussed in detail. which strength of soil is reduced, usually to the point where
Surface Rupture it is unable to support structures. Liquefaction occurs only in
saturated soils, therefore most commonly observed near water
Most earthquakes will not create ground surface fault
bodies. It typically occurs in soil with a high groundwater table,
rupture. For example, there is an absence of surface rupture
its effects are most commonly observed in low-lying area or
for small earthquakes and earthquakes generated at great
area adjacent to rivers, lakes, bays and oceans. Liquefaction
depths. On the other hand, large earthquakes at transform
phenomena can affect buildings, bridges, buried pipelines, and
boundaries will usually be accompanied by ground surface
other constructed facilities in many different ways. Liquefaction
fault rupture on strike-slip faults. Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 show
phenomena can be divided into two main groups: flow
examples of surface fault rupture. Examples of very large surface
liquefaction and cyclic mobility.
fault rupture are the 11 m of vertical displacement in the
Assam earthquake of 1897 and the 9 m of horizontal movement Flow liquefaction can produce massive flow slides and
during the Gobi-Altai earthquake of 1957. The length of the contribute to the sinking or tilting of heavy structures, the
fault rupture can be quite significant e.g. the estimated length floating of light buried structures and to the failure of retaining
structures. Cyclic mobility can cause slumping of slopes,
of surface faulting in the 1964 Alaskan earthquake varied from
settlement of buildings, lateral spreading and retaining wall
600 to 720 km.
failure. In general the effects of liquefaction involves several
Surface fault rupture associated with earthquakes is related phenomena. For example, flow failures, lateral
important because it has caused severe damage to buildings, spreading, and sand boils, which are discussed in following
bridges, dams, tunnels, canals and underground utilities. There paragraphs.
were disastrous examples of surface rupture associated with
Flow Failures: Flow failures occur when the strength of
the Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquake on Sept. 21, 1999. With a
the soil drops below the level needed to maintain the stability
magnitude of 7.6 the earthquake was the strongest to hit Taiwan
under static conditions. Flow failures are driven by static
in decades. The earthquake also triggered at least five
gravitational forces and can produce very large movements.
aftershocks near or above magnitude 6. Surface fault rupture
Flow failures have caused the collapse of earth dams and other
associated with this earthquake caused severe damage to civil
slopes, and the failure of foundations.
engineering structures, to January 26, 2001, Bhuj (India)
earthquake was also a large magnitude (Mw =7.7) earthquake Damages to Waterfront Structures: Port and wharf
but no primary surface fault rupture was identified. facilities are often located in areas susceptible to liquefaction.
The ports and wharves often contain major retaining structures,
Continuous geologic and geomorphic surfaces and cultural such as seawalls, anchored bulkheads, gravity and cantilever
features provide evidence that no major fault rupture occurred walls, and sheet-pile cofferdams, that allow large ships to moor
in the epicentral area as a result of the Bhuj earthquake. Minor adjacent to the retaining walls and then load or unload their
ground deformation, with a possible right lateral component of cargo. Some spectacular examples of damage to waterfront
slip has been identified. Many ground failures reported are due structures due to liquefaction occurred during the (Mw = 6.9)
to liquefaction related ground deformation. Kobe earthquake (known as Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake) of
106 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 107

January 17, 1995. This liquefactioninduced settlement was Naliya and Lakhpat along the coast about 180 km west of the
accompanied by the eruption of large sand boils that flooded epicenter. In addition there are reports of ground failure
many areas and covered much of the island with sand boil indicative of liquefaction as far away as the Sabaramati River
deposits. In this photograph, a stockpile has been created out south of Ahmedabad, about 240 km east of the earthquake
of this sand. epicenter.
Lateral Spreading: Lateral spreading is a liquefaction Features Resulting from Subsurface Liquefaction (Bhuj
related phenomenon characterized by incremental Earthquake)
displacements during earthquake shaking. Depending on the Sand Blows: Sand blows were the most common
number and strength of the stress pulses that exceed the liquefaction features observed in the Bhuj earthquake. Sand
strength of the soil, lateral spreading can produce negligible blows are constructional cones of mostly sand vented with
to quite large displacements. Lateral spreading is quite common water to the ground surface through ground cracks.
near bridges and the displacements it produces can damage the
abutments, foundations, and superstructure of bridges. Sand-Blow Craters: These are characterized by
constructional cones of vented sand and also have large central
Sand boils Sand boils produced by ground water rushing
craters formed by the removal of surface soil and sediment.
to the surface are present in the levelground liquefaction, which
does not involve large lateral displacements. Sand boils are not Lateral Spreading: It was common on gentle slopes (1 to
damaging by themselves but indicates the presence of high 2°) in the epicentral area and along rivers and bays at greater
ground water pressures, whose eventual dissipation can produce distances.
subsidence and damaging differential settlements. Liquefaction-Related Damage to Facilities (Bhuj
Liquefaction during Bhuj Earthquake (January 26, 2001) Earthquake)
The earthquake induced liquefaction and related ground Pipelines: Significant settlement of the backfill above a
failures over an area of greater than 15,000 square km. Surface natural gas pipeline was observed over many km in a stretch
manifestations of liquefaction include sand blows, sand blow of desert between the Little Rann and Great Rann.
craters, and lateral spreading. Areas where widespread Bridges: A four span, two-lane reinforced concrete bridge
liquefaction occurred include the Great Rann of Kachchh, Little on National Highway 8A was under construction at the time
Rann, Banni Plain, Kandla River and Gulf of Kachchh. These of earthquake and was severely damaged. Significant damage
areas contain low-lying salt flats, estuaries, intertidal zones, occurred at the east abutment to the support bent and wing
and young alluvial deposits (meizoseismal area), which are walls. This could be attributed to liquefaction resulting in lateral
typically considered to have a very high susceptibility to spreading near the abutment and causing a rotational failure
liquefaction. of the abutment and first pier. The Surajbadi Bridges; a railway
According to many residents in the meizoseismal area, bridge and two highway bridges suffered damages due to
fountains of water ranging from 1 to 2 m in height formed liquefaction.
during and immediately following the Bhuj earthquake. So Engineering Analysis: The potential liquefaction hazards
much water vented to the surface in the Banni Plain and Great can be evaluated by addressing the following questions:
Rann that temporary streams flowed in previously dry channels. 1. Is the soil susceptible to liquefaction?
The surface water was so extensive that the media proclaimed
2. If the soil is susceptible, will be liquefaction be triggered?
the return of a mythical river, possibly the Sarasvati. Satellite
imagery suggests that liquefaction may have occurred near 3. If liquefaction is triggered, will damage occur?
108 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 109

If the answer to the first question is no, the liquefaction people in Japan in 1707. The 1960 Chilean earthquake produced
hazard evaluation can be terminated with the conclusion that a tsunami that not killed 300 people in Chile but also killed
liquefaction hazards do not exist. If the answer is yes, the next 61 people in Hawaii and 22 hours later 199 people in distant
question must be addressed. If the answers to all three are yes, Japan.
a problem exists; if the anticipated level of damage is
BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURES DURING EARTHQUAKES
unacceptable, the site must be abandoned and improved or on-
site structures strengthened. Earthquakes throughout the world cause a considerable
amount of death and destruction. Earthquake damage can be
Landslides classified as being either structural or nonstructural. According
Strong earthquakes may cause landslides. In majority of to FEMA, USA, Structural damage means a situation where
the cases landslides are small but earthquakes have also caused the building's structural support has been impaired. Structural
very large slides. In a number of cases, earthquakeinduced support includes any vertical and lateral force resisting systems,
landslides have buried entire towns and villages. Earthquake such as building frames, walls and columns. Nonstructural
induced landslides cause damage by destroying buildings or damage does not affect the integrity of structural system.
disrupting bridges and other facilities. Many earthquake Examples of nonstructural damage include broken windows,
landslides result from liquefaction phenomena, but many other collapsed or rotated chimneys, and fallen ceilings.
simply represent the failures of slopes that were marginally During an earthquake, buildings get thrown from side to
stable under static conditions. side, and up and down. Heavier buildings are subjected to
The Bhuj earthquake also produced numerous rockfalls higher forces than lightweight buildings, given the same
from steep slopes and roadcuts. Rockfalls included topple failures acceleration.
and surfacial raveling. Blocks up to 2 m across were displaced Damage occurs when structural members are overloaded,
on the north side of the Island Belt near Khadir Island. Failures or differential movements between different parts of the
of embankments and cut-slopes were also widespread. Slope structure strain the structural components. Larger earthquakes
failures were most highly concentrated in the area near Bhuj and longer shaking duration tend to damage structures more.
and Bhachau. No large-scale rotational failures were observed The level of damage resulting from a major earthquake can be
on native slopes. predicted only in general terms, since two buildings undergo
In Chamoli (Himalaya, India) earthquake on March 29, the exact same motions during a seismic event. However, past
1999, ground cracks at several places developed as part of slope earthquakes have shown that some buildings are likely to
failure and these pose threat to the down-slope settlements. perform more poorly than others.
Cracks were seen in asphalt roads at some locations, indicating Structural damage is the leading cause of death and
the possibility of failure due to ground slippage. At several economic loss in many earthquakes. This damage is not only
sites, large-scale earthquakeinduced landslide/rock falls were to unreinforced masonry and adobe structures but also to more
observed. modern constructions. Structures need not collapse to cause
Tsunamis death and damage during earthquakes. In many earthquakes,
Rapid vertical seafloor movements caused by fault rupture falling objects such as brick facings and parapets on the outside
during earthquakes can produce long-period sea waves called of a structure or heavy pictures and shelves within a structure
tsunamis. We have already learnt about tsunamis in section have caused casualties. Interior facilities such as piping, lighting
1.3.4. The Great Hoei-Tokaido-Nonhaido tsunami killed 30,000 and storage systems can also be damaged during earthquakes.
110 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 111

There are four main factors that cause structural damage are not reinforced, poorly constructed, weakened from age or
during an earthquake: underlain by soft or unstable soil are most susceptible to damage.
1. Strength of Shaking: For small earthquakes (magnitude Over the years, considerable advances have been made in
less than 6), the strength of shaking decreases rapidly earthquake-resistant design of structures and seismic design
with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake. In requirements in building codes have steadily improved.
the case of a small earthquake, the center of energy Earthquake-resistant design concept has moved from an
release and the point where slip begins are not far emphasis on structural strength to emphasis on both strength
apart. But in the case of large earthquakes, which have and ductility.
a significant length of fault rupture, these two points According to IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 - To perform well in
may be hundreds of miles apart. Thus for large an earthquake, a building should possess four main attributes,
earthquakes, the strength of shaking decreases in a namely simple and regular configuration, adequate lateral
direction away from the fault rupture. strength, stiffness and ductility. Buildings having simple regular
2. Duration of Shaking: The duration of shaking depends geometry and uniformly distributed mass and stiffness in plan
on how the fault breaks during the earthquake. It usually as well as in elevation, suffer much less damage than buildings
varies from 10 sec to 1 minute. The longer the ground with irregular configurations.
shakes, the greater the potential for structural damage. In the following sections, behavior of various building
In general, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, structures during earthquakes has been examined. Major causes
the longer the duration of the shaking ground. of damage to buildings during earthquakes has been discussed
3. Type of Subsurface Conditions: Ground shaking can be which include plan asymmetry, soft story, settlement, torsion,
increased if a site has a thick deposit of soil that is soft pounding damage and resonance.
and submerged. Many other subsurface conditions can Plan Asymmetry
cause or contribute to structural damage. For example,
there could be structural damage due to liquefaction of The buildings that are asymmetric, such as T or L shaped
loose submerged sands. buildings, can experience more damage as different parts of the
building vibrate at different frequencies and amplitude. This
4. Type of Building: Certain types of buildings and other
difference in movement of different parts of the building is due
structures are especially susceptible to the side-to-side
to the relative stiffness of each portion of the building. For
shaking common during earthquakes. For example, sites
example, for the T shaped building the two segments that make
located near (about 16 km) the epicenter or location of
up the buildings are usually much stiffer in their long directions
fault rupture are generally subjected to rough, jerky,
then across the segments. Thus damage tends to occur where
high-frequency seismic waves that are often more
the two segments of the T join together.
capable of causing short buildings to vibrate vigorously.
For sites located at greater distance, the seismic waves During Bhuj earthquake (Jan. 2001) many buildings were
often develop into longer-period waves that are more damaged due to plan asymmetry. In Bhuj, a five-story U shaped
capable of causing high-rise buildings and buildings plan apartment-commercial building had a tall ground story to
with large floor areas to vibrate vigorously. accommodate shops. Infills were made of sandstone blocks of
random sizes and mud mortar. Use of non-ductile columns,
As many diseases will attack the weak and infirm,
coupled with a small number of infill walls in mud mortar in
earthquakes damage those structures that have inherent
the already flexible ground story, caused complete collapse in
weakness or age-related deterioration. Those buildings that
112 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 113

some portions of one of the long blocks. The shorter and stiffer location of the soft story is at the ground floor of the building,
wing of the U-shaped building was separated from the rest of this is because many buildings are designed to have an open
building, and underwent ground story collapse. Plan asymmetry, first-floor area that is easily accessible to public. Thus the first
flexible ground story, and weak infills seem responsible for this floor may contain large open areas between columns, without
collapse. adequate shear resistance. The earthquake-induced building
By the time of the earthquake, infills were provided movement also causes the first floor to be subjected to the
everywhere except in upper two stories of the left block. The greatest stresses, which compounds the problem of a soft story
absence of infill walls in the left block created plan asymmetry. on the ground floor.
Consequently, the flexible upper stories of the left block Concerning the soft stories, the National Information Service
experienced larger deformations during the earthquake. This, for Earthquake Engineering, USA (2000) states: 'In shaking a
coupled with the existence of nonductile columns, led to the building, an earthquake ground motion will search for every
collapse of the upper two stories. structural weakness'. These weaknesses are usually created by
Short Column Effect (Bhuj): Numerous examples of the sharp changes in stiffness, strength and/or ductility and the
short-column effect were noted, mostly owing to the unintended effects of these weaknesses are accentuated by poor distribution
use of partial infills. In Bhuj and other towns, open spaces are of reactive masses. Severe structural damage suffered by several
not always left between the plot boundary and the ground story modern buildings during recent earthquakes illustrates the
columns of the multistory RC frame buildings. Unreinforced importance of avoiding sudden changes in lateral stiffness and
brick masonry walls were raised between the perimeter frame strength. Inspection of earthquake damage as well as the results
columns to form the boundary wall. Again, for ventilation of analytical studies have shown that structural systems with
purpose these infills were stopped at 1.5 m from the floor level. a soft story can lead to serious problems during severe
This created a short column effect on the adjoining RC columns, earthquake ground shaking. Many examples illustrate such
which suffered significant diagonal shear cracking. damage and therefore emphasize the need for avoiding the soft
story by using an even distribution of flexibility, strength and
Water Tanks Atop Buildings (Bhuj): A variety of damages
mass. Effect of soft story on the ground floor during Bhuj
were associated with water tanks placed on top of buildings.
earthquake:
Some tanks sustained minor cracks in their walls and their
connections with the building frame. Some tanks simply toppled A large number of open ground story in Ahmedabad, Bhuj,
from the elevated pedestals onto roof slabs, owing to lack of Gandhidham, and other towns suffered severe damage or
adequate connection between tank and building. Many tanks dramatic collapse. For example, of the 130 buildings that
dislodged from the RC columns to which they were weakly collapsed in Ahmedabad, most were of open ground story
connected. configuration. Among those that did not collapse, the damage
was confined mostly to the open ground story columns with
Soft Story nominal frame infill separation in the upper stories. When
A soft story, also known as a weak story, is defined as a elevator core walls were of RC (Reinforced Concrete) and well
story in a building that has substantially less resistance, or connected with the floor slab, they added some lateral strength
stiffness than the stories above or below it. In essence, a soft and stiffness to the ground story.
story has inadequate shear resistance or inadequate ductility The RC frames with masonry infills formed a relatively
(energy absorption capacity) to resist the earthquake-induced stiff and strong lateral load resisting system in the upper
building stresses. Although not always the case, the usual stories, in contrast to the columns with few or no infill walls
114 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 115

in the ground story. As a result, almost the entire lateral detailing and plan asymmetry. In multistory building design,
deformation is concentrated in the ground story columns, and reduction of column sizes and curtailment of reinforced at an
the upper story moved laterally as a rigid block. intermediate story is often employed. At least two instances of
Moreover, unlike the upper story columns, the ground story failure in the upper stories and the consequent partial pancake
columns in such buildings could not share the lateral share type collapse of the buildings are recorded. Pancaking of
with the infill walls. Since these columns were neither designed reinforced concrete multistory buildings was common
for lateral forces nor detailed for ductile behavior, many of throughout the earthquake-stricken region of Turkey due to
them sustained brittle shear failure or flexural failure resulting the 1999 Izmit earthquake.
from large moment and axial load. Once the ground floor columns Shear Walls: Many different types of structural systems
failed, the gravity load-carrying capacity of the building was can be used to resist the inertia forces in a building that are
partially/completely lost resulting in partial/complete collapse induced by the earthquake ground motion. For example, the
of many buildings. structural engineer could use braced frames, moment-resisting
Similarly, the RC walls of elevator cores, where provided, frames, and shear walls to resist the lateral earthquake-induced
also experienced severe diagonal cracking at the ground floor. forces. Shear walls are designed to hold adjacent columns or
In commercial buildings with shops in the ground story, the vertical support members in place and then transfer the lateral
damage was of varying levels. Shops were closed when the forces to the foundation. The forces resisted by shear walls are
earthquake struck, and the steel rolling shutters were down. predominately shear forces, although a slender wall could also
The RC columns adjoining these rolling shutters in the ground be subjected to significant bending. Common problems with
story sustained severe damage. shear walls are that they have inadequate strength to resist
the lateral forces and that they are inadequately attached to
Shear Failure: During Bhuj earthquake, few buildings
the foundation. For example, having inadequate shear walls on
failed due to shear failure in columns. Detailing practice for
a particular building level can create a soft story. A soft story
transverse ties in columns in the affected area offers very light
can also be created if there is a discontinuity in the shear walls
confinement to the core concrete against the large compressive
from one floor to the other.
stress generated by the extreme lateral deformation demands
during strong seismic shaking. Ground floor with such LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE DAMAGES TO RC
reinforcement failed in brittle shear mode leading to catastrophe STRUCTURES DURING BHUJ EARTHQUAKE
failure of many open ground story buildings; in some buildings, The types of failures of reinforced concrete frame buildings
only a few ground story columns sustained significant shear sustained during the 2001 Bhuj earthquake were also observed
and flexural cracking. The 90° hooks of transverse reinforcement in many past earthquakes around the world. Vulnerability of
(at 200 mm centers) opened-up and resulted in buckling of open ground story buildings was also seen in the 1997 Jabalpur,
longitudinal bars and consequent dilatation of core concrete. India earthquake and the 1999 Izmit earthquake of Turkey.
Pancaking: Pancaking occurs when the earthquake This is, however, the first time that damage of such a large-
shaking causes a soft story to collapse, leading to total failure scale has been observed in India. The failure of many buildings
of the overlying floors. These floors crush and compress together with open ground stories appears to be due to the lack of design
such that the final collapsed condition of the building consist and detailing for seismic forces, and poor construction practices
of one floor stacked on top of another, much like a stack of that have led to poor lateral strength and ductility capacities
pancakes. During Bhuj earthquake, many full pancake collapse in the lateral load resisting elements at the open story. In
occurred owing to weak-column strong-beam design, nonductile contrast, large demands are placed on these elements during
116 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 117

strong ground motion. Important lessons from this earthquake floor containing the interconnected load bearing walls. Thus
include: center of rigidity is offset from the mid-point of the first floor
1. Buildings need to be designed for earthquake forces. (location of center of mass of building) and during the
Seismic strength and deformability of current earthquake, the center of mass will twist about the center of
construction is extremely inadequate. rigidity, causing torsional forces to be induced into the building
2. Ductile detailing is essential to be able to resist strong frame.
seismic effects. Pounding Damage
3. The popular open ground story building system is Pounding damage can occur when two buildings are
vulnerable under strong seismic shaking. constructed close to each other and, as they rock back-and-forth
4. The beneficial effects of stiffness and strength of brick during the earthquake, they collide into each other. In the
masonry infills should be exploited. common situation for pounding damage, a much taller building,
5. Irregular structural configurations (e.g. plan asymmetry, which has a higher period and larger amplitude of vibration,
vertical offsets, short column effects) result in poor is constructed against a squat and short building that has a
seismic performance. lower period and smaller amplitude of vibration. Thus during
the earthquake, the buildings will vibrate at different
Earthquake-Induced Settlement (Foundation Failure) frequencies and amplitude, and they can collide with each
Those buildings founded on solid rock are least likely to other. The effects of pounding can be especially severe if the
experience earthquake-induced differential settlement. floors of one building impact the other building at different
However, buildings on soil could be subjected to differential elevations, for example, the floor of one building hits a supporting
settlement causing foundation to fail. A structure could settle column of an adjacent building.
or be subjected to differential movement from surface rupture, It is very difficult to model the pounding effects of two
liquefaction, slope movement or tsunami generated due to an structures and hence design structures to resist such damage.
earthquake. Two additional conditions can cause settlement of As a practical matter, the best design approach to prevent
a structure: pounding damage is to provide sufficient space between the
(i) Volumetric compression, also known as cyclic soil structures to avoid the problem. If two buildings must be
densification. constructed adjacent to each other, then one design feature
(ii) Settlement due to dynamic loads caused by rocking. should be to have the floors of the buildings at same elevations,
so that the floor of one building does not hit a supporting
Torsion (Asymmetry structures)
column of an adjacent building. Similar to pounding damage,
Torsional problems develop when the center of mass of the the collapse of a building can affect adjacent structures.
structure is not located at the center of its lateral resistance,
which is also known as the center of rigidity (see section 6.3.6 Resonance of the Structure
also). A common example is a tall building that has a first floor Resonance is defined as a condition in which the period of
area consisting of a space that is open and supports the upper vibration of the earthquakeinduced ground shaking is equal to
floors by the use of isolated columns, while the remainder of the natural period of the building.
the first-floor area contains solid load-bearing walls that are Soft Ground Effects: If the site is underlain by soft ground,
interconnected. The open area having isolated columns will such as a soft and saturated clay deposit, then there could be
typically have much less lateral resistance than the part of the an increased peak ground acceleration (PGA), and a longer
118 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 119

period of vibration of the ground. In Michoacan Earthquake in stress concentration on the walls at the support points. The
Mexico on Sept. 19, 1985, there was extensive damage to Mexico stone-mud walls sustained severe cracking at these locations.
City occurred to those buildings underlain by 39 to 50 m of soft Traces of traditional wisdom were seen in some structures that
clays, which are within the part of the city known as the Lake survived the shaking with little damage, where lintel and post
zone. Because the epicenter was so far from Mexico City, the system provided lateral resistance. This practice may have
PGA recorded in foothills of Mexico City (rock site) was about come from the construction of monumental/heritage construction
0.04g. However, at the Lake Zone, the PGA were up to 5 times in the area that used wood frame in a significant way to counter
greater than at the rock site. In addition, the characteristic site seismic forces.
periods were estimated to be 1.9 to 2.8 s. This longer period
PERFORMANCE OF LIFELINES DURING EARTHQUAKES
of vibration of the ground tended to coincide with the natural
period of vibration of the taller buildings in the 5 to 20 story Lifelines systems are distributed systems that provide
range. The increased PGA and the effect of resonance caused service to maintain societal functions. Lifelines are critical in
either collapse or severe damage of these taller buildings. providing emergency response recovery, and in restoring society
to normal. Lifeline systems include transportation systems
Damage to Masonry Structures during Bhuj Earthquake (highways, railroads, marine ports and harbors, and airports),
The most elementary of masonry construction is random electric power, telecommunications, water, sewer, gas and liquid
rubble stone (granite) masonry in mud mortar. The wood used fuels - natural and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). Lifelines are
in the roofing is not formally cut and shaped. sometimes defined to include health care systems e.g. hospitals.
Earthquakeresistant features are not built into this system. Performance of lifelines during Bhuj earthquake of 2001 is
There are no connections between the walls, and the roof. examined in following sections:
Housing of this type, found primarily in economically weaker Electrical Power
sections of the society, performed extremely poor during the
The Gujarat Electric Board (GEB) provides electric power
2001 Bhuj earthquake. While these low-strength masonry units
service to the region, with the exception of the city of Ahmedabad.
were high on fulfilling functional needs, they were structurally
The electrical power system serving the region was heavily
unsuitable to resist lateral seismic loads because of the building
damaged, with damage estimated to be $65 million. Nineteen
materials used.
GEB employees were killed in the earthquake, and forty lost
In this type of construction, little attention is paid to the family members, which adversely affected response time. The
details that make the roof and walls act together as a single residential quarters at the Anjar substation collapsed, causing
entity. The unusually large size (up to 600 mm) pink sandstone several casualties. Power was completely out in the Kutchh
masonry units and mud mortar (up to 75 mm thickness) used district for two days. The GEB assigned 220 engineers and
in making two-story residential buildings resulted in brittle skilled staff to the region for assistance. By February 5, ten
performance. Pink sandstone is lighter than granite, readily days after the earthquake, service was 80% restored to the 255
available, and hence very popular in the Kachchh region. Owing feeders, and fully restored by February 19.
to the coarse shapes of the stones, the thickness of the mud
Primary power supply in the region is 3-70 MW lignite
mortar required for leveling is sometimes as large as 8 cm.
burning plants located in Panandhro, about 180 km northwest
Such large masonry blocks with unusually large mortar
of the epicenter. The three plants experienced only minor
thickness of a basically weak mortar material (mud) resulted
cracking. Supply is supplemented by a coal-burning plant in
in very poor performance of a large number of such structures
Ahmedabad (270 km east of the epicenter) which was
in Bhuj. Heavy purlins carrying the weight of the roof cause
120 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 121

undamaged. The power supply is also supplemented by the 1,200,000 calls per hour. The Army Corp of Signals, using
Kakrapar nuclear plants Nos. 1 and 2, which are owned by the VSAT (very small aperture terminals), established
Nuclear Power Corporation of India, and located in Surat about communications outside the region, within minutes after the
400 km from the epicenter. These 1993 PHWR plants were earthquake. They also worked to supplement emergency
undamaged. communications by airlifting mobile satellite communication
Transmission System : Power is transmitted from terminals into the region, 13 by January 28, and a total of 30
Panandhro, through 220 kV and 132 kV systems, southeast by January 30. All affected exchanges were restored by February
through the region. Voltage is dropped to 66 kV and ultimately 11.
11 kV for local distribution. There was minimal damage to Telecom Building Damage
transmission towers. However, there were a few towers affected Extensive Telecom building damage impacted system
by liquefaction on small landslide. The transmission lines operation and restoration. Initially, the exchanges at Bhachau,
crossing the little Rann of Kachchh were undamaged, though Khavda, Nakhtrana, and Raphar were set up in tents.
the soils did liquefy in some areas. Nakhtrana and Raphar were moved back into their original
Electrical Substations: Over a dozen substation control buildings after the main exchange was restored. Two exchanges
buildings of unreinforced stone masonry collapsed, and a total were set up in tents, 10 exchanges set up in other locations,
of 45 were damaged. Control building damage had the greatest and eight exchanges set up in nearby buildings because of
impact on the overall system failure. Damage to the stone severe damage to their original buildings. The main Telecom
masonry control buildings was a problem throughout the system. Building in Bhuj was heavily damaged. It was constructed out
Most of the control buildings were constructed of unreinforced of reinforced concrete frames with stone infill walls. Unreinforced
stone-mortared walls, with reinforced concrete beams forming infill walls collapsed, causing damage to interior panels and
window lintels and roof supports. At the 132 kV Bhuj substation, exterior facilities. The reinforced concrete frames appeared to
the control room had major cracks, but the building remained be undamaged. Emergency power provided adequate power to
standing. the exchanges until grid power was restored. The Telephone
Distribution Feeder Equipment Exchange building in Bhuj was heavily damaged. Some of the
exterior masonry collapsed during the earthquake, causing a
The low-voltage distribution system equipment in self-
life safety hazard to nearby pedestrians and cars. The structure
standing electrical panels located in substation control buildings
itself remained standing. It was reported that seven people
was generally not damaged, except when the building was
died at this facility during the earthquake.
damaged. It was confirmed that some panels were anchored to
their foundations, although other reconnaissance teams have Water Supply
reported seeing nonanchored equipment. It was observed and There are over 800 villages and cities in the Kachchh
confirmed by discussion that no individual electrical panels region. Over 90 percent are supplied by one of approximately
toppled in the earthquake. 140 Regional Water Supply Systems constructed and operated
Telecommunications by the Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board (GWSSB).
Most of the regional systems are supplied by groundwater. Two
Telephone service was disrupted in the region due to:
of the regional systems, one being Gandhidham, are partially
collapse and/or severe damage to many telecom buildings,
served by surface water. The Kachchh region has been
damage to fiber-optic lines, and system overload. Telephone
undergoing a drought for several years. Prior to the earthquake,
exchanges were overloaded due to heavy traffic at a rate of
150 of the villages were being at least partially supplied with
122 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 123

water transported by tank trucks; the number was expected to briefly interrupted. Supply of liquid fuel was initiated after the
increase to 200-250 during the summer months. Normal earthquake on the 26th through the 31st of January by truck,
precipitation is about 10-15 inches per year. Water demand is rail tank car, and ultimately pipeline. Liquid fuels are produced
about 70 liters per person per day. The water supply systems at two refineries. The Indian Oil Company's (IOC) Koyali
in the region were heavily damaged as described below. As of refinery was not affected by the earthquake, and maintained
February 19, many of the areas still depended on water delivery operation. The Reliance refinery in Jamnagar, south of the Gulf
by tankers. In the first five days following the earthquake, the of Kachchh, shut down on the January 26. No damage was
GWSSB delivered 8-10 liters per day per person. As of February reported. It had not restored operation as of February 7. The
8, that had increased to 50-100 lpd. crude oil pipeline from Salaya, feeding Koyali/Mathura/Panipat
Figure 4.64: Women approaching water distribution location refineries, resumed operations on January 27th after it was
at Rambaug checked for damage. The IOC reported that the Koyali-
Ahmedabad pipeline was operational. The 800 mm product
Sewage
pipeline from Vadinar to Kandla, and from Kandla to Bhatinda
Five cities in the Kachchh district have complete or partial was initially shutdown but resumed operation after it was
sewage collection and treatment systems, including Ganhidham, determined that it was not damaged.
Adipur, Bhuj, and others. Bhuj has an oxidation pond for sewage
Bridges, Rail Roads and Airports
treatment. The Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board
(GWSSB) headquarters in Bhuj collapsed. In Bhuj, there were Immediately following the earthquake, there was no
no pipe collapses identified as of February 7 on main lines, but communication or access to the Kachchh region from the south.
the system had not been fully tested. A representative of GWSSB The Surajbadi Bridge crossing the Little Rann of Kachchh was
in Bhuj expressed concern about long-term weakening of the damaged, requiring two days to repair. On reopening, the
pipe due to hydrogen sulfide corrosion. The Bhuj system's Surejbari Bridge was only open to traffic in one direction.
sewer pipe is 90 percent reinforced concrete and 10 percent Otherwise, bridge performance had little impact on the region.
stoneware (used for connection to houses). They were manually The rail system in India, Gujarat State, and the Kachchh
chlorinating their effluent using sodium hypochlorite. Prior to district is well developed. In the Kachchh District, the rail lines
the earthquake, the Central Rural Sanitation Program was are composed of both meter-gauge and broad-gauge tracks. The
established to promote the use of sanitation in rural villages. meter-gauge system represents an older installation, and is
The CRSP provided subsidies up to 70-80%, paid by the central still in service today. There was pervasive damage observed to
Indian government, to encourage use of sanitation facilities in the rail system, although no trains derailed as a result of the
rural villages. A second program was in place prior to the earthquake. The engineer on one train in the epicentral area
earthquake that offered 50-75 percent subsidies (income based) felt the shaking, and brought the train to a safe stop. Railroad
to get latrines in every household. These programs were not bridges were damaged, bridge approaches settled, and lateral
entirely effective before the earthquake. As of late February spreading caused track misalignment causing the need for new
2001, emergency relief workers observed that these sanitation ballast. Bridge girders shifted laterally and longitudinally 10
programs could not be effectively implemented in the post to 50 mm, some requiring realignment. There were cracks in
earthquake restoration process, at least at that time. masonry bridge structures. Parapets fell off many masonry
Natural Gas and Liquid Fuel arch bridges.
There is no natural gas system in Gujarat, India. There are The earthquake impacted the civilian/Indian Air Force
16 LPG distributors in the Kachchh district that were only airport in Bhuj. The National Airport in Ahmedabad was
124 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 125

minimally disrupted. There is a helicopter facility at the Kandla to hold further flights because of the parking situation. As a
airport that was engaged in recovery activities. The airport in result, some flights may have been delayed by several hours.
Bhuj is large enough to handle Airbus 320s and IL 76 military The National Airport in Ahmedabad suffered essentially no
aircraft. The main airport in the Kachchh district is at Bhuj. damage from the earthquake. Offsite power was lost to this
Damage included collapse of one of the control towers and airport almost immediately, but the onsite emergency generators
damage to many structures on the base. A tent served as the worked, and so there was no effect on airport operations.
temporary control tower as personnel thought is was dangerous
BEHAVIOR OF NON STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS DURING
to work inside the second, but still standing, control tower.
EARTHQUAKES
Radar and navigational beacons were completely destroyed,
there were no navigational aids until February 5, and satellite Non-structural elements have an important role in the
based communications were restored on January 27th, the day reliability or predictability of seismic response of any given
following the earthquake. Two airport personnel died in the type of construction. In considering the form of a structure, it
terminal building, and many employees/family members died is important to be aware that some elements, which are normally
in their homes. nonstructural become structurally very responsive in
earthquakes. This means anything, which will interfere with
The main handicap immediately after the earthquake was
the free deformations of the structure during an earthquake.
lack of communication. The Bhuj airport could not communicate
In buildings the principal elements concerned are cladding,
with the airports in Bombay (Mumbai) or Ahmedabad, but
perimeter infill walls, and internal partitions. Where these
could handle aircraft landing. The runway was safe for landing,
elements are made of very flexible materials, they will not
there was radio communication with planes, but no
affect the structure significantly.
communication outside the immediate landing area. In fact,
within an hour of the earthquake, the first helicopter landed. However, very often it will be desirable for nonstructural
Within a few hours of the earthquake, aircraft could land. On reasons to construct them of stiff materials such as precast
the civilian side, the passenger facility failed. Temporary offsite concrete, or concrete blocks, or bricks. Such elements can have
passenger airline facilities (Jet Air and Indian Airlines) had a significant effect on the behavior and safety of the structure.
been put in service by mid-February. On the first day of the Although these elements may be carrying little vertical load,
earthquake, there were four flights to the airport. The next they can act as shear walls in an earthquake with the following
day, January 27th, there were 18 flights. important negative or positive effects.
Large cargo planes began to move equipment and personnel They may;
from bases as far away as Chandigarh, and fly critically injured (1) Reduce the natural period of vibration of the structure,
victims to Pune and other centers. Over 230 tons of relief hence changing the intake of seismic energy and
materials including medicines, water, tents, blankets and food changing the seismic stresses of the 'official' structure.
were carried in over 170 military sorties. In the first five days (2) Redistribute the lateral stiffness of the structure, hence
following the January 26th, 2001 earthquake, the Bhuj airport changing the stress distribution, sometimes creating
handled over 800 landings and departures. Airport charges large asymmetries.
were waived for relief flights. The main bottleneck was parking (3) Cause premature failure of the structure usually in
space for the aircraft. The airport used one taxiway for parking shear or by pounding.
the airplanes, but this quickly became crowded, and the control (4) Suffer excessive damage themselves, due to shear forces
tower sometimes had to tell Bombay or Ahmedabad airports or pounding.
126 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 127

(5) Prevent failure of otherwise inadequate moment- earthquake were evidently saved from much more serious
resisting frames. First, let us consider the negative damage by brick infill. Many examples of this behavior were
effects of infill construction. The more flexible the basic also observed in the 2001 Bhuj, India, earthquake, and in New
structure is, the worse the effects can be; and they will Zealand earthquakes.
be particularly dangerous when the distribution of such While the positive stress redistribution of infill panels is
'non-structural' elements is asymmetric or not the same readily explained, all the pros and cons are not easily predicted.
on successive floors. However, it appears that simple unreinforced infill, disposed
In attempting to deal with the above problems, either of symmetrically or u-shaped in plan, and built full wall height
two opposite approaches may be adopted. The first is knowingly is more likely to be beneficial than not, if it does not fallout
to include those extra shear elements into the official structure prematurely.
as analysed, and to detail accordingly. This method is Damage to Nonstructural Elements: In general these
appropriate if the building is essentially stiff anyway, or if a elements with the three main areas of concern are:
stiff structure is desirable for low seismic response on the site
1. The Contents of the Building: which may include
concerned. It means that the shear elements themselves will
incoming gas lines, chemical laboratories, storage
probably require aseismic reinforcement. Thus, 'non-structure'
shelves, lockers and vending machines, explosive and
is made into real structure. The second approach is to prevent
radioactive materials, expensive equipment, glass tubes
the non-structural elements from contributing their shear
etc.
stiffness to the structure.
2. Architectural Items: It may include ceiling and lights,
This method is appropriate particularly when a flexible partitions etc.
structure is required for low seismic response. It can be affected
3. Mechanical and Electrical Building Components: it
by making a gap against the structure, up the sides and along
includes loss of facilities, electrical components,
the top of the element. The non-structural element will need
mechanical equipment.
restraint at the top (with dowels, say) against overturning by
out-of-plane forces. If the gap has to be filled, a really flexible THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF
material must be used. EARTHQUAKES
Unfortunately, neither of the above solutions is very Before discussing economic or financials consequences of
satisfactory, as the fixing of the necessary ties, reinforcement, earthquakes, their impacts on society and level of acceptability
dowels, or gap treatments is time-consuming, expensive, and are discussed.
hard to supervise properly. Also, flexible gap fillers will not be
Earthquake Consequences and their Acceptability
good for sound insulation. It can be seen from the above
discussion that in regions of moderate to high seismic hazard, The primary consequence of concern in earthquakes is
solid infill walls should not be added or subtracted from existing human casualties, i.e. deaths and injuries. The number of
buildings without checking the earthquake resistance casualties in any given event varies enormously, depending on
consequences. Finally, the positive side of infill walls should the magnitude, location and area of the earthquake. Number
not be neglected. Many buildings would have had their of casualty counts is caused by the collapse of buildings made
performance improved by infill in past earthquakes. For of heavy, weak material such as unreinforced masonry or earth.
example, low-rise precode reinforced concrete buildings in the The physical consequence of earthquakes for human beings
intensity MM10 zone of the 1931 Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, are generally viewed under two headings:
128 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 129

(A) Damage and injury to human beings earthquakes are hospitals, fire and police stations, government
(B) Damage to the built and natural environments. offices, dams, bridges, radio and telephone services, schools,
energy sources or in short, anything vitally concerned with
These physical effects in turn are considered as to their
preventing major loss of life in the first instance and with the
social and economic consequences:
operation of emergency services afterwards.
1. Number of casualties
The consequences of damage to structures housing
2. Trauma and bereavement
intrinsically dangerous goods or processes is another category
3. Loss of employment of consideration, and concerns the potential hazards of fire,
4. Loss of employee/skills explosion, toxicity, or pollution represented by installations
5. Loss of heritage such as liquid petroleum gas storage facilities or nuclear power
6. Material damage cost or nuclear weapon plants. These types of consequences often
7. Business interruption become difficult to consider logically, as strong emotions are
provoked by the thought of them.
8. Consumption of materials and energy (sustaining
resources) Since the 1970s, with the growing awareness of the high
seismic risk associated with certain classes of older buildings,
9. Macro-economic impacts
programmes for strengthening or replacement of such property
The above physical and socio-economic consequences should have been introduced in various parts of the world, notably for
be taken into account when the acceptable consequences are pre-earthquake code buildings of lightly reinforced or
being decided, i.e. the acceptable earthquake risk. unreinforced masonry construction.
Both financially and technically, it is possible to reduce While the substantial economic consequences of the loss of
these consequences for strong earthquake shaking. The basic many such buildings in earthquakes are, of course, apparent,
planning aims are to minimize the use of land subject to the the main motivating force behind these risk-reduction
worst shaking or ground damage effects, such as fault rupture, programmes has been social, i.e. the general attempt to reduce
landslides or liquefaction. The basic design aims are therefore loss of life and injuries to people, plus the desire to save buildings
confined or monuments of historical and cultural importance.
(a) to the reduction of loss of life in any earthquake either Not only individual owners are concerned with the
through collapse or through secondary damage such as consequences of damage to their property but also the overall
falling debris or earthquake-induced fire, and effects of a given earthquake are also receiving attention.
(b) to the reduction of damage and loss of use of the built Government departments, emergency services and insurance
environment. firms all have critical interests in the physical and financial
overall effects of large earthquakes on specific areas. For
Naturally some facilities demand greater earthquake
example, disruption of lifelines, such as transport, water and
resistance than others, because of their greater social and/or
power system obviously greatly hampers rescue and
financial significance. It is important to determine in the design
rehabilitation programmes.
brief not only the more obvious intrinsic value of the structure,
its contents, and function or any special parts thereof, but also Economic Consequences of Earthquakes
the survival value placed upon it by the owner. Some of the The first half of century is incomplete; only the material
most vital facilities to remain functional after destructive damage costs for the 1906 San Francisco and the 1923 Kanto
130 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 131

earthquakes being readily found. As with the 20th century Where the client simply wants the minimum total cost satisfying
death sequence the costs sequence is seen to be random. local regulations, the usual cost-effectiveness studies comparing
However, there is no correlation between the deaths and costs different forms and material will apply. For this knowledge of
sequences. If the costs were normalized to a constant population good earthquake-resistant forms will of course, hasten the
and if the 1995 Kobe earthquake was not included, there would determination of an economical design whatever the material
be no trend to increase with time. chosen.
However, the global seriousness of earthquake damage In some cases, however, a broader economic study of
losses is undisputed. The economic consequences of earthquakes the cost involved in prevention and cure of earthquake
occur both before and after the event. Those arising before the damage may be fruitful. These costs may be estimated on a
event include protection provisions such as earthquake probabilistic basis and a cost-effective analysis can be made
resistance of new and existing facilities, insurance premiums to find the relationship between capital expenditure on
and provision of earthquake emergency services. earthquake resistance on the one hand and the cost of repairs
Post-earthquake economic consequences include: and loss of income together with insurance premiums on the
other.
1. Cost of death and injury
2. Cost of damage It is most important that at an early stage the owner should
be advised of the relationship between strength and risk so that
3. Losses of production and markets
he can agree to what he is buying. Where stringent earthquake
4. Insurance claims regulations must be followed the question of insurance versus
The direct cost of damage depends upon the nature of the earthquake resistance may not be a design consideration, but
building or other type of facility, its individual vulnerability it can still be important, for example for designing non-structural
and the strength of shaking or other seismic hazard to which partitions to be expandable.
it is subjected. During the budgeting stages of a design, the cost However, in some cases insurance may be more expensive
of providing earthquake resistance will have to be considered, or unavailable for facilities of high seismic vulnerability.
at least implicitly or sometimes explicitly such as for upgrading
of older structures. Social and Economic Impact of Bhuj Earthquake
The cost will depend upon such things as the type of project, The earthquake had a vast geographical spread, affecting
site conditions, the form of the structure, the seismic activity 21 out of 25 districts of the state. Though Kachh and seven
of the region and statutory design requirements. Unfortunately other districts-Surendranagar, Patan, Banaskantha, Jamnagar,
it is not possible to give simple guides on costs, although it Rajkot, Ahmedabad and Surat-were the most severely affected,
would not be misleading to say the most engineering projects the entire State of Gujarat reeled under the effects of the
designed for a seismically active area, would spend a maximum earthquake.
of 10% of the total cost on earthquake provisions with 5% as There were about 13,800 deaths (about 20,000 deaths
an average figure. were initially estimated) in the earthquake, a very high
The cost of seismic upgrading of older buildings varies from level of mortality in a natural disaster. About 166,000
as little as about 10% to more than 100% of the replacement people were injured, out of which more than 20,000 had serious
cost, depending on the nature of the building, the level of injuries.
earthquake loading used and the amount of non-structural More than a million houses were destroyed or damaged. It
upgrading that is done at the same time as the strengthening. was a collective trauma for the people of Gujarat. The initial
132 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 133

estimate of deaths in the district Kachchh was close to 18,500. DYNAMIC TESTING OF MODELS
It seems a large number of missing people were also included Conventional earthquake-resistant design involves ensuring
in the category of dead. When the government checked these that a structure under design can carry a set of static lateral
details later at the household level for the purpose of providing loads. The magnitude and distribution of lateral loads are
assistance to families of the dead, the number of deaths was specified by codes (e.g. Uniform Building Code) and, insofar as
revised downwards to 12,221. possible, simulate dynamic forces that the structure would
In a disaster where over 13,000 people died, and almost an experience in medium-sized earthquakes.
equal number were seriously injured, the economic and social The increasing availability of high-speed digital computers
impact on the affected families would obviously be very severe. has initiated a trend whereby earthquake loads are represented
Many of these impacts will be felt gradually, as families grapple by dynamic loads.
with their sense of grief, loss of income and livelihood, and
Such methods involve dynamic analysis requiring, first, the
psychological trauma.
idealization of the structure so that a mathematical model can
According to a United Nations report, 94 unaccompanied be formulated and, second, the determination of the response
children have been identified in all the affected Talukas to of the mathematical model to suitable ground motion. Here it
date. All of them are under the care of their close relatives and will be assumed that suitable ground motion is available and
none is kept in any institution. Many of these details of losses focus will be on the idealization of structures and the formulation
are imprecise, as the household-based data are not available of mathematical models.
yet. However, it is true that a large number of children have
The computation involved in performing the dynamic
been killed in the earthquake.
analysis associated with even a simple mathematical model is
The disruption of social services too will have a long-term extensive. Hence, it is important that the mathematical model
impact on the quality of life. Education and health facilities should be as simple as possible without omitting any features
have suffered large-scale destruction in the area. Over 11,600 of the prototype that affect its dynamic behavior appreciably.
schools have been either damaged or destroyed. Therefore, a considerable number of dynamic tests of real
Destruction of hospitals, health care facilities, and child structures have been conducted in order to determine dynamic
care centers will have a serious impact on provision of both properties and establish mathematical models that can represent
curative and preventive services in the area, both much in the dynamic behavior of the prototype structures.
demand in the aftermath of the earthquake. More than 20,000 A second purpose of these dynamic tests has been to
people were seriously injured. accumulate a body of experimental results on the damping
The nature of injuries ranged from orthopedic and head capacity of structures. Unlike the stiffness and mass properties
injuries, to tissue losses, abdominal and thoracic trauma, and of a structure, damping capacity cannot be calculated. Therefore,
amputations. Widespread damages to surface and groundwater- in formulating a mathematical model it is important that some
based water supply schemes in the villages and cities will only experimental results on the damping capacity of structures
exacerbate water scarcity for villagers. similar to the one being modeled are available.
The state has experienced a series of natural disasters in Since tests on real structures of necessity are conducted at
quick succession. The loss of assets and livelihood resulting low amplitudes, little information is found from such tests on
from the earthquake will have a serious impact on the level of the nonlinear behavior of structures. Thus dynamic tests have
consumption and welfare in the state. been conducted on small model structures vibrating at large
134 Disaster Management in India Performance of Ground and Buildings in Past Earthquakes 135

amplitudes to study nonlinear behavior and energy absorption fuels - natural and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). All behave
characteristics. Data from such tests then can be extended to differently and exhibit varying vulnerability towards
an analytical evaluation of the nonlinear behavior of full-scale earthquakes. An earthquake always have social and economic
models. consequences on the settlements including cost of death and
Thus some of the problems of formulating a mathematical injury, cost of damage, losses of production and markets and
model in a particular case are revealed. Subsequently, the the insurance claims.
mathematical model is subjected to ground motion to predict These days our structures can be tested for their
the prototype behavior under strong-motion earthquakes. The susceptibility to earthquakes through dynamic testing models.
quantities normally determined by a dynamic test of a structure These dynamic tests are conducted on small model structures
are resonant frequencies, mode shapes, and damping capacities. vibrating at large amplitudes to study nonlinear behavior and
energy absorption characteristics. Data from such tests can be
CONCLUSIONS extended to an analytical evaluation of the nonlinear behavior
As we know, earthquakes have occurred from millions of of full-scale models. In this manner we can take necessary
years without warning and will continue in future. There is a actions to reduce the vulnerabilities of our structures in order
need to recall lessons repeatedly taught by past earthquakes. to minimize the disastrous impact of earthquakes.
Ground damage observed in field surveys immediately after
several earthquakes is well documented.
Damage in the form of ground rupture, liquefaction,
landslides and tsunamis and many others effect in a wide
geographical region. This kind of damage study is a timely
reminder of what can happen in the seismically active areas
of the country.
It is essential to mitigate the effects of strong earthquake
shaking to reduce loss of life and damage. Structural damage
is the leading cause of death and economic loss in many
earthquakes getting influenced by strength of shaking, duration
of shaking, type of subsurface conditions and type of building.
Major causes of damage to buildings during earthquakes include
plan asymmetry, soft story, settlement, torsion, pounding
damage and resonance.
Study of behavior of various building structures during
earthquakes based on the past experiences gives insight for
preparedness in future.
Earthquakes also disrupt the lifelines which are critical in
providing emergency response recovery, and in restoring society
to normal. Lifeline systems include transportation systems,
electric power, telecommunications, water, sewer, gas and liquid
136 Disaster Management in India Site Planning, Building Forms and Architectural Design Concepts 137

SITE SELECTION
The selection of suitable site is a crucial step in the design
of a building or planning a settlement in an earthquake prone
area. There are a number of earthquake related hazards which
should always be considered when choosing a site, together
6 with the influence of the ground conditions at the site on the
ground motion which the building may experience in a future
earthquake.
Site Planning, Building Forms and An assessment of the extent of the earthquake hazard
Architectural Design Concepts should always form a part of the overall site assessment and
of the specification for the design of any structures to be built
there. No site can be expected to be ideal in all respects, so the
INTRODUCTION choice of site will often involve a judgment about relative risks
and the costs of designing to protect from them. But there can
Site Planning and building form are very important from
be some sites which could be so hazardous that they should be
the point of view of seismic performance of the structure. Also
avoided if at all possible, since the cost of building is likely to
it is very important to have proper compatibility of elements
be prohibitive. A few important considerations for site selection
resisting seismic forces. Site planning and selection of building
are given below:
forms is the first step in designing of any structure and the
decisions taken are very crucial for the behavior of those Steep Slopes
structures during any earthquake. Buildings should be sufficiently away from steep slopes.
Based on examples taken from various past earthquakes Sites located on or very close to steep slopes are always prone
and theories this chapter gives guidelines for site planning, to landslides, especially in the earthquake prone regions. Even
selection of building form and formulation of architectural design if the building has good earthquake resistant construction, they
concepts for earthquake resistant structures in the earthquake are prone to damages or total destructions on such sites.
prone areas. Frequent landslides in Uttarkashi region after the October
1991 earthquake caused massive devastations in the region.
HISTORICAL EXPERIENCES The periodic landslides are triggered by other aspects like
Compliance to site regulations is very important and has excess rains, seepage etc. The Himalayan regions are
a historical basis. Even Napoleon had imposed regulations for particularly prone to landslides. Such landslides often prove to
compliance as for loss of serviceability in a construction project be more disastrous than the actual earthquake event.
within 10 years of construction; say foundation failure or poor Filled Up Soil
workmanship; the contractor and the architect were to be sent
Foundation should rest only on firm soil and not on filled
to prison.
up soil. Such constructions on filled up soils have witnessed
Whether such and other rules from ancient times stopped extensive damages in the January 2001 Gujarat earthquake.
all failures is not known, but they certainly were a deterrent
to shoddy construction practices and eliminated the possibility Raft on Pile Foundations
of repetitive malpractices. Present day law and order demands Many times it is unavaoidable to construct the structure
accountability for professional performance. on filled up soil, as in most cases choice of site is not the option
138 Disaster Management in India Site Planning, Building Forms and Architectural Design Concepts 139

we have. In such situations raft on pile foundations have to be considered in relation with the period of ground motion and its
provided. amplification. The effect of an increase in height may be quiet
disproportionate to the increase in seismic forces itself. Thus
BUILDING FORMS
the doubling of the building height from 5 to 10 storeys may,
Building form has to be decided initially in the design if amplification occurs, result in four or five fold increase in
process. Different aspects of building forms viz. scale, height, seismic forces.
horizontal size, proportion and symmetry are discussed below:
Horizontal Size
Scale
It is easy to visualize the overturning forces associated with
A large masonry building is always in contrast with a small height as a seismic problem, but large plan areas can also be
wood frame building which can be made a seismically safe detrimental. When the plan becomes extremely large, even if
structure with the inclusion of relatively inexpensive and it is symmetrical, simple shape, the building can have trouble
unobtrusive provisions. This is because a small wood structure responding as one unit to earth vibrations.
is lightweight and the internal forces will be low. In addition
Increase in length of a building increases the stresses in
the spans are relatively small and there would be large number
a floor working as a horizontal distribution diaphragm in a
of walls to distribute the loads. On the other hand, for a larger
transverse direction.
building, the violation of basic layout and proportion principles
result in an increasingly high cost as the forces become greater The rigidity of the floor may not be sufficient to redistribute
and the good performance becomes difficult as compared to an the horizontal load during an earthquake from weaker or
equivalent building. damaged supporting elements of the building to stronger
elements or those with minor damage.
As the absolute size of a building increase, the number of
options for its structure design decreases. A bridge span of 100 Unless there are numerous interior lateral force resisting
meters may be designed as a beam, arch, truss or suspension elements, large plan buildings impose unusually severe
system, but if this span increases to 1000 meters the structural requirements on their diaphragms, which have large lateral
discipline becomes more rigorous and the design options become spans and can build up large forces to be resisted by shear walls
limited. The architectural solutions that are perfectly acceptable or frames. The solution is to add walls or frames that will
at the size of a simple structural system like house become reduce the span of the diaphragm, though it will reduce flexibility
physically impossible at the scale of large spans like suspension in the use of the building.
bridge. It is not possible to alter the size of a structure and its Proportion
components and still retain the same structural behavior. In seismic design, the proportions of a building may be
Every building has to be considered differently with increase more important than its absolute size. For tall buildings the
in size, as the size of the building influences its seismic slenderness ratio of a building is one of the important
performance. considerations than just the height alone. The more slender the
Height building is worse are the overturning effects of an earthquake
and greater are the earthquake stresses in the outer columns,
Increasing the height of a building may be similar to
particularly the overturning compressive forces, which can be
increasing the span of a cantilever beam. As the building grows
very difficult to deal with. Some experts suggest limiting the
taller there is a change in the level of response to the seismic
height / depth ratio to 3 or 4, to safeguard the building against
forces. The effect of the building period therefore, must be
overturning.
140 Disaster Management in India Site Planning, Building Forms and Architectural Design Concepts 141

As the urban land is becoming more scarce and expensive, approximate size of structural elements as these elements are
there is a trend to design slender buildings, which although not often determined based on the architectural design decisions.
necessarily very high, may have a large height / depth ratio. This extended definition of configuration is necessary because
This trend is clearly apparent in downtown Tokyo, where of the intricate relationship of seismic performance between
multistoried buildings were built on sites that are only 5 to 6 these elements. In general the architectural configuration
meters wide. At the same time the economic forces often dictate depends on:
the distance between the two buildings which were very close 1. Architectural design
and at times they tend to respond as one unit rather than as 2. Functional requirements
individual freestanding buildings.
3. Urban design parameters
Symmetry 4. Planning considerations
The plan shape of a building should be as simple as possible. 5. Aesthetic appearance
A theoretical optimum shape is a round tower, where as long 6. Identity (distinctiveness)
buildings, L-shaped or zigzag shape or buildings with attached
The earthquake forces depend on mass and stiffness
wings are undesirable in the high risk areas and therefore
distribution, the material size and shape of the building establish
should be avoided.
it's mass. Stiffness is directly related with the type of
The term symmetry denotes a geometrical property of the configuration. For the same overall size and shape of the building
plan configuration, whereas the structural symmetry means various configuration can provide a solution.
that the center of mass and the center of resistance are located
The codal provisions for earthquake resistant buildings are
at the same point. In asymmetrical configuration / structural
based on simple, symmetrical and uniform building
system the eccentricity between the center of mass and
configurations. Their application to unusual / irregular building
resistance will produce torsion and stress concentration and
configurations, therefore may lead to unrealistic evaluation. It
therefore the symmetrical forms are preferred to the
is important to understand about regular and irregular
asymmetrical ones.
configurations, before taking the architectural design decisions.
Thus it is amply clear that as the building becomes more
Any configuration, whether regular or irregular, will have
symmetrical its tendency to suffer torsion and the stress
some resistant system, to take the lateral forces, which acts in
concentration will reduce and performance under seismic loads
horizontal and vertical planes. In vertical plane there are shear
tends to considerably improve. This suggests that when good
walls, braced frames and moment resisting frames whereas in
seismic performance has to be achieved along with maximum
horizontal plane the lateral forces are resisted by diaphragms
economy of design and construction, the simple, regular and
formed by floor and roof slabs of the building. The presence of
symmetrical shapes are much preferred. However these
these resistant systems is the result of schematic architectural
tendencies must not be mistaken for an axiom that the
design.
symmetrical building does not suffer torsion.
Regular Configuration
SEISMIC EFFECTS RELATED TO BUILDING
CONFIGURATION Regular configuration is seismically ideal. These
configurations have low heights to base ratio, symmetrical
Building configuration refers to the size, shape and
plane, uniform section and elevation and thus have balanced
proportions of the building form. From seismic point of view
resistance. These configurations would have maximum torsional
configuration may also include the location, shape and
142 Disaster Management in India Site Planning, Building Forms and Architectural Design Concepts 143

resistance due to location of shear walls and bracings. Uniform The building being made of parts which are joined together
floor heights, short spans and direct load path play a significant by means of different connections will have different localized
role in seismic resistance, of the building. strengths and stiffness, some calculated and some inadvertently
caused by interaction of non structural elements or configuration
Influence of Configuration on Seismic Performance
influence. This further differentiates its behavior from that of
To understand the influence of configuration on seismic a homogeneous building block.
performance one should understand the ways in which the
building responds to the dynamic forces due to motion of the PLAN AND VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES, REDUNDANCY
ground. Static vertical loads are directly transferred down to AND SETBACKS
the round through foundation. The earthquake exerts fluctuation Many times it has been seen that geometrically building
dynamic loads, it is difficult to determine the seismic forces may appear to be regular and symmetrical, but it may have
without knowing and understanding the dynamic characteristic irregularity due to distribution of mass and stiffness. It is
of the building along with the sequence of events and the always better to distribute the lateral load resisting elements
behavior of different elements of the building structure under near the perimeter of the building rather than concentrate
dynamic loads. these, near centre of the building. As a general rule, buildings
The forces that are exerted on the building elements and with irregular configuration perform poorly in earthquakes
the exact nature of their resultant behaviour are quiet complex even when good engineering has been carried out.
and should be taken into account while taking the decision Plan Irregularity
regarding the building configuration.
Vertical Geometric Irregularity
The above diagram originates in the form of typical seismic
All buildings with vertical offsets fall in this category. Also,
design analysis in which earthquake forces are separately
a building may have no apparent offset, but its lateral load
applied to each of the main axis for a rectangular shape and
carrying elements may have irregularity. For instance, shear
for a circle there would be more axis which are similar, (more
wall length may be suddenly reduced. When building is such
stable) however for irregular shape which is complicated we
that larger dimension is above the smaller dimension, it acts
may have to look at along several axis.
as an inverted pyramid and is undesirable. Dynamic analysis
It is important to note that in reality the earthquake forces is required in buildings with vertical irregularity where load
are much more complex then our diagrams would indicate. distribution with building height is different. In buildings with
This is because the ground motion is random and the main plan irregularity, load distribution to different vertical elements
direction of emphasis will only be axial by chance. In any event, becomes complex. In such cases floor diaphragm plays an
the total ground motion will always include non axial important role and needs to be modelled carefully. For such
components also. Thus a better diagram for visualizing building buildings a good 3-D analysis is needed.
configuration related to reaction to the ground motion. A building
In irregular building, there may be concentration of ductility
is not a homogeneous block but an assembly of parts, and each
demand in a few locations. In such buildings just dynamic
part is subjected to earthquake forces horizontally and vertically
analysis may not solve the problem and special care is needed
and from adjoining parts through joints. In a large building the
in detailing.
ground motion affects different parts of the building differently.
These forces induce torsion or incompatible movement, even in Dynamic analysis is not always sufficient for irregular
a geometrically symmetrical building. buildings and dynamic analysis is not always needed for
irregularities.
144 Disaster Management in India Site Planning, Building Forms and Architectural Design Concepts 145

Projections distribution of its resistant elements change and thus most

All projections (vertical and horizontal) are most vulnerable symmetrical structure becomes dynamically asymmetrical and
to damage during earthquakes. As they are cantilevers, there is subjected to torsional forces. Finally it must be recognized
is no redundancy, and hardly any ductility. Design of such that the architectural requirements will often make
projections has to be five times the seismic coefficient. This is asymmetrical design difficult or sometimes impossible. In these
same as in the international practice. circumstances it is necessary, depending upon the size of the
building and the type of asymmetry, to subdivide the major
Out of Plane Offsets
masses of the building to improve the seismic performance.
This is a very serious irregularity wherein there is an out-
of-plane offset of the vertical element that carries the lateral
loads. Such an offset imposes vertical and lateral load effects
on horizontal elements, which are difficult to design for
adequately. Shear walls are not obvious.
Re-entrant Corner
When an otherwise regular building has a large re-entrant
corner, wings of the building tend to vibrate in a manner
different from that of the entire building. Hence, building is
treated as irregular when offset dimensions exceed.
Mass Irregularity
Mass irregularity is induced by the presence of a heavy
mass on a floor, say a swimming pool. In IS1893 the mass
irregularity has been defined as a situation when weight of a
floor exceeds twice the weight of the adjacent floor. NEHRP
defines it when the weight exceeds 150% of that of the adjacent
floor.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of building form and configuration refers not
only to the overall building shape but to its design and
constructional details also. Study of building performance in
the past earthquakes indicates that the performance is quiet
sensitive to even a small variation in the overall form. This is
particularly true in relation to shear wall design and the location
of service core, which acts as a major lateral resistance elements.
Many buildings that were symmetrical and simple in overall
plan suffered because of unsymmetrical location of service cores
and escape staircases. Moreover, as soon as the structure begin
to suffer damage (cracking in shear wall or columns) the
146 Disaster Management in India Seismic Design Principles 147

buildings are expected to withstand DBE without major

damages. Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) is
the most severe earthquake effects considered by this
Code to happen to any building, and no collapse should
happen to it due to MCE.
7 (b) Under minor but frequent shaking (serviceable
earthquake, up to intensity VI) :
Seismic Design Principles o The main members of the building that carry vertical
& horizontal forces should not be damaged.
o However building parts that do not carry load may
INTRODUCTION
sustain repairable damage.
o In case of buildings of post-earthquake importance
Experiences from past earthquake have taught us that
even non-structural elements should not undergo
"Earthquakes don't kill people but buildings do". Some buildings
perform satisfactorily under shaking, whereas others could not. any displacement or distortion, otherwise loss of
Bhuj 2001 earthquake has shown that so-called engineered critical function would be incurred.
buildings may collapse like house of cards, if not designed (c) Under moderate but occasional shaking (design
according to safe practice norms. earthquake, from intensity VII to VIII):
Seismic design principles are derived and updated as the o The main members may sustain repairable damage.
knowledge and understanding of building behavior under o The other non-load bearing parts of the building
shaking is incremental. A study of structural performance of may be damaged such that they may even have to
buildings during the past earthquakes indicates that commonly be replaced after the earthquake.
employed constructions are not earthquake resistant and o In case of buildings of post-earthquake importance,
therefore require improvement in design and construction non-structural elements should undergo only
techniques. predicted damage or distortion, otherwise loss of
Earthquake resistant design is possible by: critical function would be coupled with unlimited
(i) Proper planning; closure period thus resulting in higher economic
(ii) Design, and loss.
(iii) Construction details to make them collapse proof and (d) Under strong but rare shaking (maximum limit
withstand damage within acceptable limit. Elastic design earthquake, from intensity IX to XII)
is not justified because of prohibitive cost. o the main members may sustain severe and even
irreparable damage
OBJECTIVES OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN
o but the building should not collapse
Objectives of earthquake resistant design are discussed
o and people can be safely evacuated.
below:
(a) The IS 1893 (Part1): 2002 says that the Design Basis Implication of objectives of earthquake resistant design is
Earthquake (DBE) can be reasonably expected to occur that the maximum expected earthquake load is much larger
at least once in the design life of the structure. And than Design Earthquake Load.
148 Disaster Management in India Seismic Design Principles 149

BASIC TERMINOLOGY As per IS 1893 (Part I) - 2002, the approximate natural

Strength period of vibration (Ta), in seconds, of a moment-resisting
frame building without brick infill panels may be estimated by
Ground vibration is random in magnitude and direction
the empirical expression:
and has two horizontal components and one vertical component.
Vertical vibration initiates vertical inertia force in the structure, Ta = 0.075 h0.75 for RC frame building
which gets added or subtracted to gravity force. In general, = 0.085 h0.75 for steel frame building,
factor of safety adopted for gravity load design is high enough Where, h= Height of building, in m.
to take care of additive vertical component for a safe structure.
(This excludes the basement stories, where basement walls
Horizontal vibration components introduce horizontal inertia
are connected with the ground floor deck or fitted between the
force.
building columns. But, it includes the basement stories, when
To transfer this load to ground safely, a complete load they are not so connected.)
transfer path is required. The elements in that load path should
The approximate natural period of vibration (Ta), in seconds,
have adequate strength to combat duly generated stress.
of all buildings, including momentresisting frame building with
Strength is a material property; so selection of material
brick infill panels may be estimated by the empirical expression:
inherently governs the stress limit the element can be
subjected to. Ta = 0.09/ Ö d, where,
h= Height of building, in m. (as discussed above)., and
Stiffness
d= Base dimension of the building at the plinth level, in
Deflection under loading is a measure to understand
m, along the considered direction of the lateral force.
stiffness of any element. This is a property of an element, its
material, cross section, unsupported length or height; Stiffness Centre of Mass
prevents the structure or its parts from moving out of alignment IS 1893(Part1):2002 defines Centre of Mass as the Point
more than permissible limit. This is also referred as horizontal through which the resultant of the masses of a system acts.
drift or storey-to-storey drift. In a structural system, relative This point corresponds to the Centre of gravity of masses of
stiffness or rigidity amongst different elements are of serious system.
concern in seismic analysis; though it is not of same concern
Centre of Rigidity or Stiffness
in case of gravity load. Conventional assumption is that if a
structure is subjected to certain force/s, and it is a combination Centre of rigidity is the geometric centre of the relative
of two or more elements, then load sharing would occur in rigidities of all elements bracing the structure in both directions.
proportion to their relative stiffness. It is also referred as the shear centre or centre of rotation,
Low lateral stiffness leads to large deformation and more meaning that during a seismic event the structure would rotate
damage in inelastic response, significant P-? effect, damage to about its centre of rigidity. IS 1893 (Part!): 2002 defines centre
non-structural elements due to large deformation etc. of rigidity or stiffness as the point through which the resultant
of the restoring forces of a system acts.
Period
Torsion
Concept of period has been discussed in Chapter 3 in detail.
One important thing to remember is that, the overall stiffness Centre of gravity or mass of any structure pass through a
of a building is measured by its period. Flexible, tall buildings point where it would be balanced against any rotation. Any
have extended time period. load, when uniformly distributed, then the point would coincide
150 Disaster Management in India Seismic Design Principles 151

with geometric centre of the structure. If this centre of mass deformations are to be avoided, it must not be thought that
coincides with centre of rigidity, then there would be no rotation plastic behaviour above the elastic range makes an element or
effect. The earthquake force assumed to act at the centre of a structure unsuitable for structural purposes; in fact the
mass of the structure, and the resistance of the building would opposite is true. Above the yield point (where the structure
pass through the centre of rigidity. Asymmetry as far as mass starts behaving in a clearly plastic fashion) deformations
and rigidity/ stiffness distribution is concerned, would experience increase more rapidly than the loads and eventually keep
a rotational problem. This is referred as Torsion. And as a increasing even if the loads are not increased. This flow or yield
result twisting would occur to it, which is undesirable. Not only is thus the clearest sign, and a healthy warning, that failure
in plan form, asymmetry has to be checked in 3 dimensional is imminent. And this quality if a structural material or a
configuration of a structure to arrest the rotation phenomenon. system exhibits it is referred as ductility.
Design Eccentricity Ductility is one of the strongest tools to design earthquake
resistant structure. It offers the element to deform a large
The offset between the centre of mass of any structure and
extent absorbing energy and thus can resist earthquake force
the centre of rigidity/stiffness of the safe is referred as
better deferring collapse mechanism.
eccentricity. IS 1893(Part1): 2002 refers Design Eccentricity
(edi) as the value of eccentricity to be used at floor i in the Deformation may be measured in terms of deflection,
torsion calculations for design. rotation or curvature.
Increasing redundancy in the structure would result in
Damping
improved ductility. Designers can predetermine for some
Damping is an inherent quality of structure, and it controls elements to undergo large inelastic actions. At different level
or dampens response of a building during earthquake shaking. ductility would mean different displacement ratio:
This can be visualized by comparing it with a swinging door
• Section ductility (moment vs. bending or buckling
without and with damper. In the first case it would continue
curvature),
to swing unless the door is being stopped forcefully. This is an
example of un-damped or under-damped situation (gradually • Member ductility (transverse force vs. displacement /
swinging becomes lesser and then stopped). In case of door with rotation),
damper, the door would be stopped slowly without going for to- • Storey ductility (storey shear vs. storey drift) and overall
and fro- movement. It can be said that critical damping has structural ductility (Base shear vs. roof displacement).
been introduced in the system. Critical damping is defined as Response Spectrum
the smallest value of damping at which the element or the
The Response spectra is a plot of maximum response versus
structure experience no cyclic motion and gradually return to
T (for fixed ?) for a given ground motion. This is response in
neutral position.
terms of force, displacement, acceleration, shear force etc. Design
Ductility spectrum smoothens out the crest and trough in response spectra.
A structure or its components whose deformation vanishes This is specified concurrently with damping to be used, natural
rapidly with the disappearance of the loads is said to behave period calculation, permissible stress/ strain, load factors etc.
elastically. All structural systems are elastic and that too in a DUCTILITY BASED DESIGN
linear fashion to a certain extent. Elements presenting
Earthquake resistant design philosophy strongly supports
permanent deformations after the disappearance of the loads
that, member elements as well as the entire structure should
are said to behave plastically. Although large permanent
152 Disaster Management in India Seismic Design Principles 153

be strong enough to carry the gravity load safely. But to resist o Design brittle elements corresponding to upper-bound
lateral load, structures would rely on ductility, as it provides load calculated above; and thus ensure that brittle
similar scope for energy absorption, yet at the same time it elements are elastic when the ductile elements yield.
would fail after sending sufficient warning through deformation. To improve performance of the structure under earthquake
No sudden collapse would occur to the structure. Reliance on load,
ductility in comparison to strength of the structure builds basis
o Increase redundancy is helpful to make the
of ductility-based design. As ductility has been relied on, ductility
predetermined elements to undergo large inelastic
reduction factor and over strength factor would influence the
actions.
design force through introduction of Response reduction
o Prevent premature local or member buckling of design
factor, R.
elements.
THE CAPACITY DESIGN CONCEPT o Ensure that predetermined locations of inelastic actions
For Earthquake Resistant Design maximum elastic seismic can sustain expected large plastic rotations through
forces is calculated first (e.g. with help of response spectra providing good moment connections.
method) and then reduce to account for ductility and over-
CONCLUSIONS
strength. Structure should have adequate strength and good
ductility. In capacity design method planning for failure Human settlements in highly seismic regions of the world
sequence is very important. The hierarchy of failure of elements by observations in past earthquakes developed an adequate
in a structure is decided on basis of consequence of their failure. understanding of seismic behavior of buildings and evolved
Local impact of failure would support the candidature of slab sound seismic design principles. All the earthquake resistant
to be failed first. Beam would come next as it would influence constructions have to be based on these principles to minimize
two adjacent bays in that story. Then expected sequence would the damage to buildings during earthquakes.
be Column, Foundation and lastly soil. Another assumption Various crucial aspects for seismic design principles like
has to be made on type of damage. Preferable damage pattern strength, stiffness, period, center of mass, center of rigidity or
is gradual and ductile one over sudden and brittle one; e.g. beam stiffness, torsion, design eccentricity, damping, ductility and
should fail in flexure yielding rather than local buckling. That response spectrum are discussed in the chapter. It is seen that
emphasize ductile elements should yield prior to failure of brittle earthquake resistant philosophy strongly supports that entire
elements. Ductility of the structure shows the ductility of its structure should be strong enough to carry the gravity load
weakest element. So, strong column with weaker beam would safely, and at the same time ductility of the structure is
be an appropriate strategy for ductility based capacity design. important to take the lateral loads. Ductility of a structure
In a Capacity Design method, followings are the steps: shows the ductility of its weakest elements. Hence
understanding ductility based capacity design concept is
o Assess required strength of structure from seismic code
important for earthquake resistant design.
o Apply suitable safety factors on this load and material
properties, and design and detail out ductile elements.
o Identify a desirable collapse mechanism
o Assess upper-bound strength ( upper bound loads on
the structure corresponding to yielding of ductile
elements) of the ductile element
154 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 155

and then to the point where a building is located. It also

depends on the properties of soil on which the building is
constructed.
To the complexity of the ground motion is added the
complexity of the response of the structure. This response
8 depends on its shape, form, structural system of the
superstructure, type of foundation, type of finishes, details of
finishes, cladding materials, construction materials and, finally,
Earthquake Resistant Design and the quality of construction. Added to this, is the problem of
Detailing limitations on accurately modeling a structure mathematically
to predict its response to such chaotic ground motions in elastic
as well as in inelastic range.
INTRODUCTION Even though the knowledge to predict response in elastic
We have seen that, relative movement of tectonic plates range of a structure has advanced considerably, but that to
cause an earthquake, as a result of which considerable ground predict its response in inelastic range is still meager. However,
energy is released which causes the ground to shake over a long in case of a very severe earthquake, a structure would definitely
distance from the point of release of this energy. move into the inelastic range because a number of elements
and joints will yield. It is, therefore, very important to provide
When the ground on which a building is standing shakes,
sufficient strength in members and joints so that even after
the superstructure is stationary but the foundation is subjected
yielding they do not completely fail and the structure does not
to the ground motion. This movement of the foundation induces
collapse.
movement in the superstructure as well, thereby subjecting the
entire building to heavy vibrations, which induce heavy stresses EARTHQUAKE CODES
and strains in all its members. Scientists have been able to identify the range of
If the building has sufficient strength and resilience, it will earthquakes of different magnitudes and different intensities,
move along with the ground and vibrate. If it is weak or brittle, which could be, expected in different parts of the country, and
it will be damaged or will collapse. The aim of earthquake also to some extent the probable frequency of occurrence of the
engineering is to ensure, to the extent possible, that the highest range of earthquake in a specific region. This knowledge
necessary strength and resilience will be present in the forms the basis of earthquake codes, which divide the country
completed building to enable it to withstand these induced in different zones where earthquakes of a specific magnitude
stresses and strains. and a specific intensity could be expected.
Earthquake motion is chaotic, at times violent, and it The Codes also give guidelines for design of buildings with
involves translation and rotation of the ground in all directions, different materials, of different shapes and forms, and with
simultaneously. This pattern of ground motion is neither unique different structural systems. Considering the unpredictable
nor uniform. It varies from one earthquake to another. Its nature of earthquake, in its occurrence, its magnitude, its
magnitude and intensity depends on the varying soil properties intensity and its duration, the Codes are very guarded in
starting from the focus of the earthquake, which invariably is undertaking complete responsibility of the safety of a structure,
deep inside the earth, to the epicenter, which is on the crust, even if it is designed following all its provisions rigorously. This
156 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 157

is a stand taken by the codes all over the world, not only just of the collapsed buildings were in masonry and had not followed
in India. The philosophy of design adopted by all these codes the stipulations framed in 1784.
is, that if a building is designed properly and constructed A fter this earthquake, a commission of nine practicing
properly on the basis of the code, it should not suffer any engineers and five distinguished university professors were
damage under a mild earthquake, should suffer damage of only assigned the task of identifying methods to design buildings
non-structural elements and finishes etc, which can easily be which were cheap, could be built easily an could also resist
repaired under an earthquake of medium to high intensity, and earthquakes. The commission gave two proposals:
should suffer damage of structural elements, without collapse,
1. Isolate the building from the ground and place it on a
under very severe earthquake.
compacted layer of sand or on spherical rollers.
None of the codes states that if a building is designed 2. Construct the building with timber frame and in-built
following provisions of the code, and built properly, nothing rubble masonry but design it to withstand horizontal
will happen to it under any earthquake that can possibly occur force equal to 1/12 of its dead weight. This force was
in that region. Because those who frame these codes realize later changed to a horizontal design load of 1/12 of the
that if they had to make this statement, the cost of the buildings weight above for the ground floor and 1/8 of the weight
would be prohibitive. The buildings would have to be designed above for 2nd & 3rd floor.
for earthquakes of very high intensity and magnitude, the
Proposal (2) was generally adopted. These were intuitive
probability of occurrence of which may be only once in fifty
recommendations based on observations and these concepts of
years, or once in hundred years.
designing a building to withstand a stipulated horizontal force
It is interesting to trace the history of the process of making or isolating it from the ground are still valid.
these earthquake codes. Early codes were based directly on the
Japan also has a long history of earthquakes, which had
practical lessons learned from earthquakes, relating primarily
intuitively led them to construct very light buildings in timber.
to types of construction. In some cases they placed limitations
Some of the wooden pagodas constructed before 15th century
on the height of buildings. It was recognized that timber
structures performed well (even the relatively tall Japanese are amongst the tallest wooden structures in the world and
pagodas), whereas plain masonry buildings performed poorly. have withstood many earthquake without any reported damage.
Here again, a commission was set up which observed that
This process started in Italy way back in 1783 when a buildings built in wood and steel had fared much better than
severe earthquake in "Calabrian" prompted the engineers to
those in concrete. But those in masonry had fared very badly.
think of Earthquake (EQ) resistant buildings. On the basis of
observations, the engineers stipulated that: It is interesting to note that three buildings designed by
one Dr. Tachu Naito, Professor of Architecture at Waseda
* All buildings which had failed & survived be built with
University in Tokyo, withstood the 1923 earthquake remarkably
timber frame, in-filled with stone embedded in mortar
well. These three buildings were the Japan industrial Bank,
* The maximum height of buildings be two storeys 100ft high in steel frame, Jitsugyo Building in reinforced
However, these stipulations were not rigorously followed concrete frame, and the Kalenki Theatre in a combination of
as the years, decades and a century went by, during which concrete and steel. All these buildings had been designed to
period there was extensive seismic activity in the region but withstand a lateral force equal to 1/15 of their dead weight. By
of small to medium intensity and magnitude. Later in 1908 a 1880 a Seismological Programme had been set up and some
severe earthquake occurred in "Messina-Reggio", during which empirical criteria for design of earthquake had been developed.
160,000 persons lost their lives in a relatively small area. Most
158 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 159

In 1923 a very severe earthquake took as many as 1,40,000 1933 - Important buildings like schools, hospitals, places of
lives in Japan. By then, a number of building in steel and assembly for 10% (Dead + some Live load) all other buildings
reinforced concrete had also been built, most of which withstood 2% to 5% (Dead + some Live load)
the earthquake fairly well. On account of success of these 1943 - Horizontal load each floor = C x dead load above
buildings to resist earthquake forces, Dr. Naito was considered C=0.6/(N+4.5), N= no of stories above. Thus for a one storey
an authority on the subject. He had laid down four very simple building (N=0) C=0.133 and a 13 storeys building (N=12)
principles to be followed for earthquake resistant buildings: C=0.0364
1. A building should be as rigid as possible with rigid 1947 - Horizontal load varies form 3.7 to 8% of design
joints and generous bracings or shear walls. This will vertical load depending on number of storeys and soil conditions
ensure short building period and prevent resonance
1948 - Base shear V=CW
with ground motion.
W=dead load +0.25 live load
2. Use a closed plan layout, rather than an open U, L, T
or H shapes. C=0.015/T
3. Rigid walls or bracings should be placed symmetrically T= fundamental period = 0.05H
in plan. H= height in ft.
4. Lateral force allocation to different frames of a building D= plan dimension in the direction of earthquake in ft.
is done based on their rigidities. 1956 - V same as above, but
The famous Imperial Hotel designed by Frank Lloyd Wright C=0.02/T
survived this 1923 earthquake in Japan without too much
A number of subsequent revisions took place. The latest
damage. It was a fairly rigid two storied building supported on
uniform building code is of 1997 edition. The name of this code
short 8' long piles at 2'x2' grid. In the USA, a very severe
has been changed to "International Building Code of USA" in
earthquake occurred in 1906 in San Francisco. But it did not
2000, the latest edition of which is of 2003.
result in setting up any commission to make recommendations.
Instead, the regular building code made a provision to design The first Indian code for design of EQ resistant buildings
all buildings for a horizontal load of 30 pounds per square foot was framed in 1962, which was subsequently revised in 1966,
to cater for wind and earthquake forces. 1970, 1975, 1984 and finally in 2002. With every revision,
revisions were modified on the basis of the latest available
It was only at 1925 "Santa-Barbara" earthquake that work
knowledge. However with every such revision provisions of the
to frame a seismic design code was undertaken which resulted
code became more stringent.
in a "Uniform Building Code" published in 1927. The provisions
in this code were, however, casual, to cater for a specified Originally, the country had been divided in 7 zones. Starting
horizontal force, and were not mandatory. A subsequent "Long- with EQ of very mild intensity in Zone-0, the intensity kept on
Beach" earthquake in 1933, made the authorities serious. Laws increasing in Zones-I, II, III, IV and V with the heaviest in
were enacted and codes were framed. Serious provisions for Zone-VI.
designing the buildings for specified horizontal loads were made, Subsequently in 1984 these seven zones were reduced to
which were modified over the years as more and more knowledge five. Zone-0 was merged into Zone-I and Zone-VI in Zone-V.
of earthquake engineering was acquired, and which became Recently in 2002 the zones have further been reduced to four.
more and more stringent. Zone-I has been merged into Zone-II. The latest seismic zoning
map of India showing four different zones (zone II, III, IV
160 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 161

and V). The magnitude of seismic force experienced by a building codes should be able to resist minor earthquakes undamaged,
varies with its configuration, construction materials, height, resist moderate earthquakes without significant damage, and
and number of floors, structural system, and type of foundation resist severe earthquakes without collapse.
and soil characteristics. The codes do not guarantee that a structure would never
It is directly related to the intensity of earthquake. Actual be subjected to higher forces than stipulated in any earthquake.
forces that a structure is subjected to during an earthquake All the Codes have similar equations to compute the base
may be far greater than those specified in this Code. However, shear, and its distribution over the height of a building. This
ductility, arising from inelastic material behavior and detailing distribution is either triangular or parabolic, with the highest
and over strength arising from the additional reserve strength value at the top and least at the bottom. Some of the codes also
in a structure, over and above the design strength, are relied specify a small component of the base shear to act as a point
upon to withstand these additional forces. load at the top.
The strength requirement of a building to withstand Provisions for variation of base shear related to importance
earthquake-generated forces can be assessed based on a "Static of the building, structural system, structural material, soil
Approach" or a "Dynamic Approach". properties etc are also similar. Considering regions of different
In the static approach, it is assumed that earthquake intensity of earthquake, and buildings of different height,
vibrations subject a building to horizontal forces along its height. different flexibility, and on different soil conditions, the base
The magnitude and distribution of such horizontal forces is shear could vary from 2% to 14% of the total gravity and part
related to the construction materials, height, and number of live load of a building. This range is also more or less similar.
floors, foundation system, soil characteristics and the It is interesting to compare this range with that specified
Earthquake zone in which the building is located. The total intuitively by Italian and Japanese engineers long ago, which
design lateral load is termed as the design seismic base shear. varied from 7% to 12%. All Codes have fairly stringent provisions
In the Dynamic Approach, vibration analysis of the building for analyzing and designing irregular buildings. All Codes
is carried out to establish the base shear and its distribution ascribe to the concept of inelastic response of the Structure and
over the height of the building. The Code specifies that all Ductility.
buildings can be designed with the static approach, except for Structural Engineers are primarily responsible for the
buildings higher than 40m in Zones IV & V and higher than framing of Code Provisions for the buildings. But this being a
90m in zones- II and III which need to be designed with the collaborative process, architects need to study and contribute
dynamic approach. But if a building is irregular it has to be further to this so that it is easier for the engineers to follow
designed according to dynamic approach, if it is higher than those provisions in their true spirit without compromising much
12m in Zones-IV and V and higher than 40m in zones- II & III. in the quality of architectural as well as structural design.
The Code has very stringent provisions to cater for torsion CHOICE OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
effects of earthquake forces. It also has equally stringent
The preferred materials for medium to high-rise buildings
provisions to analyze and design irregular buildings.
in earthquake regions are concrete and steel. With the help of
UNIFORM PHILOSOPHY OF DESIGN both these materials the desired level of flexibility or rigidity
The philosophy of design against earthquake forces in all can be provided. Both these materials if detailed properly retain
the codes is more or less the same which has been given earlier their integrity even after a large number of stress reversals,
and which states that, the buildings designed according to and have high level of ductility.
162 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 163

A precast system or a combination of prestressed and precast c. If in the structure described in (b) shear walls or cross
system is not considered very suitable but cannot be ruled out. bracings are also added, it is a rigid structure
In Russia it has been used quite successfully in regions of high d. All structures supported on masonry, or reinforced
seismic activity. The joints need special consideration and very masonry walls are rigid structures.
careful detailing so as to be ductile and not lose integrity under
One very important property, which determines the base
cycles of reversal of stresses.
shear attracted by a structure, is its natural period of vibration.
For low-rise buildings masonry or a combination of masonry If the period of vibration of the ground becomes equal to the
with concrete frames is most popular. natural period of vibration of the building, there is resonance,
CHOICE OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS which can be disastrous for the building.
The natural period of a flexible building is large and that
Guide Lines for Planning Earthquake Resistant Buildings
of a stiff building is short. A flexible building, has a large drift,
As we have seen in chapter 5 that poor form cannot be has a capacity to absorb earthquake induced energy on account
ordered to behave satisfactorily in an earthquake. Therefore in of this drift and attracts a smaller base shear, and has a higher
order to predict response of a form to earthquake, it should be ductility.
sound and symmetrical and honor the following design
A stiff building on the other hand has much less drift, but
principles.
attracts higher base shear, absorbs earthquake energy through
i. Be simple
moments and shears and has lower level of ductility. The
ii. Be symmetrical system, which is gaining far greater acceptance, is, a controlled
iii. Not be too elongated in plan or too slender in elevation combination of the two - a framed structure with in-filled
iv. Have continuous and uniform distribution of strength partition walls and symmetrically placed shear walls.
v. Have horizontal members which form hinges before the Horizontal and Vertical Members
vertical members
One of the essential design principles of earthquake
vi. Have its stiffness related to sub soil properties engineering is that horizontal members should fail before vertical
Stiff Structures versus Flexible Structures members. This increases the capacity of a building to keep
absorbing earthquake motions even after hinges are formed in
There is a considerable difference of opinion between
the beams, but not in the columns. Collapse would occur only
different specialists of earthquake engineering regarding the
after hinges are formed in the Columns.
final choice of a flexible or a stiff structure for a specific building.
Before discussing pros and cons of the two types of structure,
Uniform & Continuous Distribution of Strength
it is important to understand what a Flexible Structure is and The behavior of a structure is far closer to its analysis, and
what is a Stiff Structure: it has far greater chances of withstanding earthquake-induced
a. A framed structure in concrete or steel without any forces properly without much damage if it follows the following
shear walls, and with partition walls isolated from the design principles:
frames is a very flexible structure a. The load bearing members are uniformly distributed in
b. If in the structure described in (a), the partition walls plan.
are not isolated from the structure, it is less flexible b. All columns and walls are continuous and without offsets
than (a). from roof to foundation.
164 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 165

c. All beams are free of offsets. design earthquake load in the other direction. For instance, the
d. Columns and beams are co-axial. building should be designed for (±ELx ± 0.3ELy) as well as
e. Columns and beams are of nearly the same width. (±0.3ELx ± Ely), where x and y are two orthogonal horizontal
directions.
f. A principal member should not change section suddenly.
Estimation of Base Shear
g. The structure is continuous and monolithic with rigid
joints The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear
The more these principles are followed, the less would be (Vb) along any principal direction shall be
the cost of the structure, the detailing would be easier to plan determined by the following expression:
& construct, and its behavior under an earthquake would be Vb = Ah W
much better. Where, Ah = Design horizontal acceleration spectrum value
IS 1893:2002 CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT Ta in the considered direction of vibration
DESIGN W = Seismic weight of the building
Inelastic Seismic Response of Structures and Ductility Distribution of Shear in Multi-Storied Building
Under sustained loading a member suffers elastic Vertical distributions of Base shear to different floor levels
deformations, which keep on increasing linearly with the load, of a multistoried building have been referred in IS 1893 (Part I):
upto the yield stress of the material. After this is a stage called 2002. The design Base Shear (Vb) computed in 7.6.4 shall be
"Plastic Stage" in which the member keeps deforming without distributed along the height of the building as per the following
any additional load, which is followed by a "Strain hardening" expression:
stage in which the member capacity slightly increases, and
Where, Qi = Design lateral force at floor,i.
finally the "strain softening" stage in which the member
collapses. Wi = Seismic weight of the building
hi = Height of floor I measured from base, and
Load Combinations
n = number of storeys in the building is the number of
In the limit state design of reinforced concrete structures,
levels at which masses are located
following load combinations shall be accounted for
1. 1.5(DL+IL) Estimation of Earthquake Loading
2. 1.2(DL+IL±EL) For the purpose of determining seismic forces, the country
3. 1.5(DL±EL) is classified into four seismic zones.
4. 0.9DL±1.5EL The buildings shall be designed for lateral force as calculated
below:
When the lateral load resisting elements are oriented along
orthogonal horizontal direction, the structure shall be designed VB = AhW
for the effects due to full design earthquake load in one horizontal VB = Base shear
direction at time. When the lateral load resisting elements are W = Seismic weight = Dead load + part of super /imposed
not oriented along the orthogonal horizontal directions, the load.
structures shall be designed for the effects due to full design
This design base shear is distributed along the height of
earthquake load in one horizontal direction plus 30% of the
the building as given below:
166 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 167

Qi = Design lateral force at floor i CATEGORIES OF BUILDINGS

Wi= Seismic weight of floor i For the purpose of specifying the earthquake resisting
hi = height of floor I; features in masonry, the buildings have been categorized in
five categories A to E based on the value of Ah
n = number of stories
Ah = ao I b
The total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed
to the various vertical element of lateral force resisting system Ah = Design seismic coefficient for the building
(shear walls, bracing). ao = Basic seismic coefficient for the seismic zone in which
the building is located.
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
I = Importance factor applicable to the building
Framed Construction
b = Soil foundation factor
This type of construction is suitable for multistoried and
industrial buildings. Vertical Load Carrying Frame Construction DUCTILE DETAILING OF R C STRUCTURES
consists of frames with flexible (hinged) joints and bracing Ductility
members. Such buildings shall be adequately strengthened
against lateral forces by shear walls and / or other bracing The main structural elements and their connection shall be
systems in plan, elevation and sections such that EQ forces designed to have a ductile failure. This will enable the structure
shall be resisted by them in any direction. to absorb energy during earthquakes to avoid sudden collapse
of the structure. Providing reinforcing steel in masonry at
Moment Resistant Frames With Shear Walls critical sections, as provided in this standard will not only
The frames may be of reinforced concrete or steel with increase strength and stability but also ductility.
semi-rigid or rigid joints. The walls are rigid capable of acting
Ductile detailing is required to give them adequate
as shear walls and may be of reinforced concrete or of brickwork
toughness and ductility to resist severe earthquake shocks
reinforced or unreinforced bounded by framing members through
without collapse. Ductility is the ability of a structure to undergo
shear connectors.
deformations after its initial yield, without any significant
The shear walls should extend from the foundation either reduction in ultimate strength.
to the top of the building or to a lesser height as required from
Types of Ductility:
design consideration. In design, the interaction between frame
and the shear walls should be considered properly to satisfy * Material ductility;
compatibility and equilibrium conditions. * Cross-section ductility ;
Box Type Construction * Member ductility;
* Structure ductility and
This type of construction consists of prefabricated or in-situ
masonry, concrete or reinforced concrete wall along both the * Energy ductility.
axes of the building. The walls support vertical loads and also IS 13920 suggests ductile detailing of reinforced concrete
act as shear walls for horizontal loads acting in any direction. structures subjected to seismic forces.
All traditional masonry construction falls under this Flexure Members
category. In prefabricated construction attention shall be paid
Standards provided by IS Codes for design of flexure
to the connections between wall panels so that transfer of shear
members are:
between them is ensured.
168 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 169

* The member should preferably have a width-to-depth Columns and Frame Members Subjected To Bending
ratio of more than 0.3. and Axial Load
* The width of member should not be less than 200 mm. The specifications for the columns and frame members
* The depth of member should preferably be not more subjected to bending and axial loads are:
than ¼ of the clear span. * The minimum dimension of the member shall not be
Longitudinal Reinforcement less then 200 mm.
* At least two bars throughout the member length at top * Frames, which have beams with center-to-center span
and bottom. exceeding 5m or columns of, unsupported length
* Positive steel at a joint face must be at least equal to exceeding 4 m; the shortest dimension of the column
shall not be less than 300 mm.
1/2 the negative steel at that face.
* Ratio of the shortest cross sectional dimension to
* Steel provided at each of the top and bottom face of the
member at any section along its length should be at perpendicular dimension shall preferably not be less
least equal to 1/4 of the maximum negative moment than 0.4
steel provided at the face of either joint. Transverse Reinforcement: The parallel legs of
The longitudinal bars should be spliced, only if hoops are rectangular hoop shall be spaced not more than 300 mm center
to center. If the length of any side of the hoop exceeds 300 mm,
provided over the entire splice length, at spacing not exceeding
150 mm. a crosstie shall be provided.
Alternatively, a pair of overlapping hoops may be provided
The lap length should not be less than the bar development
length in tension. Lap splices should not be provided: within the column. The hooks shall engage peripheral
longitudinal bars.
* Within a joint,
Special Confining Reinforcement: Special confining
* Within a distance of 2d from joint face
reinforcement shall be provided over a Length 'lo' from each
* Within a quarter length of the member where flexural joint face, towards mid span, and on either side of any section,
yielding may generally occur under the effect of where flexural yielding may occur under the effect of earthquake
earthquake forces forces. The length 'lo' shall not be less than:
Web Reinforcement * larger lateral dimension of the member at the section
The spacing of hoops over a length of 2d at either end of where yielding occurs,
a beam should not exceed * 1/6 of clear span of the member, and
* d/4 * 450 mm.
* 8 times the dia of the smallest longitudinal bar When the calculated point of contra-flexure, under the
However, it need not be less than 100 mm. The first hoop effect of gravity and earthquake loads, is not within the middle
should be at a distance not exceeding 50 mm from the joint face. half of the member clear height, special confining reinforcement
Vertical hoops at the same spacing as above should also be shall be provided over the full height of the column.
provided over a length equal to 2d on either side of a section Also, special confining reinforcement shall be provided over
where flexural yielding may occur under the effect of earthquake the full height of a column, which has significant variation in
forces. Elsewhere, the beam should have vertical hoops at a stiffness along its height. This may result in variation in stiffness.
spacing not exceeding d/2.
170 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 171

Joints of Frames EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT MEASURES IN MASONRY

The special confining reinforcement as required at the end STRUCTURES
of column shall be provided through the joint as well, unless Masonry Unit
the joint is confined. Well-burnt bricks and solid concrete blocks having a crushing
A joint which has beams framing into all vertical faces of strength not less than 35 Mpa are masonry units. However,
it and where each beam width is at least 3/4th of the column higher strength of masonry units may be required depending
width, may be provided with half the special confining upon number of storeys and thickness of walls. Squared stone
reinforcement required at the end of the column. The spacing masonry, stone block masonry or hollow concrete block masonry
of hoops shall not exceed 150 mm. of adequate strength, may be used.
Shear Walls Mortar
Boundary Elements: Boundary elements are portions Where steel reinforcing bars are provided in masonry the
along the wall edges that are strengthened by longitudinal and bars shall be embedded with adequate cover in cement sand
transverse reinforcement. Though they may have the same mortar not leaner than 1: 3 (minimum clear cover 10 mm) or
thickness as that of the wall web it is advantageous to provide in cement concrete of grade M15 (minimum clear cover 15 mm
them with greater thickness. or bar diameter whichever more), so as to achieve good bond
Coupled Shear Wall: Ductile coupling beams shall connect and corrosion resistance.
coupled shear walls. If the earthquake induced shear stress in Masonry Bond
the coupling beam exceeds, 0.1 * ls * sqrt(fck)
For achieving full strength of masonry, the usual bonds
D specified for masonry should be followed so that the vertical
Where, ls = clear span of the coupling beam joints are broken properly from course to course.
D = Over all depth the entire EQ induced shear and flexure To obtain full bond between perpendicular walls, it is
shall, preferably, be resisted by diagonal reinforcement. necessary to make a slopping (stepped) joint by making the
Openings in Shear Walls: The shear strength of a wall corners first to a height of 600 mm and then building the wall
with openings should be checked along critical planes that pass in between them. Otherwise, the toothed joint should be made
through openings. Reinforcement shall be provided along the in both the walls alternatively in lifts of about 450 mm.
edges of openings in walls. Opening in Bearing Walls
The area of the vertical and horizontal bars should be equal Doors and window openings in walls reduce their lateral
to that of the respective interrupted bars. The vertical bars load resistance and hence, should preferably be small and more
should extend for the full storey height. The horizontal bars centrally located. Openings in any storey shall preferably have
should be provided with development length in tension beyond their top at the same level so that a continuous band could be
the sides of the opening. provided over them, including the lintels throughout the
Discontinuous Walls: Columns supporting discontinuous building.
walls shall be provided with special confirming reinforcement.
Seismic Strengthening Measures Horizontal Bands
Location of Shear Walls: Location of shear walls in plane
All masonry buildings shall be strengthened by the methods,
and sections are very important for torsion phenomenon in the
as specified for various categories of buildings, schematically,
whole structure.
172 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 173

the overall strengthening arrangements: Dimensions of Opening horizontal reinforcement shall be taken 25% more than that
and Piers 1. Door 2. Ventilator 3. Window 4. Gable band is a given for reinforced concrete bands and provided by using four
band provided at the top of gable masonry below the purlins. bars and 6 mm diameter stirrups.
This band shall be made continuous with the roof band at the
Vertical Reinforcement
eaves level.
Bars should be located inside the cavities of the hollow
Section and Reinforcement of Band
blocks, one bar in each cavity.
The band shall be made of reinforced concrete of grade not
Where more than one bar is planned these can be located
leaner than M15 or reinforced brick work in cement mortar not
in two or three consecutive cavities. The cavities containing
leaner than 1:3.
bars are to be filled by using micro-concrete 1: 2: 3 or
The band shall be of the full width of the wall, not less than cement-coarse sand mortar 1: 3 and properly rammed for
75 mm in depth and reinforced with steel. compaction.
Vertical Reinforcement The vertical bars should be spliced by welding or overlapping
1. Longitudinal Bars for developing full tensile strength. For proper bonding, the
2. Lateral ties overlapped bars should be tied together by winding the binding
wire over the lapped length. To reduce the number of overlaps,
b1, b2 - Wall thickness
the blocks may be made U-shaped.
a) Section of band with two bars
IMPROVING EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF LOW
b) Section of band with four bars
STRENGTH MASONRY BUILDINGS (IS 13828-1993)
c) Structural plan at corner junction
Low Strength Masonry Construction
d) Section plan at T-junction of walls
Brick construction using weak mortar, random rubble and
Vertical steel at corners and junctions of walls, which are half-dressed stone masonry construction using different mortars
up to 340 mm (brick) thick, should be provided. For walls such as clay mud lime-sand and cement sand are low strength
thicker than 340 mm the area of the bars should be masonry. These constructions should not be permitted for
proportionately increased. important buildings with I>1.5 and should preferably be avoided
The vertical reinforcement should be properly embedded in for building category D.
the plinth masonry of foundations and roof slab or roof band Precautions should be taken to keep the rain water away
so as to develop its tensile strength in bond. It should be from soaking into the wall so that the mortar is not softened
passing through the lintel bands and floor slabs or floor level due to wetness. An effective way is to take out roof projections
bands in all storeys. Vertical reinforcement at jambs of window beyond the walls by about 500 mm.
and door openings should be provided. It may start from
Use of a waterproof plaster on outside face of walls will
foundation of floor and terminate in lintel band.
enhance the life of the building and maintain its strength at
STRENGTHENING OF HOLLOW BLOCK MASONRY the time of earthquake as well. Low strength masonry should
STRUCTURES not be used in Building.
Horizontal Band Ignoring tensile strength, free standing walls should be
U-shaped blocks may be used for construction of horizontal checked against overturning under the action of design seismic
band, at various levels of the storeys where the amount of co-efficient allowing for a factor of safety of 1.5.
174 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 175

Brickwork in Weak Mortars be equal to the thickness of main wall, t, and the base width
The fired bricks should have a compressive strength not equal to one sixth of wall height.
less than 3.5 MPa. Strength of bricks and wall thickness should Opening in Bearing Walls
be selected for the total building height. The mortar should be
* Door and window openings in walls reduce their lateral
lime-sand (1: 3) or clay mud of good quality. Brick size depending
load resistance and hence, should preferably be small
on wall thickness should preferably be built using 1: 6
and more centrally located.
cementsand mortar.
* Openings in any storey shall preferably have their top
The minimum wall thickness shall be one brick in one
at the same level so that a continuous band could be
storey construction and one brick in top storey and 1 ½ brick
provided over them, including the lintels throughout
in bottom storeys of up to 3-storey construction. It should also
the building.
not be less than l/16 of the length of wall between two consecutive
perpendicular walls. * Where openings do not comply with the guidelines of
Table 7.7, providing reinforced concrete lining with two
The height of the building shall be restricted to the following,
numbers of high strength deformed bars of 8 mm
where each storey height shall not exceed 3m.
diameter should strengthen them.
For Categories A, B and C - three storeys with flat roof;
and two storeys plus attic pitched roof. Seismic Strengthening Arrangements
For Category D - two storeys with flat roof; and one storey (a) Reinforced Band: The band should be made of reinforced
plus attic for pitched roof. concrete of grade no leaner than M15 or reinforced
brickwork in cement mortar not leaner than 1:3. The
For achieving full bond between perpendicular walls, it is
necessary to make a sloping (stepped) joint by making the bands should be of the full width of the wall, not less
corners first to a height of 600 mm and then building the wall than 75 mm in depth and should be reinforced with 2
in between them. Otherwise the toothed joint should be made HYSD bars 8 mm dia and held in position by 6 mm dia
in both the walls, alternately in lifts of about 450 mm. bar links, installed at 150 mm apart.
(b) Wooden Band: As an alternative to reinforced band, the
Stone Masonry (Random Rubble of Half- Dressed)
lintel band could be provided using wood beams in one
* The mortar should be cement-sand (1:6), lime-sand (1:3) or two parallel pieces with cross elements. Plinth band
or clay mud of good quality. is a band provided at plinth level of walls on top of the
* The wall thickness should not be larger than 450 mm. foundation wall, This is to be provided where strip
* Preferably it should be about 350 mm, and the stones footings of masonry (other than reinforced concrete or
on the inner and outer wythes should be interlocked reinforced masonry) are used and the soil is either soft
with each other. or uneven in its properties as frequently happens in hill
Toothed Joints in Walls at Corner and T-Junction tracts.
* The masonry should preferably be brought to courses (c) Vertical Reinforcement: Vertical steel at corners and
at not more than 600 mm lift. junctions of walls storeys may be welded or suitably
If walls longer than 5 m are needed, buttresses may be used lapped, which are up to 350 mm thick should be provided
at intermediate points not farther apart than 4.0 m. The size as specified in. For walls thicker than 350 mm, the area
of the buttress be kept of uniform thickness. Top width should of the bars should be proportionately increased.
176 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 177

The vertical reinforcement should be properly embedded in The soil should be placed in layers of about 100 mm thickness
the plinth masonry of foundations and roof slab or roof band and fully compacted, then water should be sprinkled on the
so as to develop its tensile strength in bond. It should pass compacted layer before placing the next layer of 100 mm. The
through the lintel bands and floor slabs or floor level bands in total height of this block achieved this way may be kept 500
all storeys. Bars in different storeys may be welded or suitably to 800 mm. Before starting the new block, sufficient water
lapped. should be poured on the completed layer to ensure its connection
with the new layer.
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN AND CONSTRUC-
TION OF ADOBE STRUCTURE (IS 13827-1993) Recommendations for Different Seismic Areas
Box or Adobe Construction (a) Walls: The height of the adobe building should be
Suitable soil should be used for making the blocks, by using restricted to one storey plus attic only in seismic zones
uniform size of moulds, after keeping the soil-water mix for 24 V and IV and to two stories in zone III. Important
hours. The blocks should be allowed to dry out of the moulds building (I > 1.5) should not be constructed with earthen
so as to allow 'free' shrinkage without developing fissures. The walls in seismic zones IV and V and restricted to only
square type will be better for stronger construction in view of one storey in seismic zone III.
less vertical joints between units and better breaking of vertical The length of a wall, between two consecutive walls at
joints. right angles to it, should not be greater than 10 times
the wall thickness nor greater than 64 t2/h where h is
The mud 'mortar' used to join the blocks together should
the height of wall.
be the same soil as used in making blocks. However, to make
it non shrinking, straw in the ratio (1: 1, by volume, should be A long wall should be strengthened with intermediate
mixed. The wet mix should be allowed to rest for 7 days vertical buttresses.
(minimum 3 days) before use. (b) Openings: Openings
The usual good principles of bonds in masonry to be adopted (c) Foundation: The depth of foundation below existing
for construction of adobe walls, are: ground level should be at least 400 mm. The footing
* All courses should be laid level should preferably be built by using stone, fired brick
using cement or lime mortar. Alternatively, it may be
* The vertical joints' should be broken between the
made in lean cement concrete with plums (cement: sand:
consecutive courses by overlap of adobes and should be
gravel: stones as 1: 4: 6: 10) or without plums as 1: 5:
fully filled with mortar and
10. Lime could be used in place of cement in the ratio
* The perpendicular joints between walls should be made lime: sand: gravel as 1: 4: 8.
in such a way that through vertical joint is avoided.
The wall above foundation up to plinth level should
Rammed Earth Construction preferably be constructed using stone or burnt bricks
Rammed earth construction is also known as 'Pise' or 'Tapial' lay in cement or lime mortar. Clay mud mortar may be
construction in some countries. The soil suitable for rammed used only as a last resort. Height of plinth should be
earth construction will generally have less clay than that used above flood water line or a minimum of 300 mm above
for making adobes. The moisture content should be kept less ground level.
but close to optimum moisture content determined by Proctor (d) Roofs: The roofing structure must be light, well connected
Compaction Test. and adequately tied to the walls. Trusses are superior
178 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 179

to sloping roofs consisting of only rafters or A frames. to retain its integrity. It requires fairly involved analysis and
The roof beams, rafters or trusses should be rested on design effort. If the building is simple, symmetrical, without
longitudinal wooden elements for distributing the load any mass discontinuity and follows the desirable norms of
on walls. earthquake resistant buildings, the level of this involved effort
The roofing beams or rafters should be located to avoid is reasonable and the additional cost of the structure is also
their position above door or window lintels. Otherwise, reasonable and within limits. If on the other hand the building
an additional timber should reinforce the lintel. is irregular, complicated and flaunts all these desirable norms,
(e) Adequate Configuration: Summarizing most of the the level of this involved effort is very high, and the additional
recommendations contained in this standard, which will, cost of the structure is also very high. For the design of a
in general, be adequate for seismic areas including Zones building in regions of high intensity earthquake, whether the
V and IV. building is regular or irregular, an Architect must associate
with a Structural Engineer who is conversant with earthquake
(f) Collar Beam and Horizontal Band: Two horizontal
resistant design principles.
continuous reinforcing and binding beams or bands
should be placed, one coinciding with lintels of door and Interaction between the Architect and the Structural
window opening, and the other just below the roof in Engineer must start at the concept stage. The Architect must
all walls in seismic zones III, IV and V. try to incorporate requirements of the structural engineer in
his planning of the building and its aesthetics.
Proper connection of ties placed at right angles at the
corners and junctions of walls should be ensured. Where The structural engineer must give as much liberty as possible
the height of wall is not more than 2.5 m, the lintel band to the Architect to give expression to his creativity, without
can be avoided, but the lintels should be connected to compromising structural integrity of the building. In order to
the roof band. achieve this, knowledge of earthquake engineering is as essential
(g) Pilasters and Buttresses: Where pilasters or buttresses for an Architect as for an Engineer.
are used, as recommended earlier at corner or T-
junctions, the collar beam should cover the buttresses
as well. Use of diagonal struts at corners will further
stiffen the collar beam.
(h) Vertical Reinforcement in Walls: In seismic zone V, mesh
form of reinforcing is recommended. A mesh of canes
or bamboos along with the collar beams (which may in
this case be made from canes or bamboos themselves)
acts as reinforcement for the wall. The vertical canes
must be tied to the horizontal canes as well as the collar
beam at lintel and the roof beam at eave level.
CONCLUSIONS
Earthquakes are treacherous and unpredictable and induce
complex forces on buildings. A building must have the capacity
to with stand these complex forces in elastic and inelastic range
180 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 181

by the removal of soil and construction of an underground

basement. A floating foundation could help reduce the amount
of rocking settlement caused by the earthquake.
Shallow Foundations

9 A shallow foundation is often selected when the structural

load and the effects of the earth- quake will not cause excessive
settlement or lateral movement of the underlying soil layers.
Earthquake Resistant Construction In general, shallow foundations are more economical to construct
than deep foundations. If it is anticipated that the earthquake
Detailing will cause excessive settlement or lateral movement, then
isolated footings are generally not desirable. This is because
the foundation can be pulled apart during the earthquake,
INTRODUCTION causing collapse of the structure. Instead, a mat foundation or
Considering the universally accepted philosophy of design a post-tensioned slab is more desirable: This is because such
against earthquake forces, all professionals, Architects, foundations may enable the building to remain intact, even
Engineers and Builders, who are involved with the design and with substantial movements.
construction of buildings, have a responsibility to the society Based on an analysis of the factors listed below, a specific
to undertake the task to deliver safe shelter with utmost type of foundation (i.e., shallow versus deep) would be
diligence, and follow principles, concepts and techniques which recommended by the geotechnical engineer.
over the years have been identified to lead to safer buildings
The foundation must have an adequate depth to prevent
which have much better chances of survival against severe
frost damage. For such foundations as bridge piers, the depth
earthquakes.
of the foundation must be sufficient to prevent undermining
FOUNDATION by scour. The foundation must be safe against a bearing capacity
Foundation Support or Soil Stabilization failure. The foundation must not settle to such an extent that
it damages the structure.
If the expected settlement or lateral movement for a
proposed structure is too large, then different foundation support The foundation must be of adequate quality that it is not
or soil stabilization options must be evaluated. One alternative subjected to deterioration, such as from sulfate attack. The
is soil improvement methods. Instead of soil improvement, the foundation must be designed with sufficient strength that it
foundation can be designed to resist the anticipated soil does not fracture or break apart under the applied
movement caused by the earthquake. For example, mat superstructure loads. The foundation must also be properly
foundations or post-tensioned slabs may enable the building to constructed in conformance with the design specifications. The
remain intact, even with substantial movements. foundation must be able to resist long-term adverse soil changes.
An example is expansive soil, which could expand or shrink,
Another option is a deep foundation system that transfers causing movement of the foundation and damage to the
the structural loads to adequate bearing material in order to structure.
bypass a compressible or liquefiable soil layer. A third option
is to construct a floating foundation, which is a special type of The foundation must be able to support the Structure during
deep foundation in which the weight of the structure is balanced an earthquake without excessive settlement or lateral
182 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 183

movement. The foundation may also have to meet special 3. Shallow Settlements : A mat foundation can be
requirements or specifications required by the local building recommended when shallow settlements predominate
department or governing agency. and the mat foundation would minimize differential
(a) Combined footing; settlements.
(b) Combined trapezoidal footing; 4. Unequal Distribution of Loads: For some structures,
(c) Cantilever or strap footing; there can be a large difference in building loads acting
on different areas of the foundation. A mat foundation
(d) Octagonal footing;
would tend to distribute the unequal building loads and
(e) Eccentric loaded footing with resultant coincident with reduce the differential settlements.
area so soil pressure is uniform
5. Hydrostatic Uplift: When the foundation will be subjected
Spread footings are often square in plan view, are of uniform to hydrostatic uplift due to a high groundwater table,
reinforced concrete thickness, and are used to support a single a mat foundation could be used to resist the uplift
load directly in the center of the footing. forces. A continuous reinforced concrete foundation
Strip footings, also known as wall footings, are often used consists of bearing wall footings and a slab-on-grade.
to support load-bearing walls. They are usually long, reinforced Concrete reinforcement often consists of steel rebar in
concrete members of uniform width and shallow depth. the footings and wire mesh in the concrete slab.
Reinforced concrete combined footings are often rectangular If the expected settlement or lateral movement for a
or trapezoidal in plan view and carry more than one column proposed shallow foundation is too large, then other options for
load. foundation support or soil stabilization must be evaluated.
Other types of footings, such as the cantilever (also known Commonly used alternatives include deep foundations, grading
as strap) footing, an octagonal footing, and an eccentric loaded options, or other site improvement techniques.
footing with the resultant coincident with area so that the soil Deep Foundations
pressure is uniform.
Deep foundations are one of the most effective means of
If a mat foundation is constructed at or near ground surface,
mitigating foundation movement during an earthquake. For
then it is considered to be a shallow foundation. Fig 8.2 shows
example, the Niigata earthquake resulted in dramatic damage
different types of mat foundations. Based on economic
due to liquefaction of the sand deposits in the low-lying areas
considerations, mat foundations are often constructed for the
of Niigata City. At the time of the Niigata earthquake, there
following reasons:
were approximately 1500 reinforced concrete buildings in
1. Large Individual Footings: A mat foundation is often Niigata City, and about 310 of these buildings were damaged,
constructed when the sum of individual footing areas of which approximately 200 settled or tilted rigidly without
exceeds about one-half of the total foundation area. appreciable damage to the superstructure. The damaged
2. Cavities or Compressible Lenses: A mat foundation can concrete buildings were built on very shallow foundations or
be used when the subsurface exploration indicates that friction piles in loose soil. Similar concrete buildings founded
there will be unequal settlement caused by small cavities on piles bearing on firm strata at a depth of 20 m did not suffer
or compressible lenses below the foundation. A mat damage.
foundation would tend to span the small cavities or Besides buildings, deep foundations can be used for almost
weak lenses and create a more uniform settlement
any type of Structure. For example, concrete piles were used
condition.
184 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 185

to support a storage tank. The soil beneath the storage tank commonly referred to as drilled shafts, bored piles, or drilled
liquefied during the Kobe earthquake, but still there was no caissons. Large piers are sometimes referred to as caissons. A
reported damage to the storage tank. For earthquake conditions, caisson can also be a watertight underground structure within
two of the most commonly used types of deep foundations are which work is carried on.
the pier and grade beam system, and pre-stressed concrete If a mat or raft foundation is constructed below ground
piles. surface or if the mat or raft is supported by piles or piers, then
Probably the most common type of deep foundation is the it should be considered to be a deep foundation system.
pile foundation. Piles can consist of wood (timber), steel H- A floating foundation is a special type of deep foundation
sections, precast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, pressure- where the weight of the structure is balanced by the removal
injected concrete, concrete-filled steel pipe piles, and composite- of soil and construction of an underground basement.
type piles. Piles are either driven into place or installed in
predrilled holes. Various types of piles are as follows: SOIL STABILISATION
End-bearing Pile: This pile's support capacity is derived Soils have been modified to improve their engineering
principally from the resistance of the foundation material on properties for hundreds of years. In the past 75 years, however,
which the pile tip rests. End-bearing piles are often used when improved knowledge of soil behavior and geotechnical hazards
a soft upper layer is underlain by dense or hard strata. has led to the development and verification of much innovative
soil improvement techniques. Increased recognition of seismic
Friction Pile: This pile's support capacity is derived
hazards and improved understanding of the factors that control
principally from the resistance of the soil friction and/or adhesion
them have led these techniques to be applied to the mitigation
mobilized along the side of the pile. Friction piles are often used
of seismic hazards in the past 30 years.
in soft clays where the end-bearing resistance is small because
of punching shear at the pile tip. A pile that resists upward In both seismically active and inactive areas, soil
loads (tension forces) would also be considered to be a friction improvement techniques are commonly used at sites where the
pile. Combined end-bearing and friction pile: This pile derives existing soil conditions are expected to lead to unsatisfactory
its support capacity from combined end-bearing resistance performance. Unsatisfactory performance can take many forms,
developed at the pile tip and frictional and/or adhesion resistance but usually involves unacceptably large soil movements. The
on the pile perimeter. movements may include horizontal or vertical (or both)
components and may take place during and/or after earthquake
Batter Pile: A pile driven in at an angle inclined to the
shaking. In the absence of earthquake shaking, unacceptable
vertical that provides high resistance to lateral loads.
movements usually result from insufficient soil strength and/
Piles are usually driven into specific arrangements and are or stiffness. Consequently, most soil improvement techniques
used to support reinforced concrete pile caps or a mat foundation. were developed to increase the strength and stiffness of soil
In this case, the steel pipe pile is driven into place. The pipe deposits.
pile can be driven with either an open or a closed end. During earthquakes, other factors can contribute to
Typical pre-stressed concrete piles are delivered to the job unacceptable performance. In particular, the buildup of excess
site and then driven into place. pore water pressure can lead to very large deformations.
A pier is defined as a deep foundation system, similar to Consequently, commonly used techniques for mitigation of
a castin- place pile that consists of a column like reinforced seismic hazards often involve reducing the tendency of the soil
concrete member. Piers are often of large diameter and also to generate positive excess pore water pressure during
186 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 187

earthquake shaking as well as increasing the strength and allow rational design of retaining walls. Many different
stiffness of the soil. approaches to soil retention have been developed and used
Advances in soil improvement technology have generally successfully. In recent years, the development of metallic,
resulted from the initiative and imagination of contractors. polymer, and geo-textile reinforcement has led to the
Research and explanatory "theories" have followed, rather than development of many innovative types of mechanically stabilized
led, implementation; for some widely used techniques, proven earth retention systems.
theories have yet to be developed. In such cases, indirect or Retaining walls are often classified in terms of their relative
empirical evidence must be relied upon and the study of case mass, flexibility, and anchorage conditions. Gravity walls are
histories is particularly important. At present, a wide variety the oldest and simplest type of retaining wall. Gravity walls
of soil improvement techniques are available for mitigation of are thick and stiff enough that they do not bend; their movement
seismic hazards. The costs of these methods vary widely, and occurs essentially by rigid-body translation and/or rotation.
the conditions under which they can be used are influenced by Certain types of composite wall systems, such as crib walls and
the nature and proximity of structures and constructed facilities. mechanically stabilized walls, are thick enough that they bend
On the basis of the mechanisms by which they improve the very little and consequently are often designed as gravity walls
engineering properties of the soil, the most common of these (with appropriate consideration of internal stability).
can be divided into four major categories: densification Cantilever walls, which bend as well as translate and rotate,
techniques, reinforcement techniques, grouting/mixing rely on their flexural strength to resist lateral earth pressures.
techniques, and drainage techniques. The actual distribution of lateral earth pressure on a cantilever
RETAINING WALLS wall is influenced by the relative stiffness and deformation of
both the wall and the soil. Braced walls are constrained against
Earth retaining structures, such as retaining walls, bridge
certain types of movement by the presence of external bracing
abutments, quay walls, anchored bulkheads, braced excavations,
elements. In the cases of basement walls and bridge abutment
and mechanically stabilized walls, are used throughout
walls, lateral movements of the tops of the walls may be
seismically active areas. They frequently represent key elements
restrained by the structures they support. Tieback walls and
of ports and harbors, transportation systems, lifelines, and
anchored bulkheads are restrained against lateral movement
other constructed facilities. Earthquakes have caused permanent
by anchors embedded in the soil behind the walls. The provision
deformation of retaining structures in many historical
of lateral support at different locations along a braced wall may
earthquakes. In some cases, these deformations were negligibly
keep bending moments so low that relatively flexible structural
small; in others they caused significant damage. In some cases,
section can be used.
retaining structures have collapsed during earthquakes, with
disastrous physical and economic consequences. This section Seismic Design Consideration of Retaining Walls
discusses the behavior of retaining walls during earthquakes The design of retaining walls for seismic conditions is similar,
and presents several of the most common approaches to the in many respects to designing for static conditions. In both
seismic design of different types of retaining walls. cases, potential modes of failure are identified and the wall is
Types of Retaining Walls designed to avoid initiating them. Although the response of
retaining walls under seismic loading conditions is much more
The problem of retaining soil is one of the oldest in
complex than under static conditions, conventional design
geotechnical engineering; some of the earliest and most
procedures make use of simplifying assumptions that render
fundamental principles of soil mechanics were developed to
the problem tractable.
188 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 189

FLOORS AND ROOFS Horizontal Projections

Flexible floors and roofs contribute to damage as lateral All horizontal projections like cornices and balconies shall
force because its own mass is not transferred to all the walls be designed and checked for stability for five times the design
by rigid diaphragm action. The lateral load is transferred as vertical coefficient equal to 10/3 Ah.
concentrated load at few places and only on few walls. Horizontal
BOUNDARY WALL
bracings are to be provided at tie level to increase rigid
diaphragm action of flexible roofs. Heavy roof attracts large Compound walls shall be designed for the design horizontal
seismic force which is too high to resist for the walls supporting coefficient Ah with importance factor I = 1.0.
the roof. Triangular portion of the wall below the inclined roof STAIRCASES
is called gable end and which is extremely vulnerable to
IS 4326:1993 states that the interconnection of the stairs
earthquakes. Hence, heavy roof made of stone or thick layer
with the adjacent floors should be appropriately treated by
of mud is more prone to damage as compared to light tin sheet
providing sliding joints at the stairs to eliminate their bracing
roof. Gable bands must be provided in trussed roofs. effect on the floors. Large stair halls shall preferably be separated
OPENINGS from the rest of the buildings by means of separation or crumple
Use of too many and very large windows and doors should section. Three types of stair construction may be adopted:
separated staircase, Built-in stair case, and Staircases with
be avoided as these reduce the strength of wall. IS 4326 and
sliding joints.
IS 13828 recommend a minimum horizontal distance of 45 cm
and a minimum vertical distance of 60 cm between any two SEISMIC JOINTS
openings. Avoid openings close to cross walls and edges. The Two adjacent buildings or two adjacent units of the same
total width of all openings must preferably be kept less than building with separation joint in between shall be separated
half the width of the wall for one storied houses, and less than by a distance equal to the amount R times the sum of the
one third for two storied houses. calculated storey displacements, to avoid damaging contact
However, means of access are of particular concern, during when the two units deflect towards each other (Pounding Effect).
evacuation of a damaged building after an earthquake. It may When floor levels of two similar adjacent units or buildings are
be an important safety precaution and they should be clear of at the same elevation levels, factor R in this requirement may
obstruction. The same should be available to rescue and be replaced by R/2.
inspection personnel entering the building. Besides the IS 4326:1993 earthquake resistant design and construction
structural integrity of the building access routes should have of buildings says seismic joint or separation of adjoining
protected ceilings, partitions and stairway enclosures. structure or part of the same structure is required for structures
having different total heights or storey heights and different
APPENDAGES
dynamic characteristic. In case of seismic joint, a complete
Vertical Projections separation of the parts shall be made except below the plinth
Tower, tanks, parapets, smoke stacks (chimneys) and other level. For the seismic joints in long buildings, movement due
vertical cantilever projections attached to buildings and to temperature changes shall be taken care.
projecting above the roof, shall be designed and checked for
NON-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
stability for five times the design horizontal seismic coefficient
Ah. In the analysis of the building, the weight of these projecting In regions of very high seismic activity, it is important to
elements will be lumped with the roof weight. give sufficient attention to all those non-structural elements of
190 Disaster Management in India Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 191

a building, which come in contact with the structural frames Non-structural Damage
and shear walls. Either through suitable separation, it has to Non-structural damage can be categorized as:
be ensured that non structural elements are not effected by the
1. Architectural components
movements and distortion of structural elements, or else the
o Exterior elements: Cladding, Veneers, Glazing, In filled
connections should be so made that contact of the non-structural
walls, Canopies, Parapets, Cornices, Appendages,
elements to structural elements is with a soft material which
Ornamentation, roofing, Louvers, Doors, Detached
can deform.
planters, Signs etc.
In case, none of these two solutions are adopted, and brittle o Interior elements: Partitions, Ceilings, Stairways,
non-structural elements are in direct contact with the structure, Storage racks, Shelves, Doors, Glass, Furnishings, (File
one should be prepared to carry out extensive repairs to the cabinets, Book case, Library stacks, Display cases, Desks,
in-fill brittle elements after a strong earthquake. Chairs, Lockers, Etc.), Ornamentation, Detached
Awareness about structural systems' safety is more planters, Artwork, etc.
pronounced and that gets reflected in code provisions and in 2. Mechanical/Electrical/Plumbing elements:
practical application. Attention paid to the safety of non- o HAVC equipments, Elevators, Piping, Ducts, Electric
structural elements is less. Reasons are many. Primary one is panel board, Life support system, Fire protection system,
structural collapse is much more life threatening than scattered Telephone, Communication system, Motors, Power
falling of non-structural elements. Any damage resulting in control system, Emergency Generators, Tanks, Pumps,
partial or full closure of built spaces due to natural hazard Escalators, Boilers, Chillers, Fire extinguishers,
would cause loss. Structural retrofitting decision would be a Controls, Light fixtures, etc.
partial solution towards safety from Earthquake hazards, unless 3. Contents:
the problem of non-structural elements is attended. Non-
o Electronic Equipment, data processing facilities, Medical
structural damage can modify structural response. Non-
suppliers, Blood bank Inventories, High tech equipment,
structural elements are important to safeguard, otherwise
hazardous & Toxic materials, Antiques, Fine arts,
continuity of work would be disrupted resulting in
(Museum & art galleries) Office equipments, Radios,
- Economic Loss Life support equipments, etc.
- Loss of Building Function
Hazards and Causes to Damage
- Structural Response Modification
Four types of hazards can be caused due to damage to Non-
Buildings with all essential facility must be safe or usable structural elements
for emergency purposes after an earthquake in order to preserve (i) Direct hazards-casualties due to broken glass, light
health and safety of general public. fixtures, appendages.
Hospitals and others medical facilities, Fire & Police stations, (ii) Loss of critical function-loss of electric power and
Municipal Government Disaster mitigation operation and communication to hospitals, police, fire, etc.
Communication center etc. are very important buildings during (iii) Release of hazardous materials-chemical, radiation etc.
emergency. Non-structural elements in buildings are 60 to 70
(iv) Fire caused-due to gas leakage, electric lines disruption,
% of total cost. Damage to them causes higher aggregate loss.
etc.
Therefore non-structural Elements needs to be constructed /
used with seismic considerations. The causes of non-structural damages are primarily two:
acceleration and displacement.
192 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 193

CONCLUSIONS
Earthquakes are treacherous and unpredictable and induce
complex forces in buildings. A building must have the capacity
to with stand these complex forces in elastic and in elastic
range to retain its integrity. To design a building to have this
capacity requires fairly involved analysis and design effort. If
the building is simple, symmetrical, without any mass
10
discontinuity and follows the desirable norms of earthquake
resistant buildings, the level of this involved effort is reasonable
Construction Quality Control
and the additional cost of the structure is also reasonable and
within limits. If on the other hand the building is irregular,
complicated and flaunts all these desirable norms, the level of INTRODUCTION
this involved effort is very high, and the additional cost of the It has been observed all over the world that buildings suffer
structure is also very high. damages in earthquakes because of their construction quality.
For the design of a building in regions of high intensity Buildings constructed according to the standards specified for
earthquake, whether the building is regular or irregular, an different zones with proper quality control in materials used
Architect must associate with a Structural Engineer who is and construction techniques have performed much better than
conversant with earthquake resistant design principles. those built with substandard materials, inadequate bonding,
Interaction between the Architect and the Structural Engineer insufficient curing etc. The aim of construction quality control
must start at the concept stage. The Architect must try to is attaining those construction details, which will not only
incorporate requirements of the structural engineer in his improve the looks of the building but also increase the strength,
planning of the building and its aesthetics. The structural durability and resistance to the forces of the earthquake. It is
engineer must give as much liberty as possible to the Architect seen that in most cases, achievement of good quality does not
to give expression to his creativity, without compromising involve extra cost, but only extra care and better understanding.
structural integrity of the building. In order to achieve this, EVOLUTION OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT
knowledge of earthquake engineering is as essential for an
Construction quality essentially has three components viz.
Architect as for an Engineer.
conformance to the requirements, fitness to the purpose and
customer satisfaction. There is always a difference between the
expected performance and the observed performance of any
structure during earthquake. But in any case failure of structure
is unacceptable.
Salvage, sorting, grading, blending, corrective actions,
identify sources of non-conformance Develop quality manual,
process performance data, selfinspection, product testing, basic
quality planning, use of basic statistics, paperwork control
Quality systems development, advanced quality planning,
comprehensive quality manuals, use of quality costs,
involvement of non-production operations, failure mode and
194 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 195

effects analysis, SPC. Policy deployment, involve supplier & give scope to the on site workers to decide for some crucial
customers, involve all operations, process management, detailing aspects.
performance measurement, teamwork, employee involvement. Architects may make mistakes in specifications because of
REASONS FOR POOR CONSTRUCTION wrong interpretation of building codes. These days various
computer softwares are used for structural detailing and drafting
All poor constructions initially are insignificant and
job. This also results in crucial mistakes if there is misuse of
tolerable, but with passing time develop various problems as
these softwares. Also improper execution sequence which may
given below:
not be specified in the design can lead to serious errors in the
1. Seepage/Leakage construction. Generally the improper or inadequate design is
2. Separation a result of one or more of the following:
3. Delamination 1. No soil investigations;
4. Cracks 2. Proto-type designs;
5. Subsidence, settlement 3. Under design:
6. Collapse o Incorrect assumption of Loads,
7. Spalling o Loads not considered,
8. Flaking o Errors, omissions and mistakes in design
9. Curling calculations,
10. Warping o Poor detailing and drafting,
11. Corrosion o Inadequate provisions for secondary stresses like
12. Bulging shrinkage etc.
13. Sagging 4. Lower grades;
The poor constructions are basically due to following reasons: 5. Lower sections;
1. Improper or inadequate design; 6. Future expansions;
2. Improper construction; 7. Lower specifications and
3. Inadequate maintenance; and 8. Irregular form
4. Durability problems/Exposure. Improper Construction
Architects are responsible for the first two reasons viz. Many times when the architects or structural engineer's
improper or inadequate design and improper construction; hence job is satisfactory, i.e. there is no inadequacy or improperness
these two are discussed in detail. in the design given, but still the resultant construction can be
poor. This can be due to various reasons viz. inferior material,
Improper or Inadequate Design
inferior supervision or inferior machinery.
Improper or inadequate design is the responsibility of
architect or structural engineer. Many a times wrong or poor
Inferior Materials
reinforcement detailing results in to defects like improper rebar In India use of inferior construction material is common.
placement, leading to problems like congestion of rebar's, Architects and the owner of the building have to be careful
inadequate cover etc. The inadequate specifications can also about this problem and check the quality of their building
196 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 197

material from time to time. The material may be second grade Every effort should therefore be made by all concerned to
or cheap for saving of money. Lack of inspection in procuring, achieve the specified standards. It should also be realized that
handling and storing of material should be avoided to ensure the constructions are and will be keenly watched by the
quality of materials. Inferior workmanship can also reduce the prospective beneficiaries. Hence quality must be ensured by all
quality of material to great extents. building agencies in architectural and structural designs as
well as construction. The strength of coursed rubble (RCR)
Inferior Supervision
masonry under vertical as well as horizontal earthquake loads
Incompetent construction staff would lack good supervision depends upon the integrity of the wall cross-section and the
of construction activity and hence result in poor construction. bond between perpendicular walls. To achieve high strength of
The inferior supervision can also be due to lack of training and rubble masonry the following measures must be ensured:-
lack of will of the staff. These two factors would result in poor
Interlocking of Stones and Breaking Vertical Joints
interpretation of drawings and hence wrong or poor
constructions. The staff can also encourage poor constructions To achieve the integral behavior of the stone wall,
for saving money for themselves. interlocking of the stones in the crosssection as well as in the
length of the wall is necessary and 'stacking bond' should not
Inferior Machinery
be done in which vertical joints occur continuously. The proper
Inferior or defective machinery with poor manufacturing interlocking of stones including breaking of vertical joints.
standards and poor maintenance, can lead to poor constructions.
Provision of 'through' Stones
The improper placement of machinery by the site staff, and the
absence of trained operator for the machinery can result in 'Through' stones must be provided in the wall at horizontal
improper functioning of machinery leading to undesirable intervals of 1.2 m and vertical interval of 0.6 m. Where such
results. long stones are not available, concrete blocks, cast using 1:3:6
or M1O concrete, having 150 x 150 mm cross section and length
CONSTRUCTION QUALITY CONTROL IN MASONRY equal to the thickness of the wall may be used instead. Such
STRUCTURES: QUALITY OF STONE MASONRY WALLS bonding elements are to be provided whether the wall is 350-
Good quality construction work including repair, retrofitting 380 mm thick using cement mortar or 400-450 mm thick using
and reconstruction of the building is very important to meet mud mortar.
the following objectives: Provision of Long Stones at all Wall Junctions
1. To achieve the strength of the building under Normal For ensuring good bond between perpendicular walls, long
Dead and Live Loads. Foundation, walls, column, floor stones are to be provided at the corners as well as T-junctions.
and roof are the main structural elements to be taken Such stones should be about 50 cm long in the case of 350-380
care of. mm thick walls and about 60 cm long in 400-450 mm thick
2. To achieve adequate strength of the building for walls. Where such stones are not available, solid concrete blocks
earthquake effects. The various details including plinth of 150 x 150 mm in section and 500 or 600 mm long (cast using
band, lintel band and vertical reinforcing are specified 1:3:6 concrete) may be used instead.
in IS : 4326 & 13828 of 1993. Guarding against Vertical Separation between
3. To achieve durability of the building over long time so Perpendicular Wall
as to meet the seismic requirements as and when the Safeguarding the walls against splitting at the vertical
next earthquake strikes. joint between any two perpendicular walls if at the window side
198 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 199

levels, is recommended (that is, about mid way between the Manjil earthquake of 1990 in Iran, the main cause of destruction
plinth and lintel bands). Galvanized chicken wire mesh in of brickwork constructed using cement mortar was that the
double layer should be embedded in the 1:4 cement mortal bricks were not soaked in water before laying and no curing
joint. was done after construction). Needless to say that proper bond
should be maintained to break the vertical joints and the vertical
Making and Filling of Pockets around Vertical Bars
joints between the blocks must be fully filled with mortar.
Correct method of creating a pocket around the vertical bar
Tests conducted in the Tehran laboratory on brick walls
in the masonry and filling the pocket with micro-concrete. After
under lateral pressure showed that unsoaked and uncured
moving the 75 mm dia plastic pipe upward out of the masonry,
brick walls failed at a lateral pressure of only 1/770 of that
micro-cement (coarse aggregate below 1.0 mm) is to be filled
required for breaking the fully cured walls built by soaking the
in the hollow and tamped by means of 10 mm dia rods.
bricks. To ensure filling of vertical joints between the blocks
Bending of Bars and Casting of Seismic Bands fully, mortar grout may be used before starting the next coarse.
The bending of longitudinal bars with adequate overlaps Quality of Concrete Blocks
and tying of cross links with them. This will ensure full
The main wall material is concrete blocks of 300 x 200 x
continuity of the longitudinal reinforcement at the corners. It
150 mm nominal (290 x 200 x 140 mm actual size) laid in 1:6
is also suggested that stones may be cast in the band-concrete
cement-sand mortar. To obtain good quality concrete blocks of
so that 1/4 to 1/3 of stone remains projecting outside the concrete.
adequate strength, 5.0 MPa (50 kg/sqcm at 28 days) and
This arrangement will save the amount of concrete as well as
imperviousness as well as strength of wall, the following points
establish excellent bond between the band and the wall masonry.
are to be implemented.
Curing of Stone Wall Built using Cement Mortal Mix Design
All newly constructed masonry should be covered with Concrete mix should be well graded, with a few 40 mm size
polythene sheets to prevent fast drying of mortar in the very aggregate, coarse sand of high fineness modulus and such
dry conditions. Covering the walls with such sheets after quantity of fines so as to fill the voids. The proportions should
sprinkling water for curing will help preserving the moisture be arrived at through a mix-design method or by trials, by
over longer periods thus saving consumption of water. using the locally available materials. For this purpose each
QUALITY OF CONCRETE BLOCK WALL block making center should have a set of standard sizes and
The strength and stability of the wall will depend on the a weighing machine for determining the Fineness Modulus
strength and quality of the blocks, the quality of the mortar values of the materials.
and construction of the wall. The wall should be built truly Overall Mix
vertical by frequent checking using a plumb. The dry blocks Cement 1 part to 15 parts of the fine + coarse aggregates,
should be wetted before laying so that they do not suck the measured by volume. The aggregates consist of the following:
water from the mortar. Cement mortar should he freshly mixed Coarse sand (FM 3.17)
and must be fully consumed within 60 minutes of cement
Stone dust below 6 mm (FM 3.67)
mixing with water to avoid setting of cement before laying.
Crushed grit 6 to 10 mm (FM 4.11)
After the wall portions are constructed, they shall be cured
for a minimum period of 7 days by frequent watering. Uncured Crushed aggregates 12 to less than 40 mm
mortar does not set and its proper strength is not achieved. (In Hand broken aggregates 40 to less than 50 mm.
200 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 201

Testing of Sand Control on Strength of Blocks

The coarse sand should not contain more than 8 % of the Each block-making Center of appreciable size should have
silt by weight. Silt content may be tested by using graduated a power-operated compression-testing machine. A small Center
cylinder method, held stationary for minimum 12 hours. Record may have a hand-operated machine. The machine should be of
of silt content should be kept at block making/construction site. good quality make, such as AIMIL.
If silt content is found to be more than permissible, the It may be specified that from the daily output of each labor
cement should be increased by trial to achieve the desired gang, 3 blocks should be selected at random which should be
strength. tested after 7 days curing under compression testing machine.
Bulking of moist sand has to be tested and the quantity of For standardization purpose, once a week, 3 additional blocks
sand is to be adjusted to achieve design mix. A record of bulking should be cast for testing after 28 days of curing. The record
test may also be maintained. of testing should be maintained in bound registers at each site
and each entry to be signed by the engineering staff of executing
Making of Blocks
and supervising agencies.
After ensuring the design mix by proper control of
measurement of the materials, proper mixing in the mixer and Recording Test Results
compaction by vibrating machines are the key factors. The The rest results obtained in accordance with the above
large stone pieces have a tendency of either coming to the top guidelines are to be recorded in appropriate tables. The test
or settling below the mix in the mixer. Uniform mixing should results and acceptability should be written with proper
be ensured by adjusting the angle of the revolving mixer. signatures.
Regarding compaction, it should be noted that 10 percent less
QUALITY OF BRICK WALL
compaction may reduce strength by 40 to 50 percent, hence
adequate compaction must be ensured Quality of Bricks
In many rural and town areas, blocks are being made by The bricks should be well burnt with red color, neither
hand moulding with uncontrolled or without compaction. In under-burnt not over-burnt, having a minimum compressive
such cases even a concrete mix of 1:4:8 (i.e. I part of cement strength of 5.0 N/mm2 (50 kg/cm2), when tested flat. During
to 12 parts of fine + coarse aggregates) may not give the desired testing the frog may be filled with a mortar 1:4 and the flat
minimum strength of 50 kg/sqcm. Hence thorough compaction surfaces smoothened either by grinding, rubbing with
by vibrators or by adequate welding using 16mm dia rods of carborandom stone or by applying a thin layer of plaster. The
400 mm length is absolutely necessary for strength as well as bricks should give a ringing sound when struck with each
economy in the use of cement other.
In order to increase the horizontal shear strength of cement Bonding in Brick Work
block walls, the blocks may be made with a 'frog' as in bricks
In normal construction, English bond is used in brick work
on its face. For a 290 x 200 x 140 mm block, the 'frog' may be
in India for one brick thick walls as normally used in one to
made 150 x 100 x 6 mm deep.
two storeys constructed using cement mortar. The 'bond' used
Curing and Transporting in brick columns of size 1 x 1 up to 2 x 2 bricks. This will ensure
The blocks should be cured for 7 days and dried for few that the vertical mortar joints will be broken in every two
hours before transporting to avoid excessive breakage. consecutive courses.
202 Disaster Management in India Construction Quality Control 203

Brick Laying b. The bars for the seismic bands should have a minimum
Bricks being porous absorb water. It is therefore essential cover of 25 mm below and above them. The concrete mix
that the bricks are soaked in water fully before laying on the should be M 20 (1:11/ 2 :3 nominal) to prevent corrosion.
cement mortar layer. Unsoaked bricks will suck water from the c. To keep the vertical reinforcing bars at the corners and
mortar and create hindrance in the setting of cement mortar. joint properly vertical, an L-bend should be provided at
For achieving full strength of brickwork it is necessary that all its bottom end and each bar should be held by a tripod
vertical joints between the bricks must be fully filled with of bamboos or other spare reinforcing bars till such time
mortar. One defect in brickwork commonly seen at the sites is that the concrete filled in the pocket around the bar is
that the longitudinal joint between two bricks is not filled and fully set and capable of holding the bar in vertical
left open. Another defect seen is that the bricks are laid upside position.
down, that is, the frog is on the under side. This does not allow d. A minimum overlap of 600 mm for 12-mm bars, 500 mm
development of proper shear key between the brick courses for 10 mm and 400 mm for 8-mm dia should be provided.
since the frog remains unfilled. These defects should not be e. The cover to any bar (main or distribution) should be
allowed. To ensure complete filling of all vertical joints it may kept 15 mm minimum and 20 mm maximum in concrete
be necessary to fill the joints with mortar grout before starting slabs used as floor or roof. The cover in beams to the
the next course. main bars should not be less than 25 mm and to the
If these precautions are taken in construction and proper stirrups not less than 15 mm. For achieving proper
curing of the brickwork is carried out for a minimum period cover, either cover blocks of 1:3 cement sand mortar of
of 7 days, full strength of the brickwork under vertical as well required thickness or PVC cover parts should be used.
as lateral loading due to wind or earthquake will be fully REINFORCED CONCRETE LINTELS AND SLABS
achieved. Concrete Mix
Vertical Joint between Perpendicular Walls The concrete mix shall be M 20 (1:11/2:3 nominal) using
For convenience of constructions, builders prefer to make cement, coarse sand and crushed grit of less than 20 mm size.
a toothed joint between perpendicular walls, which is many The slump should not exceed 10 cm and the concrete should
times left hollow and weak. be compacted by rodding using 16 mm bars of about 600 mm
length. Use of vibrator will, of course, be better keeping the
To obtain full bond it is necessary to make a sloping, (that
slump of about 50 mm. When the mix is to be designed to give
is stepped joint by making the corners first to a height of 600
the characteristic strength of 20 MPa, the target strength in
mm and then building the wall in between them. Otherwise,
the mix design should be 26.5 MPa on 150 mm cubes at the
the toothed joint should be made in both the walls alternately
age of 28 days. For quality control on the concrete mix during
in lifts of about 450 mm.
construction, regular sampling and testing of concrete using
BENDING AND PLACING OF REINFORCEMENT 150mm cubes should be carried out and the concrete should give
The following care must be taken for achieving high strength an average strength at 28 days of 24 MPa, the individual cube
of the RCC and durability of the bar by avoiding/minimizing strength lying between + 15% of the mean strength obtained.
of corrosion: Slope in Roofs
a. The bars should be straight, not crooked, cut to required To prevent ponding of water on the roof and consequent
sizes and bent to proper shapes as per drawings. leakage, the concrete roofs must be laid so as to have a minimum
204 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 205

camber of 1/200 of span at the centre and a minimum slope of

about 1 in 60. That is, for a roof width of 4m, the camber may
be kept as 20 mm and the height difference between the opposite
edges should be about 70 mm. It is further suggested that the
roof slab be kept projecting beyond the wall with a minimum
of 75 mm at the lower edge and provided with a drip course.
11
Curing of Concrete
Exposed surfaces of concrete shall be kept continuously in Vulnerability Assessment and
a damp or wet condition by ponding or by covering with a layer
of sacking, canvas, hessian or similar materials and kept
Seismic Strengthening of Buildings
constantly wet for at least seven days from the date of placing
concrete in case of ordinary Portland Cement of 33 or 43 Grade.
The period of curing shall not be less than 10 days for concrete INTRODUCTION
exposed to dry and hot weather conditions. Impermeable Problem of assessment of safety of existing structures
membranes such as polyethylene sheeting covering closely the against various loads, including earthquake load, has been
concrete surfaces may also be used to provide effective barrier recognized world over. In developing countries, about 50 % of
against evaporation. the construction industry resources are being utilized for
Striking Formwork problems associated with existing structures. Many countries
have developed standards for assessment of existing structures.
In normal circumstances where ambient temperature does
In India also the problem has been well recognized and the
not fall below 15oC and where ordinary Portland cement is
standard is under development. Performance of our structures
used and adequate curing is done, the minimum period for
in the recent earthquakes has also forced us to think on this
striking formwork may be adopted.
issue. Many agencies, within the country, are working on the
CONCLUSIONS different aspects of this problem.
Earthquakes in India and abroad have proved that good Assessment of an existing structure is much more difficult
quality in construction and maintenance of buildings prevented a task than evaluation of a design on paper. Firstly, the
their collapse. This has been fully demonstrated in recent construction of the structure is never exactly as per designer's
Kachchh earthquake also where not only stone or block wall specifications and a number of defects and uncertainties crop
construction but also reinforced concrete frame buildings were up during the construction. Secondly, the quality of the material
severely destroyed even in seismic intensities of MSK VII. deteriorates with time and the assessment of an existing
Hence, maintaining good construction practices and quality of structure becomes a time dependent problem. The problem of
materials in all buildings used for housing or community the assessment involves not only the current status of the
purposes is of critical importance. structure but also its extrapolation in the life of the structure
with or without repairs. There are three sources of deficiencies
in structures:
(1) Defects arising from the original design, such as under
estimation of loads as per old standards / practices,
206 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 207

inadequate section / reinforcement, inadequate evaluation of existing buildings, three levels or Tiers have been
reinforcement anchorage and detailing. suggested.
(2) Defects arising from original construction, such as under Rapid Visual Screening (RVS) Procedure (Level-1,
strength concrete, poor compaction, poor construction Procedure)
joints, improper placing of reinforcement and
In a city there is very large number of existing buildings,
honeycombing.
which need to be examined for assessing the Seismic
(3) Deterioration since the completion of the construction vulnerability of the city and for making policies for mitigation
due to reinforcement corrosion, alkali - aggregate and management of seismic risk. For this purpose two
reaction, etc. approaches have been developed:
In Indian conditions, it is generally a combination of all the (i) Based on Indexes / scores assigned by trained surveyors
three deficiencies and the retrofitting of the structure has to after visual inspection of the buildings, and
take care of all the three.
(ii) Checklist method, based on the basic structural and
If the design documents are available, the first type of earthquake resistant features of the building.
deficiencies can be assessed with a satisfactory level of
Based on the behavior of buildings in the past earthquakes
confidence. However, if the design details are not available, it
scores or types / classes of buildings have been assigned. These
makes the task of assessment, next to impossible. Till date, no
classes are consistent with the MSK or European Intensity
testing technique with sufficient reliability is available to
scales. For this screening a team of at least two surveyors visits
completely outline the reinforcement detailing inside the
the building and try to collect the information in a specially
concrete. A number of techniques have been developed to detect
designed format. Once the class or the score of the building is
the other two types of deficiencies. However, almost all of them
decided, the expected behavior of the building or the expected
depend on indirect measurements and have a low reliability.
damage during a future earthquake can be assessed. These
Further, the variation of test results is large and interpretation
methods are based on behavior of the buildings during past
of results requires experience and skill. This chapter gives a
earthquakes and have significant subjective component. The
brief account of different techniques available for assessment
results of the evaluation depend to a large extent of the training
of structures and in-situ properties of concrete.
and skill of the surveyors. The purpose of this screening is to
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF BUILDINGS identify the buildings which require further investigation using
According to the Vulnerability Atlas of the country, more Level - 2 or Level - 3, procedure. Rapid visual screening of
than 80 % houses are non - engineered construction, which are buildings is also required after a major earthquake which results
mainly load bearing masonry buildings in rubble or coursed in large scale damage of existing buildings. The purpose of such
stone or brick masonry in mud or cement mortar. However, a screening is to identify buildings which are severely damaged
there are many RC framed urban buildings which have been and should be evaluated. Equally important aim of such a
constructed without any consideration to resist earthquake survey is to identify the buildings which are safe and can be
forces or without using the current codal practices on used as shelters after the earthquake.
Earthquake Resistant Design. For such a large number of Simplified Vulnerability Assessment (SVA) Procedure
seismically deficient buildings, a quick assessment method and (Level - 2, Procedure)
guidelines have to be developed together with training and The buildings which have identified as vulnerable in the
capacity building. To handle the mammoth task of seismic Level - 1 procedure need to be investigated further. The Level
208 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 209

- 2 procedure involves a more systematic inspection and a earthquake. In these buildings, not only the safety of structural
limited engineering analysis based on the available structural and non - structural components should be ensured, but the
drawings or on site measurements. Simplified calculations are smooth functioning of services should also be ensured. The
made for strength and drift of the building based on sizes and maximum drift should be within tolerance limits of services.
strength of critical members. This method is more complex There should be no permanent drift and structure should retain
than the Level -1 procedure and requires a qualified structural its original strength and stiffness. For this performance level,
engineer, well experienced in earthquake resistant design of only minor cracking of facades, partitions, and ceiling etc. is
buildings. If should be emphasized that this procedure can be acceptable. For operational performance level the building
used only for normal and regular types of buildings. For irregular should have standby power and water supply.
buildings and for buildings with abnormal structural
Immediate Occupancy Performance Level
configurations Level -3 evaluation should be used.
Post earthquake importance buildings, which are expected
Detailed Vulnerability Assessment (DVA) Procedure to provide shelter to earthquake victims, are required to have
(Level - 3, Procedure) immediate occupancy performance level. These buildings should
The detailed vulnerability assessment is used for those have minimal or no damage to structural components and only
buildings, which are found vulnerable from Level - 2 procedure, minor damage to non - structural components. The building
for buildings with abnormal or irregular structural should have no permanent drift, and only minor cracking of
configurations and for monumental or important buildings. facades, partitions, ceiling and structural elements is acceptable.
This procedure is normally more complex than the design of Elevators and fire protection system should be working after
a new building and requires comprehensive engineering analysis earthquake. However, equipment and component may not work
considering the expected earthquake motion and in - situ due to mechanical failure and lack of utilities such as water
strength of materials. and power supply.
In such buildings, immediate occupancy of the building
FIXING OF GOALS
after earthquake is possible, but some minor repair, restoration
One important question in seismic strengthening / of supplies and cleanup may be necessary before normal usage
retrofitting of the buildings is "How much retrofitting?" or what of the building. All the buildings designed as per IS - 1893 are
is the level of performance expected from the building after expected to have this performance level for a minor or moderate
retrofitting. Building performance level requirement depends earthquake. However, only some important buildings such as
on the usage and importance of Buildings. school and hospital buildings are expected to have immediate
Performance level of a building depends on both structural occupancy performance level even for a major earthquake.
and non - structural components. FEMA - 273 gives a detailed
Life Safety Performance Level
description of different performance levels for structural and
non structural components. Here, four overall performance In normal buildings, the damage to structural and non -
levels, which are compatible with the philosophy of Indian structural components, after a major earthquake, is extensive
but the risk to life should be low. The damage level may
Code of Practice, are described.
sometimes be so extensive that the repair may be uneconomical.
Operational Performance Level The structures have some residual strength left at all the
Some of the post earthquake importance buildings, such as storeys. The non-structural parts should not fall and pose risk
major hospitals are expected to be fully operational after an to life but these may be extensively damaged.
210 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 211

Collapse Prevention Performance Level This represents an infrequent earthquake, which can
In no case a building should be allowed to collapse after occur during the life time of structure.
an earthquake, as collapse will result in severe risk to life. This (iii) Maximum Earthquake: This is the maximum expected
performance level is related to only structural components level of ground shaking at the site. This has a 5 %
without any consideration to non - structural components. The probability of being exceeded in 50 years, which
building will have very little residual lateral stiffness and corresponds to a return period of about 1000 years. This
columns should function against gravity action, even in damaged level of shaking is about 1.25 to 1.5 times the level of
state. The building may have large permanent drifts, some of shaking corresponding to Design Basis Earthquake.
the exits may be blocked, in fills and parapets may fail and IS 1893 defines another level of ground shaking termed as
building may be in near collapse state. In a severe earthquake Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). Although this term
most of the buildings with this performance level may result has not been defined by the IS 1893 in terms of probability of
in complete economic loss. This is the mandatory seismic exceedance or return period, but the same term has been used
performance level to be ensured in all the buildings. All the and defined in UBC. This is much higher level of ground
buildings designed as per Indian codes are supposed to have shaking, which has a return period of about 2,500 years. This
at least this performance level in a severe earthquake. corresponds to the upper bound on the expected ground shaking
HAZARD ASSESSMENT depending on the geological conditions at site. This has only
2 % probability of exceeding in 50 years. This level of level of
The first step in detailed vulnerability assessment of an
ground shaking is typically 2 times the ground shaking
important structure is to estimate the likely intensity of the
corresponding to the Design Basis earthquake.
earthquake at the site. Earthquake intensity at a site can be
estimated from the seismic zoning map of India. For better The hazard assessment at a site consists of followings steps:
estimation site specific earthquake intensity studies are carried 1. Identification and characterization of all potential
out. Seismic microzonation of major cities of India is on cards. earthquake sources, i. e. active faults within the influence
Once the seismic microzonation maps are available more zone of the site (normally within a radius of 200 km)
accurate estimation of earthquake intensities will be possible. 2. Assigning magnitudes to the identified sources, based
Levels of earthquakes which should be considered in the on source characteristics and past records,
evaluation of an important structure are defined as: 3. Identification of predictive (attenuation) relationships
(i) Serviceability Earthquake: This is the level of ground applicable to the area.
shaking which has 50 % chance of being exceeded in the 4. Consideration of local site effects (soil amplifications,
50 years period (normal life time of a structure). This ridge effect and basin effect).
has a mean return period of 75 years. This is typically 5. Estimation of ground motion parameters and
0.5 times the level of ground shaking corresponding to development of design response spectrum.
Design Earthquake. Vulnerability of building has to be assessed with respect
(ii) Design Earthquake: This level of ground shaking has a to ground failure hazard, also. The ground failure hazard consists
10 % chance of being exceeded in 50 years, which of soil liquefaction, proximity to slope failure / rock fall areas
corresponds to a return period of approximately 500 and proximately to surface fault rupture. These can be estimated
years. This is the same level of ground shaking, defined by considering the expected level of shaking along with the
as Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) by IS 1893: 2002. local site conditions.
212 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 213

VISUAL INSPECTION AND STUDY OF AVAILABLE most of the cases the gap in the separation joints is filled and
DOCUMENTS the desired action is not available during the earthquake.
A systematic visual inspection provides a fair idea about Maintenance of building records in India is very poor.
the irregularities in building configuration, construction, Generally, the structural drawings are either not available or
consideration defects and deterioration / distress of the structure. these are incomplete and in poor condition Attempt should be
Extensive photography of the building is helpful in the study made to get as much information as possible about the original
of the building in office. Visual inspection is helpful in deciding design, construction, repairs and extensions of the building.
the extent of investigation and selection of tests. Visual Any change in usage of the building should also be recorded.
inspection should start from the roof, which gives the best view
of the building plan and configuration. It should concentrate DETAILED IN - SITU INVESTIGATION
on the irregularities in configuration, construction defects and Visual inspection and preliminary evaluation of a building
most importantly, the signs of distress and deterioration. provides some insight into the potential design and construction
Different distress agents have characteristic cracking patterns deficiencies and causes of deterioration. A detailed investigation
and a close inspection of crack patterns may provide a good idea is required to estimate the in - situ strength of material and
of the cause of distress. Corrosion of reinforcing steel is the extent of deterioration. A number of testing methods have been
most common cause of deterioration in RC buildings and can developed for estimating in - situ strength of RC. Some of these
be easily identified by characteristic cracking pattern parallel techniques have also been used for masonry.
to reinforcement and occasional spalling of cover concrete. Planning and Interpretation of Results
Sketches showing the general plan and elevations of building In-situ testing of structures is a costly and time consuming
and cracking patterns / crack locations are helpful in later affair. Lot of money and time can be saved by proper planning
reference in office. Removal of cover at some selected locations of the testing program. The visual inspection should be done
may be helpful in identifying extent of corrosion taken place in a systematic manner and extensive photography or video
in the building. In masonry buildings, vertical slits may be cut taping of the structure should be undertaken prior to testing
through the plaster to see whether earthquake bends have and retrofitting.
been provided.
Depending on the aim of testing and funds available the
In case of slopping and jack - arch roof buildings, false optimum number of various tests is to be decided. The number
ceiling should be removed at a few locations to have a view of and type of test have to be decided keeping in view the reliability
the trusses / girders. In the absence of proper maintenance, the of the test and the accuracy desired.
girders and trusses corrode and should be properly investigated.
Results of in-situ testing methods need to be corrected for
In case of wooden trusses, the joints should be carefully examined
a number of parameters depending on the testing conditions.
and wooden members should be examined for attack of insects
There are some tests which have opposite corrections in similar
and rottening.
conditions. Combination of such methods can be used for higher
Pounding of adjacent buildings has been observed to cause accuracy. One such combination is Rebound hammer test and
damage in the past several earthquakes. Therefore attention UPV test.
should also be given to adjacent buildings and the gap between
the adjacent buildings. If separation joints have been provided Foundation Capability
within the building, these should be carefully observed. As Structures have to be assessed for their performance,
these are a maintenance problem, it has been observed that in settlement, depth of foundation, deterioration due to weathering
214 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 215

or age, capacity of foundation, stability against overturning, Mathematical Modeling of Buildings

ties between foundation elements, load path for transfer of Development of a mathematical model of the building
seismic forces to soil and special requirements in sloping sites. structure is the first step in its analysis. Depending on the
Non-structural Components torsional effects in the building, either 2D or 3D modelling of
the building may be used. If the maximum horizontal
Parapets, sunshades, projections, fixtures, cladding, etc.
displacement of a point on a floor is more than 120% of the
have to be assessed for their capacity to withstand earthquake
average displacement of the floor, the building is considered to
forces. Safety of non-structural components is particularly
have a torsional irregularity and a 3D space frame model is to
important in case of buildings such as hospitals, telephone
be used. For calculating the torsional displacement, both actual
exchanges, control buildings, etc. The failure of fixtures and
and accidental torsions are to be considered. A number of
connections may lead to not only the disruption of the function
mathematical models are available with varying degrees of
but also the loss of life due to disruption as well as due to direct
sophistication in the analysis. Earlier research was centered on
injury from the falling component.
developing hand calculation methods based on simplified
Partitions and infills are another component, which are assumptions and understanding of the overall behavior of the
usually considered as nonstructural in the design. Their safety structure.
is not ensured in design. Failure of masonry infills in out of
Nowadays, the computer hardware and software for analysis
plane bending may be fatal to the inmates. Safety of partitions
of structures is widely available and stress is on more
and infills must be ensured by the retrofitting engineer.
sophisticated mathematical modelling. The actual structure
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS and its behavior at the micro level is always very complex. It
A lot of research has taken place in the area of analysis is not possible to model each and every detail of the structure,
of buildings for earthquake forces. The analysis methods can what so ever being the sophistication of the computer software.
be broadly classified into Linear and Non-linear methods. The mathematical modelling of the structure is based on certain
Earthquake resistance design relies heavily on the ductility or simplifying assumptions and the understanding of the overall
post yielding behavior of the structure and therefore, the non- behavior of the structure. Therefore, caution is required to
linear methods appear to be more reliable. However, these interpret the output of the computer software and the user
methods also have inherent assumptions and require skill and should have a sound knowledge of the behavior of the structure.
computer software, as these are computationally intensive. 1. Linear Static Procedure (LSP) and Linear Dynamic
Another classification is based on the type of load considered Procedure (LDP) of Analysis: The LSP for evaluating an
in the analysis. Static analysis procedures consider equivalent existing building is the same as described in IS-1893:
static force, while the dynamic analysis procedures take into 2002 for design of a new building with a predefined
account the time varying nature of the earthquake forces. The distribution of earthquake forces along height of the
dynamic analysis is nearer to reality but require high degree building.
of computation. On the other hand, the static analysis procedure In LDP also the modelling of the structure is same as
is simple, easy to use and provide insight in to behavior of in LSP, but in spite of using a predefined distribution
structure. For normal regular buildings, a linear procedure is of earthquake forces along the height of the building,
considered to be sufficient, but for important buildings and the distribution is obtained by dynamic analysis of the
buildings with irregular configurations, a static or dynamic building. The dynamic analysis can be performed either
non-linear analysis is necessary. using a response spectrum (Modal Analysis) or using
216 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 217

time histories of earthquake motion (Time History suffered from previous earthquakes. The method of repair and
Analysis). strengthening would naturally depend very largely on the
2. Non-linear Static Procedure (NSP) of Analysis: This structural scheme and materials used for the construction of
recently developed method is a revolutionary idea to the building in the first instance, the technology that is feasible
have a non-linear analysis based on response spectrum to adopt quickly and the amount of funds that can be assigned
method. The method gives an iterative solution for the to the task which are usually very limited. The concepts of
maximum non-linear displacement of the building. This repair, restoration and strengthening are described in the
non-linear displacement is checked for each component following sections.
to determine its safety and damage state. Different Repairs
performance levels put different restrictions on the
The main purpose of repairs is to bring back the architectural
maximum non-linear displacement components.
shape of the building so that all services start working and the
3. Non-linear Dynamic Procedure (NDP): NDP is the well- functioning of building is resumed quickly. Repair does not
known Non-linear Time History Analysis based on step- pretend to improve the structural strength of the building and
by-step solution of the equation of motion. This method can be very deceptive for meeting the strength requirements
simulates the real behavior of a structure during an of the next earthquake. The actions will include the following:
earthquake and can be used, at least theoretically, to
1. Patching up of defects such as cracks and fall of plaster.
analyze any structure. The main difficulty in use of this
procedure is that it requires design time histories, which 2. Repair doors, windows, replacement of glass panes.
are difficult to be specified, as the codes specify only 3. Checking and repairing electrical wiring.
design response spectrum. Further, it is computationally 4. Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes and
very extensive method. Both NSP and NDP require a plumbing services.
comprehensive understanding of building components, 5. Rebuilding non - structural walls, smoke chimneys,
their interconnections and their material properties. It boundary walls etc.
is difficult to estimate realistically the non-linear load- 6. Re-plastering of walls as required.
deformation relationships for building components and
7. Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles.
therefore, the practical benefit of NSP and NDP is
doubtful. It is warned that in absence of thorough 8. Relaying cracked floor at ground level.
understanding of the building components behavior, 9. Redecoration - white washing, painting etc.
NSP and NDP should not be used. The architectural repairs as stated above do not restore the
original structural strength of cracked walls or columns and
SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF BUILDINGS
may sometimes be very illusive, since the redecorated building
After the vulnerability assessment of any existing building, will hide all the weaknesses and the building will suffer even
the decision as to whether the building needs to be strengthened more severe damage if shaken again by an equal shock since
and to what degree, must be based on assessment that show the original energy absorbing capacity will not be available.
if the levels of safety demanded by present codes and
recommendations are met. As we have seen, difficulties in Restoration
establishing actual strength arise from the considerable It is the restitution of the strength the building had before
uncertainties related with material properties and with the the damage occurred. This type of action must be undertaken
amount of strength deterioration due to age or to damage when there is evidence that the structural damage can be
218 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 219

attributed to exceptional phenomena that are not likely to and restoration alone will not be adequate in future quakes.
happen again and that the original strength provides an The extent of the modifications must be determined by the
adequate level of safety. general principals and design methods and should not be limited
The main purpose of restoration is to carry out structural to increasing the strength of members that have been damaged,
repairs to load bearing elements. It may involve cutting portions but should consider the overall behavior of the structure.
of the elements and rebuilding them or adding more structural Commonly the strengthening procedures should aim at one or
material so that the original strength is more or less restored. more of the following objectives:
The process may involve inserting temporary supports, 1. Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions,
underpinning etc. Some of the approaches are stated below. by reinforcement or by increasing wall areas or the
1. Removal of portions of cracked masonry walls and piers number of walls and columns.
and rebuilding them in richer mortar. 2. Giving unity to the structure by providing a proper
Use of non - shrinking mortar will be preferable. connection between its resisting elements, in such a
way that inertia forces generated by the vibration of the
2. Addition of reinforcing mesh on both faces of the cracked
building can be transmitted to the members that have
wall, holding it to the wall through spikes or bolts and
the ability to resist them. Typical important aspects are
then covering it suitably. Several alternatives have been
the connections between roofs and floors and walls,
used for this purpose so far.
between intersecting walls and between walls and
3. Injecting epoxy like material, which is strong in tension,
foundations.
into the cracks in walls, columns, beams etc.
3. Eliminating features that are sources of weakness or
Where structural repairs are considered necessary, these that produce concentrations of stresses in some members.
should be carried out prior to or simultaneously with the Asymmetrical plan distribution of resisting members,
architectural repairs so that total planning of work could be abrupt changes of stiffness from one floor the other,
done in coordinated manner and wastage is avoided. concentration of large masses, large openings in walls
Strengthening of Existing Buildings without a proper peripheral reinforcement are examples
The seismic behavior of old existing buildings is affected of defect of this kind.
by their original structural inadequacies, material degradation 4. Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by
due to time, and alterations carried out during use over the proper reinforcement and connection of resisting
years such as making new openings, addition of new parts members. Since its cost may go to as high as 50 to 60
inducing unsymmetry in plan and elevation etc. The possibility % of the cost of rebuilding, the justification of such
of substituting them with new earthquake resistant buildings strengthening must be fully considered.
is generally neglected due to historical, artistic, social and STRENGTHENING MATERIALS
economical reasons. The complete replacement of the buildings
in a given area will also lead to destroying a number of social Considerable research has taken place in the field of repair
and human links. Therefore seismic strengthening of existing and retrofitting materials and a large variety suitable to different
damaged or undamaged buildings can be a definite requirement applications and working conditions is available. Most of the
in same areas. Strengthening is an improvement over the materials are patented and available in brand names. We need
original strength where the evaluation of building indicates to have information about these materials for designing the
that the strength available before the damage was insufficient retrofit scheme.
220 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 221

The repair and retrofit materials can be broadly classified After injecting resins through the ports, the cracks and
into three categories: ports are sealed by quick hardening resin paste.
(i) Grouts for repair of cracks, strengthening of masonry On vertical surfaces, the injection is started from the lowest
and honeycombed concrete. port till it comes out from the upper nipple. Then the port is
(ii) Bonding agents for enhanced bonding between old and sealed and injection is started from the upper port. After
new concrete and concrete and reinforcement. hardening of the epoxy in a day or so, the sealing resin paste
(iii) Replacement and jacketing materials for replacing the is removed. The effectiveness of injection grouting in concrete
damaged portions, increasing the size of members, can be tested either by USPV test or by visual inspection of
enhancing the confinement and external reinforcement cores drilled through the injected crack.
of the members. Bonding Agents
A brief description of different materials available under Bond between existing concrete, new concrete and
these categories is given below. reinforcement is very important for effectiveness of repair/
Injection Grouts retrofitting. There are three methods available for enhancing
the bond:
Grout is a flowable plastic material, which can be injected
into a structural member under pressure. The grout should (i) Application of adhesives at the interface
have negligible shrinkage to fill the gap/void completely and (ii) Surface interlocking
it should remain stable without cracking, delamination or (iii) Mechanical bonding
crumbling. Injection grouts are used to fill interior space within Polymers and epoxy are the adhesives used for bonding
the concrete or masonry created due to cracks, voids or between old and new concrete and reinforcement. After removal
honeycombs. In case of damaged concrete or masonry if the of the concrete cover, the existing concrete surface and steel
cracks are thin, these can be repaired by injection grouting, are cleaned by sand or water blasting.
otherwise, if the cracks are wide, the material around the
After cleaning and drying, concrete and steel is painted by
cracks is to be removed and replaced by new material. Injection
epoxy/polymer or polymer modified cement grout. If the
grouts can also be used for strengthening of old masonry
new steel is to be welded, it is welded prior to coating of the
structures, in which mortar has degraded and in honeycombed
concrete and steel. This coating provides enhanced bond between
concrete. These are particularly useful in strengthening of
the old and new material and reduces the risk of corrosion in
monumental structures, but compatibility of original material
steel.
and the grout must be ensured.
To improve the surface interlocking, the existing concrete
Before injecting grouts into crack, preparation of the crack
surface is coated with epoxy/polymer and a layer of coarse sand
is to be done as following:
is applied above the coating. Mechanical bonding consists of
(i) Cleaning of crack with compressed air and removal of keys and anchors provided in the existing members at regular
loose material, if any. interval.
(ii) Drilling of holes (5 to 10 mm) at several places along
Replacement and Jacketing Materials
the length of the crack.
(iii) Placing of 'Ports' or 'Nipples' at the mouth of holes. If In case of damaged structures, material in some parts of
the cracks are wide and accessible from surface 'T' ports members is to be replaced by new material. For strengthening
can be installed. existing members in deficient buildings, additional material
222 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 223

including reinforcement is to be provided. The material used Dry packs are available under several commercial names
for replacement should have good bond with existing material and usually consist of fine sand, super plasticizers and an
and it should be non-shrinking. A variety of strengthening and expansive agent in appropriate proportion.
replacement materials is available. This mixed with water attains very high strength in very
Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete and Mortar short time. This high strength is a result of formation of a
special silica calcium hydrate from the reaction of the cement
The advantage of using ordinary concrete and mortar is
with expansive agent. The expansive agent also result in no -
that these have similar thermal movement and appearance as
shrinkage of the material. This material is very suitable for
the existing concrete.
jacketing.
Further, these are cheap and do not require special skills
for application. Generally, these consist of high early strength Shotcrete
cement and an expansive component to compensate the Shotcrete or guniting has the same characteristics as
shrinkage. The expansive component also results in good bond. ordinary concrete but it has smaller aggregate size and it is
The common expansive agents used are aluminum powder, applied under pressure with low water content. It requires no
coke powder, anhydrous calcium sulfoaluminate and calcium framework and can be applied on any surface including inclined
oxide. and vertical surfaces and even on ceilings.
In case of concrete, use of higher strength (at least by 5 This results in very good adhesion between old and new
MPa) then the existing concrete is recommended. Maximum concrete and good compaction due to application under pressure.
size of coarse aggregate is limited to 20 mm for ease in pouring The low water cement ratio results in high strength and low
the concrete through narrow spaces. shrinkage. The permeability of shotcrete is also lower than that
of ordinary concrete and results in better protection of steel
To ease the compaction, workability is enhanced by using against corrosion.
super plasticizers. The surface of existing concrete is made as
Shotcrete requires special equipment. Two types of
rough as possible and cleaned properly. After placing the forms
equipment are used depending on dry or wet mix type of
a final dusting should be done using compressed air to remove
application. In dry mix application, the proportioned or pre-
dust from the surface.
pakaged cement aggregate mixture is transferred to nozzle
Sometimes a special application of ordinary concrete using highly compressed air. Water is introduced at nozzle
'preplaced concrete' is also used. In this method, the aggregate under pressure.
is first packed in the space to be concreted and the cement is
The mixture is impacted on the surface to be shotcreted.
applied in the form of grout intrusion. The concrete has very
In wet mix type shotcrete, proportioned mixture of cement
little shrinkage but requires skill in application.
aggregate water and admixtures are discharge into a
Dry pack is another application method of ordinary concrete. conventional concrete pump through a discharge nozzle.
In this method the concrete has very little water and has Compressed air is used to project the material from nozzle.
almost zero slump. Before application of shotcrete, damaged concrete is removed
The moisture is just sufficient to stick the material together and the surface is thoroughly cleaned by sand blasting to remove
when molded into a ball by hand. The low water content results all dirt and to expose the aggregate. Steel is cleaned on full
in reduced shrinkage, but makes compaction difficult and there circumference of bar to bare metal. Usually a melded wire
are chances of voids being left. mesh is applied over the surface to be shotcreted and attached
224 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 225

to the existing concrete through nailing. This wire mesh reduces PMM/PMC has better workability and water retention properties
the shrinkage and improves the bond between existing concrete than ordinary concrete/mortar. This reduces the requirement
and shotcrete. of water curing considerably.
Sometimes, to improve the bond between old and new Polymer modification does not result in any appreciable
material, surface coatings, such as epoxy bonding agents, latex increase in compressive strength of concrete, but it results
modified cement slurries or neat cement slurries are also used. significant increase in tensile and bending strength of concrete.
In case of dry mix shotcrete, the water/cement ratio cannot be The main advantage of PMM/PMC is its improved adhesion
controlled quantitatively as it is mixed at nozzle and controlled and bond with existing concrete and significantly reduced
visually by the operator. Therefore, the skill of the crew is very permeability. Reduced permeability results in reduced risk of
important. The variation in density of shortcrete is more than corrosion of reinforcing steel.
that of normal concrete. Also, the shortcrete results in a rough
Steel Plate Bonding
surface.
Steel plates can be bonded to concrete members as external
Polymer Modified Concrete and Mortar reinforcement to increase their strength. The plates are glued
Polymers are long molecule hydrocarbons, built by to the member surface by epoxies. This requires a careful
combination of single units called monomers. The process is preparation of the member surface and application of epoxy
called polymerization. Small diameter particles of polymers layer.
emulsified in water are called polymer latexes. Steel plates can also be provided in the form of jackets
These latexes form continuous film at drying. Adding either by gluing to surface or by grouting. However, these
polymer latexes to ordinary mortar and concrete is the most jackets are not very effective as these try to separate out from
common method of making Polymer Modified Mortar (PMM) the members due to Poisson's effect, loosing confinement.
and Polymer Modified Concrete (PMC). Cement hydration in
Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
PMM/PMC results in drying of latex and formation of the film
of polymers. Fibre-reinforced polymers/plastics is a recently developed
material for strengthening of RC and masonry structure. This
This film binds the cement hydrates together to from a
is an advanced material and most of the development in its
monolithic network in which the polymer phase interpenetrates
application in structural retrofitting has taken place in the last
throughout the cement hydrate phase. The resulting matrix
two decades. It has been found to be a replacement of steel
binds the aggregate more strongly and enhances the properties
plate bonding and is very effective in strengthening of columns
of mortar/concrete.
by exterior wrapping.
The polymer can also be mixed in the form of re-dispersible
The main advantage of FRP is its high strength to weight
powder in the dry cementaggregate mix. When water is added
ratio and high corrosion resistance. FRP plates can be 2 to 10
to this mixture, a process similar to that described above takes
times stronger than steel plates, while their weight is just 20%
place. Some polymers are water soluble. When added to mortar/
of that of steel. However, at present, their cost is high. FRP
concrete, these result in enhanced workability but no increase
composites are formed by embedding a continuous fibre matrix
in strength.
in a resin matrix.
In some liquid thermosetting resins, polymerization is
The resin matrix binds the fibre together and also provides
initiated by water. These are also added to concrete/ mortar to
bond between concrete and FRP. The commonly used fibres are
result in enhancement similar to that resulting from latex. The
226 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 227

Carbon fibres, Glass fibres and Aramid fibres, and the commonly In a building, there are four or more than four walls, which
used resins are polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy. FRP is named act as a box under lateral load. The walls parallel to the lateral
after the fibre used, e.g. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer load, act as webs and the walls orthogonal to load act as
(CFRP), Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), and Aramid flanges. The resistance of box is much higher than the resistance
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (AFRP). of individual walls.
The fibres are available in two forms (i) Unidirectional tow The box action involves considerable interaction between
sheet, and (ii) Woven fabric. The application of resin can be in- webs and flanges at corners of building. It has been observed
situ or in the form of prefabrication of FRP plates and other in past earthquakes that in many cases, the damage initiates
shapes by pultrusion. at corners, resulting in loss of box action and walls start acting
The in-situ application is by wet lay-up of a woven fabric independently leading to collapse of building.
or tow plate immersed in resin. This method is more versatile The basic principle of seismic safety of load bearing wall
as it can be used on any shape. On the other hand, prefabrication buildings lies in their integral box action during earthquake.
results in better quality control. In new buildings it can be ensured by providing seismic bands.
The manufacturers supply these materials as a package In existing buildings, the integral box action is to be ensured
and each brand has specific method of application, which is to by providing external bandage or pre-stressing.
be followed carefully. Specialized firms have developed in India Openings in walls are the source of weakness. Openings
also, which take up the complete execution work and supply result in reduction of effective crosssectional area of wall
of material.
resisting lateral loads. If the openings are very near to corners,
It is important to note the difference between the properties these hamper the integral box action by weakening the joints.
of steel and FRP and it should be understood that FRP cannot The piers between openings are subjected to higher stresses
be treated as reinforcement in conventional RC design methods. than the portion of the wall above and below the openings. It
Table 10.1 gives a typical range of properties for three types has been observed in the past earthquakes that diagonal X-
of fibres. This range may change from one brand to another shaped cracks in the piers originate from the corners of openings.
and with change in fibre content. To avoid this damage the opening perimeter need to be
RETROFITTING OF LOAD BEARING WALL BUILDINGS strengthened by proper reinforcement.
Buildings in which the roof and floor slabs are directly RETROFITTING OF RC BUILDINGS
supported on the walls are called loadbearing wall buildings.
The retrofitting schemes for RC buildings are based on two
These walls serve as partitions and also bear the load from
principles:
slabs. The lateral load resulting from earthquake and wind is
also resisted by these walls and transferred to ground. Individual (i) Reduction in earthquake demand by reducing mass, by
unreinforced masonry or mud walls are very weak in out-of- base-isolation or by supplemental energy dissipation,
plane bending due to lack of tensile strength. and
These are generally not capable of bearing out-of-plane (ii) Enhancing the capacity of the structure to withstand
bending moment, even resulting from their own inertia. These the earthquake forces.
walls act as shear-walls in their in-plane action and possess The capacity may be enhanced either by strengthening the
sufficient in-plane strength, if not weakened by too many deficient members or by improving the ductility and deformation
openings. capacity resulting in increased hysteretic damping. There is
228 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 229

another important aspect of retrofitting - completion of load agents should be used in the new concrete to avoid shortening
path and removal of configurational irregularities. of the new column resulting in separation between new and old
concrete. Similarly, a shear wall panel is to be provided below
Completion of Load Path
the existing shear wall. This panel should have rigid shear
A large number of buildings in India have incomplete load connections with adjacent columns, beam/slab above it, and
paths mainly to take advantage of the loopholes in the building foundation.
by-laws and sometimes due to market compulsions and our
quest for creating new shapes. Removal of Configurational Irregularity due to Soft/
Weak Storey
For example, floating column constructions are not
uncommon in Indian cities to take maximum advantage of floor In buildings having soft/weak storey, most of the ductility
area with restrictions on ground area. The general seismic load demand is concentrated in the soft/weak storey, resulting in
path in a building is as follows- the inertial forces originating excessive lateral displacement of the storey leading to failure
of the building due to formation of unstable mechanism.
throughout the building are first transferred to horizontal
floor diaphragms, the diaphragms transfer these forces to In Indian cities there is a lack of parking space. In multistory
vertical framing system resisting lateral loads; the vertical buildings, the ground storey is usually kept open (free of masonry
framing system consisting of beam-column frames and shear in-fills) while the upper storeys have masonry infills for
walls, transfers the seismic force to foundation and supporting partitions. It has been seen that such a configuration results
soil. in the stiffness of the ground storey about one-third of the
stiffness of the upper storeys.
If there is a discontinuity in load path, the building is
incapable of transferring the load to ground and it is unable IS: 1893-2002 has addressed this problem and suggests
to resist the lateral load during earthquake, irrespective of that either a non-linear analysis of such buildings should be
strength of existing members. performed or the ground storey beams and columns should be
designed for a storey shear 2.5 times of that obtained from
The common examples of such building are those in which
analysis of a bare frame without in-fills. In case of existing
shear walls or columns are not started from ground but started
buildings the ground storey is to be stiffened so that the increased
at first floor (or at a higher level). Such columns are commonly
stiffness of the ground storey is nearly equal to the stiffness
known as floating columns. This is done to increase the floor
of the upper storeys.
area at first floor level or to have large open spaces at ground
floor for commercial purposes. In such buildings, the first floor Strengthening by Addition of New Members
beams are subjected to very high forces as the forces from Addition of new members is perhaps the easiest option to
floating columns/shear walls are transferred to other columns strengthen an existing building. Addition of new members is
and walls through these beams. possible externally, without disturbing the space inside the
The remedy to this deficiency is to complete the load path building. The main concerns in addition of new members are
by providing the missing part of the column/shear wall. In case the connection of new and old members and foundation of the
of a floating column, a new column is to be erected below the new members. It is possible to provide only a few stiff members
floating column. This column should have footing connected to take most of the earthquake force of the existing structure,
with the foundation of the existing building and the but the connections should be capable of transferring this load.
reinforcement of the new column should be welded with the Similarly, the foundations should be capable of transferring
reinforcement of existing column. Shrinkage compensating this load to the ground.
230 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 231

Several options, in the form of frames, shear walls and of anchorage into old concrete, smaller anchorage lengths
vertical trusses, are possible for strengthening an existing may be sufficient if special grouts are used to anchor
building. Addition of new members changes dynamic the bars in drilled holes. This anchorage length should
characteristics of the building. Sometimes, new members are be in accordance with the manufacturer's specifications
also added to reduce eccentricity. Therefore, re-analysis of and should be verified by Pull-out tests.
structure is required after addition of members. o Anchoring of additional bars can also be accomplished
Strengthening of Existing Members by welding them with existing bars. For this purpose,
spacers can be provided between old and new bars to
In most of the cases, strengthening of at least a few of
provide a gap for intrusion of concrete. The weld is to
existing members will be required in seismic retrofitting of a
be designed to develop full strength in the new bar.
building. A number of techniques based on steel/FRP plate
bonding, RCC jacketing and FRP jacketing are available for Enhancing Deformation Capacity
strengthening of individual members. The choice of the Post yielding deformation capacity of a building plays a
technique depends on the specific weakness and demand on the very important role in reducing the effective seismic force on
member. Strengthening of individual members require good the building. The members of a building are expected not to
knowledge of the different materials available in the market lose their vertical load carrying capacity, while undergoing
for repair and retrofitting. large plastic deformations in lateral direction. Sometimes, a
The load transfer mechanism between the old and new few poorly designed members can limit the capacity of the
material is complex and proper bonding between the two is whole building to deform laterally.
difficult to be ensured. Following points are to be considered These members may be modified to increase their
in strengthening of individual members: o A variety of materials, deformation capacity and this will result in large reduction in
discussed above is available for strengthening of existing effective seismic force on the building. If the number of
members. the members to be modified is small, this strategy does not
A detailed study of manufacturer claimed properties of disrupt the functioning of the building. But, if a large number
these materials is required before selecting a suitable material. of members are to be modified, this becomes costly and
Short-term as well as long-term properties are to be considered. disruptive.
o The load transfer between old and new material can Earthquake Demand Reduction
take place through several mechanisms, such as, An alternative approach for retrofitting of existing buildings
compression against pre-cracked interfaces, adhesion is to reduce the earthquake demand (forces and displacements).
between non-metallic materials, friction between non- This can be achieved either by reducing the mass of the building
metallic materials, load transfer through resin/glue or using base-isolation/energy dissipation devices.
layers, clamping effect of steel, dowel effect of steel, etc. Reduction of building mass is not always possible and it is
Modelling of this interaction is complex and not well mainly the use of base-isolation/supplemental energy dissipation
understood, yet. It should be ensured that more than devices, which is employed to reduce the earthquake demand
one mechanism of load transfer between new and old on the buildings. Use of base-isolation/supplemental energy
material are present. dissipation devices is costly and it is recommended only for
o Anchorage lengths of reinforcement in new concrete those building which are required to have operational
should be as per codal specifications. However, in case performance level after an earthquake or which house sensitive
232 Disaster Management in India Vulnerability Assessment and Seismic Strengthening... 233

equipment. Base-isolation has been found to be particularly isolation results in significant reduction of displacement and
useful for historic buildings, where it is not possible to modify force response of the building. This is a preferable condition for
the structure significantly. However, it is important to note better performance of sensitive equipment, systems and other
that base-isolation and supplemental energy damping cannot non-structural components.
be used in all buildings. In many cases, the structure is also Supplemental Energy Dissipation
to be strengthened in addition to base-isolation/energy
Supplemental Energy Dissipation Systems dissipate the
dissipation.
energy transmitted to the structure by the earthquake, in
Seismic Base-Isolation addition to the energy dissipated by the structure in normal
Base-isolation is based on the principle of elongating the course. This results in significant reduction in the displacement
time period of the building by providing compliant bearings at and acceleration response of structure. For this purpose, energy
the base of the building. dissipation devices (EDDs) are installed in the lateral load
The bearings have sufficient stiffness and strength against resisting system of the building. These EDDs work either on
vertical load, but relatively low stiffness and large deformation viscous or on hysteretic damping.
capacity in lateral direction. Sometimes, these bearings are Contrary to base-isolation, the energy dissipation system
also provided with enhanced energy dissipation characteristics is more effective in flexible buildings with large lateral
or with additional dampers. deformations, as the energy dissipated by EDUs is directly
The base-isolation results in significant increase in proportional to the force developed by EDUs and displacement
fundamental time period of the structure and damping. Further, across these EDUs.
as the stiffness of the bearings is much smaller compared to For a rigid building, the small lateral displacement during
structure, the lateral deformation gets concentrated into earthquake will results in smaller energy dissipation and the
bearings, resulting in greatly reduced earthquake deformation reduction in effective earthquake forces will not be significant.
demand in the portion of the structure above bearings. Similar to base-isolation, supplemental energy dissipation
Base-isolation is considered to be useful for buildings having system is also a costly method and is suitable for buildings with
a fundamental time period of one second or less, as it requires high post-earthquake importance.
a relatively stiff building to have concentration of lateral The energy dissipation results in reduced seismic response
deformation in bearings only. of building and better performance of equipment, systems and
non-structural components.
Further, the building should remain elastic under the
residual demand transmitted to the structure by the isolators. CONCLUSIONS
In order to achieve this, in many cases, the building structure The need to improve the ability of an existing building to
is also required to be strengthened in addition to base-isolation. withstand seismic forces arises usually from the evidence of
Base-isolation is considered to be very effective for historical damage and poor behavior during a recent earthquake or from
buildings, believing that no intervention/modification is required calculations or by comparisons with similar buildings that have
in the building, preserving its historical character. been damaged in other places.
But, as described above, this belief may not be always true Assessment of an existing structure is complicated task
and significant strengthening of the structure may be required. because of the defects arising from the original design,
Base-isolation provides an effective solution for retrofitting construction and deterioration since the completion of the
of buildings having enhanced performance objectives. Base- construction.
234 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 235

Vulnerability of building has also to be assessed with respect

to earthquake hazard and ground failure hazard. Vulnerability
assessment of buildings should start with visual inspection and
study of all available documents followed by detailed in - situ
investigations. The results could be analyzed using various
mathematical modeling techniques. Vulnerability assessment
of buildings is carried out in three levels as rapid visual screening
12
(RVS) procedure (level - 1, procedure); simplified vulnerability
assessment (SVA) procedure (level - 2, procedure) and detailed Techno-legal and Techno-Financial
vulnerability assessment (DVA) procedure (level - 3, procedure). Aspects in Building Projects
Strengthening of existing buildings is carried by using various
repair, restoration and strengthening techniques. Different
strengthening materials including grouts, bonding agents and
INTRODUCTION
replacement and jacketing materials should be used for this
purpose. Various contemporary retrofitting techniques for load It was realized during some recent Indian earthquakes,
bearing as well as RC constructions discussed in the chapter namely Latur Maharashtra Earthquake 1993, Jabalpur
have proved to be very effective in India as well as other Earthquake of 1997, Chamoli Earthquake of 1999 and the
countries. major earthquake in Kutch Gujarat in 2001, that, much of
destruction has been due to the buildings constructed without
earthquake safety measures as specified in Indian Standard
Building Codes. Hence, the Ministry of Home Affairs GOI,
appointed an Expert Group (consisting of a Senior Town Planner,
five Architects and six Structural Engineers) to study the
existing Municipal Byelaw's etc. and propose model Byelaws
and regulations to be incorporated in the various legal documents
for saving the constructions from earthquake and other hazards.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AMENDMENT IN MODEL
TOWN & COUNTRY PLANNING ACT, 1960
Definition Under (Section 2)
Some of the important terms defined in section 2 of the act
are given below:
Natural Hazard (16 a)
The probability of occurrence, within a specific period of
time in a given area, of a potentially damaging natural
phenomenon.
Natural Hazard Prone Areas (16 b)
Areas likely to have :
236 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 237

(i) moderate to very high damage risk zone of earthquakes, Development Plan (Section 20)
OR If any local authority has been declared as a planning
(ii) moderate to very high damage risk of cyclones OR authority for a planning area & the local authority has prepared
(iii) significant flood flow or inundation, OR a development plan for the planning area before the application
(iv) landslide potential or proneness, OR of this Act to that area, the development plan already prepared
(v) one or more of these hazards. may be deemed to be a development plan under Section 18 or
Natural Disaster (16 c) Section 19 of this Act.
A serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing However, when such plans are implemented due care
widespread human, material or environmental losses caused should be taken while formulating the projects based on such
due to earthquake, cyclone, flood or landslide which exceeds the plans to follow the Regulations pertaining to Land Use Zoning
ability of the affected society to cope using only its own resources. and necessary protection measures prescribed by the
Mitigation (16 d) Regulations.
Measures taken in advance of a disaster aimed at decreasing Prohibition of Development without payment of
or eliminating its impact on society and on environment Development Charges and without Permission
including preparedness and prevention. (Section 29)
State Planning Board Any person or body (excluding a department of Central or
Functions and Power of the Board as mentioned in Section State Government or local authority) intending to carry out
4(2) (a) is to direct the preparation of Development plans keeping any development on any land shall make an application in
in view the natural hazard proneness of the area by Local writing to the planning authority for permission in such form
Planning Authorities and containing such particulars and accompanied by such
Functions and Power of Local Planning Authorities documents and plans as may be prescribed by the rules or the
(Section 11) regulations including Development Control, Building
Regulation/Byelaws for Natural Hazard Prone Areas.
The functions and power of local planning authorities
essentially include: Provided that in the case of a department of Central or
o An Existing Land Use Map indicating hazard proneness State Government or local authority (where the local authority
of the area; is not also the planning authority) intending to carry out any
o An Interim Development Plan keeping in view the development on any land, the concerned department or
Regulations for Land Use Zoning for Natural Hazard authority, as the case may be, shall notify in writing to the
Prone Areas planning authority of its intension to do so, giving full particulars
o A Comprehensive Development Plan keeping in view thereof and accompanied by such documents and plans
the Regulations for Land Use Zoning for Natural Hazard "complying with development control, building regulations/
Prone Areas. byelaws for natural hazard prone areas" as may be prescribed
by the State government from time to time. [29(2)]
Interim Development Plans (Section 18)
The interim development plans (section 18) indicate broadly Power to make Regulations (Section 73)
the manner in which the planning authority proposes that land Power to make regulations include:
in such area should be used keeping in view the natural hazard o Any other matter which has to be or may be prescribed
proneness of the area. by rules under Section 72(1), Development Control and
238 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 239

Building Regulations / Byelaws for Natural Hazard Prone show more details of a specific land use. It has to indicate for
Areas [73(e)], the land designated as, say, commercial, the further details as
o Any other matter which has to be or may be prescribed to which land is for retail commercial, or for wholesale trade
by regulation including Regulation for Land Use Zoning or for go-downs. In the case of layouts of projects of a shopping
for Natural Hazard Prone Areas [73(f)] Referred & centre further details shall be necessary, indicating which block
Amendments suggested by identifying the relevant of retail commercial is for, say, cloth or electronics or vegetables.
clauses in: There could be three levels in land use classification shown
b. Model Regional and Town Planning and Develop- under:
ment Laws 1985 Level I For Perspective Plans
c. Model Urban and Regional Planning and Develop- Level II For Development Plans
ment Law (Revised) (Part of UDPFI Guidelines) Level III For Layouts of Projects/Schemes
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LANDUSE ZONING Objectives of Land Use Zoning
REGULATIONS
The objectives of land use zoning are as mentioned below:
The regulations for Land Use Zoning for Natural Hazard (1) The main purpose of the land use zoning is to provide
Prone Areas are to be notified under section: regulations for development of a particular area to serve
1. u/s 73(f) of Model Town & Country Planning Act, 1960; the desired purpose efficiently and to preserve its
OR character. It also provides for the kind of buildings to
2. u/s 143(f) of Model Regional and Town Planning and be constructed. Zoning regulations are legal tools for
Development Law; OR guiding the use of land and protection of public health,
3. u/s 181(f) of Model Urban & Regional Planning and welfare and safety.
Development Law (2) Such regulations also include provisions for the use of
All these from UDPFI Guidelines (Revised) as may be premises /property and limitations upon shape, size and
applicable in the respective states under the existing provisions type of buildings that are constructed or occupy the
of Town & Country Planning Legislation as and when Master land. Further, these provide both horizontal as well as
Plan / Development Plan of different cities / town / areas are vertical use of land. These regulations also improve the
formulated. However, these zoning regulations are to be quality of life in urban centres For instance in flood
implemented through the provisions of Development Control zones, the land use may be parks, playground & gardens
Regulations/ Building Bye-Laws, wherever the Master Plan is while restricting any building activity in such vulnerable
not in existence or not formulated. areas.
(3) Life line structures should also be protected likewise
Classification of urban land uses
while either proposing land uses or otherwise.
It is based upon the requirements of the various plans. For
(4) Zoning protects residential areas from harmful invasions
example, a perspective plan, which is a policy document, need
of other uses like industrial use and commercial use. It
not show many details of a specific land use and may only show
does not prohibit use of lands and buildings that are
the main use which could be, say, residential or commercial.
lawfully established prior to coming into effect of such
In the case of a development plan, which is a comprehensive
zoning regulations. If such uses are contrary to
plan indicating use of each parcel of land, there is a need to
regulations in a particular 'use zone' and are not to be
240 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 241

allowed, such uses are designated as 'non-conforming (4) Special risky areas have to be determined specifically
uses'. These are to be gradually eliminated without for the planning area under consideration through
inflicting unreasonable hardship on the property owners/ special studies to be carried out by geologists and geo-
users. technical engineers.
(5) The suggested list of uses/activities for various use zones Cyclone Prone Areas
should be comprehensive, keeping in mind the local and
The identified cyclone hazard prone areas are as given
special characteristics of various sizes of settlements
below:
(large, medium and small). Depending upon the specific
situation this list could be further enhanced or reduced, (1) Those areas likely to be subjected to heavy rain induced
as the case may be. floods or to flooding by seawater under the conditions
of storm surge, are specially risky.
State Perspective Plan/Regional Plan
(2) Areas under those where special risk have to be identified
While formulating Perspective Plan/Regional Plan, by special contour survey of the planning area under
Development Plan (Master Plan/Zonal Development Plan) for consideration and study of the past flooding and storm
any notified area, the proposals should indicate, Natural hazard surge history of the area. Survey of India or locally
prone areas with the type and extent of likely hazards, appointed survey teams, and by reference to the Central
Areas not covered Under Master Plan Water Commission, Government of India and the
department of the State or U.T dealing with the floods.
In areas where there are no Master Plans or Development
Plans, general guidelines & recommendations on natural Flood prone areas
disaster mitigation should be issued to the various local bodies, The identified flood hazard prone areas are as given below:
Municipalities and Town Area Committees and Panchayats to (1) These are in river plains (unprotected and protected by
enable them to take these into consideration while sighting bunds) are indicated in the Flood Atlas of India prepared
various projects and deciding on construction of buildings etc. by the Central Water Commission and reproduced on
Technical help may be required by some of the local bodies larger scale in the state wise maps in the Vulnerability
in implementation of the recommendations and for Atlas of India.
interpretation of the guidelines. (2) Besides, other areas can be flooded under conditions of
Earthquake Prone Areas heavy intensity rains, inundation in depressions,
backflow in drains, inadequate drainage, failure of
The identified earthquake hazard prone areas are as given
protection works, etc. These have to be identified through
below:
local contour survey and study of the flood history of the
(1) Macro Seismic Zones III, IV & V
planning area (Survey of India or local survey teams,
(2) Area liable to liquefaction have greater risk. and by reference to the Central Water Commission and
(3) Those hilly areas which are identified to have poor slope the departments of the state or U.T dealing with the
stability conditions and where landslides could be floods).
triggered by earthquake or where due to prior saturated
Land Slide Prone Areas
conditions, mud flow could be initiated by earthquakes
and where avalanches could be triggered by earthquake The susceptibility of the various areas to landslide varies
will be specially risk prone. from very low to very high. Landslide zoning naturally requires
242 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 243

mapping on large scale. Normally medium scale of 1:25000 is (d) Installations and Buildings of Priority 1 to be located
at least chosen. In preparation of the landslide zone map, two above the levels corresponding to a 100 year flood or the
types of factors are considered important as listed here below: maximum observed flood levels whichever higher.
Geological/Topographic Factors/Parameters Lithology, Buildings of Priority 2 to be located outside the 25 year
Geological Structures/Lineaments, Slope-dip (bedding, joint) flood or a 10 year rainfall contour, provided that the buildings
relation, if constructed between the 10 and 25 year contours should have
o Geomorphology, Drainage, Slope angle, slope aspect and either high plinth level above 25 year flood mark or constructed
slope morphology, on columns or stilts, with ground area left for the unimportant
o Land use, Soil texture and depth, Rock weathering uses; Activities of Priority 3 viz. play grounds, gardens and
parks etc. can be located in areas vulnerable to frequent floods.
Triggering Factors
Rainfall, Earthquake, Anthropogeny. In order to ensure environmentally sound development of
hill towns, the following restrictions and conditions may be
Alternatives proposed for future activities.
Various alternatives for land use zoning are as: (1) An integrated development plan may be prepared taking
(a) Leaving the area unprotected. In this case it will be into consideration environmental and other relevant
necessary to specify Land Use Zoning for various factors including ecologically sensitive areas, hazard
development purposes as recommended. prone areas, drainage channels, steep slopes and fertile
(b) Using protection methods for the areas as a whole or land.
in the construction of buildings, structures & (2) Water bodies including underground water bodies in
infrastructure facilities to cater for the hazard intensities water scarce areas should be protected.
likely in the planning area. (3) Where cutting of hill slope in an area causes ecological
(c) It will be appropriate to prioritize buildings, structures damage and slope instability in adjacent areas, such
& infrastructures in terms of their importance from the cuttings shall not be undertaken unless appropriate
point of view of impact of damage on the socio-economic measures are taken to avoid or prevent such damages.
structure of the society as recommended under (4) No construction should be ordinarily undertaken in areas
Regulation no. 6. In regard to Land Use Zoning, different
having slope above 30° or areas which fall in landslide
types of buildings and utility services are grouped under
hazard zones or areas falling on the spring lines and
three priorities as indicated below.
first order streams identified by the State Government
o Priority 1. Defence installation, industries, public on the basis of available scientific evidence.
utilities, life line structures like hospitals, electricity
(5) Construction may be permitted in areas with slope
installations, water supply, telephone exchange,
between 10° to 30° or spring recharge areas or old
aerodromes and railway stations; commercial
landslide zones with such restrictions as the competent
centres, libraries, other buildings or installations
with contents of high economic value. authority may decide.
o Priority 2. Public and Semi Public institutions, Open Spaces
Government offices, and residential areas. Out of the open spaces ear-marked as district parks,
o Priority 3. Parks, play grounds, wood lands, gardens, neighborhood parks and local parks in the development plan,
green belts, and recreational areas. zonal plans and local plans, suitable and approachable parks/
244 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 245

open spaces should be identified for the use during the "Engineer on Record"; and Form No. 3 by the "Structural
emergency to provide shelter and relief caused by a natural Engineer on Record; Form No. 4 by the Construction
hazard. Such pockets should be clearly marked on the city Engineer on Record" has to be provided.
maps. No land shall be used as a site for the construction
AMENDMENTS IN DEVELOPMENT CONTROL of buildingi) If the site is found to be liable to
REGULATIONS liquefaction by the Competent Authority under the
earthquake intensity of the area, except where
This part deals with the development control rules and
appropriate protection measures are taken.
general building requirements to ensure health and safety of
the public. The regulations for Land Use Zoning in Hazard (ii) If the Competent Authority finds that the proposed
Prone Areas are to be taken into consideration while formulating development falls in the area liable to storm surge
the Development Plan and Area Plan under the Town Planning during cyclone, except where protection measures
and Urban Development Act. are adopted to prevent storm surge damage.
(iii) In hilly terrain, the site plan should include location
Every person who gives notice under relevant section of the
of land slide prone areas, if any, on or near the site,
Act shall furnish all information in forms and format prescribed
detected during reconnaissance. The Authority in
herein and as may be amended from time to time by the
such case shall cause to ensure that the site is away
Competent Authority. The following particulars and documents
from such land slide prone areas.
shall also be submitted along with the application.
(iv) The site plan on a sloping site may also include
(1) The forms, plans, sections and descriptions to be
proposals for diversion of the natural flow of water
furnished under these Development Control Regulations
coming from uphill side of the building away from
shall all be signed by each of the following persons:
the foundation.
o A person making application for development
permission under relevant section of the Act. Grant or Refusal of the Permission for Development
o A person who has prepared the plans and sections On receipt of the application for Development Permission,
with descriptions who may be Architect on Record the Competent Authority after making such inquiry and
or Engineer on Record. clearance from such an expert whenever considered necessary
o A person who is responsible for the structural design for the safety of building, as it thinks fit may communicate its
of the construction i.e. a Structural Engineer on decisions granting with or without condition including condition
Record. of submission of detailed working drawing/ structural drawing
along with soil investigation report before the commencement
o A Construction Engineer on Record who is to look
of the work or refusing permission to the applicant as per the
after the day-today supervision of the construction.
provisions of the Act.
o A Developer, Promoter
The Competent Authority, however, may consider to grant
(2) A person who is engaged either to prepare plan or to
exemption for submission of working drawing, structural
prepare a structural design and structural report or to
drawing and soil investigation report in case the Competent
supervise the building shall give an undertaking:-
Authority is satisfied that in the area where the proposed
Certificate in the prescribed Form No.l by the "Owner,
construction is to be taken, similar types of structure and soil
Developer, Structural Engineer on Record and Architect
investigation reports are already available on record and such
on Record"; Form No.2 by the "Architect on Record"/
246 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 247

request is from an individual owner/developer, having plot of o Part-3 - Reinforced Concrete Buildings
not more than 500 sq mt. in size and for a maximum 3 storeyed o Part-4- Steel Buildings
residential building. This report is to accompany the application for Building
If the local site conditions do not require any soil testing Development Permission.
or if a soil testing indicates that no special structural design
Structural Design Review Panel
is required, a small building having upto ground + 2 floors,
having load bearing structure, may be constructed. The Competent Authority shall create a Structural Design
Review Panel (SDRP) consisting of senior SER's and SDAR's
If the proposed small house is to be constructed with load
whose task will be to review and certify the design prepared
bearing type masonry construction technique, where no
by SER or SDAR whenever referred by the competent authority.
structural design is involved, no certificate from a Structural
The Reviewing Agency shall submit addendum to the certificate
Engineer on Record will be required (to be attached with Form
or a new certificate in case of subsequent changes in structural
No.2). However, a Structural Design Basis Report (Form No.
design.
6), has to be submitted, duly filled in.
Notwithstanding anything stated in the above regulations Supervision
it shall be incumbent on every person whose plans have been All construction except load bearing buildings upto 3 storeys
approved to submit revised (amended) plans for any structural shall be carried out under the supervision of the Construction
deviations he proposes to make during the course of construction Engineer on Record (CER) or construction Management Agency
of his building work and the procedure laid down for plans or on Record (CMAR) for various seismic zones.
other documents here to before shall apply to all such Revised Certification of Structural Safety in Construction
(amended) plans.
CER/CMAR shall give a certificate of structural safety of
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AMENDMENT IN BUILDING construction as per proforma given in Form-13 at the time of
BYELAWS completion.
List of BIS Codes to be complied with List of BIS codes has Inspection
to be complied with documents: All the construction higher than 7 storeys, public building
o For General Structural Safety & special structures shall be carried out under quality inspection
o For Cyclone/Wind Storm Protection program prepared and implemented under the Quality Auditor
o For Earthquake Protection on Record (QAR) or Quality Auditor Agency on Record (QAAR)
in Seismic Zones IV & V
o For Protection of Landslide Hazard
In compliance of the design with the above Indian Standard, Certification of Safety in Quality of Construction
the Structural Engineer on Record will submit a structural Quality inspection to be carried on the site shall be worked
design basis report in the prescribed Proforma covering the out by QAR/QAAR in consultation with the owner, builder,
essential safety requirements specified in the Standard. CER/CMAR. QAR/QAAR shall give a certificate of quality control
The"Structural Design Basis Report (SDBR)"consists of four as per proforma given in Form-15
parts Other Issues
o Part-1 - General Information/ Data Vol I of the Expert Group also covers the following issues:
o Part-2 - Load Bearing Masonry Buildings (A). Structural Requirements of Low Cost Housing
248 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 249

(B). Inspection HURDLES AND BOTTLENECKS

o General Requirements Hurdles and bottlenecks in the enforcement of all the above
o Record of Construction Progress mentioned acts are due to lack of:
o Issue of Occupancy Certificate o Legal support system
(C). Protective Measures in Natural Hazard Prone Areas o Adequate trained manpower with the local bodies
(D). Registration of Professionals o Proper infrastructure and facilities for testing of
(E). Appointment of Professionals materials
(F). Protection against Hazard o Trained masons/work force for construction of
(G). Registration, Qualifications and Duties of Professionals earthquake resistant structures
(H). General Duties and Responsibilities Applicable To All o Awareness amongst general public about the importance
Professionals of providing earthquake resistant features and cost
implication
(1) Certificate of Undertaking for Hazard Safety
Requirement o Awareness about the implication of using substandard
building materials and improper use of technologies
(2) Certificate of Undertaking of Architect on Record/
Engineer on Record o Coordination in processing the plans for sanction by
various authorities
(3) Certificate of Undertaking of Structural Engineer
on Record (Ser) TECHNO-FINANCIAL REGIME
(4) Certificate of Undertaking of the Construction All civil constructions funded by public funds should
Engineer on Record incorporate disaster resistant technologies and it should be
(5) Development Permission mandatory as a part of the financial package.
(6) Structural Design Basis Report Financial institutions should make it mandatory for the
(7) Progress Certificate client agencies to strictly adhere to codes and standards relating
(8) Progress Certificate - First Storey to safety requirements against natural hazards. Institutional
(9) Progress Certificate - Middle Storey In Case Of changes should be undertaken that would allow market forces
High-Rise Building to absorb catastrophic losses through the use of more optimally
structured risk sharing arrangements. Insurance sector will
(10) Progress Certificate - Last Storey
have to be increasingly involved in risk reduction by evolving
(11) Completion Report innovative mechanisms for risk reduction in their system.
(12) Building Completion Certificate by Architect on
Record COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS
(13) Building Completion Certificate by Construction The degree of damage is determined by direct and indirect
Engineer on Record damage. Apart from direct physical damage, natural disasters
(14) Building Completion Certificate By structural have effects on industrial and agricultural production,
Engineer On record employment, drinking-water supply, and medical care, up to
the point of losses in the trade balance and effects on the
(15) Model Proforma for Technical Audit Report
investment climate. Costs of damage due to different extreme
(16) Structural Inspection Report events have to be compared with the costs for different
250 Disaster Management in India Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in Building Projects 251

possibilities of prevention and preparedness measures. The o Amending the Building Byelaws of Local Bodies to
expert group has prepared disaster scenario simulations under enforce Earthquake Resistant Designs & Construction
specific hazards for particularly vulnerable locations, with the of Buildings including the Extensions/Modifications in
intention to create a methodology of assessing the cost benefit the existing buildings.
aspects of damage forecasting and prevention. Three types of The techno financial actions suggested facilitation of finances
disaster scenarios are generated: for the effective enforcement of the suggested regulations.
o Scenario 1: All existing buildings are as they stand Studies regarding the costs of damage due to different
today. extreme events are carried out by the expert group and presented
o Scenario 2 : All existing buildings were actually in the form of models which when simulated for different past
constructed to be disaster resistant as per IS codes. disasters showed the large amount of lives and money that
o Scenario 3: All existing buildings were retrofitted to could have been saved due to incorporation of disaster mitigation
become disaster resistant. measures.
Three locations were selected for the simulation of model
viz. Kangra in Himachal Pradesh (repeat of 1905 earthquake),
Coastal area of Andhra Pradesh (repeat of 1977 cyclone) and
Burhi Dehang sub-basin in Assam (repeat of 1988 floods). The
simulation studies for cost benefit analysis for Kangra
earthquake of 1905 is given here:
Recreating the Kangra Earthquake of 1905
The 1905 Kangra earthquake of 8.0 on Richter scale killed
20,000 people in a relatively sparsely populated terrain. If that
earthquake had happened again in 1991 (the year of Census,
from where figures are taken), assuming a housing stock of
18,15,858 houses in the affected district.
CONCLUSIONS
The expert group appointed by the Ministry of Home Affairs
GOI, to study the existing Municipal Byelaw's etc. and propose
model Byelaws and regulations to be incorporated in the various
legal documents for saving the constructions from earthquake
and other hazards, submitted its report in two volumes. The
techno legal actions suggested essentially include:
o Amending the Town & Country Planning Act to include
consideration of Natural Disaster
o Amending Master Plan & Development Area Rules &
Regulations to take into account the Hazard Proneness
in Land Use Zoning.
252 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 253

to how their building should perform in a seismic event. This

method of structural design is popularly known as "Performance
Based Design" because the client is spelling out a performance
criteria which should be achieved for the structure he is paying.
Another huge factor governing these trends is the risk
13 assessment exercise by the major insurance companies. Many
insurance companies in Japan had to suffer huge losses after
the Kobe earthquake of 1995; today they do not insure businesses
Architectural Design Projects and buildings that do not employ the state-of-the-art earthquake
protective measures. Insurance companies are laying down
performance conditions that the structures must comply with
INTRODUCTION before getting insurance coverage. Insurance companies are
People living in the seismic zones are now becoming refusing to insure against EQ losses unless buildings adhere
increasingly aware of the seismic safety of the structures in to standards specified by them.
which they live and work. Structural consultants are no longer The chapter talks about some contemporary and popular
designing only to meet government building code requirements methods of seismic safety and numerous architectural projects
but also going by the performance criteria laid down by their all over the world, with some outstanding concepts for seismic
clients. Since, building codes are applicable to all buildings safety.
belonging to all strata of society the socio-economic conditions
need to be carefully looked into before formulating them. PERFORMANCE BASED DESIGN
Most building codes in the developing world are aimed at These days in most cases the clients are not willing to
only preventing the total collapse of a building, which can be accept the associated risk that the earthquake damage may
referred to as "Life-Safety", or "Minimum Code Design". The expose them to. One Client may demand a building designed
codes do not specify that there should be no or minimal structural to resist up-to 6.5 magnitude earthquake while another may
damage to the building. For the user, even if building codes are demand for a design to resist 8.0 magnitude on the Richter
followed strictly, there is no guarantee that the building will scale. Earthquake safety becomes very crucial for companies
be habitable for living or doing business after an earthquake. whose sole existence is on sensitive equipment that will make
Even if the building does not collapse, the structure may be so them inoperable in case it fails. It can also be mandatory for
badly damaged that the building could be unusable and the Computer Data Centers in USA to be designed to withstand
subsequently condemned. severest earthquakes as they house the sensitive data of not
one but many hundreds of businesses. Also the US government
Then the owner would face additional costs to have the
has laid down very strict compliance criteria for seismic
building demolished, loss of the entire real estate investment
performance of hospitals. Stating that, "you cannot have deaths
and the cost of reconstruction of the building. The Indian
due to building collapse in a place that is meant to treat
earthquake building code also follows the "Life-Safety" principal
earthquake victims". Various government departments are also
and hence suffers from the same disadvantage. With growing
paying much attention on keeping essential infrastructure like
public awareness - many have decided against taking the
bridges and airports operational even in case of major
associated risk. Clients are laying down additional conditions
earthquake.
and safeguards to their architects and structural engineers as
254 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 255

Solution to this problem is in developing a seismic system the structure during the earthquake to reduce the structural
to be incorporated into the building which could somehow response.
absorb the earthquake energy. This would result in decreasing
DAMPERS OR ENERGY DISSIPATERS
the energy dissipation demand on the structural components
i.e. beams, columns, slabs etc. This will increase the survivability As we have seen earlier dampers soak up the energy of
of the building structure. Several methods can be employed by earthquake-induced motion and instead of the building swinging
which a building can withstand an earthquake with minimal back and forth repeatedly as earthquake vibrations are
structural damage. Some of the most popular ones used in transmitted; it remains stationary as the motion of the dampers
contemporary architecture are discussed below. absorbs the energy. There are four types of dampers as discussed
below:
ENERGY DISSIPATION SYSTEMS
1. Traditional Viscoelastic Dampers: These are stacked
The primary reason for introducing energy dissipation plates separated by inert polymer materials
devices into a building frame is to reduce the displacement and 2. Friction Dampers: These consist of sliding steel plates
damage in the frame. However with recent advances in seismic and work on the principal that when two metal surfaces
engineering, it is well proven that - stronger and stiffer buildings slide, friction heat is produced and energy gets dissipated
will have to dissipate or absorb more earthquake energy.
3. Metallic Dampers: These consist of multiple steel plates
Displacement reduction is archived by adding stiffness and/or
which yield when a threshold force is reached.
energy dissipation (damping) to the building frame.
4. Fluid Viscous Dampers: These are fluid filled metal
Passive Energy Dissipation Systems cylinders with pistons and work like shock absorbers.
Passive energy dissipation devices have been successfully We will discuss the friction dampers and the fluid viscous
used to reduce the dynamic response of structures subjected dampers in detail here since they are the most widely used for
to earthquakes. These are conventional fixed-base systems which earthquake energy dissipation.
rely on strength and ductility to control seismic response. The
enhancing of the seismic performance of fixed-base systems Friction Dampers
involves, dissipating the seismic energy through various Energy Friction damper consists of three steel plates, rotating
Dissipating Devices (EDD). These devices are like 'addons' to against each other around a prestressed bolt, which presses the
conventional fixed-base system to share the seismic demand plates together. Between these steel plates there are two circular
along with primary structural members. A good design reduces friction pad discs, which provide dry friction lubrication in the
the inelastic demand on primary structural members, leading unit, ensuring stable friction force of the movements.
to significant reduction in structural and non-structural damage The central plates are connecting the damper device to the
Active Control Systems girder of the frame structure by a hinge, and the two sides are
connected to the bracing system. The bracing system consists
They control the seismic response through appropriate
of pre-tensioned bar members in order to avoid buckling. The
adjustments within the structure, as the seismic excitation
bracing bars are pin-connected at both ends to the damper and
changes. In other words, Active control systems introduce
to the beam-column joint.
elements of dynamism and adaptability into the structure,
thereby augmenting the capability to resist exceptional The magnitude of prestress applied to the bolt and to the
earthquake loads. A majority of the proposed techniques involves bracing bar is according to earthquake type and peak ground
adjusting lateral strength, stiffness and dynamic properties of acceleration (PGA) level.
256 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 257

These types of Friction dampers are also termed as wall Base-Isolated Systems
dampers as it is fixed with the walling unit. The design of these Base isolated systems are where; the superstructure is
dampers is very economical and can be installed within very isolated from the foundation by certain devices, which reduce
short duration. the ground motion transmitted to the structure. These devices
Fluid Viscous Dampers help decouple the superstructure from damaging earthquake
Only fluid dampers can reduce both stress and deflection components and absorb seismic energy by adding significant
in a structure during a seismic event. They are relatively smaller damping. This technique considerably reduces the structural
in size and are self-contained. They can be easily installed in response and damages to structural as well as non-structural
a structure as diagonal braces or as part of a base isolation components. Three types of base isolation systems are viz. Pile
system. Some of the advantages of fluid viscous dampers are: head isolation, Foundation isolation and Mid-level isolation.
One more type is Hybrid Base Isolation System which consists
o Long life, no maintenance;
of:
o Highly effective in soft soil;
o Linear sliders
o Dramatically decrease earth quake induced motion;
o Rubber bearings with lead plugs
o Less displacement; over 50% reduction in drift in many
o Multifunctional dampers
cases;
o Decreased base shear and inter-story shear, up to 40%; The advantages of using Hybrid Base Isolation System are:
o Reduced displacements and forces can mean less steel o Reduces the impact of very high seismic forces on
and concrete; and buildings to minimum.
o Less material means overall cost reduced and an energy o Loss of life and property least.
efficient structure Most simple example of fluid viscous o Function of building maintained during high
damper is a shock absorber in motorcycle. Design of earthquakes
fluid viscous damper is shown in Fig 12. 4. and Fig 12.5. o Can be installed in existing structural frame.
The functioning of fluid viscous damper is as given below:
ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTS
o Piston transmits energy entering the system to the fluid
This section talks about some of architectural projects all
in the damper;
over the world designed for seismic safety.
o Movement of the fluid within the damper absorbs this
kinetic energy by converting it into heat Head Office of Himeji Shinkin Bank Japan, 1972,
o After forces are removed the piston uses the same energy Yamashita Sekkei
to regain its position In 1995 there was enactment of law for promoting
Hence, building columns protected by dampers will undergo improvements to increase earthquake resistance of buildings.
considerably less horizontal movement and damage during Also, there was a need to use existing buildings for longer time
an earthquake. Thus these dampers unlike other means are periods due to low economic growth. This resulted in retrofitting
much effective in long run. Viscous dampers are especially for improving earthquake resistance of buildings without
effective in minimizing forces acting on building columns. They disrupting the normal operations of occupants such as in
reduce drifts and shear forces without introducing axial column computer office buildings, banks, hospitals and collective
forces. housing. Head Office of Himeji Shinkin Bank Japan was
258 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 259

constructed in 1972. For this purpose of retrofitting, costs of * Base Isolation System : 28 out of 44 columns on 1st floor
construction was to be kept as low as possible. were cut by a thickness of 50 cms., and rubber bearings
Making the Right Choice of the EQ System were inserted into the gaps
To meet these demands, originally they reviewed adopting * Strengthening: Remaining 16 columns were covered with
the base isolation method. For this, the gap between the steel plate of thickness 9-22 mm. (13 columns with 9
underground exterior walls and the site boundary was narrow mm., and 3 columns with 22 mm. ), thereby adding a
making installation of base isolation systems difficult, so mid- toughness to the existing rigidity
level isolation was adopted. The planning was carried out to * Dampers: Total 6 vibration control units incorporating
isolate the first floor which was mainly a car park and to viscous materials with high energy absorption
concentrate deformation on this floor in the event of an performance were installed in walls, to play the role of
earthquake. dampers. This reduced the swaying of the building.
Retrofitting using Base Isolation Systems Earthquake resistant performance after retrofitting
Earthquake resistance strengthening and renewal work * Tested assuming seismic motion on a par with the 1995
was carried out between May 1999-April 2000 by the Takenaka Great Hanshin Earthquake
Corporation. * The acceleration that occurred on the 2nd floor and
Mid-level isolation system was installed while the building higher reduced to approximately 40 % of the figure
was still being used. This new method entailed classifying and before improvements.
improving the columns on intermediate floors of an existing * The damage to columns on 2nd floor and higher was
building into flexible columns that incorporate rubber bearings limited to cracks, with the concrete not dropping and
(base isolation systems) and rigid columns wrapped in steel steel bars not being exposed
plates to add to their toughness. Shortcomings
A Structure: Steel-framed reinforced concrete (partly steel By cutting all columns and walls horizontally on a specific
structure) intermediate floor (the first floor on this occasion) and installing
Number of Floors: 1 floor below and 8 floors above ground rubber bearings in the columns that have been cut, that floor
Total floor space: 12,601.20 sqm. becomes extremely flexible, and the building will sway
Building Area: 1,806.03 sqm. horizontally with the large sway amplitude of 40-50 centimeters
under maximum level earthquakes. It therefore becomes possible
Construction: Takenaka Corporation combination of these that the finishing materials, piping and existing elevators may
two types of columns was used to improve the not be able to keep pace with the deformations and break,
earthquakeresistant performance of the whole building. perhaps resulting in their protruding from the site of the building
It was first method of improving earthquake resistance in
DT Project Osaka Japan
Japan that classified columns on the same floor as flexible
columns and rigid columns, and first case in west Japan (Kansai DT Project Osaka Japan
region) of attaching rubber bearings by cutting columns on the o Location: Osaka Japan
intermediate floors of an existing building. o Work Period: Nov 2000-Dec 2002
Base isolation improvement procedure for first floor o No. of Floors: 27
columns (1) to (4) Procedure: o Maximum Height:130 mts.
260 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 261

o Site Area: 3609 sq. mt. Earthquake in Area: The strongest earthquake,
o Building Area: 1613 sq. mt magnitude 6.75 on the Richter scale, occurred in 1892. Its
o Total Floor Space:47613 sq. mt epicenter was 25 miles west of the site.

Linear Slider Base Isolator Seismic Design

o Installed under the third floor level o Very economical viscous liquid shock absorbers.
o Installed at twelve locations o A 60% reduction in the lateral forces affecting the
foundation of the building and a 30% reduction in
o Blocks with internal bearings slide across rails, and by
structural displacement.
crisscrossing these rails, they can base isolate the
building against all directions of shaking o The horizontal movement of one floor with respect to
the next is almost totally eliminated.
Characteristics
Cost of Seismic Design
o The friction coefficient is extremely low, around 0.01
Less than 1% of the total building cost.
o Flexibility in support load, 9000 tones during earthquake
o Maximum pull out resistance Established: Spring 1998
Cost of project: $85,000,000.
Rubber Bearings with Lead Plugs
o Rubber bearings act as springs Structural system: Metal Frame work.
o The lead plugs inside the rubber bearings absorb the No. of floors: 11
vibration energy. Height of the building: 154 ft.
Multifunction Dampers Floor area: 450,473 sq. ft.
As the building sways, the flow of the oil inside cylinders The stepping of form extends the space of each floor. This
absorbs the vibration energy. permits easy maintenance of the façades. This also makes it
possible to evacuate quickly in an emergency. The superstructure
Money Store Headquarter California, USA is reinforced by a lateral system which enables the building to
Client: The Money Store Inc. withstand the most critical moments. The elastic, resistant
Architect: F.M. Kado & Associates. frames act as braces for the post-and-lintel structure, to which
Structural Engineer: Man Shatter & Miyamoto Inc. viscous liquid shock absorbers have been added.
Typology: Office building. Result
Money Store Headquarter California, USA (Fig 12.16) was An existing reinforced concrete school building in lower
one of the first structures in the USA using seismic shock Himalayan region of India is a double storey structure with use
absorbers. Requirement was to create a building that could of Friction dampers / Wall dampers. The design of these dampers
function after an earthquake with as little disruption as possible. is very economical and can be installed within very short
The building's structural system is a pyramid-shaped, seismic- duration. The Friction dampers are installed on every floor
resistant frame. A Ziggurat shape was chosen because it provides between structural members. By these dampers, building can
a feeling of firmness & stability. The building steps back as it withstand during earthquake shocks up to 6.5 - 8 on Richter
ascends; each floor is smaller than the floor below. The top level scale and able to maintain the shape i.e. it will not deform at
is rectangular measuring 92 by 128 feet. the time of induced motion due to earthquake.
262 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 263

General View * Since all 10 units/components structurally independent,

The Yapi Kredi Bank Operations Center, Gehze, Turkey, arcades between them to absorb building oscillations
sits on top of the hill taking advantage of sea views and natural upto 2.36"
setting. It is an excellent example of seismic safety in a building * Metal framework with arches supported at 2 points
on a hilly site. It is a safe building on a high seismic risk zone * Flexible covering needed - textile membrane
without compromising flexibility in design, i.e., adaptable to
The National Te Papa Tongarewa Museum Of New
changing needs of firm along with architectural quality to
Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand, Jasmax Architects,
reflect the company's prestige. All floors have same amount of
1993-98
space. Great sensitivity is provided to site landscape. The
vegetation is used to differentiate arcades from each other for Wellington is one of the most earthquake prone regions in
visitor orientation. NZ and also susceptible to strong winds. The National Te Papa
Tongarewa Museum of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand,
High risk seismic zone
is spectacularly located on the waterfront in Wellington
Prediction - massive earthquake every 500 years surrounded by mountains. It is housing country's cultural
Designed to prevent total collapse of framework treasures in an area of 395,000 sq.ft. Its fundamental aim is
No structural damage expected in small tremors integrating the European and indigenous cultures. Activities
Has faced 2 earthquakes - minimal damage in various areas of building are linked according to their cultural
origins
Structural Layout
Structural System
* Structural layout ensures that centre can be expanded
indefinitely Basic building structure a series of 5 storey high concrete
porticos reinforced by walls braced in only one direction with
* Guarantees adaptability and enhances seismic resistance
most beams and slabs prefabricated
as each unit is independent
At the base, structure has economical, highly earthquake-
* Steel building skeleton, stairs, bridges over various
resistant isolation system employing shock absorbing elements
passageways, panel coverings - all designed to neutralise
horizontal/vertical movements Principal advantage - freedom to the remaining structure
(walls, external coverings and floor slabs) + the consequent
Seismic Performance
design flexibility Reminder of the Domino system of Le
* In case of massive earthquake (1/500 years) - plastic Corbusier.
articulations in beams will absorb energy released during
tremor, preventing collapse of framework Use of Base Isolator
* Seismic standard - beam flexibility over column flexibility * Isolating base with 142 steel and rubber, lead cored
elements attached with screws
* Aluminum frames to allow for variations in concrete
and the capacity of primary structure to absorb seismic * Each isolator placed between foundation and building
movements structure under columns - absorbing part of seismic
energy transmitted through ground
* 16 columns on perimeter + 4 on interior patio absorb
vertical forces * Damage through tremors mitigated as horizontal
earthquake oscillations withstood by isolators -
* Stability of columns from exterior framework
preventing structural collapse
264 Disaster Management in India Architectural Design Projects 265

Expansion and Renovation San Francisco Court of readily exposed to public view. Isolators often blend into the
Appeals, California,Som, 1993-97 shadows and look like traditional bearing or support to passerby,
There were two demanding goals to be acheived: even when exposed on a building or bridge. One obvious way
to accent these features is use of color. Active control devices
1. Almost 100 year old building needed appropriate
are usually hidden away on the roof or in a special room the
technological and structural renovation to prevent
way mechanical equipment is always concealed from view.
earthquake damage
Emergency management centre in Foligno, Italy can be used
2. Need for blending of the old and new
to direct post- earthquake emergency operations. Overall
During the earthquake in 1989 (magnitude 7.1), a serious configuration of the structure as well as the use of isolators
damage had occurred to building requiring repair and clearly expressed the earthquake safety. This requires care in
renovation. Hence, Two-pronged earthquake resistance strategy the structural and architectural detailing and effective use of
for formulated involving: contrasting colors.
1. Finding the appropriate isolators & Damper
2. Placing of these isolators. The damper is an enormous 800-ton, 6 m dia. ball of welded
Seismic Solution steel plates. It is constructed of thick plates of steel and is
* A Friction Pendulum System (FPS) was placed between suspended from cables like a pendulum. It hangs inside the top
the foundation and basement. of the building and is visible from the restaurant and bar which
* Each main column was cut and then supported on encircles the space around the ball. Damper helps to stabilize
hydraulic jacks the tower in high winds and earthquakes. It can reduce tower's
movements by up to 40%. The device's components were made
* 256 pendulum bearings, concave stainless steel cylinders,
in Canada, France and Italy -- except for the massive steel
attached under the top part of the severed columns
plates, which were made in Taiwan.
* These were repositioned on sliders attached to the top
of the lower section of the columns. The Taipei 101, Taipei, Taiwan with height of 509 meters
(1670 ft) holds several "tallest building" records, including the
A combination of 2 structural systems was employed: highest occupied floor. The design is inspired by traditional
* A resistant steel frame on the outer perimeter designed Chinese architecture, with a shape resembling a pagoda. The
as ductile element to absorb seismic movement. sectioned tower is also inspired by bamboo plant which is a
* A square rigid internal core for the entire height of model of strength, resilience, and elegance.
building - lateral strength for high-velocity winds. The structural design of the Taipei 101 includes its mega-
Base of core reinforced with 2- storey high braces, makes column and megaframe layout. Superstructure is composed of
tower's large window openings possible and apparent lack of large multi-story units that are said to form an architectural
structural elements effect resembling a bamboo shaft. At the base, the large built-
up steel columns slant outward as they go down, this has a
Emergency Management Centre In Foligno, Italy
beneficial effect in resisting lateral forces.
The significant challenge in design of Emergency
Management Centre in Foligno, Italy was visually expressing Damper Sphere
"earthquake-resistant" devices. Most common was to install For the Taipei 101 Russ Thomas, director of the council's
seismic isolators is the basement which is often not an area Fire Risk Management Program, after visiting the construction
266 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 267

site said that, "The building is safe with the damper in it. With
the damper, people will feel more comfortable when working
inside."
CONCLUSIONS
These days with increasing awareness about seismic safety
in buildings, people living in seismic zones are building on the 14
basis of performance than just meeting the "Life- Safety", or
"Minimum Code Design". Construction of Stone Buildings in
Various architectural projects are discussed in the chapter Areas of J&K
from all over the world. All the projects have employed very
innovative measures for seismic safety of structures. This proves
that the incorporating seismic safety measures in the design
INTRODUCTION
do not restrict the architect's ability to create great designs, but
make the structures imperishable. These guidelines have been specially framed for the
reconstruction of collapsed or severely damaged houses in the
various affected areas of Jammu & Kashmir and also
construction of new houses in these areas. The guidelines
will also be helpful in earthquake resistant construction of
houses in other parts of the State and the other States which
fall in seismic Zones IV and V of the Seismic Zoning Map of
India.
OBJECTIVES OF THE GUIDE
The main objective of these guidelines is to illustrate the
earthquake resisting construction measures in accordance with
the Seismic Zoning Map of Jammu & Kashmir using the building
construction standards adopted in India, namely, IS: 4326 and
IS: 13828 of 1993.
According to Seismic Zoning Map of India there are the
following seismic zones in Jammu & Kashmir.
Zone V : MSK Intensity IX or higher is probable to occur.
Zone IV : MSK Intensity VIII is probable here
The recommendations contained herein are based on these
probable Intensities for the design of buildings according to
the Codes. Reconstruction and new construction of buildings
will be safe if it would be in accordance with the specified
Intensities.
268 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 269

SCOPE OF THE GUIDE OPTIONS FOR ROOF AND FLOOR TYPES

These guidelines cover those houses which are situated in The main type of roof and floors adopted in houses using
the earthquake prone zones and whose bearing walls are built stone masonry in Jammu & Kashmir are:
using coursed stone masonry or brick work, or concrete block (1) Wood logs supporting wooden planks.
workand do not exceed 7.0 meters in length in any room and (2) Sawn wood rafters or trusses with sawn wood purlins
the number of storeys are no more than two. covered with CGI sheets.
The roof can be flat or sloping. The earthquake resistant There is a tradition of using sloping roofs with light covering
provisions are indicated for seismic Intensities MSK > IX, and
of corrugated galvanized sheet. The roof should have adequate
VIII as appropriate for the earthquake damage prone Zones V,
slope to deal with snow & rain.
and IV respectively.
Construction of walls using mud mortar as well as cement REQUIRED EARTHQUAKE SAFETY PROVISIONS
mortars is dealt in this Guide. For the Seismic Zones V, & IV (MSK Intensity IX or higher
and Int. VIII respectively) the following safety provisions are
OPTIONS FOR WALL TYPES
specified. Building Categorisation (as per IS: 4326-1993 read
The following wall types are normally used in stone-building with IS: 1893 - 2002). In accordance with the value of the design
construction. seismic coefficient, the Building Category may be taken as
Seismic Zoning Map of Jammu & Kashmir Type Of Wall follows for selecting earthquake resistance features:
Relative Seismic Safety
Measures for Achieving Seismic Safety
(i) Dressed (Ashlar) stone masonry in cement mortar. First
For all Building Categories
(highest)
(ii) Coursed rubble stone masonry in cement mortar. Second In all seismic zones, the following measures should be
adopted as per IS-4326 for masonry walls of all types.
(iii) Random rubble stone masonry in cement mortar Third
(i) Control on length, height and the thickness of walls in
(iv) Dressed stone (Ashlar) masonry in mud mortar Fourth
a room.
(v) Courses rubble stone masonry in mud mortar. Fifth
(ii) Control on size and location of openings.
(vi) Random rubble stone masonry in mud mortar. Sixth
(iii) Control on material strength and quality of construction.
(lowest)
Additional Measures for all Building Categories D to E
From earthquake safety point of view, the above walls may
be graded as shown against each. Unfortunately, their costs (iv) Seismic band at plinth level (may be omitted if founded
also vary more or less similarly except dressed stone masonry on rock or hard soil)
in mud may come second in place. (v) Seismic band at door-window lintel level in all cases.
In place of cement - sand mortar, appropriate mix of cement- Where flat roof is adopted:
lime - sand mortar may also be used if found economical and (vi) Seismic band at ceiling level of floors or roofs consisting
feasible. Note: Dressed (Ashlar) stone masonry walls behave of joisted roofs or jointed prefab elements.
similar to other rectangular building units, such as brick, and (vii) Stiffening of prefab elements in roofs/floor where used
concrete blocks and dealt fully in IS:4326 - 1993, the main (using peripheral seismic band and RC screed integrated
safety features of which are included in these guidelines. together). where sloping/pitched roof is used:
270 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 271

(viii) Seismic band at eave level of sloping roofs. Use of Existing Old Foundation
(ix) Seismic band at top of gable wall and ridge wall top Houses of pre-damage dimensions and heights could be
(where such walls used). built on existing foundation constructed in stone laid in
(x) Bracing in roof structure of trussed as well as raftered compacted sand or mud mortar. The existing foundation may
roofs. be excavated to about 230 mm below ground level where base
(xi) Vertical Steel bar at each corner and T junction of walls. concrete 150 mm thick in 1:4:8 mix is to be cast on the existing
lower part of the footing.
Additional measures for all buildings of Category E
TREATMENT AT PLINTH LEVEL
(xii) Seismic band or dowels at corners and T-junctions at
window sill level. This will depend on site-soil condition as follows:
(xiii) Vertical steel reinforcing bars at jambs of doors and a. Rocky Ground: The seismic band at plinth is not required.
large windows. Use damp-proof course (D.P.C.) as usual on the strip
foundation. It may be cement-sand mortar of 1:3 mix
Note: The vertical reinforcement at jambs of small windows
25mm thick or 1:2:3 micro concrete 38mm thick, with
and ventilators (say 600 mm x 600 mm or less) may be omitted.
damp proofing compound mixed in each case.
SITING AND FOUNDATIONS b. Boulder or Soil Site: In each case, use RC seismic band
The land slide prone areas as determined by the geologist of 75 to 100mm thickness for detail of the band).
should be avoided for construction or reconstruction of buildings. NE MASONRY WALLS IN MUD MORTAR
New Foundations Stone masonry walls built using mud mortar and other
Rocky Ground details as given in the following paras, could be used for housing
only, for reasons of affordability or nonavailability of cement
Weathered, jointed and fissured rock may be levelled by
supply. Stone masonry in mud should not be used for community
chiseling, in steps of about 150 mm and stepped strip footing
buildings such as schools, hospitals, mosques, etc.
built on it, with the foundation width of 600 mm for two
storeyed houses. Note:-Round boulders should not be used for the construction
of walls.
Boulder site may be leveled by removing small boulders but
leaving large boulders in place. If the rock is massive, the Construction Control
surface should be roughened by chiseling and stepped-strip (i) The mortar should be clay mud of good quality.
footing built on it. In all cases, the base concrete of (ii) The wall thickness `t' should preferably be kept 450mm,
sufficient thickness (with a minimum of 100 mm) should be but not to be larger than 500mm. In any case, the stones
used for leveling before starting the masonry or concrete with of the inner and outer walls should be interlocked with
plums. each other as far as possible.
Soil Site (iii) The masonry should preferably be brought to courses
Use stepped-strip foundation with minimum depth of 750 at not more than 600 mm lift so as to achieve `coursed
mm below ground level and width of 700 mm (upto 2 storeyed rubble masonry'.
houses). For each additional storey, increase width by 300 mm. (iv) `Through' stones or 'bonding elements' of full length
The footing masonry should be brought in steps upto the plinth equal to wall thickness should be used in every 600 mm
level or concrete with plums may be used. lift at not more than 1.2m apart horizontally.
272 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 273

(v) In place of `through' stones, `bonding elements' of Ceiling Band: It is a band provided immediately below the
concrete bars of 50mm x 50mm section with an 8mm roof or floors.
dia rod placed centrally or solid concrete blocks of Gable Band: It is a band provided at the top of gable
150 x 150 x length equal to wall thickness may be used. masonry below the purlins.
Alternatively, seasoned wooden battens of 50 mm x 50 Eave Band: It is a band provided on top of walls just below
mm size may be used as bonding element. the sloping roof of rafters or trusses to which they will be
(vi) Long stones of 600 mm length or solid concrete blocks securely fixed through nails and iron straps.
of 150 x 150 x 600 mm size should be used at wall Overall Seismic Arrangement
corners and T-junctions every 600 mm height to connect
The seismic bands at various critical sections shall be as
the perpendicular walls effectively. Alternatively, or
follows:
seasoned wooden batten of 60 mm x 60 mm size may
be used. Seismic bands at plinth, and lintel, ceiling or eaves level
in buildings will be provided in all internal and external walls
Control on Wall Length and Building Height continuously without break and in:
Height of the coursed rubble masonry walls in mud mortar 1. Lintel band
should be restricted, with storey height to be kept 2.7m 2. Ceiling/floor band
maximum, and span of walls between cross walls to be limited
3. Vertical member
to 5.0 m as follows:
4. Door
In Zone IV : preferably upto two storeys, in any case of
5. Window
category D or E In Zone V: preferably one storey
6. Plinth band
If walls longer than 5m are needed, pilasters or buttresses
7. Dowels at wall corners
may be used at intermediate points not farther apart than
3.5m. The size of the pilaster or buttress be kept of uniform 1. Lintel Band
thickness with top width equal to the thickness of main wall 2. Eaves level (roof )band
`t' and the base width equal to t or one sixth of wall height. 3. Gable band
Seismic Bands 4. Door
5. Window
Definitions
6. Vertical member
Plinth Band: Plinth band is a band provided at plinth
level of walls on top of the foundation wall. This is to be 7. Rafter
provided where strip footings of masonry (other than reinforced 8. Holding down bolt
concrete or reinforced masonry) are used and the soil is either 9. Brick/stone wall
soft or uneven in its properties as frequently happens in hill 10. Door lintel integrated with roof band
tracts. 11. Plinth Band
Lintel Band: It is a band provided at door/window lintel 12. Dowel at wall corners in Seismic Zone V
level on all load bearing internal, external, longitudinal and 1. 30 X 50 mm wooden member
cross walls.
2. 30 X 50 mm wooden member
274 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 275

3. Long & broad-headed through nails bent at the Construction Control

other end o Mortar. The mortar in superstructure masonry should
(a) Perspective be cement-sand (1:6 in category D and 1:4 in category
(b) Details of truss connection with wall E buildings).
(c) Detail of integrating door lintel with roof band In the foundation masonry upto plinth, the mix 1:6
each storey. may be kept in all cases or concrete with plums be
In case of sloping roofs, triangular gable wall portions may used.
be avoided and this area should be covered by A.C. & C.G.I o Composite Mortar. In place of cement-sand 1:6 and 1:4
sheets. mortars, cement-lime- sand mortar may be used as 1:2:9
For vertical reinforcement, wooden planks of size 50 X 30 and 1:1:6 respectively.
mm & 80 X 30 mm joined together by nails forming a L section o Wall Thickness. The wall thickness should not be larger
is to be used and this vertical member is to be nailed to the than 380 mm (not more than 400 mm in any case) and
wooden seismic bands at plinth, sill, lintel and eaves level. The the stones on the inner and outer wythes should be
vertical reinforcement is to be placed at all the corners of the interlocked with each other as far as possible.
rooms. o Coursed. The masonry should preferably be brought to
Water Proofing courses at not more than 600 mm lift.
For protection of external walls against damage by water o `Through' Stone' 'Through' stones of full length equal
(i) Take out roof projection beyond the walls by about to wall thickness should be used in every 600 mm lift
300mm, and at not more than 1.2 m apart horizontally.
(ii) Use cement-sand mortar pointing on external face of In place of 'through' stones, 'bonding elements' of concrete
walls; OR bars of 50mm x 50mm section with an 8 mm dia rod
Water Proof Mud Plaster placed centrally or solid concrete blocks of 150 x 150 x
walls thickness, can also be used.
(i) Prepare cut-back by mixing bitumen 80/100 grade and
kerosene oil in the ratio 5:1. For 1.8 kg cut-back, 1.5 kg o Corner Stones. Long stones of 500-600mm length
bitumen is melted and is poured in a container having should be used at wall corners and T-junctions of
300-millilitre kerosene oil, with constant stirring till walls. Alternatively use of 150x150x(500 to 600) solid
complete mixing. concrete blocks to connect the perpendicular walls
(ii) Mix this mixture with 0.03 cu.m (30 litres) of mud effectively.
mortar to make it both, water repellent and fire resistant. Control on Wall Length and Building Height
(iii) The waterproof plaster is to be applied in 20 to 25mm Height
thickness and allowed to dry. It may then be coated
The height of the coursed-rubble masonry walls in cement
twice with a wet mixture of cow-dung and waterproof
mortar should be restricted as follows:
plaster in the ratio of 1:1 and allowed to dry again.
(i) For Category D : Two storey plus attic.
Stone masonry using cement mortar and other details as
set out in the following paras may be used for all building (ii) For Categories E & E+: Two storeys with flat roof or
categories in the area. one storeys plus attic for pitched roof.
276 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 277

STONE MASONRY USING CEMENT MORTAR strength deformed (HSD) or `TOR' bar located at each critical
The storey height to be kept 3.2m maximum, and span of point.
walls between cross walls to be limited to 7.0m. If rooms longer Installation of Vertical Bars
than 7m are needed, buttresses may be used at intermediate
For installations of vertical bars in stone masonry, use of
points not farther apart than 5.0m.
PVC casing pipe of 100mm external dia, 600-750 mm long is
The size of the buttress be kept of uniform thickness with recommended around which masonry be built to height 450-
top width equal to the thickness of main wall and the base 600mm and the pipe made loose by gently rotating.
width equal to one sixth of wall height.
As the masonry hardens, the pipe is raised and the cavity
For stone masonry built in cement mortar and brought to
filled with M20 concrete (nominal mix of 1:1.5:3) and fully
courses, the door and window openings should be controlled as
compacted by rodding using 12mm dia and 600mm long bar.
follows:
t = 380 for cement mortar, 450 for mud mortar
Ratio of total length of openings in a wall to length of the
wall in a room should not exceed 0.5 in single storeyed and 0.42 Keeping the Bar Vertical
in 2-storeyed. Before casting the foundation, the vertical bars must be
Distance of opening from inside corner = 450mm kept in correct in position horizontally and vertically. For this
Pier width between consecutive openings = 600mm purpose tripods may be erected using bamboos or spare
reinforcing bars.
Seismic Bands
Overall Arrangement Vertical Reinforcement at Jambs of Openings

The seismic bands at various critical sections shall be as The vertical bars are to be provided at the jambs of large
follows: openings in all category E buildings.
(i) Seismic bands at plinth, and lintel, ceiling or eaves However, if the conditions are not met, the openings should
level in buildings will be provided in all internal be boxed in R.C. with minimum 75 mm thickness and two H.S.
and external walls continuously without break in all bars of 10 mm dia. In category D & E buildings.
storeys. All New Buildings should be made earthquake resistant in
(ii) In case of sloping roofs, triangular gable walls must be the first instant so that we do not add to the stock of existing
enclosed within eave level band and a band at the top unsafe buildings.
of the gable wall. These bands must be made monolithic
Since most of the buildings are constructed using brickwork
and continuous.
or, solid hollow concrete blocks with flat roofs, very simple
(iii) For achieving good bond with masonry, the bands should illustrated guidance is provided for incorporating the earthquake
be cast directly on the masonry and its top surface resistant features suitable for seismic zone IV & V.
should be made rough. In the case of plinth and lintel
band, stones may be cast in the concrete to project out Essential Elements for Earthquake Safety:
of the concrete by 50 to 75mm so as to be built into stone The cement mortar should be used in the ratio of 1 part
walls. of cement with 6 parts of sand (1 sack of cement mixed with
Vertical Reinforcing Bars in Walls 6 equal sacks of sand) for category D and 1:4 mix for category
The vertical reinforcing of walls consists of a single high E building.
278 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 279

Opening in Bearing Walls: As doors & window openings by the casting procedure to develop good bond with the
in walls reduce their lateral load resistance and hence, should mortar. Alternatively, a frog could be created similar to
preferably be small and more centrally located. that in the bricks (say 150 X 100 X 6 mm deep so as
Vertical Reinforcement in the Brick Walls: For to provide a shear key in the mortar joint.
earthquake safety of category E buildingsreinforcing bars (ii) Since unlike the bricks, breaking the blocks is not
have to be embedded in brick masonry at the corners of all the convenient, special L/2 and L/3 blocks (140 mm and 90
rooms and the side of the door openings. Window openings mm) should be cast and used to break the continuity of
larger than 60 cm in width will also need such reinforcing bars. vertical joints.
The diameter of the bar depends upon the number of storeys (iii) Also, so as to fit the units without breaking, the size of
in the building. doors, windows, builtin cupboard, open shelves, etc. and
Providing the vertical bars in the brickwork and concrete piers between them should be multiples of the modular
blocks requires special techniques, which could be easily dimensions of 100 mm.
learnt by the supervising engineers and masons will need to Use of Hollow Concrete or Micro Concrete Blocks
be trained.
Hollow blocks have larger breakage loss during
These vertical bars have to be started from the foundation transportation than the solid blocks.
concrete, will pass through all seismic bands where they will
Hence a higher crushing strength on the solid portion of
be tied to the band reinforcements using binding wire and
the hollow blocks is essential. To achieve this, the minimum
embedded to the ceiling band/roof slab as the case may be using
crushing strength of the blocks on the solid area should be kept
a 300 mm 90° bend. Sometimes the vertical bars will not be
about 9.0 MPa and on the gross area as 5.0 MPa.
made in one full length.
In that case the extension of the vertical reinforcement Use of Mortar
bars are required, an overlap of minimum of 50 times the bar The minimum crushing strength of the masonry units
diameter should be provided. The two overlapped reinforcement on their gross area and the mortar mix should be as given
bars should be tied together by using the binding wires. before.
Concrete Block Masonry Control on Wall Height and Length of Rooms
Two types of cement concrete blocks are commonly used: Same as for brick work in concrete mortar.
(i) Solid concrete blocks of nominal size 300 X 200 X 150 Control on Door/Window Openings
mm (actual size 290 X 190 X or 200 X 140 mm)
When cement mortar as described are used in the
(ii) Hollow concrete blocks of nominal size 300 X 200 X 150 construction of houses, the same conditions as for brick in
mm cement mortar are to be used.
Solid Concrete Block Seismic Bands
Use of Solid Concrete Blocks These will be the same as for stone masonry in cement
(i) Using the concrete blocks of 300 X 200 X 150 mm mortar.
nominal size, non-load bearing walls of 150 mm thickness
Vertical Reinforcing Bars in Walls
and bearing walls of 200 mm thickness could be built.
The bearing surfaces of the blocks should be made rough Same as for stone masonry in cement mortar.
280 Disaster Management in India Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 281

Vertical Bars in Solid Concrete Block Walls frame against lateral loads. The wall coverings may consist of
Since a cavity formation in solid block walls is not feasible, EKRA, timber or like.
special concrete blocks with one hollow are cast and used at o Timber studs for use in load bearing walls shall have
the bar-points. To avoid raising of the hollow blocks high for minimum finished size of 40X90 mm and their spacing
enclosing the bar in a hollow, slit is made in the wall of the shall not exceed those given in table 13.1
hollow while casting the block. o There shall be atleast one diagonal brace for every
Vertical Bars in Hollow Block Walls 1.6X1 m area of load bearing walls. Their minimum
finished sizes shall be in accordance to table 13.2
Here cavities for locating the vertical bars are automatically
available. Slit arrangement in the sides of the hollows for o The horizontal struts shall be placed not more than one
surrounding the bars will be required. metre apart. They will have a minimum size of 30 X 40
mm for all locations
Timber has higher strength per unit weight and is, therefore,
very suitable for earthquake resistant construction. Materials o The corner post shall consist of three timber, two being
design and construction in timber shall generally confirm to IS equal in size to the studs used in the walls meeting at
883:1992. the corner and the third timber being of a size to fit so
as to make a rectangular section.
Timber construction shall generally be restricted to two
storeys with or without the attic floor. o The diagonal braces shall be connecte at their ends with
the stud wall members by means of wire nails having
Foundations 6 gauge (4.88 mm dia.) and 10 cm length. Their minimum
Timber construction shall preferably start above the plinth number shall be 4 nails of 20 mm X 40 mm braces. The
level, the portion below being in masonry or concrete. The far end of nails may be clutched as far as possible.
superstructure may be connected with the foundation in one o Horizontal bracing shall be provided at corners or
of the two ways: Tjunctions of walls at sill, first floor and eave levels. The
(A) The superstructure may simply rest on the plinth bracing members shall have a minimum finished size
masonry, or in the case of small buildings of one storey of 20 mm X 90 mm and shall be connected by means
having plan area less than 50 sq.m., it may rest on firm of wire nails to the wall plates at a distance between
plane ground so that the building is free to slide laterally 1.2 m and 1.8 m measured from the junction of the
during ground motion walls. There shall be a minimum number of six nails
(B) The superstructure may be rigidly fixed into the plinth of 6 gauge (4.88 mm dia.) and 10 cm length with clutching
masonry or concrete foundation or in case of small as far ends.
buildings it may be fixed to vertical poles embedded into Brick Nogged Timber Frame Construction: It consist
the ground. of verticals, columns sills, wall plates, horizontal nogging
Types of Framing members and diagonal braces framed into each other and the
space between framing members filled with tight-fitting brick
The types of construction usually adopted in timber building
masonry stretcher bond.
are as follows:
Stud wall Construction: It consists of timber studs and Sloping Wooden Roofs
corner posts framed into sills, top plates and wall plates. The main load bearing structural members are timber
Horizontal struts and diagonal braces are used to stiffen the trusses, purlins and bracings. The cladding may be of G.I or
282 Disaster Management in India Bibliography 283

A.C. sheeting. Sloping roofs could be made with two slopes and
gable ends or hipped type with four slopes. Against the
earthquakes or wind storms, the four slope hipped roofs are
stronger, hence safer.
Roof Structure
Bibliography
The roof structure could be made using many rafters and
battens or roof trusses with purlins. The C.G.I. sheeting is fixed
to battens or purlins using J - bolts. Alire, C. : Library Disaster Planning and Recovery Handbook,
The seismic resistance and wind resistance depends on the Neal-Schuman Publishers, Inc., New York, 2000.
bracing system and strength of connections. The following are Brian Lesser : Disaster Preparedness and Recovery: Photographic
essential for achieving safety:- Materials, American Archivist, Winter, 1983.
(i) The main ties should be mutually connected by Cronon, William :Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing
perpendicular elements, capable of acting as struts Nature, New York, WW Norton and Co., 1995.
(compression members) provided at the nodes of the Davis, Mike : Ecology of Fear, New York, Metropolitan Books,
truss. 1998.
(ii) Cross bracing must be provided in the horizontal plane Drewes, Jeanne : Computers: Planning for Disaster, Law Library
(in the plane of the main ties) throughout the truss- Journal, Winter, 1989.
span. Fox, Lisa L. : Management Strategies for Disaster Preparedness,
(iii) Besides the bracing, to achieve a very suitable roof Chicago, American Library Association, 1989.
structure, the connections of purlins to the truss-rafters, Grazulis, Tom P. : Significant Tornadoes 1680-1991, St. Johns
and the various members of the bracing and roof trusses Bay, Environmental Films, 1993.
should be connected with each other quite rigidly, using
Hadfield, Peter : Sixty Seconds that Will Change the World: The
atleast two bolts or nails at each joint and use of steel
Coming Tokyo Earthquake, Boston, C.E. Tutle, Co., 1992.
straps.
Harris, Stephen L. : Fire and Ice: The Cascade Volcanoes,
(iv) For holding down the sloping roof trusses the joists/
Seattle, The Mountaineers, 1980.
rafters could be tied or nailed to the eave band/vertical
Jane A. Bullock : Introduction to Emergency Management,
wooden post.
Amsterdam, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003.
John D. : The Last Great Subsistence Crisis in the Western
World, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.
Jones S. : Building an Emergency Plan: A Guide for Museums
and other Cultural Institutions, Getty Conservation
Institute, Los Angeles, 1999
Jordan, William : The Great Famine, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1996.
Kahn, Miriam B. : Disaster Response and Planning for
Libraries, Chicago, American Library Association, 1998.
284 Disaster Management in India Index 285

Keyes K.E. : Emergency Management for Records and

Information Programs, ARMA International, Kansas, 1997.
Laskin, David : Braving the Elements: The Stormy History of
American Weather, New York, Doubleday, 1996.
McPhee, John : The Control of Nature, New York, Farrar,
Straus, Giroux, 1989.
Index
Norris, Debra Hess : Disaster Recovery: Salvaging Photograph
Collections, Philadelphia, PA, 1998.
A 108, 110, 116, 130, 134,
Peter Woodrow : Rising From the Ashes, Developing Strategies 137, 159, 161, 166, 184,
Accountability, 136.
in Times of Disaster, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, Approach, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 185, 186, 187, 198, 204,
1989. 10, 30, 43, 56, 58, 69, 206, 211, 213, 219, 240,
73, 75, 79, 81, 117, 241, 243, 246, 252, 253,
Robert A. : Insurance for Libraries: Part I and Insurance for 277, 279.
126, 160, 231.
Libraries: Part II, Conservation Administration News, 1994. Architectural Design, 136, 141, Configuration, 70, 97, 111,
Stephen J. : Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland 252. 113, 140, 141, 142, 143,
Architectural Projects, 253, 257, 144, 150, 160, 178, 212,
Fire and Rural Fire, New Jersey, Princeton University 229, 265.
266.
Press, 1982. Construction, 8, 11, 12, 14,
Arrangements, 8, 28, 41, 43,
Stommel, Elizabeth : Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, The 46, 50, 52, 53, 172, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22,
26, 33, 35, 36, 40, 47,
Year Without a Summer, Newport, Seven Seas Press, 1983. 175, 184, 249.
60, 64, 70, 72, 73, 77,
Varley, Anne : Disaster, Development Environments, New York, B 81, 83, 88, 90, 92, 97,
J. Wiley, 1994. Brick Wall, 201. 103, 107, 115, 116, 118,
Building Configuration, 97, 140, 119, 125, 126, 129, 136,
Walker, Bridget : Women and Emergencies, Oxford, Oxfam, 137, 140, 146, 155, 156,
142, 212.
l994. 160, 166, 172, 173, 174,
Waters, Peter : Procedures for Salvage of Water-Damaged C 176, 180, 181, 185, 189,
Library Materials, Washington, DC, Library of Congress, Chemical Disasters, 47. 193, 194, 195, 196, 197,
198, 199, 200, 201, 202,
1979. Committees, 5, 6, 9, 18, 19,
25, 29, 35, 38, 240. 203, 204, 205, 206, 212,
Watson, Lyall : Earthwork: Essays on the Edge of Natural 213, 217, 233, 240, 242,
Communication, 20, 21, 24,
History, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1956. 243, 244, 245, 246, 247,
27, 28, 36, 37, 39, 40,
Webster, Noah : A Brief History of Epidemic and Pestilential 48, 52, 61, 63, 81, 121, 248, 249, 251, 258, 265,
267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
Diseases, with the Principle Phenomena of the Physical 123, 124, 190, 191.
Community, 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 275, 279, 280, 281.
World which Proceed and Accompany Them, Hartford, Corporate, 7, 41, 42.
Hudson and Goodwin, 1799. 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 29,
30, 31, 35, 38, 39, 41, Cyclone Shelters, 17, 71.
Worster, Donald : Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s, 43, 44, 49, 56, 57, 58, Cyclones, 1, 16, 24, 33, 64,
New York, Oxford University Press, 1979. 59, 60, 66, 71, 204, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 236.
Zenaida, D. : Women and Children During Disaster: 271. D
Vulnerabilities and Capacities, Elaine Enarson and Betty Conditions, 1, 44, 61, 66, 67,
71, 72, 73, 94, 105, Damped Vibration, 101.
Hearn Morrow, 1995.
286 Disaster Management in India Index 287

Development, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 146, 153, 155, 156, 157, H 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 161, 167, 178, 180, 185, Hazard Zones, 243. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,
15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 27, 186, 188, 192, 193, 204, Hazards, 6, 13, 20, 22, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 205, 207, 210, 212, 217, 30, 31, 35, 56, 66, 68, 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50,
35, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 227, 235, 236, 240, 253, 69, 70, 71, 86, 110, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 53, 254, 257, 259, 262, 265, 116, 138, 148, 196, 197, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66,
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 282. 202, 203, 246, 247, 252, 69, 82, 83, 193, 194,
61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 72, Elements, 9, 14, 19, 37, 40, 261, 262. 207, 247, 264, 265.
87, 101, 168, 170, 185, 77, 78, 95, 100, 115, Mitigation, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
187, 193, 202, 205, 211, 125, 126, 127, 136, 139, I 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
215, 225, 236, 237, 238, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, Information, 19, 21, 26, 27, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
239, 240, 242, 243, 244, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 28, 36, 39, 41, 55, 56, 20, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30,
245, 247, 248, 250. 152, 153, 155, 156, 164, 57, 58, 92, 113, 133, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38,
Disaster Prevention, 2, 7, 9, 167, 170, 175, 180, 188, 207, 213, 219, 244, 246. 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 49,
10, 20, 30, 42, 55. 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, Institutional Arrangements, 46, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60,
Disaster Recovery, 46. 198, 199, 211, 215, 220, 50. 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 69,
Disaster Risk management, 10, 221, 257, 265, 267, 272, Institutional Mechanisms, 2, 3, 82, 83, 185, 186, 190,
17, 20, 21, 26. 280, 282. 32. 207, 236, 240, 251.
Disaster Risk Reduction, 7, 21, Emergency Management, 3, 25, Institutions, 13, 14, 15, 18,
32, 41, 42. 32, 82, 83, 264, 265. N
20, 21, 24, 40, 41, 48,
Disasters, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 21, 56, 242, 249. National Cyclone, 17.
22, 23, 29, 31, 32, 38, F Natural Disaster, 1, 9, 44, 46,
Instruments, 12, 48, 91, 92,
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, Financial Arrangement, 10. 93. 47, 51, 59, 131, 236,
47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, Fire Protection, 77, 79, 81, 82, Insurance, 54, 60, 129, 130, 240, 250.
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 191, 209. 131, 135, 249, 253. Natural Hazards, 20, 29, 30,
60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, Foundations, 73, 76, 105, 106, Investment, 46, 94, 249, 252. 31, 33, 83, 249.
83, 132, 249, 251. 120, 137, 138, 172, 176, Involvement, 7, 62, 193, 194. Network, 25, 26, 27, 28, 36,
Distribution, 48, 86, 113, 120, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 37, 41, 55, 56, 61, 83,
122, 125, 126, 133, 139, 219, 229, 270, 280. L 224.
141, 143, 145, 150, 160, Freedom, 98, 99, 263. Landslides, 1, 17, 24, 67, 68,
161, 162, 163, 165, 183, O
71, 72, 73, 74, 104,
187, 203, 215, 219. G Occurrence, 53, 60, 66, 82,
108, 128, 134, 137, 240.
Government, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, Legislation, 51, 52, 238. 83, 85, 92, 155, 156,
E 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 235.
Liquefaction, 11, 104, 105,
Earthquake Occurrence, 85. 20, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 106, 107, 108, 110, 116, Organizations, 16, 18, 22, 23,
Earthquake Risk Management, 30, 31, 32, 36, 41, 42, 120, 128, 134, 183, 211, 29, 30, 41, 47, 82.
66. 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 240, 245.
Earthquakes, 1, 11, 12, 24, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 62, P
43, 44, 45, 66, 73, 74, 63, 64, 65, 82, 122, M Panchayati Raj, 18, 39, 48.
77, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 129, 132, 190, 237, 241, Maintenance, 77, 194, 196, Past Earthquakes, 103, 109,
88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 103, 242, 243, 252, 253. 204, 212, 213, 256, 261. 115, 126, 134, 136, 144,
104, 105, 108, 109, 110, Guidelines, 9, 10, 16, 22, 29, Management, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 146, 153, 207, 227.
111, 113, 115, 119, 125, 48, 60, 62, 66, 77, 82, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, Performance, 60, 102, 103,
126, 127, 129, 130, 133, 83, 136, 155, 175, 201, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 116, 118, 119, 123, 126,
134, 135, 136, 143, 144, 206, 238, 240, 267, 268. 136, 138, 140, 141, 142,
288 Disaster Management in India Disaster Management in India 289

144, 145, 146, 153, 185, 82, 131, 136, 235, 236,
193, 194, 205, 208, 209, 237, 238, 239, 244, 246,
210, 213, 216, 231, 232, 250, 251.
233, 252, 253, 254, 258, Research, 16, 41, 44, 47, 55,
259, 262, 266. 56, 57, 59, 83, 93, 186,
Philosophy, 151, 153, 156, 214, 215, 219.
160, 180, 208. Responsibility, 5, 11, 16, 28, Contents
Plate Tectonics, 86, 93. 32, 46, 48, 62, 155,
Policy, 2, 3, 6, 7, 21, 22, 180, 194.
30, 32, 34, 35, 46, 49, Risk Management, 10, 17, 20, Preface
51, 52, 194, 238. 21, 26, 55, 66, 265.
Precautions, 77, 80, 173, 202. Risk Reduction, 2, 7, 17, 21,
Prevention, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 22, 32, 41, 42, 55, 249.
1. Disaster Management in India—An Overview 1
9, 10, 19, 20, 30, 32, 2. Earthquake Risk Management 66
33, 40, 42, 49, 54, 55, S
56, 57, 59, 62, 64, 131, Seismology, 84, 87, 88, 91, 3. Elementary Seismology 84
210, 236, 250. 92.
Projects, 7, 10, 30, 33, 60, Soil Stabilisation, 185. 4. Theory of Vibrations 94
61, 62, 64, 130, 235, Sustainable Development, 6, 8,
237, 239, 240, 252, 253, 9, 30, 55. 5. Performance of Ground and Buildings in
257, 266. Past Earthquakes 103
Protection, 9, 60, 69, 77, 79, T
81, 82, 83, 130, 191,
6. Site Planning, Building Forms and
Tsunami, 68, 73, 74, 75, 76,
209, 223, 237, 239, 241, 77, 108, 109, 116. Architectural Design Concepts 136
242, 245, 246, 248, 274.
V 7. Seismic Design Principles 146
Provision, 42, 52, 61, 71, 79,
80, 130, 132, 158, 187, Vibrations, 88, 94, 95, 97, 98, 8. Earthquake Resistant Design and Detailing 154
197. 100, 139, 154, 160, 255.
Provisions, 12, 16, 130, 138, Vulnerability, 6, 7, 9, 11, 14, 9. Earthquake Resistant Construction Detailing 180
141, 155, 156, 158, 159, 15, 18, 21, 22, 28, 30,
160, 161, 190, 195, 238, 32, 34, 44, 45, 53, 55, 10. Construction Quality Control 193
239, 245, 268, 269. 60, 81, 83, 87, 115,
11. Vulnerability Assessment and
130, 131, 135, 205, 206,
R 207, 208, 210, 212, 218, Seismic Strengthening of Buildings 205
Regulations, 11, 12, 34, 78, 236, 243. 12. Techno-legal and Techno-Financial Aspects in
Building Projects 235
‰‰‰
13. Architectural Design Projects 252
14. Construction of Stone Buildings in Areas of J&K 267
Bibliography 283
Index 285
Disaster Management in India