9/24/2019

BCM 209:INTERMEDIATE ACCOUNTING

Ibrahim Osman Adam CA, PhD

[email protected]

LECTURE 1

• Preparation of internal and published

financial statements
• Preparation of financial statements of
comprehensive income, changes in equity
and financial position

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Main purpose

• This lecture explains how to prepare statements

of income and financial position.
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• understand the structure and content of
published financial statements;
• prepare statements of comprehensive income,
changes in equity and financial position;
• explain the nature of and reasons for notes to
the accounts.

Preparing a statement of income

The steps are to:

• identify year-end adjustments;
• calculate year-end adjustments;
• prepare an internal statement of income.

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The format of statements of income for

publication
IAS 1 allows a company to choose between two
formats for detailing income and expenses.
• Format 1: Vertical with costs analysed according
to function, e.g. cost of sales, distribution costs
and administration expenses; or
• Format 2: Vertical with costs analysed according
to nature, e.g. raw materials, employee benefits
expenses, operating expenses and depreciation.

Classification of operating expenses and

other income by function
Classify operating expenses into one of four
categories:
• Cost of sales
• Distribution and selling costs
• Administrative expenses
• Other operating income or expense.

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Cost of sales

It may include:
• Direct materials; direct labour; other external
charges that comprise production costs from
external sources.
• Overheads: variable and fixed production
overheads.
• Depreciation and amortisation: depreciation of
non-current assets used in production and
impairment expense.
• Adjustments: capitalisation of own work as a
non-current asset.

Distribution costs

Costs incurred after the production of the finished

article and up to and including transfer of the goods to
the customer.
For example:
• Warehousing costs such as rent, rates and wages.
• Promotion costs such as advertising.
• Selling costs such as sales staff salaries and
commissions and cost of rent, etc. on showrooms.
• Transport costs, e.g. gross wages and pension
contributions of transport staff, vehicle costs such as
running costs, maintenance and depreciation.

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Administrative expenses

Costs of running the business that have not been

classified as either cost of sales or distribution
costs.
For example:
• Administration, e.g. salaries
• Property costs, e.g. rent and rates
• Bad debts
• Professional fees.

Other operating income or expense

Derived from ordinary activities of the business

that have not been included elsewhere.
For example:
• Income from intangible assets such as royalties.
• Income from employees such as canteen
repayments to use intangible assets like
licences.

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Current tax

Current tax is
• an estimated figure;
• treated as an expense in the statement of income;
• a current liability in the statement of financial
position;
• might be higher or lower than the company’s
estimate in the following accounting period.
Underprovisions will be
• added to the following year’s estimated tax charged
in the statement of income.

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Current tax (Continued)

Overprovisions will reduce the following year’s tax

charge.
Underprovisions

• will be added to the following year’s estimated

tax charged in the statement of income.
Overprovisions

• will reduce the following year’s tax charge.

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The statement of income using Format 1

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The statement of income using Format 1

(Continued)
Gains and losses previously recognised directly in
equity and presented in the statement of changes
in equity.
For example:
From the revaluation of non-current assets and
from other items relating to financial instruments
and employee benefits.

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The statement of income using Format 1

(Continued)

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Information disclosed by way of note

• Accounting policies.
• Details of certain items that have been charged
in arriving at operating profit.
For example:
– Exceptional items
– Showing the makeup of individual liabilities and
assets
– Sensitive items such as auditors’ remuneration
– Subject to judgement.

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Decision useful income

Research indicates that:

• comprehensive income was more decision-
relevant for assessing share returns;
• traditional net income more decision-relevant for
setting executive bonus incentives.

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Decision useful income (Continued)

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Statement of changes in equity

a) For each component of equity showing:

• the effects of changes in accounting
policies; and
• corrections of errors recognised in
accordance with IAS 8.
b) The amounts of transactions with equity
holders in their capacity as equity holders,
showing:
• contributions by; and
• distributions to equity holders separately.

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Statement of changes in equity

(Continued)

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Other items appearing in a statement of

changes in equity
Other items may include:
– Prior period adjustments
– Share issues
– Transfers from revaluation reserve.

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The statement of financial position

• IAS 1 specifies which items are to be included

on the face of the statement of financial position,
e.g.
(a) Property, plant and equipment
(g) Inventories
(k) Trade and other payables.
• It does not prescribe the order and presentation
that is to be followed.
• In almost all cases, it would be appropriate to
split items into current and non-current.

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Notes to Statement of Financial Position

• Notes setting out accounting policies.

• Notes giving greater detail of the make-up of
items that appear in the statement of financial
position.
• Notes providing additional information to assist
predicting future cash flows.
• Notes giving information of interest to other
stakeholders.

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Has prescribing the formats meant that

identical transactions are reported identically?
Differences still arise:
• how inventory is valued;
• the choice of depreciation policy;
• management attitudes;
• the capability of the accounting system.

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Percentage difference in gross profit

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What is meant by a fair view?

IAS 1 requirements
a) Select and apply accounting policies in
accordance with IAS 8 Accounting Policies,
Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors.
b) Present information, including accounting
policies, in a manner that provides relevant,
reliable, comparable and understandable
information.
c) Provide additional disclosures when
compliance with the specific requirements in
IFRSs is insufficient.

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True and fair view – legal opinion

• Accurate within acceptable limits.

• Differences over acceptable limits.
• Room for differences over method to adopt.
• Cost-effectiveness.
• Sufficient in quantity and quality to satisfy
reasonable expectations.

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Fair override

• Allowed if application of an IAS might be

misleading.
• Explain why compliance with IASs would be
misleading.
• Give sufficient information to calculate the
adjustments required to comply with the
standard.

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What does an investor need in addition to

the financial statements to make decisions?
• More quantitative information in the accounts
(discussed in lecture 4) including:
– Segmental analysis.
– The impact of changes on the operation, e.g.
a breakdown of turnover, costs and profits for
both new and discontinued operations.
– The existence of related parties.

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What does an investor need in addition to

the financial statements to make
decisions? (Continued)
• More qualitative narrative information, including:
– Mandatory disclosures
– Chairman’s report
– Management commentary
– Directors’ report
– Best practice disclosures: operating and
financial review
– Business Review in the Directors’ report
– Strategic Report.

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Mandatory disclosures

• The write-down of assets to realisable value or

recoverable amount.
• The restructuring of activities of the enterprise
and the reversal of provisions for restructuring.
• Disposals of items of property, plant and
equipment.
• Disposals of long-term investments.
• Litigation settlements.

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Review questions

1. Explain the effect on income and financial

position if (a) the amount of accrued expense
were to be underestimated and (b) the inventory
at the year-end omitted inventory held in a
customs warehouse awaiting clearance.
2. Explain why two companies carrying out identical
trading transactions could produce different
gross profit figures.

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Review questions (Continued)

3. Classify the following items into cost of sales,

distribution costs, administrative expenses, other
operating income or items to be disclosed after
trading profit:
(a) Personnel department costs
(b) Computer department costs
(c) Cost accounting department costs
(d) Financial accounting department costs
(e) Bad debts

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Review questions (Continued)

(f ) Provisions for warranty claims

(g) Interest on funds borrowed to finance an
increase in working capital
(h) Interest on funds borrowed to finance an
increase in property, plant and equipment.

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Review questions (Continued)

5. When preparing accounts under Format 1, how

would a bad debt that was materially larger than
normal be disclosed?
6. ‘Annual accounts have been put into such a
straitjacket of overemphasis on uniform
disclosure that there will be a growing pressure
by national bodies to introduce changes
unilaterally which will again lead to diversity in the
quality of disclosure. This is both healthy and
necessary’. Discuss.

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Review questions (Continued)

7. Explain the relevance to the user of accounts if

expenses are classified as ‘administrative expenses’
rather than as ‘cost of sales’.
8. IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements requires
‘other comprehensive income’ items to be included in
the statement of comprehensive income and it also
requires a statement of changes in equity. Explain
the need for publishing this information, and identify
the items you would include in them.

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Review questions (Continued)

9. Explain the difference between accounting policies,

accounting estimates and prior period errors and
how each affects the financial statements.

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