Rock Mechanics Student Manual

Student Guide
TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT
Rock Mechanics
November 2011
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ROCK
MECHANICS
Course At the end of this course, you should be able to:
Objectives • Explain the importance of Rock Mechanics and how the concepts are
used to design better products and services to our customers.
• Identify the key terms and concepts that are used in studying Rock
Mechanics.
• Define the differing characteristics and uses of rock strength tests.
• Identify how the models are used in the IDEAS lab.
• Explain the effects of confining pressure on rock samples.
Suggested • Introduction to Roller Cones

Pre-requisites • Introduction to Fixed Cutter Bits
• Basic Geology
Following Along in the Manual
When you see this on the screen:
You should see this in your manual:

Acronyms From This Book
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CCS Confined Compressive Strength
DOC Depth of Cut
DSE Drilling Specific Energy
HHP Hydraulic Horse Power
IDEAS Integrated Dynamic Engineering Analysis System
kPa Kilo Pascal
LBf Pound Force
MSE Mechanical Specific Energy
PSI Pounds per Square Inch
ROP Rate of Penetration
SE Specific Energy
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
WOB Weight on Bit

Mechanical Properties
of Rock
CHAPTER 1
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ROCK
Chapter At the end of this chapter, using any resources available, you should be able to:
Objectives
• Explain how rocks fail in different conditions.
• Explain the theory behind how rocks break.
• Determine how rocks behave with differing hydrostatic pressures and
insert geometries.
©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 1

Chapter 1 –Mechanical Properties of Rock (Student Manual)
Table of Contents
Course Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Course Overview ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Course Objectives ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Purpose for Studying Rock Mechanics.................................................................................................................................... 5
Course Organization................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Exercise: Rock Types Review ................................................................................................................................................... 6
Rock Strength and Weakness ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Hardness vs. Strength ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Mohs Hardness Scale ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Chemical Composition........................................................................................................................................................... 10
Exercise: Rock Strength .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Porosity vs. Permeability......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Porosity Definition ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Permeability Definition ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Permeability Illustration ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
High Porosity and Low Permeability ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Low Porosity and High Permeability ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Porosity Illustration ................................................................................................................................................................ 14
High Porosity and High Permeability ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Chapter Review, Part A............................................................................................................................................................ 16
Chapter Review, Part B............................................................................................................................................................ 17
Chapter Review, Part C............................................................................................................................................................ 18

Course Introduction
Course Overview This course is an introduction to the field of rock mechanics and will cover the
following topics:
• Rock strength and material testing
• Testing in the IDEAS lab
• Rock fracturing and shearing
Course Objectives At the end of this course, using any resources available, you should be able to:
• Explain how different rock types fail under various conditions.
• Explain the theory behind how rocks break.
• Explain the effects of different hydrostatic pressures and insert
geometries on rock behavior.
• Understand how Schlumberger uses data from the IDEAS lab to design
products and deliver services.
• Explain how rock mechanics testing is used and how the resulting data
affect drilling jobs.
• Analyze and interpret combined force displacement graphs.
Purpose for Understanding how rocks fail is important because it helps us develop better
Studying Rock products and provide better services to our customers. Using rock mechanics,
Mechanics we can:
• Design better drill bits and other drilling tools for various formations.
• Know which tools and techniques will most efficiently drill through the
rock type under the specific formation condition.
• Help maximize the longevity of our drill bits on a job.
• Understand how to destroy rocks to drill effectively.
Course In this course, you will learn the basics of rock mechanics. We will begin by
Organization defining some commonly used terms. Then, we will discuss the rock strength
tests that are used across the industry and specifically in our IDEAS lab.
Lastly, we will learn how to interpret the graphs produced by the rock strength
tests and examine how we can use the information to build tools.

Exercise: Rock Types Review
Examine the rock samples that you receive in class. Identify each rock by type, name, and
characteristics.
Metamorphic rocks:
Sedimentary rocks:
Igneous rocks:

Rock Strength and Weakness
Hardness vs. Rock hardness is measured by how easily a mineral resists or receives scratching.
Strength For example, if a rock is difficult to scratch, it is considered to be hard. Several
factors affect a rock’s hardness. The hardness of a rock can affect how long
drilling tools last and how easily it is to drill into the rock. Hardness is related to
the rock’s atomic structure and how easily the bands of atoms separate or break.
Mohs Hardness A common reference guide used to determine rock strength is the Mohs Hardness
Scale scale. The Mohs Hardness scale was developed in 1812 by a German mineralogist
named Frederich Mohs. The scale defines the relative measures of mineral
hardness of 10 common minerals.
The Mohs hardness scale is not even. For example, although corundum is listed as
number 9, diamond (at number 10) is substantially harder than corundum. Their
closeness on the scale suggests that they are similar in hardness, but that is not the
case. Another example is fluorite. Fluorite is listed at number 4, but is only
slightly harder than calcite, listed at number 3. The images on the next page are
examples of minerals on the Mohs hardness scale.
Relative and Absolute Hardness Scale

Mohs’ Hardness Comparison Material Simple Means of Absolute Hardness
Testing Hardness
1 Talc Can be scratched with 0.03
a fingernail
2 Gypsum Can be scratched with 1.25
a fingernail
3 Calcite Can be scratched with 4.5
a copper coin
4 Fluorite Easily scratched with 5.0
a knife
5 Apatite Can be scratched with 6.5
a knife
6 Orthoclase Can be scratched with 37
steel file
7 Quartz Scratches window 120
glass
8 Topaz 175
9 Corrundum 1,000
10 Diamond 140,000

Minerals on the Mohs Hardness Scale
1. Talc 2. Gypsum
3. Calcite 4. Fluorite
6. Feldspar
5. Apatite

7. Quartz 8. Topaz
9. Corundum 10. Diamond

Chemical A rock’s chemical composition (also called mineralogical composition) affects its
Composition strength and hardness.
Out of approximately 2,000 different kinds of minerals, there are nine that are
commonly found in rocks. They are:
• Quartz
• Feldspar
• Mica
• Hornblende
• Augite
• Olivine
• Calcite
• Kaolinite
• Dolomite

Exercise: Rock Strength
Read the example below and answer the question. Use Mohs’ Hardness Scale in the previous section
as a reference.
The hardness measurements of the mineral Kyanite are different depending on the direction of the
grain. When scratched perpendicular to the cleavage plane, the mineral has a hardness of about 7.
However, when scratched along the cleavage plane, the hardness reduces to about 4.
What do you think creates different hardness measurements in the same mineral or rock sample?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Porosity vs. Permeability
Porosity Definition Porosity describes the amount of voids (space) present in rock. These pores
contribute to the non-uniformity of the structure and texture of rock. Porosity
varies among different types of rock. The pores in a rock affect how well the
rock conducts heat, gas, and water. Porous rocks retain more moisture. Pores
also make rock weaker.
Effective porosity vs. Absolute porosity
Permeability Permeability describes the ability of a fluid to pass through a rock.

Definition Permeability is important to study in rock mechanics because it helps us
determine how well or poorly hydrocarbons will flow out of a formation.
Permeability is determined by using Darcy’s law (an equation that describes

the fluid flow through a porous substance) or by using the appropriate
estimation equations. There are several ways to determine permeability,
including well testing, wireline, formation tests, drill stem tests (DST), etc. but
the most accurate method is to use a core sample.
Where:
k=Darcy A= cm²
Q=cc per second L=cm
M=cp ΔP=psi

Permeability The following images illustrate the difference between porosity and
Illustration permeability:
High Porosity and

Low Permeability

Low Porosity and
High Permeability
Porosity
Illustration

High Porosity and
High Permeability

Chapter Review, Part A
Review the list of rocks below. Decide if each is permeable or impermeable and explain your answer.
Rocks: granite, sandstone, marble, slate, basalt, chalk
Permeable or Why
Impermeable
Type of Rock
Granite
Sandstone
Marble
Slate
Basalt
Chalk

Chapter Review, Part B
In groups, examine your rock samples. (1) Identify the name and type of rock (metamorphic, igneous,
or sedimentary). (2) Put the rocks in order from least to most porous. Explain your reasoning.
Name of Rock Type of Rock Level of Porosity

Chapter Review, Part C
Let’s review what we have learned in this chapter. Working in groups, briefly answer the following
questions.
1. What is the difference between porosity and permeability?
2. What is the difference between chemical and physical weathering?
3. What is the Mohs hardness scale and how is it useful when studying
rock mechanics?

Rock Strength Testing
CHAPTER 2
ROCK STRENGTH TESTING
Objectives
• Define the characteristics and uses of various rock strength tests.
• Describe the tests used to determine rock strength.
• Explain the difference between UCS and CCS.
• Explain how the different stages of the stress-strain curve show the
mechanical characteristics of rock.

Chapter 2 – Rock Strength Testing (Student Manual)
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction to Rock Strength Testing ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Types of Rock Strength Tests ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Definitions................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Rock Strength.......................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Axial Strain .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Radial Strain ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Discussion Question: Rock Formation Strength ...................................................................................................................... 8
Stress Strain Curves .................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Definition ................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Description .............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Exercise: Stress Strain Curves ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Unconfined Compression Test ............................................................................................................................................... 16
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) ............................................................................................................................. 16
Standard UCS Test Description ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Illustration of a UCS Test....................................................................................................................................................... 16
Discussion Question .............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Direct Shear Test...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Confined Compressive Strength (CCS) ................................................................................................................................. 18
Definition ............................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Hydrostatic Pressure ............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Triaxial Compression Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Definition ............................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Information about Mohr’s Circle............................................................................................................................................. 19
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Exercise: Choosing a Rock Strength Test ............................................................................................................................. 21
Exercise: Breaking Rocks in the Yard.................................................................................................................................... 22

Introduction
Introduction to One of the most important purposes of studying and using rock mechanics is to
Rock Strength determine the mechanical conditions under which rock will become
Testing permanently deformed or fractured. By studying the stresses that cause rock
deformation, we can anticipate how rock formations will behave and develop
the right tools to use in various drilling conditions.
Types of Rock There are several different types of rock strength tests. Tests are chosen based
Strength Tests on the data they will yield about a test sample. In this class, we will study the
following tests used in characterizing rocks:
• Unconfined compression
• Direct shear
• Triaxial compression
• Triaxial rock strength
• Indentation
• Punch penetration

Definitions
Introduction Before we discuss the different rock strength tests, let’s review some basic
concepts and definitions.
Rock Strength To test material strength, we use tension tests. In rock mechanics, we use
compression tests. Remember: Compressive rock strength defines the stress at
which the rock fails destructively. It is expressed in force per unit area:
Weak rock= low breaking stress

Strong rock=high breaking stress
We should describe rock as _______________________________________,
not as ______________________________________________________.
Axial Strain Axial strain occurs in the direction that a load is applied or along the same axis
as the applied load. Axial strain is how much a rock deforms in the axial
direction.
Illustration of axial strain.

Radial Strain
Example of radial strain on rock in Utah, USA.

Discussion Examine the rock formation table distributed in class. Compare the
Question: Rock unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of several different formation types.
Formation What do you observe? Explain your observations below.
Strength

Stress Strain Curves
Definition The stress is the measured load applied to a sample material. Strain is the
measured deformation the sample shows when a load is applied. Some
characteristics of strain include elongation, compression, and distortion.
Description A stress-strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between

the stress and strain applied to the material. The strain is measured from the
material and recorded on the curve. Stress-strain curves are unique for each
type of material. To create a stress-strain curve, tensile or compressive force is
applied and the deformation is recorded. The resulting curve is used to explain
the properties of the material, like Young’s Modulus, toughness, brittle/ductile,
strength or weakness.
In the next exercise, we will examine examples of stress strain curves.

Exercise: Stress Strain Curves
Follow the directions for each graph. Label the graphs as they are discussed aloud in class.
1. Study this graph.

Describe what this 2
graph shows you
about the test.
Label what the 3
positions on the 3
graph represent.
1.
2.
3.

2. Here, draw a
graph comparing
rock hardness to
weakness. Label
each line
accordingly.

3. Study this graph.
On the blue line,
draw lines to
distinguish
between ductile
and brittle rock.
Label each line
accordingly. Then,
extend the graph to
show ductile and
brittle rocks.
Describe what this
graph shows you
about the test.

4. Draw the stress
strain curve for
CLAY on this
graph. Describe
what this graph
shows you about
the test.

5. Draw the stress
strain curve for
CHERT on this
graph. Describe
what this graph
shows you about
the test.

6. Draw the stress
strain curve for
SANDSTONE on
this graph.
Describe what this
graph shows you
about the test.

Unconfined Compression Test
Unconfined During UCS testing, the confining pressure is exposed to Earth’s atmospheric
Compressive pressure (the pressure at the Earth’s surface).
Strength (UCS)
The confining pressure is atmospheric. These are the values of atmospheric
pressure, shown in different units:
• 14.7 psi
• 1 atmosphere
• 9.87 mPa
Standard UCS Test During a standard UCS test, an axial load is compressed onto a rock sample.
Description The load is then increased until the rock fails or 15% strain has occurred.
There is no lateral support on the rock sample. UCS is equal to the axial load
when it fails (the maximum sustained load).
Illustration of a
UCS Test
F
ucs =
aA
Discussion Why do we use porous stone in UCS testing?

Question _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Direct Shear Test
Introduction The direct shear test is used to find the strength of a material sample.
Direct shear testing is used in the following:

• To find the bearing capacity of rock for building foundations.
• To calculate the amount of pressure exerted by soil/rock on a retaining
wall.
During a typical direct shear test, a shearing stress is placed laterally across the
rock sample. The stress is increased until the rock fails. The test is conducted
several times to provide an experimental measurement for the rock sample.
Discussion How are direct shear and UCS tests similar? How are they different?
Question
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Confined Compressive Strength (CCS)
Definition Confined compressive strength is a measure of the stress at which the rock
fails destructively under some confining pressure. The test simulates the
downhole conditions and rock forces experienced by the formation inside the
wellbore.
Types of confining pressure typically affecting the wellbore include:
• Hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.

• Geo-tectonic forces at depth (a formation near the hole, not necessarily
adjacent to the hole wall, providing pressure to the formation at the
hole wall)
• Differential Pressure (hydrostatic – pore pressure) for porous rocks
(sandstones, etc.), pressure from the rock of the bore hole.
Hydrostatic Hydrostatic pressure is the normal, predicted pressure at a given depth.

Pressure Hydrostatic pressure is also defined as the weight exerted per unit area by a
column of fluid at a certain depth.
Abnormally low pressure might occur in areas where fluids have been drained,
such as a depleted hydrocarbon reservoir.
High pressure might occur in areas where water-filled sediments have been
rapidly buried by impermeable sediment (such as clay). Rapid burial causes
fluids to become trapped and the pore pressure is increased with deeper burial.

Triaxial Compression Test
Definition The triaxial compression test is performed according to standard D2664 set by
the American Society for Testing and Material. The triaxial compression test is
similar to the unconfined compression test, but lateral pressure is applied. The
test simulates the behavior of rock underground because it applies significant
confining pressure to the sample during loading.
After testing, sample strengths are plotted on a stress strain curve and Mohr
circle to determine the failure criteria for the rock type.
Information about Mohr’s circle is a graph that shows stress at a given point in time. The circle
Mohr’s Circle shows three different types of stresses:
• Tensile
• Compressive
• Shear (counterclockwise and clockwise)
Why is Mohr’s circle important?

Using Mohr’s circle, we can tell when deformation will start to occur or where
deformation will happen in a piece of rock.

Description During a tri-axial test, a load cell measures the applied force in the axial
direction by compressing the core sample.
The axial strain is the shortening of the sample from its original axial length
dimension.
The radial strain is the lengthening of the sample on the axis perpendicular to
the applied load (increase in circumference of the rock core sample).
In the initial loading of the sample, a linear trend is observed in both the axial
deformation and the radial deformation. This zone is in the elastic region.
When the load is removed, the sample recovers to its original shape and size.
As the load increases, we enter the plastic zone. In this zone, the sample is
being physically changed in response to the applied load. Grains may be
compressing, collapsing, or rotating to adjust to the load. This is called
dilatancy. Dilatancy is the tendency of a compacted granular material to dilate
(expand in volume) when sheared. Alterations to the rock in this zone are non-
recoverable. The rock sample is altered permanently. Eventually, the ultimate
strength of the rock is identified when it fails.
Illustration of a triaxial rock strength

test.

Exercise: Choosing a Rock Strength Test
Read each scenario below. Using the information, choose a rock strength test for the situation. Then,
explain your reasoning.
1. You have received samples from the field from two different sites. You need
to compare the rock strength heterogeneity of the samples.
Which test would you use?
Why?
2. You have a sample from the field. You need to find out the bearing capacity
(for pressure) that the rock can withstand.
Why?
3. You need to simulate how a rock will behave underground (down hole). You
also need to find the pressure the rock can withstand under an axial load.
Why?

Exercise: Breaking Rocks in the Yard
Use the rock chisels and/or hammers to break the rock samples listed below. As you break each rock,
note the breakage pattern that you see. Explain if the rock was easy or hard to break. Explain your
answers.
Name of the Rock Easy or hard to break Explanation

Insert & Punch
Penetration Testing
CHAPTER 3
INSERT AND PUNCH
PENETRATION TESTING
Chapter At the end of this chapter, using any resources available, you will be able to:
Objectives
• Identify the characteristics and uses of punch penetration tests.
• Explain how a crater model is used.
• Identify how the crater model is used in the IDEAS lab.

Chapter 3 – Insert and Punch Penetration Testing (Student Manual)
Table of Contents
Punch Penetration Testing ........................................................................................................................................................ 5

Benefits of Punch Penetration Testing .................................................................................................................................... 5
Description .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Punch Penetration Test Machine ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Crater Created by the Punch Penetration Testing Machine .................................................................................................... 6
Cutting Action-Crater Mechanism............................................................................................................................................ 6
Practice: Crater Model ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Practice: Rock Failure Penetration Test Curve 1..................................................................................................................... 8
Practice: Rock Failure Penetration Test Curve 2..................................................................................................................... 9
Practice: Rock Failure Penetration Test Curve 3................................................................................................................... 10
Single Insert Penetration Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Single Insert Penetration Test ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Force Measurement from Insert Indentation Test.................................................................................................................. 12
How to Read the Graph ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Combined Force Displacement ............................................................................................................................................. 13
Insert Indentation Test Crater ................................................................................................................................................ 14
Exercise: Indentation Test Comparisons ............................................................................................................................... 15

Punch Penetration Testing
Benefits of Punch Rock brittleness is measured as a function of rock strength. To measure rock
Penetration brittleness, we use sample core and punch penetration testing. Punch
Testing penetration tests are used to evaluate the boreability characteristics of rock
formations. Punch penetration tests are extremely valuable in rock mechanics
because they are the only rock tests where the rock surface is penetrated by a
tool. The penetration causes crushing and chipping in the rock. We are then
able to examine how the rock has changed and make assumptions about the
rock strength and composition. Penetration testing also allows us to compare
rock samples to other rocks and characterize them empirically.
Description During a punch penetration test, a conical insert is pressed into a rock sample
that is inside of a confining steel ring. The pressure load is applied. The load
and displacement of the indentor are recorded.
The data from the punch penetration test yields a force-penetration curve. The
curve indicates the energy that is needed to chip the rock, also known as the
rock’s excavatibility. Excavatibility is affected by the stiffness, brittleness,
and porosity of the rock sample.
Punch Penetration
Test Machine
The punch penetration machine creates a crater in the rock.

Crater Created by
the Punch
Penetration
Testing Machine
Cutting Action- Impact on the rock is created when the cutter stress exceeds the compressive
Crater Mechanism strength of the formation. The formation is crushed below the cutting structure,
creating a wedge of rock shaped like the cutter. This wedge is a highly
compressed area. Then, the wedge is pushed ahead into the formation. Micro
fractures develop in the formation, surrounding the compressed zone and
propagating away from the compressed wedge. Fluid fills micro fractures to
equalize hydrostatic pressure within the fluid column, which will help in lifting
fractured region cuttings. The fracture angle for this region is usually 30°.

Practice: Crater In your own words, describe what is happening in the crater model below.
Model
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Practice: Rock Draw curve 1 on the graph as you follow along in class.
Failure Penetration
Test Curve 1
Stress Strain Curves for Rock Failure
Curve 1 shows typical brittle failure. A glass rod is an example of a material

with brittle failure. The glass exhibits very little elasticity and no plasticity.
On Curve 1, the strain varies linearly until the rock breaks. The failure will be
along a single plane inclined about 30° to the maximum applied stress. This
result is typical when the minimum principal stress is low.
After the in-class discussion, the facilitator will show each graph on the PowerPoint
slide.

Practice: Rock Draw curve 2 on the graph below as you follow along in class.
Failure Penetration
Test Curve 2
Curve 2 breaks in stages. The amount of confining pressure is increased from
Curve 1. In Curve 2, the 30° fractures will happen more frequently and will
also be parallel to each other.
On Curve 2, the rock failure will be along a single-plane incline at

approximately 30° to the maximum principal stress. This curve is typical when
the minimum principal stress is increased or when the confining pressure is
increased. The failure zone will encompass a series of parallel failures, rather
than a single plane.
slide.

Practice: Rock There is only plastic deformation in Curve 3. An example of plastic
Failure Penetration deformation is a hammer hitting a piece of brass. When the hammer hits the
Test Curve 3 brass, it leaves the imprint of the hammer. Another example of plastic
deformation is a footprint in clay. The foot leaves an impression in the clay
just like the hammer leaves an impression in the brass.
Curve 3 shows a typical plastic failure. There is no distinct failure point. There
is high strain with little resistance to the applied stress.
slide.
Draw Curve 3 on the graph below as you follow along in class.
Discussion How is each curve different from the others? Explain.

Question Curve 1:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Curve 2:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Curve 3:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Single Insert Penetration Testing
Single Insert A single insert penetration test is performed using a single insert impact testing
Penetration Test machine. The rock sample is loaded inside the pressure vessel. Hydraulic
fluids are pumped into the tester chamber. All of the testing equipment is
enclosed in a large, metal cylinder.
The recording mechanisms measure the depth of penetration and penetration
force of the fracture region. We can then determine how the rock fails.
Single insert used in indentation testing

Force The graph below shows the decrease in force measurements from insert
Measurement from indentation tests. Note the drops in force for each measurement. The drops
Insert Indentation indicate where the rock fracture occurred during the test. The rock breaks in
Test steps, not all at once. We perform multiple tests using the same insert at
different locations on the same rock sample.
Combined Force Displacement

0015659(Chisel);LU;2000 psi
25000
20000
Penetration Force, lbf
15000
10000
1402M1
1403M1
5000 1404M1
1405M1
1402M1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Depth of Penetration (in)
How to Read the 0015656 (Chisel): the first number shows the part number and insert type that
Graph was used during the test.
LU: abbreviation for the type of rock. (Leuder Limestone)
2,000 PSI: confining pressure exerted on the sample during the test.
At the end of the tests, we take an average of results to enter into the rock files.

Combined Force On the graph below, the black line represents the model of the specific rock.
Displacement The model is stored in the IDEAS rock library. The other lines show the
results of other tests.
Combined Force Displacement 9300M2

9301M2
0022290(Chisel); NU; 5000 psi
9302M2
35000
9319M1
Model
30000 9321M1
9322M1
(lbf)lbf
25000
Force,
Force
20000
Penetration
Penetration
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Depth of Penetration (in)

Depth of Penetration, in
Discussion How does this graph differ from the previous graph?
Question _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Insert Indentation The image below shows the crater that is formed during a typical insert
Test Crater
indentation test and the insert used during the test.
The scanner measures the volume of the crater. Those measurements and the
model of the insert penetration test becomes a rock file in the database.
3-D scanner in the IDEAS lab
Example of a crater model

created by the IDEAS 3-D
scanner.

0025933 (Red) & 0022290 (Black): NU: 5000 psi
35000
©2011 Schlumberger
30000
2004-1751M1
2004-1753M1
25000 2004-1754M1
9301M1
9300M2
9301M1
20000
9302M2
1792A
1793A
15000 9320
9321
10000
Rock Mechanics
5000
0
Exercise: Indentation Test Comparisons
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

1. Examine the chart below. Then answer the question on the next page.

15
Based on the graph, what can you conclude about the rock samples that were tested?

2. Study the graph and two images below. Using the information on the graph, decide which image
is Carthage marble and which image is Leuders limestone. Explain your answer below.

3. Examine the graph and images below. Compare the two graphs below. Using the images and
graphs, explain why it is important to complete a slow indentation test. Explain your answer
below.
Slow 2005-16853
0052317(Chisel): CM: 2000 psi
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Instantaneous 2007-5116M2
0051729(Chisel): CM: 2000
50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Insert Tests &
Fracture Types
CHAPTER 4
INSERT TESTS AND FRACTURE
TYPES
Objectives
• Explain the effects of confining pressure on rock samples.
• Describe how rock behaves during triaxial compression tests.
• Identify insert and fracture types.

Chapter 4 – Insert Tests and Fracture Types (Student Manual)
Table of Contents
Triaxial Test Examples .............................................................................................................................................................. 5

Confining Pressure Review ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Stress Hardening..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Effects of Hydrostatic Pressure on Resistant Rocks ............................................................................................................... 7
Discussion Question ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Types of Insert Cone Shapes ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Common Insert Shapes ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
Insert Size Comparison ............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Fracture Shape Examples ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
Common Fracture Shapes .................................................................................................................................................... 10
Uniform Fracture ................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Butterfly Fracture ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Random Fracture .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Exercise: Fracture Tests.......................................................................................................................................................... 12

Triaxial Test Examples
Confining Remember from our earlier discussion that confining pressure is pressure that
Pressure Review is exerted on a formation from all sides. We will discuss confining pressure
again in this chapter.
Confining pressure increases in lower depths.
Review the triaxial test examples on the next page.

Use these charts to answer the discussion
question at the bottom of the page.
Atmospheric
Pressure
Confined
Highly
Confined
Label the plasticity, elasticity, and hardness on
each of the 3 charts.
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________

Stress Hardening Stress hardening occurs when a higher confining pressure yields a higher/longer
elastic region in the triaxial test.
Effects of Rocks will typically strengthen with increased hydrostatic pressure, but some
Hydrostatic rocks are not as sensitive as others. For example, Carthage Marble is not
Pressure on sensitive at all, as shown on the graph below. High density and high UCS are not
Resistant Rocks sensitive to confining pressure.
Discussion Looking at the graph below, how can you tell that the rock is resistant to
Question hydrostatic pressure?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Types of Insert Cone Shapes
Introduction Different insert shapes are used during various rock strength tests. We use
different insert shapes to determine which shape is the most effective to
fracture a rock.
Common Insert The insert shapes that are commonly used in the IDEAS lab are:
Shapes
Chisel Conical
Discussion What kind of formation is a chisel insert used for? What kind is a conical
Question
insert used for?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Insert Size Comparison
Discussion Examine the graph below. State the differences between using a large and
Question small insert.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Leuders Limestone
Small Insert Large Insert

12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Fracture Shape Examples
Common Fracture The way the rock fractures depends on the insert geometry.
Shapes Some common rock fracture shapes are:
• Uniform
• Unique shape
• Random
Uniform Fracture In a uniform fracture, the rock fails in a circular pattern around the insert, as
shown below. In the image below, we can determine that the fracture region
propagated from a conical insert.
Colton Sandstone

Butterfly Fracture The butterfly fracture is created by a chisel insert. Instead of breaking around
the chisel, the rock breaks on each side of the crest. It does not completely
communicate the breakage to the adjacent chisel in the pattern.
Torreybuff Sandstone
Random Fracture The random fracture does not show any specific pattern. Sandstone usually has
crater/fracture geometry similar to their insert shape. With shale, due to the
ductile property, the geometry ends up to be usually a random shape.
Limestone

Exercise: Fracture Tests
Examine the two images below of nugget Sandstone and the test graph. What do you notice about the
fracture points on the rock?

0022290(Chisel); NU; 5000 psi
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
9300M2
5000 9302M2
9319M1
Model
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4

Examine the two images below and the test graph. How does chert behave differently from sandstone
during the test?
D_2002-MIX
(Ace, Chisel, & Conical): Chert:4000 psi
40000 4361 ACE 4362 ACE
4367 ACE 4368 ACE
35000 4369 0031355 4370 0031355
4371 0024817 4372 0024817
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Examine the two images below and the test graph. Compare the force required to penetrate the chalk
with the force required to penetrate the sandstone and chert. How is the required force different?
What design features would you put in a roller cone bit if you are drilling chalk?
2002-ACE MIX
Ace 2 (Mod): Chalk not soaked: 3000 psi
600
500
400
4478
300 4477
4392
4393
200 4482
4483
100 4484
0
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-100
-200

Shear Tests
CHAPTER 5
SHEAR TESTS
Objectives
• Describe the purpose and procedures of conducting shear tests.
©2011 Schlumberger Introduction to Rock Mechanics 1

Chapter 5 – Shear Tests (Student Manual)
Table of Contents
Introduction to Shear Tests....................................................................................................................................................... 5

Definition ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Example of Shearing ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
Shear Test Examples ................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Shear Test Review .................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Sandstone vs. Limestone (Vertical) Example .......................................................................................................................... 6
Sandstone vs. Limestone (Horizontal)..................................................................................................................................... 7
Cutter Shearing Tests ................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Description .............................................................................................................................................................................. 8
PDC Scrape Tests .................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Description ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Continuous Scrapes .............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Segmented Scrapes .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Shear Test Examples ............................................................................................................................................................ 13
Back/Side Rake Effects............................................................................................................................................................ 14
Back Rake Comparisons ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
Side Rake Comparisons ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Course Review ......................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Introduction to Shear Tests
Definition A shear test is used to measure the shear strength properties of rock or soil.
Shearing describes a type of deformation that occurs when rock surfaces begin
to slide past each other. Shearing happens when the material stress is
orthonormal to the direction of the applied stress.
Example of When paper is cut, the scissors cause it to fail in a shearing direction, with the
Shearing pieces moving past each other and past the blade.

Shear Test Examples
Shear Test Review As mentioned in Chapter 3, we use the shear test to determine the
consolidated-drained shear strength of a material sample.
Direct shear testing is used for the following:

• To find the bearing capacity of rock for building foundations.
• To calculate the amount of pressure exerted by soil/rock on a retaining
wall.
Sandstone vs. Below is the penetration force for a chisel insert on a nugget sandstone and
Limestone Carthage marble.
(Vertical) Example
Discussion Examine the graph below. How many times did each rock sample fracture
Question during the test? What is similar about the behavior of these two different rock
types under vertical indentation?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Nugget Sandstone Carthage Marble Confining pressure =

2,000 PSI
50000
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Sandstone vs. Pay attention to the Y-axis in the shear test below. The Y-axis shows the
Limestone lateral force, not the penetration force. Also, a chisel insert is used at 3,000 PSI
(Horizontal) confining pressure. In this test, the Carthage marble and nugget sandstone
perform very differently. In the previous test, the rocks performed similarly.
It takes less force to fail nugget sandstone, making it an ideal opportunity to
use a high offset bit or PDC.
Carthage Marble Nugget Sandstone
3500
Confining pressure =
3,000 PSI
3000
2500
Lateral Force, lbf. FLC
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Lateral Disp., in DLC
When comparing penetration force, both rock samples share similar penetration forces. However in
a shearing environment, the nugget sandstone requires less force to shear when compared to the
Carthage marble. The sandstone will be an excellent candidate to use with a high offset bit with
gauges or a PDC bit.

Cutter Shearing Tests
Description The shear test can cut up to 250°. The width of the cut is called a kerf. During
the test, the cutter is pushed deeper into the sample during the first 10°. Then,
the depth is maintained for another 40°, to complete a 50° segment. At the end
of the test, the forces (vertical, radial and side) are measured. The depth is
increased every 40°-50°.
Discussion We do not perform scrape tests too close to the edge or too close to another
Question test. Why should tests be performed far apart on the rock sample?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Back Rake Illustrations

PDC Scrape Tests
Description The PDC scrape test measures four different depths of cuts. Each test covers a
50° radial distance. The first 10° advances the depth of the cut. The volume of
rock removed will be the depth of the cut and kerf. When the depth of cut
(DOC) increases, so does the kerf.
PDC scrape tests measure 3 forces:

Fv~vertical force
Fcut ~ scraping force
Fside ~ radial force
Cutter Profile Plot

Continuous In the example below, the depth of the cutter was increased after every 40-50
Scrapes degrees. As the cutter gets deeper into the sample, the footprint becomes
wider.
Discussion Why was the depth of the cutter increased in this example?
Question _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Narrow,
shallow Wider,
cut. deeper
cut.

Segmented Segmented scrapes typically happen in softer formations, where the rock tends
Scrapes to accumulate (or ball-up) in front of the cutters.
Leuders Limestone

Shear Test Examine the graphs below. Use the blue section to take notes as each graph is
Examples discussed in class.
Notes:
F-Cuts ______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
F-Side
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
F-Vertical
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Back/Side Rake Effects
Back Rake The next 3 graphs study the effects of differing back rake.
Comparisons
Notes:
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Side Rake The next 3 graphs study the effects of differing side rake.
Comparisons
Notes:
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Course Review
Make a list of each of the rock strength tests discussed during the course. Then, use a large sheet of
white paper and markers to draw the graphic organizer below. Draw one organizer for each rock
strength test. Use the example below to complete each organizer using information about the test.
What does the

test measure?
Name of rock strength test How does the

test relate to
drilling?
How does the

test work?
Provide a
description of the
procedure and
necessary testing
equipment.


Rock Mechanics Student Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rock Mechanics Student Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rock Mechanics Student Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Student Guide

TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

Suggested • Introduction to Roller Cones

When you see this on the screen:

You should see this in your manual:

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

CCS Confined Compressive Strength

DOC Depth of Cut

DSE Drilling Specific Energy

HHP Hydraulic Horse Power

IDEAS Integrated Dynamic Engineering Analysis System

kPa Kilo Pascal

LBf Pound Force

MSE Mechanical Specific Energy

PSI Pounds per Square Inch

ROP Rate of Penetration

UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength

WOB Weight on Bit

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 1

Course Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 5

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 3

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 5

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 6

Relative and Absolute Hardness Scale

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 7

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 8

9. Corundum 10. Diamond

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 9

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 10

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 11

Effective porosity vs. Absolute porosity

Permeability Permeability describes the ability of a fluid to pass through a rock.

Permeability is determined by using Darcy’s law (an equation that describes

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 12

High Porosity and

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 13

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 14

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 15

Rocks: granite, sandstone, marble, slate, basalt, chalk

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 16

Name of Rock Type of Rock Level of Porosity

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 17

1. What is the difference between porosity and permeability?

2. What is the difference between chemical and physical weathering?

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 18

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 1

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 3

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 5

Weak rock= low breaking stress

We should describe rock as _______________________________________,

Illustration of axial strain.

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 6

Example of radial strain on rock in Utah, USA.

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 7

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 8

Description A stress-strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between

In the next exercise, we will examine examples of stress strain curves.

©2011 Schlumberger Rock Mechanics 9