USA History by Aamir Mahar

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

HISTORY
OF
USA
Aamir Khan Mahar
Author is not responsible for any fact/information mentioned in this booklet. This is a
complied work. All contents had taken from different Internet sources.

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

Chapter. 01 America at a Glance

Chapter. 02 Facts about America
Chapter. 03 Presidents of America
Chapter. 04 Study Plan for History of USA
Chapter. 05 History of USA (Timeline)
Chapter. 06 Notes In Brief (National Officers Academy)
Chapter. 07 Short Notes (Revised Syllabus)
Chapter. 08 Questions and their Answers (Outlines)
Chapter. 09 History of USA (Summary)
Chapter. 10 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
Chapter. 11 Useful Quotations for Paper

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

A Critical Summary of USA History Subject

Dear Aspirants,
History of the United Sates as a subject in the CSS Examination
is very easy and informative subject. It has a great similarity with
International Relations, Current Affairs, and topics you prepare
for Essay. The examiner demands you to answer around 22
different questions rather than 22 Areas of American History.
Out of 22 Questions, 14 are purely from Current Affairs and
International Relations as per revised syllabus of FPSC. If you
start analyzing questions in the Syllabus of USA History Subject-
the examiner demands you to have critical approach of those 14
issues that are having high level of resemblance with day-to-day
knowledge (Current Affairs & International Relations). It isn’t
typical style of history oriented subjects rather a story of the
nation. The syllabus is very short compared to any subject in CSS
Exam except Gender Studies. As for as MCQs are concerned the
examiner ask ten MCQs from history and ten from Current
Affairs.

Good Luck.

Aamir Mahar
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USA History by Aamir Mahar

USA HISTORY SUBJECT

A) Historical Perspective
1. From Discovery to Advent of Europeans (1492-1606)
2. USA as a British Colony (1606-1783).
3. USA as an Independent Country (183 - 1819)
4. Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)
5. Constitution of the USA: Salient Features
6. (Check and Balance in US Constitution)
7. Civil War (1850 - 1869)
8. Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers (1870 -1916)
9. USA’s role in the Two World Wars
a. 1914 – 1918
b. 1939 - 1945
10. American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole super Power
(1945 - 1990)
11. Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson,
12. The Great Depression and the New Deal
13. Civil Rights Movement
14. US Presidential Election
15. US Congress and its Mandate

B) Current Scenario
1. American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations 1945 –
2012
2. Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two
World Powers.
3. International Concerns of USA: An Overview.
4. The War on Terror and the Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 2012)
5. Global perceptions of the USA.
6. United States Role in International Conflicts

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

America at a Glance
Independence Date: 3rd Sep, 1783
Declaration of Independence: 4th July, 1776
President: Barrack Hussain Obama
Vice President: Joe Biden
Speaker of House: John Boehner
Chief Justice: John Robert
Largest City: New York
Current Government: Democratic
Current Constitution: 21st June 1788
Total Area: 9,826,675 km2
Population: 312,879,000 (3rd)
GDP: Above $16 trillions (1st)
Per Capita: $ 48,147/- (15th)
Chief of Army Staff: Gen. Raymond T. Odierno
Director CIA: General David H. Petraeus
Official language(s): None at Federal Level

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

Facts about America

1. Columbus discovered America on 1492 A.D.
2. The United States is divided into 50 states. However state each varies
in size considerably. The smallest state is Rhode Island with an area of
just 1,545 square miles (4,002 sq km). By contrast the largest state by
area is Alaska with 663,268 square miles (1,717,854 sq km).
3. Although English is the most commonly spoken language used in the
U.S. and is the language used in government, the country has no
official language.
4. The hottest temperature recorded in the United States (and in North
America) was in Death Valley, California on July 10, 1913. The
temperature measured 134°F (56°C).
5. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the United States was at
Prospect Creek, Alaska on January 23, 1971. The temperature was -
80°F (-62°C).
6. Location: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and
the North Pacific Ocean, between Canada and Mexico.
7. Rhode Island is the smallest US state in size
8. 27% of Americans believe we never landed on the moon.
9. There are five US states with no sales tax. They are: Alaska, Delaware,
Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon.
10. Alaska is the state with the highest percentage of people who walk to
work. Virginia is the birthplace of more Presidents than any other
state - eight (G Washington, T Jefferson, J Madison, J Monroe, WH
Harrison, J Tyler, Z Taylor and W Wilson). Ohio is a close runner up
with seven (US Grant, RB Hayes, JA Garfield, B Harrison, W
McKinley, WH Taft and WG Harding).

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

Presidents of America
1. George Washington 28. Woodrow Wilson
2. John Adams 29. Warren G. Harding
3. Thomas Jefferson 30. Calvin Coolidge
4. James Madison 31. Herbert Hoover
5. James Monroe 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt
6. John Quincy Adams 33. Harry S. Truman
7. Andrew Jackson 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
8. Martin Van Buren 35. John F. Kennedy
9. William Henry Harrison 36. Lyndon B. Johnson
10. John Tyler 37. Richard M. Nixon
11. James K. Polk 38. Gerald R. Ford
12. Zachary Taylor 39. James Carter
13. Millard Fillmore 40. Ronald Reagan
14. Franklin Pierce 41. George H. W. Bush
15. James Buchanan 42. William J. Clinton
16. Abraham Lincoln 43. George W. Bush
17. Andrew Johnson 44. Barrack Obama
18. Ulysses S. Grant
19. Rutherford B. Hayes
20. James Garfield
21. Chester A. Arthur
22. Grover Cleveland
23. Benjamin Harrison
24. Grover Cleveland
25. William McKinley
26. Theodore Roosevelt
27. William Howard Taft
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 Study Plan for History of USA
JOHN ADAMS
1. President John Adams inherited George Washington’s policy problems but
not his aura of leadership. Elaborate. (2000)

THOMAS JEFFERSON
1. Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American Presidency in 1800
as “the Second American Revolution”. Was the claim justified? Support your
answer with evidence. (2001)
2. Discuss Jefferson's decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory, and explain
the political and economic impact of this decision on the United States. (2004)
3. Thomas Jefferson was termed “a bull in the china closet” by the Federalists
when he became the President of the United States of America but his policies
and performance negated this impression. Discuss. (2009)
4. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ
from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2011)
5. Discuss Thomas Jefferson as president, politician and political theorist. (2013)
6. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy
differ from those of Jeffersonian? (2015)

MONROE DOCTRINE
1. Monroe Doctrine was a Charter of America’s Isolation. Still what
circumstances compelled U.S.A. to plunge into the World Wars. (2000)
2. What is Monroe Doctrine? On what occasions has it been enforced and with
what results? (2005)
3. Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2001-07)

ANDREW JACKSON
1. In what way did the philosophy and purpose of Jacksonian democracy differ
from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2002)
2. What are the Salient features of Andrew Jackson's Presidency and
Democracy? (2004)
3. “President Andrew Jackson was a people’s president.” Discuss. (2006)
4. How did Jeffersonian Democratic thinking differ in philosophy and purpose
from the Jacksonian democracy? (2007)
5. What were the factors that ushered in the democratic era and the rise of the
common man with the election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency in 1928?
(2007)
6. Note: Andrew Jackson (2008)
7. Jackson has been called the first modern President because he was the first to
see the power which a President might exercise – Discuss. (2008)
USA History by Aamir Mahar
8. “President Andrew Jackson was a People’s President.” Discuss. (2010)
9. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian democracy differ
from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? (2011)
10. Discuss impact of Jacksonian presidency on American politics of the time.
(2013)
11. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian democracy
differ from those of Jeffersonian? (2015)

RONALD REAGAN
1. What economic problems were faced by Ronald Reagan and how his
government dealt with economic problems? (2016)

ABRAHAM LINCOLN
1. Evaluate the Presidency of the Abraham Lincoln. (2001)

WOODROW WILSON
2. Note: Woodrow Wilson (2001)
3. Note: Wilson’s Fourteen Points (2002)
4. Woodrow Wilson had said, "We had a chance to gain the leadership for the
world. We have lost it, and soon we shall be witnessing the tragedy of it all".
Comment upon America's attitude towards Treaty of Versailles. (2004)
5. Assess the contributions of President Woodrow Wilson to the problem of
world peace and security. (2005)
6. President Woodrow Wilson said in 1917, “The world must be made safe for
democracy. Its peace must be planted upon tested foundations of political
liberty. We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion
…” Discuss what your consider to be the main reason for the United States
entry into World War I. Give reasons for your choice. (2007)
7. What were the tribulations of the USA president Woodrow Wilson in the post
WW I era to convince the other three associates to his own point of view? (2012)

FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
1. Evaluate the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. (2002)
2. Note: President F D Roosevelt. (2004 - 06)
3. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said “This great nation will endure as
it has endured, will revive and prosper”. Explain in light of the FDR presidency
and the New Deal. (2007)

THE NEW DEAL

1. The NEW DEAL was to save capitalism but ironically it was denounced by
the Capitalist Class. Why? (2003)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
2. Note: FDR and The New Deal (2008)

HARRY S TRUMAN (COLD WAR)

1. Note: Truman Doctrine (2002),
2. Truman’s statement on fundamentals of American Foreign Policy in 1945.
(2008)
3. Note: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshal Plan (2009)
4. Give an estimate of the tenure of Harry S. Truman with particular reference to
Cold War. (2011)

DWIGHT EISENHOWER
1. Note: Eisenhower Doctrine (2000) (2016)

JOHN FITZGERALD KENNEDY

1. J.F. Kennedy was many men. He was a statesman and politician. Analyze his
domestic reforms. (2000)

RICHARD NIXON
1. Critically evaluate Richard Nixon's accomplishments and failures during his
presidency. (2012)
2. Richard Nixon had many accomplishments as well as failures as the President
of US. Critically evaluate. (2014)

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

1. The American Civil War brought revolutionary dangers in warfare, but more
important, produced significant economic and political reconstruction in the
country. Discuss. (2000)
2. American Civil War (1860-65) was a clash of economic interests as well as of
Social Ideals. Elaborate. (2003)
3. Was the institution of slavery in the Southern States responsible for the Civil
War? Discuss with examples. (2007)
4. Discuss the major factors responsible for the ‘sectional divide’ between the
Northern and the Southern states of the United States of America that finally led
to the American Civil War. (2009)
5. Examine the events and developments that pushed the American Nation
towards the civil war. (2013)
6. It is said that between the two great wars- The American Civil War and the
First World War America transformed. Discuss how a rural republic
transformed into an urban nation in less than 50 years. (2014)

AMERICAN REVOLUTION
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USA History by Aamir Mahar
1. The American Revolution was the child of Enlightenment. Comment.
(2003)(2016)
2. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social
upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of
the Revolutionary years. (2005)
3. Some American historians insist that the American Revolution was a social
upheaval as well as a political revolt. Discuss the social and economic results of
the Revolutionary Years. (2011)

US CONSTITUTION
1. The American Constitution is a system of “Checks and Balances”. Discuss.
(2001)
2. Describe the salient features of the constitution of USA. (2006)
3. Give the salient features of the Constitution of the USA. (2008)
4. What were the major flaws in the Articles of Confederation (the first
constitution of the United States of America) that led to the Philadelphia
Convention and the drafting of a new constitution? Discuss the salient features
of the present constitution of the United States of America. (2009)
5. The American Constitution is a system of “checks and balances.” Discuss.
(2010)

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
1. “The American War of Independence was a revolt against Mercantilism.”
Discuss. (2006)
2. Describe the reasons that lead to the war of Independence. What part did the
dislike of mercantilism play in this war? (2008)
3. Discuss the factors that led to the war of American Independence. Also
analyze the reasons for the growing popularity of Independence. (2010)
4. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second
made them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012)
5. The Declaration of Independence 1776 actually shapes the way Americans
live their lives. Discuss. (2014)

SLAVERY ISSUE
1. Critically examine the significance of the issue of Slavery in American history.
(2001)
2. One of the bitterest fruits of westward expansion was the intensification of the
slavery controversy. Do you agree with this statement? Support your answer
with specific incidents. (2002)
3. Note: Issue of Slavery in America. (2004) (2006)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
4. Compare and contrast the views of each of the following towards the
institution of slavery in the United States. Charles Summer, Stephen A.
Douglas, Abraham Lincoln. (2005)

WAR AGAINST TERROR

1. Impact of the tragic terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 on World Trade
Centre. (2001)
2. Discuss, ‘War against Terror’ as an instrument of US foreign policy. (2002)
3. Note: US War on terrorism (2003) (2007)
4. Write comprehensively on the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan in
the light of 9/11 and War on Terror. (2010)

COLD WAR
1. Note: Cold War (2000) (2006)

FOREIGN POLICY
2. Discuss, ‘War against Terror’ as an instrument of US foreign policy. (2002)
3. Highlight salient aspects of American foreign policy since World War II.
(2005)
4. Discuss briefly the USA relations with Pakistan from the earliest time. (2006)
5. How do you think the foreign Policy of USA concerning Europe and Japan
between the two world wars can be held responsible for the World War II?
(2006)
6. How has the American foreign policy strategy been altered by America’s war
on terror? How has this influenced American relation with Pakistan? (2008)
7. The U.S. foreign policy in the light of 9/11 and the War on Terror (2009)
8. Write comprehensively on the American Foreign Policy towards Pakistan in
the light of 9/11 and War on Terror. (2010)
9. Discuss American foreign policy towards Afghanistan since 9/11 and her exit
strategy. (2011)

MARSHAL PLAN
1. ‘The United States would do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of
normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political
stability and no assured peace.’ Discuss in the light of Marshall Plan. (2002)
2. Note: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshal Plan (2009)

WAR OF 1812
1. Note: War with England 1812 (2005)
2. What developments lead to the war of 1812? How did the war increase
American prestige? (2008)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
3. The American first war with the Britain made them independent; the second
made them a formidable power. Discuss. (2012)

BUSH DOCTRINE
1. The Bush Doctrine is the name given to a set of foreign policy guidelines
first unveiled by President George Bush in his commencement speech to the
graduating class of West Point given on June 1, 2002. Explain with
arguments. (2007) (2016)
2. Note: The Bush doctrine (2008)

COLONIAL PERIOD
1. Describe in detail the colonial period in the history of United States of
America. (2008)
2. Account for America's emergence as an imperialist -colonialist power after
1898. (2004)
3. Explain the characteristics of Colonial assemblies and representative
government from 1776 to 1789. (2004)
4. Why England failed to take the initiative in the colonization of the American
continent? What factors were responsible for the British interest in establishing
their colonies in the areas that are now part of the United States of America?
(2009)
5. Discuss the conditions that led Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut
and New Haven Colonies to form New England Confederation in 1643. (2014)

WESTWARD EXPANSION
1. Since the Declaration of Independence Westward expansion is a story of
annexations cessions and purchases. Elaborate. (2002)
2. Since the Declaration of Independence, the Westward expansion was a story
of annexations, concession and purchases. Discuss. (2015)

FEDERALIST
1. Who were FEDERALISTS? What were their political views and economic
vision for the US? (2003)
2. Write comprehensively about the struggle between the Federalists and anti-
Federalists from 1787 to 1800 in the USA. (2006)
3. Discuss the struggle between the Federalists and anti-Federalists in America
(1787-1800). What were their respective political and economic ideas? (2010)
4. Discuss the trends and causes leading to the expansion of federal
government's power in the U.S. (2015)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
GREAT DEPRESSION
1. Note: The great depression 1929 (2006)
2. Discuss in the details the causes and effects of the Great Depression on the
people and society of the United States of America. (2009) (2016)

PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT
1. Discuss the progress of the Progressive Movement in the United States
between 1900 -1916. (2001)
2. Note: Progressive Movement. (2004)

WATERGATE SCANDAL
1. What do you know about the Water Gate Scandal? What lesson the
American national had learnt from it? (2010)

US AS A MELTING POT
2. Americans are called ‘a Nation of Nations’ very briefly describe the different
waves of immigrants that came to the US. Has America been a ‘melting pot’ or a
‘mixing bowl’? (2003)
3. Discuss evolution of Muslim Community in the US. (2011)

US INVASION OF IRAQ
1. Evaluate the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. How far the American
policymakers remained successful in achieving their goals? (2015)

OBAMA’S ADMINISTRATION
1. Discuss US financial crises and Obama policy to put the house in order.
(2011)
2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world.
Examine this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st
centuries. (2014)

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

1. Write a comprehensive note on the Black Civil Rights Movement in America
for equal civil rights and the role played in it by different individuals and
organizations. (2009)
2. Write a comprehensive note on the civil rights movement with a particular
mention to the American women and the blacks. (2012)
3. What factors led Blacks to start the Civil Rights Movement? Discuss the
role of Courts & State in giving rights to the Blacks. (2016)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
POST COLD WAR SCENARIO
1. Critically examine U.S role as a peace maker in the post-Cold war era, with
particular reference to the Balkans and South Asia. (2013)

NEW WORLD ORDER

1. Discuss the American efforts to build a New World Order after the end of the
Cold war. Comment on its success or failure. (2013)
2. Did US succeed in its attempts to create a New World Order at the end of the
Cold War? Discuss with arguments. (2014)

21st CENTURY
1. Will the 21st century as well be an American century or will the USA be
obscured by new superpowers like China or the EU? (2012)
2. The US President can quite literally be called the President of the world.
Examine this statement in the light of the events of late 20th and early 21st
centuries. (2014)

US FINANCIAL SYSTEM
1. What are the sources of government Revenues and Funds in U.S.A.? Is it true
to say that the Americans pay taxes for civilized society? (2000)
2. Trace out the grounds of augmentation of the US financial system in the post
WW II epoch. (2012)
3. What are the Sources of Revenues and Funds of Government in the U.S.? Is it
true to say that the Americans pay taxes for civic facilities? (2015)

MISCELLANEOUS
1. Describe Pan-Americanism with special reference to Latin American
Republics. (2000)
2. Evaluate briefly America’s political and military involvement in Iraq since
Iran-Iraq War. (2001)
3. Between 1877 and 1900 the American Society was transformed from being
agrarian and rural to being industrial and urban. What factors and forces helped
to bring about this change? (2003)
4. After World War-II the dominant focus of the U.S. policy had been anti-
Communism on global scale. Discuss. (2004)
5. What do you understand by ‘Manifest Destiny’? What fruits it bore in the
shape of expansion of United States? (2005)
6. Discuss the internal and external factors that led the U.S on an imperialist
path at the end of the 19th century. (2013)
7. Compare the Lockean philosophy with the American Political thought. (2015)
8. How urban life was affected in USA during two stages of Industrialization?
(2016)
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USA History by Aamir Mahar

SHORT NOTES
1. Note: Dollar Diplomacy (2000) (2016)
2. Note: U-2 Incident (2000) (2016)
3. Note: Waterloo Scandal (2001)
4. Note: Missouri Compromise 1820 (2002)
5. Note: New World Order (2002)
6. Note: POPULSM of the 1890s. (2003)
7. Note: The Jazz Age. (2003)
8. Note: McCarthyism (2003)
9. Note: Watergate Scandal. (2004), (2009)
10. Note: Compromise of 1850 (2005)
11. Note: Jay’s Treaty (2005)
12. Note: NATO (2005)
13. Note: The Declaration of Independence(2007)
14. Note: Navigation Act of 1660(2007)
15. Note: The Scandals and controversies involving President William
Jefferson Bill Clinton (2009)
16. Note: George Washington (2010)
17. Note: The issue of slavery (2010)
18. Note: The Great Depression (2010)
19. Note: U.Z Incident (2010)
20. Note: The Atlantic Charter. (2011)
21. Note: The Monroe Doctrine (2011)
22. Note: War of 1812 (2011)
23. Note: Malcolm-X (2011)
24. Note: the beginning and the end of the cold war (2012)
25. Note: what was the Dulles Doctrine? (2012)
26. Note: the Japanese American internment (2012)
27. Note: the modern feminism in the USA (2012)
28. Note: Benjamin Franklin (2013)
29. Note: Marbury vs Madison (2013)
30. Note: Korean war (2013)
31. Note: Watergate scandal (2013)
32. Note: George Washington (2014)
33. Note: Desert Storm (2014)
34. Note: Tammany Hall (2014)
35. Note: Federal Securities (2015)
36. Note: Natural Aristocracy of Thomas Jefferson (2015)
37. Note: Monroe Doctrine (2015)

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

History of USA
Early Recorded History (10th Century-1619)
10th Century America 1st discovered by Norsemen, Scandinavians
1457 Birth of Columbus
1470 Columbus went to Lisbon for studies
1492 Discovery of America
1496 Columbus 2nd Voyage
1497 John Cabot reaches present day Massachusetts
1498 Columbus 3rd Voyage
1502 Columbus 4th Voyage
1506 Death of Columbus
1507 Continent named America on Italian Mariner Amerigo
1519 Alvarez de Pineda may have discovered the Mississippi River
1524 Giovanni de Verrazano enters New York harbor
1539 Father marcos de Niza explores Southwest, brags of cities of gold
1540 Francisco Vasquez de Coronado's great party begins exploration of Southwest
1541 Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River
1542 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo discovers San Diego Bay
1565 St. Augustine, Florida, founded
1570 (approx.) Iroquois Federation founded
1579 Sir Francis Drake explores Pacific coast
1586 Drake plunders St. Augustine
1587 First English colony in North America is established in North Carolina, at
Roanoke
1598 Don Juan de Onate explores Southwest
1607 Jamestown, Virginia founded; first permanent English settlement in North
America
1607 First ship constructed in the Americas, Popham, Maine
1609 Santa Fe, New Mexico, founded
1609 Henry Hudson explores the Hudson River
1609 Samuel de Champlain explores the Northeast
1614 Captain John Smith explores New Hampshire region
1619 House of Burgesses formed in Jamestown

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
Growth Continues (1620-1735)
1620 Plymouth, Massachusetts, founded by Pilgrims
1624 New Amsterdam (New York City) founded
1630 Puritans settle Boston area
1632 King grants Lord Baltimore a charter for Maryland
1634 Benjamin Syms endows first U.S. free school, in Hampton, Virginia
1634 Jean Nicolet passes through straits of Mackinac
1636 Harvard University founded, first university in United States
1636 Rhode Island is acquired by Roger Williams, who finds Providence
1638 Sweeds begin settlement at what is now Wilmington, Delaware
1643 Tinicum Island is site of first European settlement in Pennsylvania
1664 British conquer New Netherland (New York)
1670 Charleston, South Carolina, founded, soon becomes early cultural center
1673 Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet discover upper Mississippi, explore vast
area
1675 King Philip's War with the Wampanoag Indians begins
1676 nathaniel Bacon leads Virginia planters in the first conflict over British rule
1682 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, claims vast Louisiana region for France
1682 Ysleta founded, first permanent European settlement in Texas
1692 Witchcraft trials and executions take place in Salem, Massachusetts
1701 Detroit founded by Antoine de la Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac
1704 First regular United States newspaper published, in Boston
1718 Sieur de Bienville founds New Orleans, Louisiana
1729 Baltimore, Maryland, founded
1733 James Oglethorpe begins establishment of Georgia
1735 Trial of John Peter Zenger recognizes freedom of the press

The Early Frontier (1736-1764)

1741 Vitus Bering becomes first explorer to reach Alaska
1748 Ohio Company of Virginia organized to begin Ohio steeltment
1754 French and Indian War begins
1760 French rule in Detroit ends
1761 First regular U.S. stagecoach run is begun, from Boston to Portsmouth, New
Hampshire
1763 French control in North America ends with British victory in French and
Indian war
1763 Chief Pontiac's siege of Detroit begins

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USA History by Aamir Mahar
1764 St. Louis, Missouri, established

Seeds of Rebellion (1765-1774)

1765 Stamp Act incites the colonists against taxation without representation
1765 Patrick Henry fans the flames of the colonists' discontent
1769 First visit made by Daniel Boone to Kentucky
1770 Boston Massacre occurs
1772 Rhode Island residents burn British ship Gaspee to protest tax laws
1773 Boston Tea Party takes place
1774 Rhode Island abolishes slavery
1774 First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia

The Revolution (1775-1783)

1775 Coxasckie declaration of independence signed
1775 Bruno Heceta discovers the Columbia River
1775 Midnight rid of Paul Revere alerts patriots to approach of British troops;
battles of Lexington and Concord fought
1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, first major battle of Revolution, takes place
1775 Second Continental Congress names George Washington commander in chief
of Continental Army
1776 Enemy troops enter, then are forced to withdraw from Boston
1776 Declaration of Independence is approved by the Continental Congress on 4th
July
1776 Colonists driven back and defeated in Battle of Long Island
1776 General Washington crosses Delaware River, wins Battle of Trenton
1777 Washington loses Battle of Brandywine
1777 British troops led by Lord William Howe enter Philadelphia
1777 Continental Congress flees to York
1777 Desperate winter spent by Continental Army at Valley Forge
1777 Decisive Battle of Saratoga won by Americans
1777 Articles of Confederation adopted by Continental Congress
1778 Battle of Rhode Island fought
1778 Captain James Cook arrives in Hawaii
1778 Savannah, Georgia, is captured by the British
1778 Benjamin Franklin brings about alliance with France
1779 George Rogers Clark's capture of Vincennes, Indiana, confirms U.S. control in
Midwest
1780 French army of over 5,000 lands at Newport, Rhode Island
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USA History by Aamir Mahar
1780 British fleet arrives at Newport and blocks Washington's attempt to retake
New York
1781 Lord Cornwallis arrives in Virginia, is overtaken by Washington and allies;
surrenders at Yorktown
1781 Los Angeles founded
1782 Americans recapture Georgia
1783 Treaty of Paris officially ends Revolutionary War

Becoming a Nation (1784-1815)

1784 "State of Franklin" proclaimed in Tennessee
1784 Russia established settlement in Kodiak, Alaska
1786 Last of the eastern states cede western land claims
1787 Constitutional convention adopts Constitution of the United States
1787 Delaware is first state to ratify new Constitution
1787 Northwest Ordinance establishes Northwest Territory
1788 Cincinnati founded, becomes "Queen City of the West"
1789 Washington is inaugurated as first U.S. President
1790 Rhode Island is last of the 13 original colonies to ratify Constitution
1791 Virginia becomes a state
1792 Kentucky becomes a state
1792 American explorer Captain Robert Gray passes the treacherous Columbia
River mouth
1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin
1795 King Kamehameha I conquers most of Hawaii
1796 Tennessee becomes a state
1800 U.S. government moves to District of Columbia
1803 Ohio becomes a state
1803 Vast Louisiana Territory purchased from France
1804 Great expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark leaves St. Louis
1804 Duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr; Hamilton is killed, Burr
becomes a fugitive
1805 Lewis and Clark expedition reaches the Pacific
1805 Zebulon Pike begins two years of exploration of the Southwest
1806 Lewis and Clark bring back much knowledge about the Northwest
1807 Robert Fulton's steamboat Clermont sails up the Hudson River
1811 First steamship sails on Ohio River
1811 Indians under the Prophet defeated by William Henry harrison at Battle of
Tipecanoe
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1811 Strong U.S. earthquake devastates central Mississippi River region, forms
Reelfoot Lake in what is now Tennessee
1812 Fort Ross is built by the Russians in what is now California
1812 War of 1812 begins
1812 Louisiana becomes a state
1812 Fort Dearborn (Chicago) massacre by Potawatomi Indians
1813 Detroit recaptured by United States
1813 Oliver Hazard Perry's victory over the British at Put-in-Bay ensures U.S.
control of Great Lakes
1814 British attack, are defeated at Fort McHenry; "Star-Spangled Banner" is
composed
1814 British burn Washington, DC
1814 Battle of Plattsburgh brings U.S. control of Lake Champlain
1814 Treaty of Ghent ends War of 1812
1814 Andrew Jackson wins Battle of New Orleans after War of 1812 ends
1814 Power loom introduced to the United States

Expansion and Controversy (1816-1860)

1816 Indiana enters the Union
1817 Mississippi enters the Union
1817 Indian resettlement begins in Oklahoma
1818 Illinois enters the Union
1818 First steamboat sails on the Great Lakes
1819 Alabama enters the Union
1820 Maine becomes a state
1821 Andrew Jackson's successes in Indian wars bring Florida to the United States
1821 First U.S. cathedral is consecrated in Baltimore
1821 Missouri becomes a state (after Missouri Compromise on slavery is reached)
1822 Santa Fe Trail blazed
1824 First great annual fur "rendezvous" held in West
1824 Dr. John McLoughlin establishes Fort Vancouver, Washington
1825 Mexico takes control in California
1827 First American, Jedediah Smith, struggles overland to California
1827 Mechanics Union of Trade Association formed, in Philadelphia
1828 America's first passenger railroad, which is horse-drawn, begins operation
1828 Gold discovered in northern Georgia
1830 Country's first railroad built for a steam engine begins operation in South
Carolina
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1832 Black Hawk War pushes Indians west
1832 Henry R. Schoolcraft discovers source of Mississippi River: Lake Itasca, in
Minnesota
1834 Indian Territory established in present day Oklahoma
1834 Cyrus McCormic invents reaper, revolutionizing agriculture
1835 Fire destroys 600 New York City buildings
1836 Texans besieged by Mexican troops at the Alamo
1836 Seminole War begins in Florida, as Indians protest forced removal
1836 Sam Houston's Texans defeat Mexican leader Santa Anna in Battle of San
Jacinto
1836 Texas becomes an independent republic
1836 Arkansas becomes a state
1837 Electric motor invented by Thomas Davenport, in Vermont
1837 John Deere invents steel plow
1837 Michigan becomes a state
1838 Last of Cherokee forced over infamous "Trail of Teers" to Oklahoma, where
Indian nations begin their great advances
1838 First Mardi Gras parade held in New Orleans
1841 William Henry harrison becomes the first president to die in office
1841 First commercial use of natural gas, in Malden, West Virginia
1842 Dr. Crawford W. Long is first to use ether as an anesthetic
1842 Webster - Ashburton Treaty establishes northeast border with Canada
1843 First major westward immigration begins, from Missouri
1843 Hawaii recognized as an independent nation
1844 Mormon leader Joseph smith murdered; Mormons leave Iowa
1845 Texas and Florida become states
1845 Naval Academy founded at Annapolis
1845 California Republic is formed
1846 Oregon and Washington come under U.S. control after agreement with
Britain; expansions had called for "54o 40' or fight" boundary
1846 War with Mexico over disputed southwest lands
1846 Iowa becomes a state
1846 Elias Howe invents sewing machine
1847 Mormon pioneer refugees found Salt Lake city
1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico adds Southwest region to United
States
1848 Wisconsin becomes a state
1849 Unparalleled gold rush begins, with arrival of California 49ers
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1850 California becomes a state
1853 Gadsden Purchase completes U.S. lands in Southwest
1853 New York holds nation's first world's fair
1854 Republican party formed
1855 Sault Ste. Marie canal opens, eventually becomes world's busiest
1856 Slave disagreement grows, flares in Kansas / Missouri guerrilla war
1858 Minnesota becomes a state
1858 Debates between Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln focus national
tention on Lincoln
1859 Comstrock silver boom begins in Nebraska
1859 Five Civilized Tripes hold council, consolidate their gains, in present-day
Oklahoma
1859 John Brown seizes federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; is tried and
executed
1859 Oregon becomes a state
1859 World's first petroleum well pumps in Titusville, Pennsylvania
1860 Pony Express begins its brief life
1860 Regular steamboat runs begin in upper Missouri River
1860 Lincoln elected president

Times of Great Travail (1861-1865)

1861 - Kansas enters the Union as a free state
1861- Southern states, eventually numbering 11, form Confederacy
1861 - Civil War begins with Confederate attack at Fort Sumter, South Carolina
1861 - North American continent is spanned by telegraph
1861 - Northern forces routed at first Battle of Bull Run
1861 - Confederates seize Fort Pulaski, Georgia, many other strongholds
1862 - Northern drive on Richomnd, Virginia, fails
1862 - Battle of the Monitor and Merrimae
1862 - Battle of Antietam, Maryland, halts Confederates' northern advance
1862 - Union drive defeated by Robert E. Lee at Fredericksburg, Virginia
1862 - Battles of Pea Ridge and Prairie Grove, Arkansas
1862 - Battles of Shiloh, Iuka, Booneville, Mississippi
1862 - Decoration Day first celebrated, Mississippi
1863 - Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves
1863 - Ulysses S. Grant lays siege to Southern stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi
1863 - Battle of Gettysburg halts Lee's drive north, is decisive turning point of civil
War
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1863 - Federal forces defeated at Chickamauga
1863 - William Clarke Quantrill burns Lawrence, Kansas
1863 - Vicksburg, Jackson, and Natchez fall to north; Union forces completely
control Mississippi River
1863 - West Virginia becomes state, maintains Union sympathies
1863 - Battle of Missionary Ridge provides an important Union victory
1864 - Grant placed at head of all Union armies
1864 - Captain David Farragut captures Mobile Bay (Alabama)
1864 - Sand Creek massacre of Indians in Colorado
1864 - General William Tecumseh Sherman captures and burns Atlanta, captures
Savannah
1864 - Nevada becomes a state
1865 - Petersburg and Richmond fall to Union forces
1865 - Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House, Virginia
1865 - Lincoln is assassinated
1865 - Jefferson Davis captured in Irwinville, Georgia
1865 - Jesse Chisholm blazes Chisholm Trail

Reconstruction, Recovery, Road to Greatness (1866-1899)

1866 - First bridge built across Ohio River
1867 - Alaska purchased from Russia by the United States
1867 - Nebraska enters the Union
1867 - C. Latham Sholes invents the typewriter
1868 - President Andrew Johnson is impeached, cleared by Senate
1869 - First transcontinental railroad connects east and west coasts
1871 - Great Chicago fire
1872 - Yellowstone becomes first national park
1874 - George Armstrong Custer expedition finds Black Hills gold in South Dakota
1875 - First Kentucky Derby in Louisville
1876 - Custer defeated, his troops wiped out at Battle of Little Bighorn, Montana
1876 - Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia
1876 - Colorado becomes a state
1877 - Chief Joseph defeated in Nez Perce War
1877 - Thomas Edison invents the phonograph
1878 - Devastating yellow faver epidemic strikes South
1880 - Gold rush in Juneau, Alaska
1881 - President James Garfield is assassinated in Washington, DC
1884 - Cigarette-making machinery fuels growth of smoking
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1884 - First U.S. golf course opens in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia
1884 - Minnesota iron ore dominance begins
1885 - Washington Monument dedicated
1885 - World's first steel frame skyscraper rises in Chicago
1886 - Coca-Cola is formulated and introduced in Atlanta
1886 - Statue of Liberty dedicated
1868 - American Federation of Labor formed in Pittsburgh
1887 - Bauxite (aluminum) discovered in Arkansas
1888 - Great Blizzard causes 400 deaths in eastern United States
1889 - First "run" for land titles begins Oklahoma land boom
1889 - Johnstown, Pennsylvania, flood kills 2,200 people
1889 - North and South Dakota, Montana, and Washington enter the Union
1890 - Sioux leader Sitting Bull is killed by U.S. forces
1890 - South Dakota is site of last Indian battle in United States, at Wonded Knee
1890 - Wyoming and Idaho enter the Union
1893 - Hawaiian monarchy is overthrown
1893 - World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, most splendid ever
1894 - First "modern" automobile perfected by Elwood Haynes
1896 - Utah enters the Union
1898 - U.S. battleship Maine blown up in Havanna Harbor, Cuba, igniting Spanish
American war
1898 - U.S. Marines invade Cuba, capture Philippines and Puerto Rico
1898 - War success asserts U.S. presence in Caribbean and Pacific
1898 - Hawaii is annexed by the United States
1898 - City of New York created by five boroughs
1898 - Kensington Runestone discovered in Minnesota
1898 - Mississippi International Exposition held in Omaha, Nebraska
1899 - Nome, Alaska, gold rush occurs

World Conflict / World Power (1900-1920)

1900 - Chicago River is reversed, creating a water route from the Great Lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico
1900 - International Ladies' Garment Workers Union founded in New York City
1901 - Carlsbad Caverns discovered in New Mexico
1901 - President William McKinley assassinated at Buffalo world's fair; Theodore
Roosevelt becomes president
1901 - Spindletop oil flows in Texas, heralds age of petroleum
1902 - Nation's first national forest established, in Wyoming
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1902 - Social reforms of Governor Robert M. La Follette in Wisconsin set national
pattern
1903 - Gold discovered in Fairbanks, Alaska
1903 - Panama Canal Zone comes under U.S. jurisdiction
1903 - Wright Brothers make world's first powered airplane flight
1903 - Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri
1906 - Diamonds discovered in Arkansas
1906 - San Francisco devastated by earthquake and fire
1907 - Oklahoma enters the Union
1908 - First Model T Ford introduced
1911 - First Indianapolis 500 automobile race held
1911 - President Theodore Roosevelt dedicates Roosevelt Dam in Arizona
1911 - Rebecca Felton, of Georgia, is appointed as first woman U.S. senator
1911 - World's first overland airmail, from Des Moines, Iowa, to Chicago
1912 - Georgia is birthplace of Girl Scouts of America
1912 - Woman gain right to vote in Oregon and Kansas
1912 - Railroad is built across sea over the Florida Keys, from Miami to Key West
1912 - Arizona and New Mexico become last of the conterminous states
1913 - Grand Canyon becomes national park
1914 - Panama Canol opens, just as Germany declares war on France
1916 - Jeannette Rankin of Montana is first woman elected to Congress
1916 - Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark by the U.S.
1917 - The United States joins Allied forces opposing German alliance in World
War I
1918 - World War I ends with Allied Victory
1918 - Large-scaleinfluenza epidemic ravages the nation
1919 - Boston police strike broken by National Guard
1920 - World's first commercial broadcasting station established in Pittsburgh
1920 - 19th Amendment ratified, giving women right to vote

Peace and Depression

1921 - Great destruction of cotton crops by boll weevil
1922 - Lincoln Memorial dedicated
1923 - President Warren G. Harding dies; Calvin Coolidge becomes president
1924 - George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue introduce symphonic jazz
1924 - All Native American Indians are made U.S. citizens

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1924 - Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming is elected as the first woman governor in the
United States
1927 - First airplane flight from mainland to Hawaii
1927 - Charles Lindbergh makes first solo flight across the Atlantic
1929 - Stock market collapse ignites the Great Depression
1930 - First America's Cup race in the United States, at Newport, Rhode Island
1931 - George Washington Bridge, Empire State Building opened
1932 - Winter Olympics are held in the United States for the first time, at Lake
Placid
1932 - First woman elected to U.S. Senate, Hattie Caraway of Arkansas
1933 - Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes president, begins "100 Days" and New Deal
to Combat Depression
1934 - Nebraska becomes only state with a unicameral legislature
1935 - Will Rogers and Wiley Post killed in Alaska plane crash
1935 - Controversial Louisiana politician Huey Long assassinated
1936 - Hoover Dam begins operation
1937 - Golden Gate bridge opens in San Francisco
1937 - Dirigible Hindenburg explodes at Lakehurst, New Jersey
1937 - Worst Ohio River floods yet
1938 - Oregon's Bonneville Dam begins operation
1939 - Persident Roosevelt opens New York World's Fair
1940 - Roosevelt elected to unprecedented third term
1940 - Nation's first peacetime draft anticipates war needs

A New World in the Making (1960-1990)

1960 - American U-2 reconnaissance plane is shot down over Soviet Union
1961 - First American troops arrive in Vietnam
1961 - Freedom Riders challange Southern segregation practices
1961 - President John F. Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps
1962 - Astronaut John Glenn makes first U.S. orbital flight
1963 - President Kennedy assassinated in Dallas; Lyndon B. Johnson becomes
president
1963 - California becomes largest state in population
1964 - Reported attack on U.S. destroyers in Gulf of Tonkin; Johnson orders major
U.S. involvement in Vietnam
1964 - Landmark Civil Rights Act passed
1964 - Beatles perform first U.S. concert, in New York's Carnegie Hall
1964 - Disastrous Alaska earthquake strikes
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1964 - FTC requires health warnings on all cigarette packages
1965 - Hurricane Betsy ravages much of the Gulf Coast
1965 - North American Air Defense Command begins operations in Colorado
1966 - Gateway Arch dedicated in St. Louis
1967 - Thurgood Marshall sworn in as first African-American on Supreme Court
1968 - Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., is shot and killed in Memphis, Tennessee
1968 - Large oil deposits discovered at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska
1968 - Senator Robert F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Los Angeles
1969 - Neil Armstrong becomes first person to walk on the moon
1969 - Harvard scientists discover a single gene, basic unit of heredity
1970 - McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System begins operations
1971 - Spacecraft Mariner 9 orbits Mars
1972 - President Richard Nixon makes historic trip to China
1972 - First major league baseball strike, lasts for 13 days
1973 - U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ends ingloriously, with 50,000 U.S.
servicepersons dead
1973 - In Roe v. Wade decision, Supreme Court rules that abortion is legal
1973 - Senate hearings begin into break-in at Democratic National Committee
offices at the Watergate
1973 - Wounded Knee, South Dakota, occupied during Indian protest
1974 - Nixon becomes first U.S. president to resign
1974 - Chicago's Sears Tower becomes world's tallest building
1975 - Columbia/Snake River navigation system completed
1975 - Elizabeth Ann Seton named first American-born Saint
1975 - Ella T. Grasso of Connecticut becomes first woman elected governer without
family ties
1976 - Bicentennial recognized with extensive national celebrations
1976 - Agreement makes Mariana Islands a U.S. commonwealth
1976 - Legionnaire's disease identified
1977 - First landing of Concorde SST in United States
1977 - Singer Elvis Presley dies
1977 - Trans-Alaska pipeline opens
1978 - Hannah Gray becomes president of University of Chicago, first woman to
head a major U.S. university
1979 - Three Mile Island nuclear power plant malfunctions in Pennsylvania
1980 - Ronald Reagan is elected president
1980 - First woman graduates from U.S. Military Academy at West Point
1980 - Mt. St. Helens erupts in Washington; ash covers 120 square miles
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1980 - Former Beatle John Lennon is shot and killed
1981 - Iran releases 52 Americans held hostage for 444 days
1981 - Reagan is shot and wounded
1981 - First space shuttle is launched
1981 - Sandra Day O'Connor is sworn in as first woman on the Supreme Court
1983 - Bomb destroys U.S. Marine headquarters in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241
service persons
1983 - Sally Ride is first U.S. woman in space
1986 - Space shuttle Challanger explodes; six astronauts and teacher Christa
McAuliffe killed
1986 - Congressional hearings begin into Iran / Contra affair
1989 - U.S. forces invade Panama, overthrow Manuel Noriega
1989 - Largest oil spill in U.S. history at Prince William Sound, Alaska
1989 - L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia is first African-American elected governor of a
U.S. state since Reconstruction
1990 - U.S. forces reach Persian Gulf to defend area against Iraq

Alone at the Top (1991- Present)

1991 - Soviet Union in disarray, separates into individual nations; United States is
only remaining "superpower"
1991 - United States and allies defeat Iraq, liberate Kuwait in Gulf War
1991 - California wildfires bring destruction and 24 deaths
1992 - Riots in Los Angeles follow the acquittal of four policeman on trial for
beating a black man
1992 - Hurricane Andrew hits Florida and Gulf straights causing massive
destruction
1992 - Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois is first African-American woman elected to
Senate
1993 - Midwest suffers one of the most disastrous floods in its history
1993 - Terrorist bomb explodes in New York City's World Trade Center; six people
are killed
1993 - Branch Davidian cult headquarters burns at Waco, Texas, during FBI raid;
more than 70 cult members die
1994 - Earthquake strikes Los Angeles, claiming 61 lives
1994 - Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis dies
1994 - Republicans gain control of both houses of Congress
1994 - Major league baseball players go on strike; World Series canceled
1995 - California suffers dissastrous floods following torrential rains
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1995 - Federal building in Oklahoma City bombed in terrorist attack, killing 169
1995 - Massive heat wave kills over 800 in Midwest and Northeast
1995 - Football great O.J. Simpson is acquitted of murder
1995 - An African-American "Million Man March" is held in Washington, DC
1996 - Blizzard strikes Northeast
1996 - President Bill Clinton and Congress grapple over the federal budget

COLONIZATION
1607 Virginia 1620 to 30 Massachusetts
1622 New Hampshire
1626 New York
1632 Mary Land
1636 Rhodes Island
1636 Connecticut
1638 Delaware
1663 North Carolina
1663 South Carolina
1664 New Jersey
1681 Pennsylvania
1732 Georgia

MERCANTILISM
1651 Navigation Act
1660 Enumerated Act
1663 Staple Act
1673 Duty Act
1696 Enforcement Act
1733 Molasses Act
1764 Sugar Act

WAR OF INDEPENDANCE
Intolerable Act
1730-40 Great Awakening
1730-40 Albany Congress
1754-63 French Indian War
1763 Royal Proclamation
2nd Mar 1770 Boston Massacre
1773 Boston Tea Party
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1774 1st Continental Conference
1775 2nd Continental Conference
4th July 1776 Declaration of Independence
1776 Common Sense
3rd Sep 1783 Treaty of Paris

GEORGES WASHINGTON
May 1787 CONSTITUTION MAKING OF AMERICA
22nd Feb, 1732 Birth of Washington
1789-1801 Federalist Regime
1789-1797 George Washington‘s Presidency
1789 Judiciary Act
1791 Bill of Rights
1791 Excise Act
1791 Whisky Rebellions
1793 Genet Mission
1794 Jay’s Treaty
1794 Pinckney Treaty

THOMAS JEFFERSON
13th April 1743 Birth of Jefferson
1800 Louisiana Purchase
1801-1809 Presidency

ANDREW JACKSON
15th Mar, 1768 Birth of Jackson

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DETAILED NOTES
Table of Content
1) Early America
2) Exploration of America
3) Colonization in the New Continent
4) Road to Independence
5) Mercantilism
6) Other Causes of War of Independence
7) Problems in Formation of National Government
8) Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist
9) Constitution of United States of America
10) The Amendment Process
11) Salient Features of the American Constitution
12) Amendments in American Constitution
13) System of Check and Balance in American Constitution
14) George Washington (1789-1801)
15) Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
16) The Louisiana Purchase
17) War of 1812
18) Missouri Compromise (1820)
19) Monroe Doctrine (1823)
20) Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
21) Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865)
22) Civil War
23) Progressivism (1890-1920)
24) Woodrow Wilson (1914-1919)
25) America and World War I
26) Causes of American entry to World War I
27) 14 Points of Woodrow Wilson
28) Great Depression (1930)
29) Effects of the Great Depression Facts
30) Great Depression Facts
31) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1932-1945)
32) The New Deal
33) New Deal Initiative
34) Government Expenditures
35) America and World War II
36) John F Kennedy (1961-1963)

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37) Richard Nixon (1969-1974)

38) Nixon Watergate Scandal
39) Slavery in America
40) Truman Doctrine
41) Bush Doctrine
42) Dulles Doctrine
43) Marshall Plan
44) Malcolm X
45) Jazz Age
46) U-2 Crisis
47) Cuban Missile Crisis
48) NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
49) McCarthyism
50) Cold War
51) Dollar Diplomacy
52) Open Door Diplomacy
53) Trail of Tears
54) Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
55) Populous Movement
56) Manifest Destiny
57) New World Order
58) Pan-Americanism
59) USA Nuclear Umbrella System
60) Treaty of Versailles
61) Democrat’s v/s Republicans
62) Capitalism vs. Communism

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Early America
At the height of the most recent Ice Age, about 35,000 years ago, much of
the world‘s water was locked up in vast continental ice sheets. A land
bridge as much as 1,500 km wide connected Asia and North America. By
12,000 years ago, humans were living throughout much of the Western
Hemisphere. The first Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia and
were believed to have stayed in what is now Alaska for thousands of years.
They then moved south into the land that was to become the United States.
They settled along the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in the mountains
and deserts of the Southwest, and along the Mississippi River in the Middle
West.

Early Settlers in America

These early groups that settled in America are known as

o Hohokam
o Adenans
o Hopewellians
o Anasazi
They built villages and grew crops. Some built mounds of earth in the
shapes of pyramids, birds, or serpents. Their life was closely tied to the
land, and their society was clan-oriented and communal. Elements of the
natural world played an essential part in their spiritual beliefs.

The 1st Europeans in America

The first Europeans to arrive in North America, at least the first for whom
there is solid evidence were Norse. They traveled west from Greenland,
where Erik the Red had founded a settlement around the year 985. It would
be almost 500 more years before other Europeans reached North America
and another 100 years after that before permanent settlements were
established. The first explorers were searching for a sea passage to Asia.

Others chiefly British, Dutch, French, and Spanish came later to claim the
lands and riches of what they called the ―New World.

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Exploration of America
Europe towards Exploration of the New Land

Until the 15th century nobody knew that there was a continent across the
Atlantic. The first and most famous of these explorers was Christopher
Columbus whose voyage of exploration finally brought the Americans and
Europeans in contact. Columbus was born in 1447 in Genoa, Italy; he was
a son of a wool comber. He spent eight years seeking to be financed for his
trip to explore the Indies across Atlantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus, a
Genoese sailor, believed that sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean was the
shortest sea route to Asia. Ignorant of the fact that the Western Hemisphere
lay between Europe and Asia and assuming the earth's circumference to be
a third less than it actually is, he was convinced that Japan would appear
on the horizon just three thousand miles to the west. Like other seafarers of
his day.

Columbus was ready to sail for whatever country would pay for his voyage.
Either because of his arrogance (he wanted ships and crews to be provided
at no expense to himself) or ambition (he insisted on governing the lands he
discovered), he found it difficult to find a patron. He was twice rejected by
Portuguese, and the rulers of England and France were not interested. With
influential supporters at court, Columbus convinced King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of Spain to partially underwrite his expedition. In 1492,
Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, had fallen to
the forces of the Spanish monarchs.

Voyages of Columbus

o 1st voyage, 1492: San Salvador, The Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola

o 2nd voyage, 1493: Dominica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica
o 3rd voyage, 1498: St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Margarita, Venezuela
o 4th voyage, 1502: St. Lucia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama
Once Columbus landed in America he discovered that there were
already civilizations living in America. He named the Native of America as

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Red Indians, thinking that he had landed in India and those peoples are
Indian.

Native Americans

Before Europeans there were four civilizations living in America and they
were

o Red Indians
o Mayas
o Aztecs
o Incas

John Cabot

John Cabot of Venice came five years later on a mission for the king of
England. His journey was quickly forgotten, but it provided the basis for
British claims to North America.

Name of America in Beginning

o New World
o Strange Land
o Golden Land

Name of America

After the death of Columbus in 1506, Amerigo Vespucci, another Italian

navigator, sailed extensively along the American coast and is considered to
be the first to realize that the Indies were in fact a ―New World‖ and not
part of Asia. The first map that identified known parts of the Western
Hemisphere as ―America, after Vespucci, was published in 1507.

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Colonization in the New Continent

The first permanent European settlement in what was to become the United
States was established by the Spanish in the middle 1500s at St. Augustine
in Florida. However, it would not play a part in the formation of the new
nation. That story took place in settlements farther north along the Atlantic
coast in Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and the 10 other areas
colonized by a growing tide of immigrants from Europe.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Columbus returned from his first voyage, they persuaded Pope Alexander
VI to issue an edict giving Spain all lands west of an imaginary line through
the Atlantic. Portugal was not satisfied. Through the Treaty of Tordesillas
(1494), the two countries agreed to move the line further west and give
Portugal exclusive right to the territory to the east. Although the result of
the shift was unknown at the time, the change put the eastern quarter of
South America (Brazil) in the Portuguese sphere.

Colonial Period

Most settlers who came to the British colonies in the 1600s were English.
Others came from The Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, France, and later
from Scotland and Northern Ireland. Some left their homelands to escape
war, political oppression, religious persecution, or a prison sentence. Some
left as servants who expected to work their way to freedom. Black Africans
were sold into slavery and arrived in shackles.

By 1690, the population was 250,000. Less than 100 years later, it had
climbed to 2.5 million. The settlers had many different reasons for coming
to America, and eventually 13 distinct colonies developed here. Differences
among the three regional groupings of colonies were even more marked.

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Causes of Colonization
1. Improvement in Technology: In Europe, there occurred a rebirth of
classical learning. Columbus and other navigators lived in the time
when the creativity was vitally at the peak and navigator and mariners
were being financed to find out the shortest and safest routes to Asia.
Europeans were improving in technology from gun powder to the
sailing compass. There were also major improvements in ship
building and map makings.
2. Renaissance in Europe: 1400 AD onwards is considered that to be
the rising time of Europeans after the Dark Age which was 200 to
1200 AD. The Europeans now were making progress in every field of
life and were keenly involve in learning and exploring. The
technology of printing press after 1450 also spread the knowledge
across Europe which played a very important role in educating the
common man in Europe.
3. Religious Conflicts in Europe: The later years of renaissance were a
time of religious zeal and conflict in Europe. The dominant Roman
Catholic culture was threatened by Othman empire while the
Protestants revolted against the pope‘s authorities in Rome led to a
series of war between Protestants and Catholic Christians. The
reforms by Protestants were known as Protestants Reformation.
4. Expanding trade: Roots to Asia were blocked after Othman had
taken over the city of Constantinople in 1453. Europe were dependant
on Asian for trade, herbs and agriculture therefore they were in
extensive need to find any other route to Asia.
5. Search for New Routes: To maintain the trade relation with Asia
Europeans wanted to find out the shortest possible root which can
again connect them to the sub-continent. They started financing
navigators for exploration of new sea routes, which ultimately led
them to the discovery of America. Although in 1448 Vasco De Gama
was the 1st person to reach India by the route of Africa.
6. Pressure of population: 15 million people were living in Europe
before America
7. Trade and Agriculture: Since Europe is not an agrarian continent
therefore it heavily depended on the agriculture of Asia to fulfill the
demands for their huge population. But the discovery of America
gives them a land where they were able to cultivate the crops

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themselves with ideal weather and big rivers i.e. Mississippi and
Missouri.
8. Desire for wealth: By the time America was discovered it was known
as a ―Golden Land‖. The normal perception was as if there is a lot of
gold in America which can be easily excavated. This was another
important factor leading toward the colonization of the New Land.
9. Imperial Race: The Imperial powers of Europe were in race of having
more and more land of America. As in older days the country with
most colonies and vast majority of land was considered to be a super
power. Which today is been replaced by economy and technology.
10. Royal Proclamation: Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648,
between Spain and Dutch republic by which each state would have
the right to determine the religion of his own state and also
colonial claims were adjusted.

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Road to Independence
Britain’s 13 North American colonies matured during the 1700s. They grew
in population, economic strength, and cultural attainment. They were
experienced in self- government. Yet it was not until 170 years after the
founding of the first permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, that the
new United States of America emerged as a nation.

Role of Spain and France

Decisive help came in 1778, when France recognized the United States and
signed a bilateral defense treaty. French government decided to support
Americans in the war against British. Spain officially entered was in 1779
and supported Americans

Role of Blacks

The blacks were the slaves of British master and they were also the once
who were suffering from the hands of British. George Washington asked for
their help in war and promised them to be freed after the victory.
Approximately 5000 black supported America in the war.

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Mercantilism
Mercantilism is economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy
and powerful state. Adam smith coined the term "Mercantile system" to
describe the system of political economy that enriched the country by
restraining imports and encouraging exports. The goal was to achieve a
"favorable" balance of trade that would bring gold and silver into the
country, and maintain domestic employment.

This was a famous economic theory which was used by British to exploit its
colonies. According to this theory ― the colonies only existed for the
benefit of their mother countries.‖ Mercantilism was a cause of frequent
Europeans wars during 16th to 18th century and some schools of thought
even suggest that mercantilism was one of the supreme causes which led the
colonies to fight for their independence. Few important acts passed in
mercantilism are as follow:

1) Navigation Act of 1651: This act stated that all the goods that were
carried to England will now only be carried in British owned ships.

2) Enumerated Act of 1660:

This act imposed ban on the colonies export. Now the commodities
such as sugar, cotton, tobacco and dyes were only to be exported to
either England or its colonies only.

3) Staple Act of 1663: These act provided that all the European exports
to American colonies must be brought to English port and be
reshipped after the payment of duty.

4) Duty Act of 1673: This act aim at the enforcement of all earlier acts
through the services of custom collectors

5) Enforcement Act of 1696:

This act provided strict measures for checking smuggling and all the
colonial ship were now necessarily to be registered in England.

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6) Molasses Act 1733: This Act imposed ban on the import of French
West Indian molasses into the English colonies.

7) The Sugar Act of 1764: The Sugar Act of 1764 placed taxes on luxury
goods, including coffee, silk, and wine, and made import of rum
illegal.

8) The Currency Act of 1764: The Currency Act of 1764 prohibited the
printing of paper money in the colonies.

9) The Quartering Act of 1765: The Quartering Act of 1765 forced

colonists to provide food and housing for royal troops.

10) The Stamp Act of 1765: The Stamp Act of 1765 required the
purchase of royal stamps for all legal documents, newspapers,
licenses, and leases. Colonists objected to all these measures, but the
Stamp Act sparked the greatest organized resistance

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Other Causes of War of Independence

1. Letters of Samuel Adams
Samuel Adams of Massachusetts was the most effective and
influential person. He wrote newspaper articles, made speeches and
wrote letters to the politicians and influential persons appealing to the
colonists’ democratic instincts. He helped organize committees
throughout the colonies that became the basis of a revolutionary
movement

2. French Indian War

War between Britain and France in 1754-1763 was fought partly in
North America. Britain was victorious and soon initiated policies
designed to control and fund its vast empire. These measures imposed
greater restraints on the American colonists’ way of life.

3. Royal Proclamation of 1763

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 restricted the opening of new lands
for settlement. This also prohibited the westward expansion of
colonies toward Appalachian Mountains.

4. The Coercive Act/ Intolerable Act

Certain acts were passed, banning the manufacturing of goods in
colonies;
o The Hat Act
o Iron Act
o Woolen Act
5. Self-Government
Self-government produced local political leaders, and these were the
men who worked together to defeat what they considered to be
oppressive acts of Parliament. After they succeeded, their coordinated
campaign against Britain ended. Their goal was not accommodation,
but independence.

6. Great Awakening
This religious movement was started by Jonathan Edward in 1730 to
1740 which laid stress on unity of the 13 colonies. This truly was the

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1st event in American history which made them realized that they can
be united.

7. Boston Tea Party

British government impose ban on production of tea in the 13
colonies and impose the 3rd tax on tea and forced the colonies to buy
17 million pounds of unsold tea of British East India Company to
overcome the losses.

8. British Action on Massachusetts

In December, a group of men sneaked into to three British ships in
Boston harbor and dumped their cargo of tea overboard. To punish
Massachusetts for the vandalism, the British Parliament closed the
port of Boston and restricted local authority.

9. 1st Continental Conference

British action on Massachusetts was strictly condemned by other
colonies. All the colonies except Georgia sent representatives to
Philadelphia in September 1774 to discuss their ―present unhappy
state and draw their future policy against the atrocities of the British
imperial power.

10. 2nd Continental Conference

The Congress met on May 10, 1776, in the State House in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is now called Independence Hall. The
Second Continental Congress decided many important things.

o Completely break away from Great Britain.

o Officially put the colonies in a state of defense.
o Form an army called the American Continental Army.
o Congress officially appointed George Washington as commander-in-
chief of the army.
o Decided to print paper money.
The Second Continental Congress was one of the most important
government meetings in the history of the United States of America. It
decided some of the most important ideas that the colonists fought for in

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the Revolutionary War, because, at that meeting, members of the Second

Continental Congress wrote and signed The Declaration of Independence.

11. Declaration of Independence

The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, headed by
Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, to prepare a document outlining the
colonies’ grievances against the king and explaining their decision to
break away. This Declaration of Independence was adopted on July
4, 1776. The 4th of July has since been celebrated as America’s
Independence Day.

12. Common Sense by Thomas Paine

Thomas Paine crystallizes the argument for separation in a pamphlet
called Common Sense, which sold 100,000 copies. Paine discussed
two main points in his pamphlet

o Independence as the will of people

o Revolution as the device of liberty and happiness
13. Sons of Liberty
Sons of Liberty was a political organization which opposed the stamp
act and marched out on the streets shouting Liberty, Property and No
Stamp.

14. Boston Massacre

2nd march 1970, a large crowd gathered and protested against the
government. The soldiers opened fire on the crowd which resulted in
death of three and many were injured. This incidence created a sense
of ill felling and hatred towards the British Government.

15. The Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris acknowledged the independence, freedom, and
sovereignty of the 13 former American colonies, now states. The
boundaries of 13 colonies were set and the issue of access to the
Mississippi river was settled between Great Britain and America. This
treaty also removed any chance of war with France.

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Problems in Formation
of
National Government

The 13 American colonies became the 13 United States of America in 1783,

following their war for independence from Britain. Before the war ended,
they ratified a framework for their common efforts. These Articles of
Confederation provided for a union, but an extremely loose and fragile one.
George Washington called it a “rope of sand.”

a) No Constitution

b) No common currency;

c) No national military force;

d) Little centralized control over foreign policy

e) No national system for imposing and collecting taxes.

f) Differences between Federalist and Anti-federalist.

g) Foreign Policy

h) Economic Weakness

i) Slavery

j) Powers and election of president

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Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist

Federalist
1. Strong Federation
2. Representation according to Population
3. No need of Bill of Rights
4. Wanted to Ratify the Constitution
5. Property and land should be managed by aristocrats.

Anti-Federalist
1. Strong States
2. Equal Representation
3. In favor of Bill of Rights
4. Opposed Constitution because wanted more powers
for state.
5. Equal distribution of wealth

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Constitution of United States of America

“A Constitution consists of those fundamental rules which determine &
distribute functions & powers among the various organs of the
Government’’ (Oxford Dictionary)

The United States Constitution was written in May 1787 during

Philadelphia Convention, when the states decided to make necessary
changes in Article of Confederation but then started all over again and
came up with the US constitution. After ratification in eleven states, in
1789 its elected officers of government assembled in New York City,
replacing the earlier 1781 Articles of Confederation government. The
American constitution is one of the most remarkable and important
document in the history which was written more than 200 years before and
only amended 17 times after the 1st ten amendments of bill of rights.

The American constitution is in written form consisting of 7 articles and 27

amendments. It takes a very lengthy process to make any amendment to it.
Therefore it is known as the most rigid document in the constitutional
history of the world.

Article of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation was unanimously adopted in 1781 once

Maryland agreed. Over the previous four years, it had been used by
Congress as a ―working document‖ to administer the early United States
government.

Errors in Article of Confederation

The article of confederation seems to have many flaws which were far
beyond corrections. James Madison called the articles woefully inadequate.
Some of major shortcomings in the articles are stated below

1. One house congress

2. No separate executive

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3. Considerable powers to state

4. Lack system of judiciary
5. Central government had insufficient power to
regulate commerce.
6. It could not tax, generally impotent in setting
commercial policy.
7. It could not effectively support a war effort.
8. It had little power to settle quarrels between states.

Drafting the constitution

The 13 colonies were called at a convention in Philadelphia with the sole

and express purpose of revising article of confederation. Rhodes Island was
the only one which did not trusted the convention and refused to send its
delegation.

The Delegation

The delegation of 55 men met in Philadelphia headed by George

Washington. Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Dickenson
and James Madison (father of American Constitution) were the other well
known politicians in the delegation of 55 men. Where as John Jay, Tomas
Jefferson, John Adams and Thomas Paine were on a diplomatic business
trip abroad therefore they were not the part of delegation.

The American constitution was based on two plans; it was a compromise

between the two plans that which plans should be given more weight-age in
constitution.

1. Virginia plan
2. New Jersey Plan
Two alternative plans were developed in Convention. The nationalist
majority, soon to be called ―Federalists‖, put forth the Virginia Plan, a
consolidated government based on proportional representation among the
states by population. ―Anti-Federalists‖, advocated the New Jersey Plan, a
purely federal proposal, based on providing each state with equal

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representation. This issue remained unsettled for 4 weeks until the

Connecticut comprise came as an alternative.

Connecticut Compromise

Connecticut compromise was composed by William Samuel Johnson which

allowed both plans to work together. It suggested that there should be two
houses of congress

1. House of Representative (Representation on

population)
2. Senate (Equal Representation)
The compromise suggested representation on the basis of population in
―House of Representative‖ and equal representation in Senate with 2
Senators from each state. Even the Connecticut compromise was not
sufficient enough to bring constitution in working form as 9/13 states had
to ratify it. But the small farmers, New York and Virginia were not happy
with the idea until the Bill of Rights was added to the constitution.

Bill of Rights

Bill of Rights were the 1st ten amendments in the American constitution
granting rights to the ordinary people of America. Following are the
amendments if the bill:
1. Freedom of religions, speech, assembly, press and petition
2. Right to possess arms
3. No quartering of soldiers during peacetime
4. No search and seizure of people‘s property
5. No criminal case to stand twice for same crime
6. Speedy trail of cases
7. Right to jury in case of 20 dollars and above
8. No excessive bails and cruel punishments
9. Rights not mentioned in constitution lies with peoples
10. Powers not mentioned in constitution will be exercised by states

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The Amendment Process

There are essentially two ways spelled out in the Constitution for how to
propose an amendment. One has never been used.

The first method is for a bill to pass both houses of the legislature, by a two-
thirds majority in each. Once the bill has passed both houses, it goes on to
the states. This is the route taken by all current amendments. Because of
some long outstanding amendments, such as the 27th, Congress will
normally put a time limit (typically seven years) for the bill to be approved
as an amendment.

The second method prescribed is for a Constitutional Convention to be

called by two- thirds of the legislatures of the States, and for that
Convention to propose one or more amendments. These amendments are
then sent to the states to be approved by three- fourths of the legislatures or
conventions. This route has never been taken, and there is discussion in
political science circles about just how such a convention would be
convened, and what kind of changes it would bring about.

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Salient Features of the American Constitution

Checks and Balances: One of the most powerful weapons in the US
constitution which makes it one of the most important written documents
in world is the system of check and balance between the three tiers of state
i.e. executive, legislative and judiciary.

Brief & Simple: The US Constitution hardly consists of 6000 and is less
than 12 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest and simply
written constitutions of the world.

Written Constitution: The US constitution is in the written form and

comprises of 7 articles and 27 amendments had been made since the
constitution was made in 1787.

Dual Citizenship: The peoples living in America are authorized to have

dual citizenship according to their constitution. The 1st citizenship of being
an American and the 2nd is of the state which a citizen belongs to.

Secular State: Since the constitution declares America as a secular state.

Therefore no law can be made which prohibits or dents any religion in the
country.

Supremacy of the Constitution: The US Constitution is the supreme

document as described in the article IV. The constitution is declared
superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies and the government.
No law can be passed contrary to the constitution.

Strong Federation: Article I, section 789 declares the federal form of

government in America. The stress is laid upon the strong center and
relatively weaker states.

Bill of Rights: Bill of rights were the 1st ten amendments in the US
constitution which defined the rights of the peoples living in America.
Rigid Constitution: US constitution is a rigid constitution because it
requires a difficult procedure to amend it. Every amendment, which can be
moved in two different ways, must be ratified by three-fourths of the states.

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Separation of Powers: The constitution is based on the doctrine of

separation of powers. According to the constitution the national powers are
divided into three departments i.e. executive, legislature and judiciary.

Bicameralism: American parliament is known as Congress. It consists of

two chambers. Upper house is the Senate and lower house is the House of
Representatives.

Independent Judiciary: The president of USA appoints the judges but he

has no power to remove them. It is only the legislature according to Article
1 Section 6, which can impeach the judge of Supreme Court.

Universal Suffrage: The Constitution has given right to vote to every

citizen who is 18 years old without any distinction of male or female.

Division of Powers: As the Federal Government requires a double set of

Government. That of center and those of states there must be a division of
powers between the two parts. All those powers which are not stated in the
constitution are to be exercised by the states.

Spoils System: This system was introduced by President Andrew Jackson.

According to this system the new president appoints all important official of
the government sacking the previous administration. This system is known
as the ―Spoilt System because the jobs are distributed among the party men
regardless of their merit, experience and talent.

Presidential form of government: The Constitution establishes a

presidential form of government. The constitution vests all executive
powers to the president. The president is the head of the state as well as the
government.

Republicanism: There would be Republicanism in the political structure of

the US. Laws made by the legislature shall be supreme as it represents the
will of the people. The people who made those laws are elected by the
people themselves.

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Sovereignty of the People: The preamble of the US Constitution

emphasizes the theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has
been vested in the people of the USA.

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Amendments in American Constitution

1st Ten Bill of Rights
11th Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners
not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation for sovereign
immunity
12th Revises presidential election procedures
13th Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for
a crime
14th Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the
Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil
War issues
15th Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous
condition of servitude
16th Allows the federal government to collect income tax
17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular
vote
18th Establishes Prohibition of alcohol (Repealed by Twenty-first
Amendment)
19th Establishes women's suffrage
20th Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress (January 3) and
the President (January 20); known as the "lame duck amendment"
21st Repeals the Eighteenth Amendment
22nd Limits the president to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years (i.e., if a
Vice President serves not more than one half of a President's term, he or she
can be elected to a further two terms)
23rd Provides for representation of Washington, D.C. in the Electoral
College
24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of
poll taxes
25th Codifies the Tyler Precedent; defines the process of presidential
succession
26th Establishes the official voting age to be 18 years old.
27th Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until
the beginning of the next session of Congress

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System of Check and Balance in

American Constitution
The United States Constitution provided very direct safeguards to the
freedoms of all Americans as the first three Articles of the United States
Constitution discuss about the specific powers reserved to the three
branches of government that enable a balance of power. The national
government is divided into three branches:

o Legislative
o Executive
o Judicial
These three branches are not independent of one another because the
Constitution set up a system of checks and balances to help ensure that no
one branch becomes too powerful. Each branch has powers that it can use
to check and balance the operations and power of the other two branches.
Following is a look at the specific checks that each branch has been given.

The Legislative Branch of Government Makes the Laws

Section Seven outlines the procedure for passing bills and resolutions. Here
we find a good example of ―checks and balances.
A bill might arise in the House and passed with a simple majority. If then
passed by the Senate, it goes to the President for signature. Once signed, the
bill becomes law. However, if the President vetoes the bill, both chambers
can still pass the bill with a two-thirds vote. This is referred to as a vote to
override the veto.
1. May override presidential vetoes with a two-thirds vote
2. Has the power over the purse strings to actually fund any executive
actions May remove the president through impeachment
3. Senate approves treaties
4. Senate approves presidential appointments

The Legislative Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch:

o Creates lower courts

o May remove judges through impeachment

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o Senate approves appointments of judges

The Executive Branch of American Government

The Executive Branch is given the power to carry out the laws. It has the
following checks over the Legislative Branch:
1. Veto power
2. Ability to call special sessions of Congress
3. Can recommend legislation
4. Can appeal to the people concerning legislation and more
The Executive Branch has the following checks over the Judicial Branch:
o President appoints Supreme Court and other federal judges

The Judicial Branch of United States Government

The Judicial Branch is given the power to interpret the laws. It has the
following checks over the Executive Branch:
1. Judges, once appointed for life, are free from controls from the
executive branch
2. Courts can judge executive actions to be unconstitutional through the
power of Judicial review

The Judicial Branch has the following checks over the Legislative Branch:
o Courts can judge legislative acts to be unconstitutional.

Conclusion

The American system of checks and balances has worked well over the
course of America's history. Even though some huge clashes have occurred
when vetoes have been overridden or appointees have been rejected, these
occasions are rare. The system was meant to keep the three branches in
balance. Even though there have been times when one branch has risen
preeminent, overall the three branches have achieved a workable balance
with no one branch holding all the governmental power.

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George Washington (1789-1801)

George Washington was the unanimous choice as the 1st president of
America after winning the war of independence. He was born on 22nd Feb
1732 in Virginia to an English family. His brother‘s mirage to a royal family
helped him enter politics. He was a soldier with exceptional skills and led
the army of 13 colonies in war of independence against British. Initially a
staunch supporter of reconciliation with British but he also felt that there
should be no discrimination in the salaries and ranks of continental and the
royal army. He was a more of military General than a politician but still
good enough to drive the nascent America out of its crisis as the 1st
president of America.

Domestic Achievements

1. Hamilton Financial Plan

America was going through one of the most crucial financial crisis
after its birth. In the meanwhile Alexander Hamilton was appointed
as the secretary state of treasury. He gave a comprehensive plan to
promote and stable the financial condition of America.

1) Revenue generation via taxation

2) Payment of national and state debts ($54 million State Debts)
3) Establishment of National Bank on the basis of Bank of England
4) Establishment of Uniform Currency in all states of USA
2. Whiskey Rebellion
In western Pennsylvania a group of farmers refused to pay federal
excise duty on whiskey which was a challenge to the American
constitution and the government itself. Farmers insisted they won‘t be
able to bear the burden to pay tax on the distilled whiskey from
surplus corn.

Washington responded by federalizing 15,000 men in the state militia under

the supervision of Alexander Hamilton. This led to the collapse of whiskey
rebel without any bloodshed. This act of Washington was appreciated by
the entire country.

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3. Westwards Expansion
Due to the treaty of Greenville and Jays, US government controlled
vast lands. Congress passed a Public Land Act in 1796 for rapid
settlement of land and selling federal land at reasonable price.

This also allowed process of adding new states to the union and in 1791
Vermont became the 1st newly added stated followed by Kentucky and
Tennessee.

4. Judicial Act
This act was passed in 1789 and laid the foundation of judicial system
of United States of America. It laid stress that the states judiciary
should be under the control of federal judiciary. Further points, it
discussed are as under

a) One Chief Justice

b) 5 Associate Judges

c) 13 Districts

d) Federal District Court along with Attorney General

5. Treaty of Greenville

The Native Americans were defeated by the American army lead by

General Anthony Wayne and in the battle of Fallen Timber in
Northwestern Ohio which led them to sign the ―Treaty of Greenville‖ in
which the natives surrendered their claims on the Ohio territory.

Foreign Policy

1. French Revolution
Americans had humble feeling towards France because of the French
Revolution and France was the country that supported America in the
war of independence against British but when the revolution of
France turned into violence. The American decided to be neutral and
sidelined from the internal affairs of France.

2. Citizen Genet Edmond

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Genet was a French minister who came to America and asked for US
assistance in French cause as per treaty of 1778. Genet was so
outrageous with his conduct that even Jefferson approved
Washington to ask French government to remove the offending
diplomat. Once recalled by French government Genet chose to live in
USA, where he married and became a US citizen.

3. Jays Treaty
Washington sent his Chief justice on a special mission to Britain that
they should stop the offensive practice of searching and seizing
American Ships and impressing seamen in British Navy. After a year
of negotiation, John Jay brought back a treaty in which British agreed
to evacuate US post in western frontier but did not said any thing
about search and seizure of US ships.

4. Proclamation of Neutrality
A war between England and France broke out. Washington referred
his cabinet whether he should remain neutral or support France in the
war. Majority of votes went in favor of neutrality as America it self
was a nascent country.

On 22nd April 1973 Washington issued Proclamation of Neutrality.

5. Pinckney Treaty
Spain was in desperate need to have good relations with America
because of tense relations with Britain. Realizing the situation,
America sent their minister Thomas Pinckney to Madrid where he
signed the “Treaty of Son Lorenzo”.

This gave Americans the access to lower Mississippi and New

Oreland.

6. XYZ affairs
The Americans were angered by the reports of US merchant ships
search and seizure by France. America sent its minister to France to
hold talks with French government. Certain French ministers known
as X, Y, and Z met the delegation from US in Paris and demanded a

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large sum of bribe to enter negotiations. American Delegation refused

and returned back.

“Millions for defense but not a single cent for tribute to France” became
the slogan in America. the condition were so severe that Alexander
Hamilton demanded to wage a war against France in North America but
John Adam refused saying that the American Army and Navy was not that
powerful and neither in the position to wage war against France.

7. Convention of 1800
Napoleon came into power in 1800 and there was a threat that he
might wage a war against America. America sent another mission to
France to revive the treaty of 1778. The mission was successful this
time as napoleon too was eager to have good relations with America
and a convention was signed on 30th Sep 1800 which removed the
peril of war between the two countries.

8. Two Party System

Washington himself was appointed as a unanimous president of
America and it became a popular belief that the political parties are
not needed as nothing was mentioned about the political parties in the
constitution also. But this soon proved wrong as the debates between
federalist and anti-federalist indicated that the two party system
would emerge in America as the permanent feature of politics.

 Democratic Republicans
 Federalist

Washington Farewell Address

At the time of his retirement he wrote a farewell which was publish in 1796
in the newspapers. This message had an enormous effect because of
Washington’s prestige. The president spoke of the policies that he consider
as unwise and warned Americans

1) Not to get involved in European affairs

2) Not to form political parties

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3) Not to avoid sectionalism

4) Not to make any permanent foreign alliance

Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)

Jefferson was born on 13th April, 1743 grew up in Virginia and was raised
with the orphaned children. He studied law with George Wythe, the first
American law professor. He was admitted to the bar in 1767.

Jefferson served in the House of Burgesses (1769-74). He argued against

Britain's actions and was part of the Committee of Correspondence. He was
a member of the Continental Congress (1775-6) and then became a member
of the Virginia House of Delegates (1776-9). As a member of the second
Continental Congress (1783-4), he wrote the Declaration of Independence.
He was sent to France as a minister after the war (1785-89).

He considered his presidency as the 2nd American Revolution.

“My Presidency is the 2nd American Revolution”

- Thomas Jefferson

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The Louisiana Purchase

Napoleon Bonaparte, who came to power in France in 1799, dreamed of
reestablishing the French empire in North America. In the following year,
he negotiated a secret treaty, the Treaty of San Ildefonso, with Spanish
King Charles IV, which returned the Louisiana Territory to France

In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join Robert Livingston, the

American minister in Paris, to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans and
West Florida.

Bidding of Louisiana By this time, Napoleon had given up his plans for a
colonial empire. Two American representatives were therefore surprised to
find the French government willing to sell all of Louisiana, 280,000 square
miles between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains for a paltry
$15 million. Jefferson was unsure whether the United States could legally
buy the Louisiana territory because the Constitution said nothing about
purchasing land. He considered proposing a constitutional amendment but
dropped the idea because it might take too much time, and the opportunity
could vanish. The bargain was too good to pass up. Jefferson approved the
purchase, the Senate ratified it, and the United States abruptly doubled in
size.
1. Judicial Impeachment
John Marshall was the chief justice of the Supreme Court and a
strong rival of Thomas Jefferson. Therefore the relation between
executive and judiciary remained tense in those days. Jefferson tried
to appoint his party men to the courts but he was heavily criticized for
this act. Whereas John Marshall managed to secures the
independence of the federal judiciary through brilliant legal
arguments and skilled political maneuvering.
2. Albert Galton and Federal Budget
Jefferson was of the view that the federal budget should be
understandable to the common men also. Therefore he appointed
Albert Galton and gave him the task of making federal budget
understandable even to the common man. So that their feedbacks and
suggestion could help improving the budget further.
3. Immigration Policy

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The immigration policy before his presidency was quite strict and the
immigration was granted to the one who at least had spent 14 years in
America. He reduced the time period of 14 years to 5 years for
acquiring the US citizenship.
4. Laissez Fair Economy
Laissez Fair Economy is an economic environment in which
transactions between private parties are free from tariffs, government
subsidies, and enforced monopolies, with only enough government
regulations sufficient to protect property rights against theft and
aggression. Jefferson was of the view that there should be very little
involvement of government in private economy.
5. Religious Tolerance
Though he himself was an atheist but he was very much tolerant of
other religions and passes a bill in 1777 which promoted religious
freedom for the state of Virginia (which was before his presidency).
6. Autonomy to States
Since he was an Anti-Federalist and his main priority was to make
state stronger. Therefore he provided full autonomy to the states.
7. Slavery Issue
Jefferson use to consider slavery as an evil institution and believed in
equality of man. But no proper measures were taken during his
presidency for the eradication of slavery. Since he was a landlord and
even he himself had 127 slaves, for which he was often criticized.
8. Belief and importance to common man
He considered government as an instrument for the promotion of
common men. He was of the view that the common man should be
given a chance to enter politics and run government.

“Thomas Jefferson was the most brilliant man ever occupied the

American Presidency”

- John F. Kennedy

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War of 1812
The war of 1812 is recorded as a military conflict between the British and
Americans. This probably was the 2nd war fought between the two
countries after the war of independence. Britain at first was on the defensive
mode as it was busy in the war with Napoleon in Europe but once the war
with France ended in 1814 British adopted aggressive strategy and send
large invasion armies to fight America.

The nation went to war bitterly divided. While the south and west favored
the conflict. The U.S. military was weak. The army had fewer than 7,000
regular soldiers, distributed in widely scattered posts along the coast, near
the Canadian border, and in the remote interior. The state militias were
poorly trained and undisciplined. But yet they decided to declare the war
against Britain.

Causes of War
From US point of view, pressure leading to war came from two sides the
continued US neutral rights on sea and troubles with Britain on western
frontier.

Free Sea and Trade As a trading nation America was dependant upon the
free flow of ship over the Atlantic Ocean. Yet the belligerents of Europe
France and Britain had no interest in neutral rights respect for each other.
Due to support from France in American War of Independence and French
Revolution Americans had a soft corner toward France but the British
violation was taken very blatantly.

Impressments of American Merchants in Royal Navy British was involved

in capturing and impressing the US sailors in to the royal navy which was
another cause that led USA to enter the war with Britain.

British Support to Red Indians British were providing military and

financial assistance to the Red Indians to fight against the Americans which
was denting the situation in America.

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War Hawks In 1810 there was a group of young republicans in congress.

Many of them were from frontier states were very eager to fight a war with
Britain. They were led by John Calhoun and Henry Clay and they quickly
gained significant influence in House of Representatives

Declaration of War

America invited British to held talks on the neutral rights but British
delayed. Bothe the political pressure and British delay in talks led Madison
to seek the declaration of war in June 1812.

Invasion of Canada

A poorly equipped American army led the expansion of Canada from three
parts on 1812. The forces captured Canada from Detroit, Niagara and Lake
Champlain. The American raid on Toronto and burnt officials buildings
there but they British army easily repulsed them out and gained control.

Burning of White House By the spring of 1814, the defeat of Napoleon in

Europe enabled British to be more aggressive in war against US and they
send more troops toward North America. At the Chesapeake campaign,
British troops marched and captured Washington D.C and set white house
and other official building on fire.

Treaty of Ghent

British Having fought Napoleon for more than a decade; they now were in
desperate need of peace in Europe. At the same time Madison and America
recognized that America will be unable to get a decisive victory. Therefore
American peace commissioner traveled to Ghent, Belgium in 1814 to held
peace talk with Britain and finally a Treaty of Ghent was signed between
the two countries.

Main Points of Treaty of Ghent

o A halt to fight
o Return of all conquered territories to prewar claimants
o Recognition of prewar boundary between Canada and America

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The War Legacy

From Madison‘s point of view, the war achieved none of its original aims.
Nevertheless, it had a number of important consequences for the future
development of the American republic. They may be listed as follows:

1. Having now survived two wars with Britain, a great power, the United
States gained the respect of other nations.

2. The United States came to accept Canada as a neighbor and a part of the
British Empire.

3. Widely denounced for its talk of secession and disunion in New England,
the Federalist Party came to an end as a national force and declined even in
New England.

4. Talk of nullification and secession in New England set a precedent that

would later be used by the South.

5. Abandoned by their British allies, Native Americans in the West were

forced to surrender large areas of land to white settlement.

6. As European goods became unavailable due to the British naval

blockade, more U.S. factories were built, and Americans took a big step
toward industrial self-sufficiency.

7. War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would
soon be in the forefront of a new generation of political leaders.

8. As a result of the war, there was a strong feeling of American

nationalism and also a growing belief that the future for the United States
lay in the West and away from Europe.

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Missouri Compromise (1820)

In an effort to preserve the balance of power in Congress between slave and
Free states, the Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820 admitting
Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. Furthermore, with the
exception of Missouri, this law prohibited slavery in the Louisiana
Territory north of the 36° 30´ latitude line. In 1854, the Missouri
Compromise was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Three years later
the Missouri Compromise was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme
Court in the Dred Scott decision, which ruled that Congress did not have
the authority to prohibit slavery in the territories.

The American new boundary lines were being drawn during the presidency
of James Monroe. The population of America by that time was 10 millions.
During this period of explosive growth new states were being added almost
every year and the issue of slavery was increasingly dividing the nation.

Addition of as slave and Free states:

1) Mississippi (slave State) 1817

2) Illinois (Free State) 1818
3) Alabama (slave State) 1819
By the time Alabama was added as a slave state the number of free and
slave states became equal as there were:

o 11 free states
o 11 slave states
But the application of adding Missouri as a slave state was a threat to upset
the balance between the free and slave states. The issue was presented in
the US congress for an action. Congress had the right to abolish slavery in
any of the state including Missouri but this action was strongly opposed by
the leaders of the southern slave state. As they feared abolishing slavery in
Missouri may result in the imbalance this might help declaring slavery as an
illegal institution.

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Henry Clay, a leading congressman, played a crucial role in brokering a

two-part solution known as the MISSOURI COMPROMISE.

1st Point: Missouri would be admitted to the union as a slave state, but
would be balanced by the admission of MAINE, a free state, that had long
wanted to be separated from Massachusetts.

2nd Point: slavery was to be excluded from all new states in the Louisiana
Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri.

3rd Point: Ban on Slavery over the north of Missouri

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Monroe Doctrine (1823)

The Monroe Doctrine was a regular annual address of the president to the
nation delivered on 2nd Dec, 1823 which ultimately became the pillar of
US foreign policy in the nineteenth century, but its importance in the
twentieth century is disputed. On the one hand, it laid the grounds for
American expansion in the Western Hemisphere and provided a framework
of reciprocal non-interference in transatlantic relations. Therefore, a
reconsideration of its impact is relevant to the discussion of the tension
between internationalism and isolationism. An assessment of the relevance
of the Monroe Doctrine in twentieth-century US diplomacy must take into
account that

(i) It outlined a regionalist view of world affairs

(ii)It expressed widespread notions of American culture, history, and
national identity.

The period of 1817 to 1829 can be divided in two phases. The 1st period
belongs to James Monroe who brought peace and security in the country
therefore his period is known as era of good feelings. The period of John
Quincy Adams was considered to be the period of hardship and difficulties.
Thus it was known as era of hard feelings

1817-1824

Era of Good Feelings

1825- 1829

Era of Hard feelings

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The Principles of Monroe Doctrine:

o Anti-Colonization
o Non-Intervention
o Self Defense
o American Nationalism and Self-Awareness

Main Points in Doctrine

1. American continent cannot be considered as subject for further

colonization by European powers.

2. European political system is different than that of Americans and any

attempt to extend to this system to American hemisphere will be considered
dangerous to our peace and security.

3. America will not interfere in European war and their politics neither we
do have any aim to oppress them.

Use of Monroe Doctrine

1) Objection to British Alliance in Texas in 1836

2) 1845 Westward expansion during the presidency of James Polie
3) 1863 French empire in Mexico was seriously taken by Americans as
violation of Monroe Doctrine
4) President Theodore Roosevelt declared American right to intervene in
continent.

Effects

The effects of the Monroe Doctrine on Europe were mixed. While Spain
did not attempt to restore empire in Latin America, Britain continued as a
dominant trade power there. Some Latin American nations resented the
implications that the United States was somehow responsible for their well-
being. It was not until the 1880s and the development of the U.S. Navy that
the U.S. actually had the military power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine.
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Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)

The era of emergence of popular politics in 1820‘s and the presidency of

Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) is often called as the Age of Common Man, or
the Era of Jacksonian Democracy.

Andrew Jackson was born to a Scottish family on the border of South and
North Carolina on 15th March, 1768. He was a son of Saddle maker and
was groomed in extreme poor condition. He became orphan at the age of 14
years and tasted all the hardships in his life during his childhood. Jackson
was a brilliant student of Law. He was very much enthusiastic to be
military men and served the military from 1813 to 1400.

He was made Major General after defeating Greeks and he also defeated
British in the battle of New Orland. In 1828 he became the president of
America defeating John Quincy Adams. He was described as ―Old
Hickory.

1. Rise of Democratic Society The peoples who traveled from Europe

to America (like Alexis de Tocqueville, French Aristocrat) were
amazed to see the informal and democratic attitude of Americans. As
the rich and poor use to dress in the same manner, they normally
travel in the same busses and trains and sits on the same tables in
hotels. The principle of equality among the white men in America
was widespread belief.
2. Politics of Common Man In 1830‘s and 1840‘s the politics of
America moved out from the fine homes of rich aristocrats to the
lower and middles class society. This was the time when these classes
were given the right to vote and the number of vote for president
increase from 350,000 in 1824 to 2.4millions in 1840.
3. Universal male suffrage All the white men in America were given the
right to vote regardless of their class or religion. This increased the
voting ration in America from 37% to 57.6%. The political offices
now could also be held by the lower and middle ranks of the society.
4. Party Nomination Convention In past days, a nomination for
appointment of a candidate to an office was made by the caucus. Te

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common peoples had no opportunity to participate. In 1830‘s the

caucuses were replaced by nominating convention. The politicians
and voters would gather in a large all to nominate the party
candidate.
5. Maximum Use of Veto Power Andrew Jackson used the veto power
more than any other Americans president in the history. He was the
President who enjoyed all the powers of being the president.
6. Rise of Political Parties Andrew Jackson realized the importance of
political parties. There were only two parties by that time, the
democrats and the Whigs. Jackson allows many other parties during
his time. Anti-Masonic and Workingmen Party emerged during his
tenure and the common man got a chance to be involved in politics.
7. More Elected offices During the Jacksonian era much larger number
of states and locals officials were elected, rather than appointed, as in
the past. This increased the interest of voters to participate in
elections.
8. Popular Campaigning Candidates for offices directed their election
campaign to the interest of the common people. Politics also became
a form of local entertainment. Campaigns of 1830‘s and 1840 have
featured marching bands and large rallies in which voters were treated
with free drinks and food.
9. Spoilt System Winning government jobs became lifeblood of political
parties. Jackson believed in appointing peoples to federal post strictly
according to whether they have campaigned for Democratic Party.
Jackson believed in system of rotation in office to make maximum
number of democrats to hold office. Spoil system was criticized as it
promoted government corruption.
10. Kitchen Cabinet Kitchen Cabinet is normally the consultative
and advisory body of the president, but Andrew Jackson started the
practice of consulting the informal group of advisers mostly his
friends including Major Lewis, Isaac Hill and General Duff.
11. Peggy Eaton Affair The champion of common men also went
to the wellbeing of common women at least in the case of Peggy
Eaton. She was the wife of Jackson Secretary of war. She by that time
was the target of malicious gossips by the other women who avoided
inviting her to their private parties. When Jackson insisted to invite
Peggy Eaton socially most of his cabinet including Vice President:
John Calhoun resigned

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12. Indian Removal Act 1830 Jackson concept of democracy did

not extents to the natives Americans. He was of the view that the
natives should leave their tradition and customs and resettle west of
Mississippi. In the presidency of eight years Jackson had 94 treaties
with the Red Indian and ultimately used military to drive them out
across the Mississippi. The hardship on the ―trails of tears‖ was so
great that 4000 Cherokees died on the tragic westward trek
13. Re-chartering of Bank of USA Jackson was of the view that
central bank is abusing its powers and is serving the interest of
wealthy peoples. His suspicion increases to the arrogant personality of
Nicholas Biddle the President of Bank. Henry Clay opposition
member was in support of Bank and challenged Jackson on bank issue
by persuading majority in congress on bank re-charter bill. Jackson
vetoed the bill and overhauled the banking system in America.
14. Foreign Policy He managed a balanced and friendly foreign
policy with friendly relations with France, Britain and other
Europeans Countries maintaining better trade relations and cordial
policies in political, economic and social relations. He settled the
claims of France in North America which were pending since 1815.

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Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865)

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 in a log cabin near
present day Hodgenville, Kentucky. His parents, Thomas and Nancy Hanks
Lincoln, named him after his pioneer grandfather who was shot dead by
hostile Indians in 1786. 1809 was the 16th President of America. His family
moved to Indiana and then to Illinois, and Lincoln gained what education
he could along the way. While reading law, he worked in a store, managed
a mill, surveyed, and split rails. In 1834, he went to the Illinois legislature
as a Whig and became the party's floor leader. For the next 20 years he
practiced law in Springfield, except for a single term (1847–49) in Congress,
where he denounced the Mexican War. In 1855, he was a candidate for
senator and the next year he joined the new Republican Party.

Achievements of Abraham Lincoln

1. Popular Leadership A poll was released in February 2009. This poll

was sponsored by C-SPAN and consisted of a survey of 65 historians.
The participants were asked to rank the presidents in ten categories
ranging from public persuasion and economic management to
international relations and moral authority. Abraham Lincoln
finished first, George Washington was second, and Franklin
Roosevelt was third.
2. Abolition of Slavery Abraham Lincoln is remembered for his vital
role as the leader in preserving the Union during the Civil War and
beginning the process that led to the end of slavery in the United
States. The actual fact is that legal freedom for all slaves in the United
States did not come until the final passage of the Thirteenth
Amendment in December of 1865. Lincoln was a strong supporter of
the amendment, but he was assassinated before its final enactment.
3. Lincoln and Domestic Society President Lincoln's domestic policies
included support for the Homestead Act. This act allowed poor
people in the East to obtain land in the West. He signed the Morrill
Act which was designed to aid in the establishment of agricultural
and mechanical colleges in each state. Also, Lincoln signed
legislation entitled the National Banking Act which established a
national currency and provided for the creation of a network of
national banks. In addition, he signed tariff legislation that offered
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protection to American industry and signed a bill that chartered the

first transcontinental railroad.
4. Wisest US President Politicians love to quote Abraham Lincoln
because Lincoln is considered America's wisest president. A major
effect Lincoln has on the U.S. today is simply through the good
example he set when it came to leadership and integrity.
5. Fugitive Slave Act To soften the attitude of peoples in south Lincoln
supported the Fugitive Slave Law or Fugitive Slave Act which was
passed in 1850. This was one of the most controversial acts of the
1850 compromise and heightened Northern fears of a "slave power
conspiracy". It declared that all runaway slaves will be brought back
to their masters.
6. Good Relations with Cabinet Lincoln managed excellent relations
with his advisors, cabinet and military. When ever, there was
disagreement among advisors and he, his leadership style often
involved telling a story that demonstrated his point. Lots of times this
method worked, and cabinet admired and respected him for it. He
could virtually disarm his enemies with his highly moralistic, skillful
leadership. Lincoln possessed qualities of kindness and compassion
combined with wisdom. In fact, one of his nicknames was "Father
Abraham."
7. Foreign Policy The Major achievement of Lincoln foreign policy
was that it geared toward preventing foreign intervention in the Civil
War. He was a very shrewd diplomat and an excellent negotiator.
Many countries would have entered the American civil war, had there
been no Abraham Lincoln as the President of Union by that time.
Some of his major achievements in foreign policy were:
1) Made Great Britain neutral in Civil War
2) Not opted for any political support to abolish slavery from America.
3) Maintained better trade relations with neighboring countries and
Europe.

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Civil War
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States. He
defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater northern population.
Southerners were angered by the growing abolitionist movement, and when
Lincoln was elected, they feared that their way of life was in jeopardy.
South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks,
six other southern states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very
bloody four year war was to come.

PEOPLE

North (Union) South (Confederacy)

Abraham Lincoln Jefferson Davis

U.S. Grant Robert E Lee

William T Sherman Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

Causes Leading to Civil war

1. Election of Lincoln
2. Discrimination of race
3. Slavery
4. The abolitionist (people who wanted to stop slavery) movement
5. Difference in economy
6. Western expansion

Consequences of the Civil War

1. Physical Devastation
The American Civil War lasted four years. Measured in physical
devastation and human lives, it was the costliest war the American
people have experienced. The war killed over 620,000 men and at

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least that many more had been wounded in a nation of about 35

million.

2. Spread of Disease and Sickness

North lost a total of about 364,000 soldiers (nearly one of every four
soldiers). Also more than 37,000 black soldiers lost their lives fighting
for freedom during the American Civil War. The conditions of the
war were so bad more men died of disease and sickness than on the
battlefield.

3. Hunger and Homelessness

After the war, over 4 million slaves were freed. They didn't know
what the future had in store for them. With freedom came hunger and
homelessness. Some slaves stayed on the plantations, but others went
north. Either way, thousands of former slaves were without homes,
clothes, food, jobs, and didn't have any education. The Freedman's
Bureau helped both blacks and whites after the war by providing them
with food and medical care.

Effects of the Civil War

The Civil War was one of the most tragic wars in American history. More
Americans died then in all other wars combined. Brother fought against
brother and the nation was torn apart. In the end, we must look at the
important consequences of the conflict. There may be others, but this is a
good list to work off.
1) The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed to
secede.
2) The South was placed under military rule and divided into military
districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the Union.
3) The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states.
4) Slavery was effectively ended. While slavery was not officially outlawed
until the passage of the 13th amendment, the slaves were set free upon the
end of the war.
5) Reconstruction, the plan to rebuild America after the war, began.
6) Industrialism began as a result of the increase in wartime production and
the development of new technologies.

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Progressivism (1890-1920)
Introduction

By the beginning of the twentieth century, muckraking journalists were

calling attention to the exploitation of child labor, corruption in city
governments, the horror of lynching, and the ruthless business practices
employed by businessmen like John D. Rockefeller.

At the local level, many Progressives sought to suppress red-light districts,

expand high schools, construct playgrounds, and replace corrupt urban
political machines with more efficient system of municipal government. At
the state level, Progressives enacted minimum wage laws for women
workers, instituted industrial accident insurance, restricted child labor, and
improved factory regulation.

At the national level, Congress passed laws establishing federal regulation

of the meat- packing, drug, and railroad industries, and strengthened anti-
trust laws. It also lowered the tariff, established federal control over the
banking system, and enacted legislation to improve working condition.
Four constitutional amendments were adopted during the Progressive era,
which authorized an income tax, provided for the direct election of
senators, extended the vote to women, and prohibited the manufacture and
sale of alcoholic beverages.

Efforts to improve society were not new to the United States in the late
1800s. A major push for change, the First Reform Era, occurred in the years
before the Civil War and included efforts of social activists to reform
working conditions and humanize the treatment of mentally ill people and
prisoners. The second reform era began during Reconstruction and lasted
until the American entry into World War I. The struggle for women's rights
and the temperance movement were the initial issues addressed. A farm
movement also emerged to compensate for the declining importance of
rural areas in an increasingly urbanized America.

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Who were Progressives?

Chiefly the Middle class residents of US cities were the active member of
this revolution. It was a movement by the urban middle class apart from
doctors, lawyers, ministers and storekeepers there now were thousands of
white collar office workers and middle class managers employed in banks,
firms and other businesses. They were disturbed about what might happen
to American democracy.

Progressives Presidents

o Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1909)

o Howard Taft (1909 – 1913)
o Woodrow Wilson (1913 – 1917)

Motives and Demands of Progressives

1. Increasing gap between the rich and poor

2. Violent conflict between labor and capital
3. Dominance of corrupt politicians
4. Racism
5. Women suffrage
6. Greater Democracy
7. Monopoly

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Role of the Muckrakers

The need for reform was highlighted by a group of journalists and writers
known as the muckrakers, who made Americans aware of the serious
failings in society and built public support for change. Exposés such as

o Lincoln Steffens The Shame of the Cities (1904), an attack on

municipal corruption
o Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), which
chronicled ruthless business, practices.
The muckrakers' impact could be powerful, as in the case of Upton
Sinclair's The Jungle (1906), a book whose vivid descriptions of working
and sanitary conditions in Chicago's meatpacking plants led directly to
federal laws regulating the industry.

A. Political Reforms
o Tried to put more power into the hands of the people
o Innovative changes in city government
o Direct Election of Senators
o the Vote for Women
B. Social Reforms
o Child labor laws
o Ten-hour work days
o Minimum safety standards on the job
o Immigration Restriction
o Little Help for Blacks NAACP (1909)

Progressive Amendments to the Constitution

16th Amendment (1913)— federal income tax

17th Amendment (1913)— direct election of senators

18th Amendment (1919)— prohibition of Alcohol

19th Amendment (1920)— vote for women

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Success of Progressives

Successes were many, beginning with the Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). Progressives never spoke with one
mind and differed sharply over the most effective means to deal with the ills
generated by the trusts; some favored an activist approach to trust-busting,
others preferred a regulatory approach.

Vocal minority supported socialism with government ownership of the

means of production. Other progressive reforms followed in the form of a
conservation movement, railroad legislation, and food and drug laws. The
progressive spirit also was evident in new amendments added to the
Constitution (text), which provided for a new means to elect senators,
protect society through prohibition and extend suffrage to women. Urban
problems were addressed by professional social workers who operated
settlement houses as a means to protect and improve the prospects of the
poor. However, efforts to place limitations on child labor were routinely
thwarted by the courts. The needs of African Americans and Native
Americans were poorly served or served not at all — a major shortcoming
of the progressive movement.

Progressive reforms were carried out not only on the national level, but in
states and municipalities. Such reforms as the direct primary, secret ballot,
and the initiative, referendum, and recall were effected. Local governments
were strengthened by the widespread use of trained professionals,
particularly with the city manager system replacing the frequently corrupt
mayoral system.

Impacts of Progressive Movement

 The Exploitation was labor was checked and working hours were
decided Natural resources were protected
 Brought a change in attitude of the politicians given them a sense of
responsibility.
 Fair distribution of powers among state and federation.
 Local governments were strengthened

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Acts Passed During Progressive Era

1. Pure Food And Drug Act (inspection of meat)

2. Hep Burn Act (Uniform System of Railroads)

3. Antiquates Act (placed certain lands under federal control)

4. Clayton Anti Trust Act (Removed deficiencies in Sherman Anti Trust

Act)

5. Federal Reserve Act (Federal Bank joined Federal Reserved System)

6. New York State Tenement House Act (Ban on Construction of dark and
airless buildings)

7. Folleters Sea man’s Act (improved condition of labors on sea ships)

8. Worker men Compensation Act (for benefit of Federal civil servants)

9. Federal Aid Road Act (Construction of road from federal funds money)
10. Federal Form Loan Act (Provided loans to farmers)

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Woodrow Wilson (1914-1919)

Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia on 28th Dec, 1856. He was the 28th
American President and the son of a Presbyterian minister who during the
Civil War was a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a
professor in the charred city of Columbia, South Carolina. He was
nominated as the President at Democratic Convention in 1912 and
campaigned on a program called the New Freedom, which stressed
individualism and states' rights. In the three-way election he received only
42 percent of the popular vote but an overwhelming electoral vote.

He is the 2nd of the four president of America to be awarded noble prize.

He was awarded noble prize for his excellent peace making efforts. In 1919
he suffered a stroke which nearly took his life away and his body was
paralyzed. He died in 1924.

Achievements of Woodrow Wilson

1. True Progressive president of America

2. Noble Prize winner for peace efforts
3. Balance US policy in World War I
4. Wilson 14 points

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America and World War I

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend
Serbia. Germany seeing Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France
was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany
attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan
entered the war. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side
of the allies. It is very difficult to pin point the actual causes of the 1st world
war. But here is the list which provides some popular reasons that led the
world to their first battle.

1. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary
was one of the immediate causes of the war. In June 1914, a Serbian
nationalist assassinated him and his wife while they were in Sarajevo,
Bosnia. This was in protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this
region. This assassination led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on
Serbia.

2. Mutual Defense Alliances

Countries throughout Europe made mutual defense agreements that
would pull them into battle. Thus, if one country was attacked, allied
countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1, the
following alliances existed:

1. Russia and Serbia

2. Germany and Austria-Hungary
3. France and Russia
4. Britain and France and Belgium
5. Japan and Britain
3. Militarism
As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun. By
1914, Germany had the greatest increase in military buildup. Great
Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time
period. Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military

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establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This

increase in militarism helped push the countries involved to war.

4. Nationalism
Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic
peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria
Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. In this way, nationalism led
directly to the War. But in a more general way, the nationalism of the
various countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the
beginning but the extension of the war in Europe.

5. Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country increases their power and wealth by
bringing additional territories under their control. Before World War
1, Africa and parts of Asia were points of contention amongst the
European countries. This was especially true because of the raw
materials these areas could provide.

Enetente Powers

(France, Britain and Russia)

Centrist Powers

(Germany, Turkey, Austria-Hungary)

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Causes of American entry to World War I

1. Trade Relations with Europe
American had very good trade relations with the European countries,
which brings in the economic factor that America entered the war. As
huge loan were given to allies by America, defeat of those allies
would had resulted in the sinking of American money. Therefore
America decided to enter the war and support allies. This resulted in
the tripling American trade with allies to $3 billion a year between
1914 and 1916 and helped economic recovery in the United States.

2. German Submarine Warfare

In March 1918, German sub marines torpedoed three unarmed
American ships including famous ship Lusitania, which resulted in
heavy losses. Britain propagated this news and the German aggressive
behavior was condemned and US was forced in to the war.

3. Zimmer Mann Telegraph

American public opinion was also inflamed by the Zimmermann
note. Zimmermann was the foreign secretary of Germany who sought
a military alliance with Mexico against United States. When
submarines sank three American merchant ships, Wilson abandoned
temporary armed neutrality and decided to take the United States into
the war.

4. Russian Revolution
In 1917, the ruler of Russia ―Czar‖ was dethroned in the Russian
revolution and the communist party led by Lenin was all set to take
up the new system of government in Russia. America was of the view
that the communist revolution will not be favorable to American
system.

5. Weapons Credibility Issue

America was one of the biggest sellers of arms and artillery to Europe.
Since the world war had begun by that time, it was the issues of the
credibility of American arms as a large number of US arms were

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being used by the allies in the 1st world war. The failure of allies in
the war would have resulted as a disaster for the US weapon industry.

6. Declaration of War
In his powerful war message of 2 April 1917, Wilson condemned the
German submarine campaign as ―warfare against mankind, and
urged Americans to fight, in his famous phrase, to make the world
safe for democracy.

"The world must be made safe for democracy."

- Woodrow Wilson

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14 Points of Woodrow Wilson

During the bloody battles of the First World War, President Woodrow
Wilson began to explain his plans for the peace following the war. Most
widely known was his message of a "peace without victory" most
completely explained in his "Fourteen Points" speech before Congress on 8
January 1918. The first five points consisted the idea of an "open" world
after the war. The next eight points focused mainly upon the idea of
granting "self- determination" to national minorities in Europe.

Most significant, however, was point number fourteen which stressed a

"general association of nations" to ensure "political independence and
territorial integrity to great and small states alike." Essentially, these
Fourteen Points signaled a generous, non-punitive postwar settlement.

1. Abolishment of Secret Treaties

Abolition of secret diplomacy by adoption of open covenants
(agreements) openly arrived at.

2. Absolute Freedom of The Seas

Freedom of the seas in peace and war, except as the seas may be
closed in whole or in part by international action to enforce
international covenants.

3. Removal of economic barriers and equality of trade

Removal of international trade barriers where-ever possible and
establishment of equal trading conditions among the nations
accepting the peace.

4. Reduction of armaments.
Reduction of armaments to the lowest point consistent with public
safety.

5. Adjustment of colonial claims.

Adjustment of colonial claims, taking into account the interests of the
colonial population as well as those of the rival colonial powers.

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6. Evacuation of Russian Territories

Evacuation of German troops from Russian territory, and an
opportunity for Russia, then engaged in the Communist revolution, to
determine its form of government without outside interference.

7. Preservation of Belgian sovereignty

Evacuation of German troops from Belgium.

8. Restoration of French territory

Alsace-Lorraine Evacuation and restoration by Germany of French
territory, with restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine.

9. Re-adjustment of Italian frontiers

Readjustment of the frontiers of Italy along clearly recognizable lines
of nationality.

10. Division and autonomous development of Austria-Hungary

Opportunity of autonomous development for the peoples of Austria-
Hungary.

11. Redrawing of Balkan boundaries

Evacuation by the Central Powers of Serbia, Montenegro, and
Romania; granting of seaports to Serbia; and international guarantees
of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of
the Balkan states.

12. Limitations on Turkey

Internationalization of the Dardanelles and self-determination for
non-Turkish peoples under Turkish control.

13. Establishment of an independent Poland

An independent Poland with access to the sea.

14. Association of nations (League of Nations)

A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and
territorial independence of all states.

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Great Depression (1930)

The Great Depression represents one of the darkest periods in American
economic history. Most people think the Great Depression started in
October 1929, with the famous Black Tuesday stock market crash, but
economists and historians point to an economic downturn which took hold
in early 1929. The stock market crash led to unprecedented selling of 1, 30,
000, 00 shares alone on 24th Oct, 1929. This stock market crash is often
known as ―Wall Street Crash‖.

Franklin D. Roosevelt‘s New Deal is largely credited with bringing

America out of the Great Depression by providing jobs and relief, but in
truth, the country didn‘t fully recover until 1941, when munitions and
ammunition factories geared up for World War II.

Causes of Great Depression

1. Dust Bowl Draught From 1930-1936
American farmers struggled with conditions of the Dust Bowl, a
drought that affected more than a million acres of farmland, and the
result was mass migrations of people from rural lands to urban areas.

2. Unequal Distribution of Wealth

Although the nation's wealth grew by billions throughout the 1920s, it
was not distributed evenly. The top 1% received a 75% increase in
their disposable income while the other 99% saw an average 9%
increase in their disposable income. 80% of Americans had no savings
at all.

3. War Debts
At the end of World War I, European nations owed over $10 billion
to their former ally, the United States. Their economies had been
devastated by war and they had no way of paying the money back.
The U.S. insisted their former allies pay the money. This forced the
allies to demand Germany pay the reparations imposed on her as a
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result of the Treaty of Versailles. All of this later led to a financial

crisis when Europe could not purchase goods from the U.S. This debt
contributed to the Great Depression.

4. High Tariffs
In 1922, the U.S. passed the Fordney-Mc Cumber Act, which
instituted high tariffs on industrial products. A tariff is a tax on
imports. Other nations soon retaliated and world trade declined
helping bring on the great depression.

5. Overproduction in Industry
Factories were producing products; however wages for workers were
not raising enough for them to buy. Few workers could afford to buy
the factory output. The surplus products could not be sold overseas
due to high tariffs and lack of money in Europe.

6. Farm Overproduction
Due to surpluses and overproduction, farm incomes dropped
throughout the 1920‘s. The price of farm land fell from $69 per acre
in 1920 t0 $31 in 1930. In 1929 the average annual income for an
American family was $750, but for farm families it was only $273.
The problems in the agricultural sector had a large impact since 30%
of Americans still lived on farms.

7. Stock Market Crash 24th Oct 1929

Stock Market Crash lead to selling of 130,000,00 shares in one day
because stocks were overpriced due to speculation, meaning they
were not worth their sale price. Massive fraud and illegal activity
occurred due to a lack of regulation and rules. Margin buying, or
buying using credit

Effects of the Great Depression Facts

1. Unemployment
The primary effect of the Great Depression was that it caused millions
of workers to lose their jobs. Unemployment during the Great
Depression rose from 3% in 1929 to 25% by 1933.

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2. People lost their life savings

Because of the Great Depression, more than 9,000 banks closed
during the 1930s, causing millions of people to lose their life savings.

3. Drop in US GNP From 1929 to 1933

the U.S. Gross National Product (which is a measurement of how
many goods and services are produced in a year) dropped by 33%.

4. Federal welfare or social programs

At the start of the Great Depression, there was no federal welfare or
social programs in place. Out of the Great Depression and FDR‘s
New Deal, these programs were created: Civilian Conservation Corps
(CCC); Federal Housing Administration (FHA); Public Works
Administration (PWA); Social Security Act (SSA).

5. Increased Taxes
One of the effects of the Great Depression is that the tax rate changed
significantly for the wealthiest Americans. In 1927, the top tax rate
was reduced to 25%, which is a large part of what caused the Great
Depression. In 1932, in an effort to pull out of the Great Depression,
the rate was raised to 63%. In 1936, it was bumped again, to 79%. In
1945, it reached an incredible 91% and hovered at 88% or greater
until 1963 when it was reduced to 70%. In comparison, today‘s top
tax rate is 35%.

The FDIC was created to insure that people‘s money would be safe
and protected against bank failures.

6. Changes in Stock Market

Changes were made to the stock market to prevent rampant
speculation and further crashes, the most notable of which was that
people could no longer buy stocks on margin.

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Great Depression Facts

1. At its highest point during the Great Depression, unemployment
reached 25% (in 1933).
2. The Great Depression began in 1929 and ended in 1941 when
America prepared to enter World War II.
3. Social Security, a program that continues to this day, was introduced
by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the midst of the Great Depression.
4. The ―Roaring Twenties‖ weren‘t roaring for everyone. By 1929, 1%
of Americans controlled 40% of the wealth in this country.
5. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was formed in
1934 to insure deposits in banks and restore customers’ faith in the
American banking system.
6. The Dust Bowl years spanned 1930-1936, when a million acres of
farmland across the Plains became worthless due to severe drought
and over farming.
7. After the stock market crash in 1929, it took 27 years to reach pre-
crash levels.
8. In 1939, the unemployment rate in America had dropped from a high
of 25% to 15%, largely due to the New Deal programs introduced by
Franklin D. Roosevelt.
9. Tuesday, October 29, 1929 is known as Black Tuesday because of the
plunge the stock market took, and it largely symbolizes the start of the
Great Depression, though the economy had been in decline for at
least six months prior to that date.
10. By 1933, more than 11,000 of the nation‘s 25,000 American
banks had shuttered victims of the Great Depression.
11. In March 2012, it was reported that 4 out of 15 of the major
U.S. banks (including Citigroup) wouldn‘t survive another severe
recession, much less a depression.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1932-1945)

Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D.
Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He
brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his
Inaugural Address,

"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself."

Roosevelt was born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York. He attended Harvard
University and Columbia Law School.

Following the example of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt,

whom he greatly admired, Franklin D. Roosevelt entered public service
through politics, but as a Democrat. He won election to the New York
Senate in 1910. President Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the
Navy, and he was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920.

He was the only American President to be elected four times. Franklin D.

Roosevelt was elected four times, in 1932, 1936, 1940, and 1944. He
assumed the Presidency on March 4, 1933 and died in office on April 12,
1945, serving for a term of 12 years and 1 month.

By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was
closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a
sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the
unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform,
especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

Franklin D. Roosevelt Personal Qualities

o He was a practical politician who practiced the art of the possible.
o He was a charismatic person who exhibited a warmth and
understanding of people.
o He knew how to handle press by focusing attention on Washington.
o He provided dynamic leadership in a time of crisis.
o He was willing to experiment

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The New Deal

By 1935 the Nation had achieved some measure of recovery, but
businessmen and bankers were turning more and more against Roosevelt's
New Deal program. They feared his experiments, were appalled because he
had taken the Nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the
budget, and disliked the concessions to labor.

Roosevelt responded with a new program of reform:

1) Social Security
2) Heavier taxes on the wealthy
3) New controls over banks and public utilities
4) Work relief program for the unemployed.
Purposes of the New Deal

1) Relief: to provide jobs for the unemployed and to protect farmers

from foreclosure
2) Recovery: to get the economy back into high gear
3) Reform: To regulate banks, to abolish child labor, and to conserve
farm lands
First New Deal (1933-1934)

o Emphasis: reform
o Political Position: conservative
o Primary aim: economic recovery
o Philosophy: economic nationalism and economic scarcity
o Objectives: higher prices for agriculture and business
o Beneficiaries: big business and agricultural business
Second New Deal (1934-1941)

o Emphasis: reform
o Political Position: liberal
o Primary aim: permanent reform
o Philosophy: international economic cooperation and economic
abundance
o Objectives: increased purchasing power and social security for public
o Beneficiaries: small farmers and labor

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New Deal Initiative

1. Emergency Banking Act/Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
(FDIC)
Description: Right after taking office as President, FDR shut down all of
the banks in the nation and Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act
which gave the government the opportunity to inspect the health of all
banks. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was formed by
Congress to insure deposits up to $5000.

Outcome: These measures reestablished American faith in banks.

Americans were no longer scared that they would lose all of their savings in
a bank failure. Government inspectors found that most banks were healthy,
and two- thirds were allowed to open soon after. After reopening, deposits
had exceeded withdrawals.

2. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

Description: This agency sent funds to depleting local relief agencies.
Within two hours, $5 million were given out. Mr. Hopkins believed that
men should be put to work and not be given charity. His program also
funded public work programs.

Outcome: Revitalized many deteriorating relief programs.

3. Civil Works Administration (CWA)

Description: This public work program gave the unemployed jobs building
or repairing roads, parks, airports, etc.

Outcome: The CWA provided a psychological and physical boost to its 4

million workers.

4. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

Description: This environmental program put 2.5 million unmarried men
to work maintaining and restoring forests, beaches, and parks. Workers
earned only $1 a day but received free board and job training. From 1934 to
1937, this program funded similar programs for 8,500 women.

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Outcome: The CCC taught the men and women of America how to live
independently, thus, increasing their self esteem.

5. Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

Description: This act ended the sale of tribal lands and restored ownership
of unallocated lands to Native American groups.

Outcome: The outcome was obviously positive for the Native Americans.

6. National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June 1933

Description: The decline in the industrial prices in 1930s caused business
failures and unemployment. The NIRA was formed in order to boost the
declining prices, helping businesses and workers. The NIRA also allowed
trade associations in many industries to write codes regulating wages,
working conditions, production, and prices. It also set a minimum wage.

Outcome: The codes stopped the tailspin of prices for a short time, but
soon, when higher wages went into effect, prices rose too. Thus, consumers
stopped buying. The continuous cycle of overproduction and under
consumption put businesses back into a slump. Some businesses felt that
the codes were too complicated and the NRA was too rigid. It was declared
unconstitutional later on.

7. Public Works Association (PWA)

Description: The PWA launched projects such as the Grand Coulee Dam
on the Columbia River.

Outcome: One of the best parts of the NIRA.

8. Federal Securities Act of May 1933/ Securities and Exchange

Commission (SEC)
Description: This act required full disclosure of information on stocks
being sold. The SEC regulated the stock market. Congress also gave the
Federal Reserve Board the power to regulate the purchase of stock on
margin.

Outcome: Critical for long-term success for businesses.

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9. Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) / Agriculture

Adjustment Administration (AAA)
Description: In order to help people keep their houses, the HOLC
refinanced mortgages of middle-income home told to by the AAA. Many
could not believe that the federal government was condoning such an action
when many Americans were starving. It was declared unconstitutional later
on.

Outcome: Farmers killed off certain animals and crops as they were
owners. The AAA tried to raise farm prices. It used proceeds from a new
tax to pay farmers not to raise specific crops and animals. Lower
production would, in turn, increase prices.

10. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (May 1993)

Description: The TVA helped farmers and created jobs in one of America’s
least modernized areas.

Outcome: Reactivating a hydroelectric power plant provided cheap electric

power, flood control, and recreational opportunities to the entire Tennessee
River valley.

11. Works Progress Administration (WPA) 1935-1943

Description: This agency provided work for 8 million Americans. The
WPA constructed or repaired schools, hospitals, airfields, etc.

Outcome: Decreased unemployment.

12. Farm Security Administration (FSA)

Description: The FSA loaned more than $1 billion to farmers and set up
camps for migrant workers.

13. National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act)

Description: It legalized practices allowed only unevenly in the past, such
as closed shops in which only union members can work and collective
bargain. The act also set up the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to
enforce its provisions

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14. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938

Description: This banned child labor and set a minimum wage.

This law was a long awaited triumph for the progressive-era social
reformers.

15. Social Security Act

Description: This act established a system that provided old-age pensions
for workers, survivor‘s benefits for victims of industrial accidents,
unemployment insurance, and aid for dependent mothers and children, the
blind and physically disabled.

Outcome: Although the original SSA did not cover farm and domestic
workers, it did help millions of Americans feel more secure.

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Criticisms of Conservative Opponents

 Conservative opponents said the New Deal went too far:
 It was socialism (killed individualism)
 It added to the national debt ($35 billion)
 It wasted money on relief and encouraged idleness
 It violated the constitution & states rights
 It increased the power of the

Government Expenditures
The total cost of the current bailout. It has cost more than all of these
government expenditures combined. Figures in parentheses have been
adjusted for inflation:
 Marshall Plan
Cost: $12.7 billion ($115.3 billion)
 Louisiana Purchase
Cost: $15 million ($217 billion)
 Race to the Moon
Cost: $36.4 billion ($237 billion)
 S&L Crisis
Cost: $153 billion ($256 billion)
 Korean War
Cost: $54 billion ($454 billion)
 The New Deal
Cost: $32 billion est. ($500 billion EST.)
 Invasion of Iraq
Cost: $551billion ($597 billion)
 Vietnam War
Cost: $111 billion ($698 billion)
 NASA
Cost: $416.7 billion ($851.2 billion)

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America and World War II

For the second time in the 20th century, the United States became involved
in a devastating world conflict. The mobilization effort of the government
in World War II eclipsed even that of World War I. With major operations
in both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters, American industries literally
fueled two wars simultaneously. The social and economic consequences
were profound. The Great Migration of African Americans from the rural
South to the industrial North was accelerated. New opportunities opened
for women. Americans finally enjoyed a standard of living higher than the
pre-Depression years.

But the war effort also had a darker side. Civil liberties were compromised,
particularly for the 110,000 Japanese Americans who were forcibly
uprooted from their West Coast homes to be sent to remote relocation
camps. In both Europe and Asia, the Axis powers had established a firm
foothold prior to American entry into the conflict. Slowly, but surely the
Allies closed the ring on Nazi Germany after turning points at El Alamein
and Stalingrad. Once Italy quit the Axis and the Allies landed successfully
at Normandy, it was only a matter of time before the Nazi machine was
smashed. Similar failures marked the early war in the Pacific, as the
Japanese captured the Philippines. But once Japanese offensive capabilities
were damaged at Midway, the United States "Island Hopped" its way to the
Japanese mainland.

New technologies emerged during the war as well. RADAR helped the
British locate incoming German planes, and SONAR made SUBMARINE
detection much more feasible. German v-1 and v-2 rockets ushered in a new
age of long-range warfare. But no weapon compared in destructive capacity
to the atomic bomb, developed after a massive, secret research project
spearheaded by the United States government. World War II was fought
over differences left unresolved after World War I.

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Causalities

Over 400,000 Americans perished in the four years of involvement, an

American death rate second only to the Civil War. Twelve million victims
perished from Nazi atrocities in the holocaust. The deaths of twenty million
Russians created a defensive Soviet mindset that spilled into the postwar
era. After all the blood and sacrifice, the Axis powers were defeated, but the
Grand Alliance that emerged victorious did not last long. Soon the world
was involved in a 45-year struggle that claimed millions of additional lives
— the Cold War.

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John F Kennedy (1961-1963)

John F. Kennedy was born into a rich, politically connected Boston family
of Irish- Catholics. He and his eight siblings enjoyed a privileged childhood
of elite private schools, sailboats, servants, and summer homes. During his
childhood and youth, "Jack" Kennedy suffered frequent serious illnesses.
Nevertheless, he strove to make his own way, writing a best-selling book
while still in college. After a short stint as a journalist, Kennedy entered
politics, serving in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953
and the U.S. Senate from 1953 to 1961.

Kennedy was the youngest person elected U.S. President and the first
Roman Catholic to serve in that office. For many observers, his presidency
came to represent the ascendance of youthful idealism in the aftermath of
World War II. The promise of this energetic leader was not to be fulfilled,
as he was assassinated near the end of his third year in office. For many
Americans, the public murder of President Kennedy remains one of the
most traumatic events in memory—countless Americans can remember
exactly where they were when they heard that President Kennedy had been
shot. His shocking death stood at the forefront of a period of political and
social instability in the country and the world.

Foreign Policy

1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion

The most high-profile and obvious failure was the Bay of Pigs
Invasion. In this incident, the US clearly failed to bring off the
invasion of Cuba. This made JFK look weak because he allowed the
invasion but failed to support it enough to make it work.

2. JFK's policy towards Vietnam

Although no one knew at that time that another failure was JFK's
policy towards Vietnam. It was during this time that the US got more
deeply involved in that conflict.

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3. Cuban Missile Crisis

The major success was the Cuban Missile Crisis. This incident made
JFK look much more effectual than he had the year before in the Bay
of Pigs incident. Here, JFK's leadership prevented nuclear war and
also made the USSR back down. This was the major foreign policy
success of JFK's time in office.

Domestic Affairs

Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously

promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly,
economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the
recession.

Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination.

1. Revision of Taxes
In his 1963, he proposed substantial tax reform and a reduction in
income tax rates; he proposed a reduction in the corporate tax rates
from 52 to 47%. Kennedy added that the top rate should be set at 70
percent if certain deductions were not eliminated for high income
earners.

2. Civil Rights
African-Americans were striving to reverse centuries of social and
economic hardship, and activism against legalized racism was
growing. He concentrated more on enforcing existing civil rights laws
than on passing new ones

3. Trade Expansion Act

The presidency of John F Kennedy was the peak time of the cold war
between Russia and America. The American relations with European
countries were also under tension due to the cold war. He passed a
Trade Expansion Act 1962 which made sure that America can even
have trade agreements even with the communist countries.

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4. Controlling Unemployment
Kennedy passed a program worth $435 millions to solve the ever
growing problem of unemployment. The workers in poor health
conditions were retained to new jobs with better working
environment. He passed a Society Security Act which intended to
bring the provision of insurance for unemployed by enlarging
payments

5. Space program
“We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things,
not because they are easy, but because they are hard."

The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower
administration. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo,
funding for the program was far from certain given Eisenhower's opposition
to manned spaceflight. Kennedy's advisors speculated that a moon flight
would be prohibitively expensive, but he postponed the decision out of
deference to his vice president.

Assassination

President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central

Standard Time on November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas.
He was shot once in the upper back and killed with a final shot to the head.
He was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, but
pronounced dead at 1:00 pm. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger
than any U.S. president to date.

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Richard Nixon (1969-1974)

Born on January 9, l913 in Yorba Linda, California into a modest Quaker
family, he spent his youth working hard and studying. A brilliant scholar,
Dick Nixon graduated second in his class from Whittier College (1934),
then third in his class from Duke University Law School (1937). Nixon
practiced law in his hometown in Whittier, California from 1937 to 1942.

Richard Milhous Nixon, the thirty-seventh President of the United States

(1969-74) became President in 1969 after defeating Lyndon Johnson's Vice-
President, Hubert Humphrey, in one of the closest elections in US history.
Nixon won that election by only one percent of the popular vote. Nixon
was the second youngest Vice President and the first Californian to serve in
the White House. He was also the first Vice President to be elected
President, but not to succeed the President under whom he had served. He
was also the first President to resign the presidency. Richard Nixon was a
controversial President, nicknamed "Tricky Dick" and demonized by some,
while admired by others for his accomplishments.

Nixon Domestic Policy

1. Nixon and Economic Policies
The American economy was shaking by time Nixon took the
presidency due the Vietnam War. Nixon Passed Economic
Stabilization Act in 1970 which reduced unemployment in America
and brought prosperity back.
2. Civil Rights
In addition to reconcile public schools, Nixon implemented the
Philadelphia Plan in 1970 the first significant federal affirmative
action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after
it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for
ratification. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968.
Nixon also Passed Equal Employment Opportunity Act and
Comprehensive Child Development Act 1970 (universal child care bill)
which helped in eradication of child labor from American society.
3. New Federalism
New Federalism is a political ideology that feels certain powers
should be transferred from the Federal Government back to the State

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Government. It would restore some of the autonomy and power the

states had before FDR's New Deal and the Civil Rights Acts of the
1960's.
4. Space Program
After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the
race to land astronauts on the moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight
of Apollo 11 landed on the moon and Neil Armstrong, Edwin Eldrin,
and Michal Collin became the first to land on the moon. These
historic scenes were telecasted live worldwide.

Nixon Foreign Policy

1. Peacemaker
Nixon's goal is to be a great peacemaker works closely with Henry
Kissinger Nixon initiates secret talks with North Vietnamese plans to
withdraw American troops and replace them with South Vietnamese
in 1969 states that the Cold War should be a thing of the past Russian
summit communication with Communist China first American troops
withdraw from Vietnam arms control talks begin
2. Vietnam War
Vietnam War Started in 1969 at was at its peak when Nixon was in
office. He adopted a process of gradual withdrawal of American
troops from Vietnam to save American life and expenses. The
President withdrew 70,000 US troops from Vietnam in 1972.
3. Relation with China
Since China was a communist country and there was no concept of
US relation with any communist country before his presidency.
Nixon was the 1st President to announce a surprising visit to china
which developed cordial relationship between the two countries.
4. Relation with USSR
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the
topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to
China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for the
president to visit the Soviet Union. The president and first lady
arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev,
the General Secretary of the Communist Party and other leading
Soviet officials.
Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit
came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control
treaties:
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a) SALT-I: The first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two

superpowers.
b) Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty: This treaty banned the development
of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and
Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence. Having
made considerable progress over the previous two years in US-Soviet
relations, Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in
1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony,
cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that
evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a
proposed mutual defense pact, Détente (a term usually associated
with the relations between America, Russia and China).
5. Yum Kippur War and Support to Israel
When an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked in October
1973, beginning the Yom Kippur War, Israel suffered initial losses.
The US took no action for several days, until Nixon ordered an airlift
to Israel, taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab
nations. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and
bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the
US and Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep
into enemy territory. The war resulted in the 1973 oil crisis, in which
Arab nations refused to sell crude oil to the US in retaliation for its
support of Israel. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and
rationing in the United States in late 1973, and was eventually ended
by the oil-producing nations as peace took hold. Kissinger played a
major role in the settlement, and was also able to reestablish US
relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967.

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Nixon Watergate Scandal

The Watergate Scandal refers to a series of events that occurred between
1972 and 1974. The scandal got its name from the burglary at the
headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate
Hotel Complex in Washington, D.C.

Evidence found on one of the burglars implied a possible link to the White
House and prompted an investigation. Over the next two years, the
unlawful acts were committed on behalf of the Committee to Re-elect the
President (CRP), which was later referred to as CREEP. The reputations of
many politicians were tarnished by the scandal, which ultimately resulted in
the resignation of President Richard Nixon.

Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP)

In June 1972, five men were arrested while breaking into the Democratic
National Committee headquarters at the Watergate Hotel in Washington,
D.C. After it was revealed that one of the men arrested was James McCord,
the security coordinator for the Committee to Re-Elect the President
(CREEP), the White House denied any culpability for the break-in.

Nixon 2nd victory as President Nixon went on to win a landslide victory

for a second term over Democratic candidate Senator George McGovern of
South Dakota, but the Watergate scandal would not go away.

Administration’s involvement in the burglar

The investigative reporting by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein in the

Washington Post prompted the Senate in February 1973 to open hearings
on the administration's involvement in the burglary. Televised Watergate
hearings began in May 1973, and the American people were shocked as the
widening scandal unfolded with testimony about the Nixon
administration's enemies list, misuse of government agencies, and trading
for political favors.

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Saturday Night Massacre:

When the Senate committee learned about the taping system in the Oval
Office in July 1973, it demanded that the tapes be turned over. Nixon
claimed executive privilege and refused to give them up. In October 1973,
he ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire special prosecutor
Archibald Cox, who was investigating the matter for the Justice
Department. Richardson refused and resigned, as did the deputy attorney
general. When Nixon ordered Solicitor General Robert Bork to fire Cox,
Bork complied, and Leon Jowarski replaced Cox. The resignations and
dismissal became known as the Saturday Night Massacre.

Charges on President and Judicial Committee

As the Watergate scandal continued, Vice President Agnew resigned and

pleaded no contest to charges of income tax evasion and bribery in a case
stemming from his term as governor of Maryland. Nixon named
Congressman Gerald Ford as the new vice president, and Congress
confirmed the appointment. After a year of legal wrangling, the Supreme
Court ordered the president to turn over the Oval Office tapes to the House
Judiciary Committee, which was considering impeachment, in July 1974.
The committee approved three articles of impeachment covering
obstruction of justice and abuse of power, and it was clear that the full
House of Representatives would vote for impeachment.

Nixon Resignation

Nixon resigned from office on August 9, 1974, and Gerald Ford became
president.

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Slavery in America
Follow the timeline to learn more about the history of slavery in the United
States, including the arrival of the first African slaves to America, the
federal banishment of slave importation, and the abolishment of slavery in
the United States.
1619 The first African slaves arrive in Virginia.

1787 Slavery is made illegal in the Northwest Territory. The U.S

Constitution states that Congress may not ban the slave trade until 1808.

1793 Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin greatly increases the demand
for slave labor.

1793 A federal fugitive slave law is enacted, providing for the return slaves
who had escaped and crossed state lines.

1808 Congress bans the importation of slaves from Africa.

1820 The Missouri Compromise bans slavery north of the southern

boundary of Missouri.

1831 William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing the Liberator, a weekly

paper that advocates the complete abolition of slavery. He becomes one of
the most famous figures in the abolitionist movement.

1849 Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery and becomes one of the most
effective and celebrated leaders of the Underground Railroad.

1850 The continuing debate whether territory gained in the Mexican War
should be open to slavery is decided in the Compromise of 1850: California
is admitted as a Free State, Utah and New Mexico territories are left to be
decided by popular sovereignty, and the slave trade in Washington, DC is
prohibited. It also establishes a much stricter fugitive slave law than the
original, passed in 1793.

1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin is published. It

becomes one of the most influential works to stir anti-slavery sentiments.
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1854 Congress passes the Kansas-Nebraska Act, establishing the territories

of Kansas and Nebraska. The legislation repeals the Missouri Compromise
of 1820 and renews tensions between anti- and proslavery factions.

1857 The Dred Scott case holds that Congress does not have the right to
ban slavery in states and, furthermore, that slaves are not citizens.

1861 The Confederacy is founded when the deep South secedes, and the
Civil War begins.

1863 President Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring

"that all persons held as slaves" within the Confederate state "are, and
henceforward shall be free."

1865 The Civil War ends. Lincoln is assassinated. The Thirteenth

Amendment abolishes slavery throughout the United States. On June 19
slavery in the United States effectively ended when 250,000 slaves in Texas
finally received the news that the Civil War had ended two months earlier.

Role of Malcolm X

Role of King Martin Luther

Ku-Klux-Klan Movement

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Truman Doctrine
12th of March 1947, Harry S. Truman gave a speech to the congress which
eventually became the Truman doctrine. The main point of his speech was
a military assistance and economic aid to Greece to fight communism.
Truman asked for S400, 000,000 aid to fight against communism and
announced that he would send American military and economic support to
the countries whose political stability was threatened by communism.

His Secretary of Commerce, Henry Wallace disagreed with Truman and

emphasis on improving the relations with USSR. He considered the
Truman policy an ―Aggressive Foreign Policy‖. As a result Wallace was
sacked from his services.

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Bush Doctrine
The Phrase Bush Doctrine was 1st used by Charles Krauthammer in June
2001. This phrase initially described the policy of invasion of Afghanistan.
President Bush articulates his discrete concept of the Bush Doctrine.
According to the President, his doctrine consisted of four "prongs," three of
them practical, and one idealistic. They are the following: (In his words)

1. Make no distinction between terrorists and the nations that harbor them
and hold both to account. 2. Take the fight to the enemy overseas before
they can attack us again here at home. 3. Confront threats before they fully
materialize. 4. Advance liberty and hope as an alternative to the enemy's
ideology of repression and fear.

Main Characteristics

o A doctrine of unrivaled military supremacy

o A doctrine of preemptive or preventive war
o Willingness to act unilaterally if multilateral cooperation cannot be
achieved

Criticism

The Doctrine however has met significant criticism. The Bush Doctrine was
polarizing both domestically and internationally. In 2008, polls showed
there was more anti- Americanism than before the Bush administration
formed the Bush Doctrine; this increase was probably, at least partially, a
result of implementing the Bush doctrine and conservative foreign policy.

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Dulles Doctrine
The Dulles' plan or the Dulles Doctrine is the central document of a
conspiracy theory, according to which the CIA chief Allen Dulles had
developed a plan for United States to destroy the Soviet Union during the
Cold war by secretly corrupting the cultural heritage and moral values of
the Soviet nation. The plan was first published in Russia shortly after the
dissolution of the USSR and was often quoted by prominent Russian
politicians, journalists and writers.

The original program outlined by the US National Security Council in 1948

established the basic policy towards the Soviet Union. However, this text
neither has anything to do with the CIA or Allen Dulles, nor do its contents
bear any textual similarity with the document presented by the supporters
of the conspiracy theory.

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Marshall Plan
Marshall Plan was basically financial assistance for the European countries,
who were struggling to rebuild their devastated infrastructures since the
World War II. The more the peoples were facing the hardships due to the
war the more they were turning toward communism especially in France
and Italy.

The United States realizing the economics crisis of European states, built
up a situation that would not only undercut Communist influence but
would also provide markets for American goods.

American Aid/ Financial Assistance: Consequently, Secretary of State

George C. Marshall announced a massive commitment of financial
assistance to Europe in June 1947. Between 1948 and 1951, more than $13
billion was funneled to 16 countries through the Marshall Plan,
contributing significantly to the reconstruction of Western Europe. The
United States was also ready to provide help to the USSR and Eastern
Europe, but the Soviet Union flatly refused to participate in the aid
program.

Significance of Marshall Plan

o Reconstruction of Western Europe

o Restrained spread of communism in Europe.
o Europe continued to follow capitalist form of economy.

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Malcolm X
Malcolm X was an Afro-American minister and human rights activist and
one of the most influential personalities of American history. His Islamic
name was Al-Hajj Malik Al-Shahbaz. He was a courageous advocate of the
rights of black in America. The detractors accused him of preaching black-
supremacy and racism in the country. He has been called as one of the
greatest and most influential African American in history.

His father was killed of the hands of whites and his mother was sent to a
mental hospital when he was 13 years. At the age of 20 he went to the
prison for the first time. In prison he became a member of Nation of Islam
and quickly became the leader of that organization. After traveling in
Africa and Middle East he returned to America and fought for the rights of
blacks and founded an ―Organization of Afro-American Unity‖. In Feb
1965 he was assassinated by the 3 members of that group.

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Jazz Age
A movement of 1920‘s that took place after the World War I. Afro-
American music and dance emerged as the mainstream programs on radio.
The peoples by that time were so depressed due to the war that they started
liking those programs. Birth of jazz brought an entirely new cultural
movement in America, France and England.

Main Points

o Lewis Armstrong was the most famous artist

o New York and Chicago became the epicenter.
o More often on radio than any other programs.
o Competition with classical music.
o Charleston‖ African dance became popular
o Potter Palm‖ was the most popular radio program.

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U-2 Crisis
The relation between America and Russia were increasingly getting tense
following the world war. Russia denied to the ―Open Skies Proposal of
America‖ in 1955 which deteriorated the relations even further.

USA instituted high altitude flights over Russia to keep check and balance
on their activities because of mistrust between the two. U-2 was a spying
plan, which after a numerous successful flights was shot down by the
Russian army 1st may 1960. The pilot of the plane Francis Gary was
brought down to Sverdlovsk and this incidence had a lasting negative
impact on the relation of two countries.

Safe Landing of plane

There re various theories that are given for the landing of plane on Russian
soil, but still it is a mystery to be solved. However some famous theories of
U-2 Landing are given as below

a) Gary was flying his plane below the high flying altitude and was hit by
anti- aircraft fire.

b) Gary himself landed the plane in USSR.

c) There was a bomb on the board of plane.

Consequences

It can be said that this was the biggest and one of the most important
incident that prolonged the cold war era. The Paris Summit between Russia
and America collapsed because Russia demand apology and the president
by that time Eisenhower was unwilling to give any apology. Gary was
convicted of crime and was sentenced 3 years of jail and 7 years of hard
labor. This incident lead to the Cuban Missile Crisis and the US-USSR
relation reached an all time low.

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Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear
war. The United States armed forces were at their highest state of readiness
ever and Soviet field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use battlefield
nuclear weapons to defend the island if it was invaded. Luckily, thanks to
the bravery of two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita
Khrushchev, war was averted.

In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the
arms race. Soviet missiles were only powerful enough to be launched
against Europe but U.S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet
Union. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the
idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba
would double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a
potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation
from an attack by the U.S. Ever since the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in
1961; Castro felt a second attack was inevitable. Consequently, he approved
of Khrushchev's plan to place missiles on the island. In the summer of 1962
the Soviet Union worked quickly and secretly to build its missile
installations in Cuba.

For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when
reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in
Cuba. Early the next day, President John Kennedy was informed of the
missile installations. Kennedy immediately organized the EX-COMM, a
group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. After
seven days of guarded and intense debate within the upper echelons of
government, Kennedy concluded to impose a naval quarantine around
Cuba. He wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons
on the island.

On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the missile

installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the island. He also

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proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded
as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union and demanded that
the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons from Cuba.

Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev announced

that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the
Soviet Union, expressing his trust that the United States would not invade
Cuba. Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28
agreement, including a United States demand that Soviet light bombers be
removed from Cuba, and specifying the exact form and conditions of
United States assurances not to invade Cuba.

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NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization

North Atlantic Treaty was signed in April 1949. Under its terms, the United
States, Canada, Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, and Iceland agreed that an
attack against one country would be treated as an attack against all. The
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created in the following
year to integrate the military forces of the member states in Europe. NATO
was expanded in 1952 to include Greece and Turkey, and the admission of
West Germany in 1955 caused the Soviet Union to establish a counterpart
to the alliance through the Warsaw Pact.

 NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member

countries
 NATO was signed in April 1949
 NATO Headquarters is located at Brussels, Belgium

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McCarthyism
In 1947, President Truman had ordered background checks of every civilian
in service to the government. When Alger Hiss, a high-ranking State
Department official was convicted on espionage charges, fear of
communists intensified.

McCarthy capitalized on national paranoia by proclaiming that

COMMUNIST SPIES were omnipresent and that he was America's only
salvation.

An atmosphere of fear of world domination by communists hung over

America in the postwar years. There were fears of a nuclear holocaust
based on the knowledge that the Soviet Union exploded its first A-bomb in
1949. That same year, China, the world's most populous nation, became
communist. Half of Europe was under Joseph Stalin's influence, and every
time Americans read their newspapers there seemed to be a new atomic
threat.

At a speech on February 9, 1950, McCarthy launched his first salvo. He

proclaimed that he was aware of 205 card-carrying members of the
Communist Party who worked for the United States Department of State. A
few days later, he repeated the charges at a speech in Salt Lake City.
McCarthy soon began to attract headline

Scandals and controversies involving President William Jefferson Bill

Clinton

Major Events during His Presidency

1. 1993 - World Trade Center Terrorist Bombing 2. 1995 - Oklahoma City

federal building Terrorist bombing 3. 1999 - War in former Yugoslavia 4.
1999 - Impeachment

Scandals

1. Whitewater Scandal - The Whitewater scandal was an American

political controversy that began with the real estate investments of

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Bill and Hillary Clinton and their associates, Jim and Susan
McDougal in a failed business venture in the Whitewater
Development Corporation during the 1970s and 1980s
2. Bill Clinton was charged with perjury and obstruction of justice but
found 'Not guilty'
3. The Lewinsky scandal - The Lewinsky scandal was a political sex
scandal emerging from an oral sexual relationship between Bill
Clinton and a 22-year-old White House intern, Monica Lewinsky
4. The Lewinsky scandal led to the impeachment of President Clinton in
1998 and his subsequent acquittal on all impeachment charges of
perjury and obstruction of justice

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Cold War
The Cold War had its roots in World War II, when the repeated delays in
opening a second front in Europe made the Russians suspicious of the
Western Allies' motives. Those concerns were heightened when the United
States discontinued lend-lease aid to the Soviet Union soon after the war
ended. Stalin's commitment at Yalta to allow free elections in Eastern
Europe was quickly broken.

Iron Curtain across Europe

To ensure ―friendly states‖ on its western borders, the USSR supported and
helped install Communist-dominated governments in Poland, Bulgaria, and
Rumania (Romania) in the spring and summer of 1945. Within a year, as
Winston Churchill told an American audience, an ―iron curtain‖ had
descended across Europe, separating the ―free‖ democratic nations of the
West from the ―captive‖ Communist nations of the East.

Cold War in Nutshell

o The World was bipolar after world war
o USSR & USA were the two super powers after World War II
o Era of Cold War 1945 – 1990
o A war of economic system (Capitalism vs. Communism)
o Both ideologies over the control of European countries and their
economies NATO, UNO, Warsaw Pact were the tools of this war
o 1979 USSR invaded Afghan
“Where there USSR will go, America will go there” USA
o 1979-1989 War in Afghan and US military support to Pak and
Afghan to fight USSR
o 1989 Breakdown of Wall of Berlin
o Disintegration of USSR into 15 countries (Baltic and CAR‘s)
o 1991 cold war came to an end after dismemberment of USSR.
o 1991 onwards the world became Uni-polar.
o American President Ronald Reagan (1981-89) was declared Hero of
the Cold war

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Dollar Diplomacy
This term was originally coined by Theodore Roosevelt. Dollar Diplomacy
is the term used to describe the effort of the United States - particularly
under President William Howard Taft - to further its aims in Latin America
and East Asia through use of its economic power by guaranteeing loans
made to foreign countries in 1913.

Benefits of Granting Loans

1. They wanted to introduce American Dollar as an international

Currency
2. Economic Prosperity of USA
3. Expansion of US values abroad
4. Stability abroad

In Short it was a strategy to bring American Dollar as powerful currency of

the world.

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Open Door Diplomacy

The Open Door Policy is a treaty which was formulated by the American
Secretary to State, John Hay, in 1899, and was an important part of
American history. The treaty proposed that all nations would have equal
rights to access Chinese ports for trade and business purposes. This was
informed to all the first-world countries like Britain, Germany, France,
Italy, Japan and Russia. It received mixed response from the
aforementioned countries but was later assumed to be the best step to tie
trading relationships with the oriental world.

o There shall be no intervention with any other treaty or port or issues

regarding other nations.
o China would have the authority to levy duties on all merchandise
imported to or exported from its own territories. The normal Chinese
tariff shall be applicable to all the freighted goods.
o China would not be authorized to charge additional taxes or dues on
ships and vessels belonging to foreign countries than what they would
be charging their own vessels.

This Policy started to decay after the onset of local opposition and the war
between Russia and Japan in 1904. Eventually, the policy ceased to exist
after the Japanese seizure of Manchuria and advent of Communism in
China in 1945.

The Open Door Policy was aimed at improving relationships between the
East and the West. On the contrary, it elicited quite a massive uproar
amongst the natives. The Chinese inhabitants were not happy with the
foreign trespassing and open trade, which was consequently brought down
because of the conflicting principles and thereby, the preceding events.
However, its demise marked the inception of Communist era in China and
the rest is history.

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Trail of Tears
The events surrounding the "Trail of Tears" are some of the most tragic in
the history of the United States government's treatment of the Native
American people. In 1830, the U.S. enacted the Indian Removal Act, which
forced the Native Americans in the eastern portion of the country to
relocate to western territories. The provisions of the act called for the
signing of the Treaty of New Echota in 1838; however, most of the
Cherokee tribes did not accept the treaty and refused to leave. Therefore,
President Martin Van Buren dispatched troops to gather approximately
17,000 Cherokees into camps and then force their relocation west. An
estimated 4,000 Cherokees died during the relocation — most in the camps
from disease.

The phrase "Trail of Tears" — or as the Cherokees call it, "The Trail Where
They Cried" — can also refer to the forced relocation of other Native
American tribes — most notably the Choctaw Nation, which also suffered
thousands of deaths in its removal from Mississippi to Oklahoma in the
1830s.

The actual Trail of Tears site is a historic park in Kentucky along the trail
the Cherokees followed on their long migration west. In 1987, President
Ronald Reagan signed a bill that made the Trail of Tears a National
Historic Trail.

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Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Born in Atlanta, Georgia, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., graduated from
Morehouse College (B.A., 1948), Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D.,
1951), and Boston University (Ph.D., 1955). The son of the pastor of the
Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, King was ordained in 1947 and
became (1954) minister of a Baptist church in Montgomery, Ala. He led the
black boycott (1955-56) of segregated city bus lines and in 1956 gained a
major victory and prestige as a civil-rights leader when Montgomery buses
began to operate on a desegregated basis.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

King organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC),

which gave him a base to pursue further civil-rights activities, first in the
South and later nationwide. His philosophy of nonviolent resistance led to
his arrest on numerous occasions in the 1950s and 60s. His campaigns had
mixed success, but the protest he led in Birmingham, Ala., in 1963 brought
him worldwide attention. He spearheaded the Aug., 1963, March on
Washington, which brought together more than 200,000 people

Nobel Peace Prize: On 10th of Dec, 1964 Martin Luther King, Jr., was the
youngest man to have received the Nobel Peace Prize. When notified of his
selection, he announced that he would turn over the prize money of
$54,123 to the furtherance of the civil rights movement. He was 35 years
old when he got this award.

Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" Speech: He planned the drives in
Alabama for the registration of Negroes as voters; he directed the peaceful
march on Washington, D.C., of 250,000 people to whom he delivered his
address, "l Have a Dream", he conferred with President John F. Kennedy
and campaigned for President Lyndon B. Johnson; he was arrested upwards
of twenty times and assaulted at least four times; he was awarded five
honorary degrees; was named Man of the Year by Time magazine in 1963;
and became not only the symbolic leader of American blacks but also a
world figure.

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Letter from a Birmingham Jail: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a major
part of many nonviolent protests as he helped lead the fight for
desegregation and equal rights. He was arrested numerous times. In 1963,
numerous "sit-ins" were staged in Birmingham, Alabama to protest
segregation in restaurants and eating facilities. King was arrested during
one of these and while he was imprisoned wrote his famous "Letter from a
Birmingham Jail." In this letter he argued that only through visible protests
would progress be made. He argued that it was an individual's duty to
protest and in fact disobey unjust laws.

Assassination: Between 1965 and 1968, King continued with his protest
work and fight for Civil Rights. King became a critic of the War in
Vietnam. While speaking from a balcony at the Lorraine Motel in
Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King was
assassinated. James Earl Ray was arrested and charged with the
assassination, there have been and still are questions to his guilt and
whether there was a larger conspiracy at work.

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Populous Movement
This was a movement by the populist in 1892, who thought that the
democracy in United States is threatened by the increasing inequalities
between the rich and the poor. The populist called for a people‘s movement
to protest and save American democracy from the malign interest of
millionaires.

Major Concerns of Populists

i. High Interest Rate

ii. High Railroad charges
iii. High taxes and unfair burden on Farmers
iv. Investors controlling huge tracks of land
v. Threat to open public voting
vi. Worker rights are being denied
vii. Large corps were using private means to kill unions
viii. Federation allowing large migrations to America
ix. 12 to 14 hours of labor duty
x. Corruption and bribery

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Manifest Destiny
It was an American belie in 19th century that they are destined to expand
across the continent. This term was used by the democratic republicans in
1840 to justify the war with Mexico. Although the idea of American
expansion was much older but John L. O’Sullivian coined this term for the
1st time in July 1845 in a magazine article called ―Annexation‖.

This concept was opposed Whigs and came to an end I the mid of 19th
century. The advocates of this idea believe the expansion is not only wise
but also manifest and unrelenting. The idea was strictly opposed by the
Whigs like John Calhoun, Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln.

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New World Order

The NWO puppeteers then provide the Solution by sending in UN 'Peace
Keepers' (Bosnia) or a UN 'Coalition Force' (Gulf War) or NATO Bombers
and then ground troops (Kosovo). Once installed, the 'peace keepers' never
leave (Bosnia, Kosovo). The idea is to have NWO controlled ground
troops in all major countries or strategic areas where significant resistance
to the New World Order takeover is likely to be encountered.

The United Nations, along with all the agencies working under the UN
umbrella, such as the World Health Organization, are full time players in
this scheme. Similarly, NATO is a military tool of the NWO.

Most of the major wars, political upheavals, and economic

depression/recessions of the past 100 years were carefully planned and
instigated by the machinations of these elites. They include The Spanish-
American War (1898), World War I and World War II; The Great
Depression; the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917; the Rise of Nazi Germany;
the Korean War; the Vietnam War; the 1989-91"fall" of Soviet
Communism, the 1991 Gulf War; and the recent War in Kosovo..

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Pan-Americanism
The essence of Pan Americanism is in the prefix "pan" which derives from a
Greek word meaning all. Placed in front of Americanism, Pan implies a
union of all the nations of the Americas. Or, taken down even further, it
suggests a joining of all the peoples of these nations for a common goal,
which is the pursuit of friendship and goodwill. Benito Juarez in Mexico
and Abraham Lincoln in the United States were two of the leaders who
typified the Pan American effort. Both were born poor, and both rose to the
head of their individual nations. Both sought freedom and equality for all
men.

In 1890, the role of Pan Americanism turned from using conflict to ensure
freedom to seeking more peaceful means to achieve the same goal. The first
Pan American Conference was held in Washington, DC that year. Its
purpose was to preserve peace among the Americas. The Pan American
Union was established out of this conference in 1910. It devoted itself to
promoting friendship and cooperative action in the Americas. In 1930, it
succeeded in having April 14 named Pan American Day to celebrate this
united effort throughout the Western Hemisphere. The Pan American
effort changed government as well. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
brought 21 Western Hemisphere nations together in 1948 in what today is
called the Organization of American States (OAS). Friendship among
American nations has been a cornerstone of every presidential policy since.
Today there are 35 member nations in the OAS.

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USA Nuclear Umbrella System

Nuclear umbrella refers to a guarantee by a nuclear weapons state to
defend a non nuclear allied state. It is usually used for the security alliances
of the United States with Japan, South Korea, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (much of Europe, Turkey, Canada), and Australia,
originating with the Cold War with the Soviet Union. For some countries it
was an alternative to acquiring nuclear weapons themselves; other
alternatives include regional Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones.

"American nuclear umbrella" usually refers to the formal alliances above,

but is occasionally used in other contexts.

In April 2008, Hillary Clinton made headlines by proposing extension of

the US nuclear umbrella over Israel and other American allies in the
Middle East. One article seems to consider Saudi Arabia to be already
under the US nuclear umbrella and one book states that India was given
protection under the US nuclear umbrella after the Sino-Indian War of
1962.

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Treaty of Versailles
In 1919, Lloyd George of England, Orlando of Italy, Clemenceau of France
and Woodrow Wilson from the US met to discuss how Germany was to be
made to pay for the damage world war one had caused. Woodrow Wilson
wanted a treaty based on his 14-point plan which he believed would bring
peace to Europe. Germany was not happy with the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles. However, they had no choice but to sign the document.

The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles were:

i. War Guilt Clause - Germany should accept the blame for starting World
War One

ii. Reparations - Germany had to pay £6,600 million for the damage
caused by the war

iii. Disarmament - Germany was only allowed to have a small army and
six naval ships. No tanks, no air force and no submarines were allowed.
The Rhineland area was to be de- militarized.

iv. Territorial Clauses - Land was taken away from Germany and given to
other countries. Anschluss (union with Austria) was forbidden.

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Democrat’s v/s Republicans

A Democrat and a Republican differ in many ways, especially in their
philosophy, ideas, worldview and politics. A Democrat is considered to be
generally liberal whereas a Republican is known to be conservative.

Democrats:
o Liberal
o Believe in Federal Government
o Government should look forward to the welfare of peoples
o Democrat stands for government- supported programs
o Believe in Supremacy of federation
o Democrat stands more for community
o Considered to be Leftist

Republican
o Conservative
o No concept of Federation
o Equality among peoples
o Republican wants decisions to be made at the state level
o Believe in capitalism and free market
o Republican stands for individual responsibility
o Considered to be Rightist

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Capitalism vs. Communism

Capitalism
o Right of private property
o Public and private investors go hand in hand
o Freedom of choice
o Concept of upper, middle and lower classes
o Individual is responsible for his works

Communism
o No right of private property
o Everything is to be state owned
o No freedom of choice
o Class less society
o Equal sharing of work, according to the benefits and ability

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SHORT NOTES
Table of Content
1) Introduction: From ancient times to 1492
2) Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy (1492-
1606)
3) USA as a British Colony (1606-1783).
4) USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819)
5) Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)
6) Constitution of the USA: Salient Features
7) Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869)
8) Industrialization and its emergence as one of the world powers
(1870 -1916)
9) USA’s role in the Two World Wars (1914 – 1918 & 1939 - 1945)
10) Civil Rights Movement
11) Separation of Powers: Check and Balances

Remaining:
12) Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA and USSR as the Two
World Powers.
13) American Role in patronizing UNO and International Organizations
(1945 – 2012)
14) American Role in Cold War and its emergence as the Sole Super Power
(1945 -1990).
15) International Concerns of USA: An Overview.
16) The War on Terror: The Role of Pakistan and USA (2001 - 2012)
17) Global perceptions of the USA.
18) Progressive Era: Reforms of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow
Wilson,
19) The Great Depression and the New Deal
20) United States’ role in International Conflicts
21) US Presidential Election
22) The US Congress: Role and Functions
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Assalam-e-Alaikum!

All right, I could only manage to do some of the revised syllabus of

US History. Other topics are beautifully covered in the Jahangir
World’s Times Book by Umair Khan and it is recommended to
cover them up from there. I won’t further be adding up to this e-
book so I thought to better share what I had managed to do.

For clearning up the concepts and expanding your knowledge base,

good books need to be studied. Along with the one by JWT, one can
go for Howard Zinn’s: A People’s History of the United States or the
one by Mujumdar. It is important to reiterate that notes are never
enough for a comprehensive and clear understanding of the subject.

Anyway, I hope it helps.

Best wishes…..

Aamir Khan Mahar

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Topic 1
Introduction: From ancient times to 1492
1) Historical Background
i. 225 million years ago, Earth was one supercontinent (Pangaea)
and ocean.
ii. About 10 million years ago, the North America that we know
today was formed (geographical shape).
iii. At the height of the Ice Age, between 34,000 and 30,000 B.C.,
much of the world's water was contained in vast continental ice
sheets.
iv. As a result, the Bering Sea was hundreds of meters below its
current level, and a land bridge, known as Beringia, emerged
between Asia and North America.
v. At its peak, Beringia is thought to have been some 1,500
kilometers wide.
vi. A moist and treeless tundra, it was covered with grasses and plant
life, attracting the large animals that early humans hunted for their
survival.
vii. The first people to reach North America almost certainly did
so without knowing they had crossed into a new continent.
viii. They would have been following game, as their ancestors
had for thousands of years, along the Siberian coast and then
across the land bridge
ix. Once in Alaska, it would take these first North Americans
thousands of years more to work their way through the openings
in great glaciers south to what is now the United States.
x. Artifacts such as finely crafted spear points and items found near
Clovis, New Mexico, indicate that life was well established in
much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000
B.C.
2) “New World Beginnings”; The Early Settlements

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i. Claims suggesting that the earliest voyages of exploration to North

America were made by Irish monks (St. Brendan), Welshmen
(Prince Madoc) and others, but no credible evidence.
ii. The first discoverers of North America were nomadic Asians who
wandered over here by way of an exposed land bridge from Russia
to Alaska during the Ice Age.
iii. 10th century America discovered by Norsemen, Scandinavians
and Iceland colonized the west coast of Greenland, and then in
about 1001 moved on to Baffin Island, southern Labrador, and
finally the northern tip of Newfoundland
iv. In 1000 AD, Vikings abandoned it due to unfavorable conditions
especially due to repeated attacks by hostile natives (known to the
Vikings as Skrellings); There, at a site now known as L'Anse aux
Meadows, they made an abortive effort to establish a colony
which they called Vinland.
v. Europeans, though, slowly began to proliferate into non-European
worlds starting around the 1400s. Most European trade continued
to center on the Mediterranean region, few resources available for
sailing westward, and new over-land trade routes to the Far East
were established.
vi. Variety of factors affecting Europeans created renewed incentives
for exploration.
3) Early Settlers in America
i. Great pre-European Indian cultures included the Pueblos, the
Iroquois, the Mound Builders, the Mayans, the Incas, the Aztec,
and the Sioux, among others. The Indians revered nature and
land, and didn’t carelessly destroy it. Everything was put to use.
ii. Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians, and Anasazi.
iii. By the first centuries A.D., the Hohokum were living in
settlements near what is now Phoenix, Arizona, where they built
ball courts and pyramid-like mounds reminiscent of those found in
Mexico, as well as a canal and irrigation system.
4) Early Indian Customs And Culture
i. Agriculture and Food

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i. people to reach North America were Asian hunters and

nomads
ii. Around that time the mammoth began to die out and the
bison took its place as a principal source of food and hides
for these early North Americans.
iii. Gradually, foraging and the first attempts at agriculture
appeared. Indians in what is now central Mexico led the
way, cultivating corn, squash and beans, perhaps as early as
8,000 B.C
iv. By 3,000 B.C., a primitive type of corn was being grown in
the river valleys of New Mexico and Arizona
v. Then the first signs of irrigation began to appear, and by 300
B.C., signs of early village life.
ii. Culture
i. Indian society in North America was closely tied to the land.
ii. Most tribes (the Midwest) combined aspects of hunting,
gathering and the cultivation of maize and other products
for their food supplies; They built villages and grew crops
iii. extraordinarily diverse; expanse of the land and the many
different environments
iv. Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal
v. a good deal of trade among various groups
5) Important People:
i. The Aztecs: Native Americans who that lived in what is now
Mexico and routinely offered their gods human sacrifices, these
people were violent, yet built amazing pyramids and built a great
civilization without having a wheel.
ii. The Mound Builders: Indians of the Ohio River Valley.
iii. The Mississippian settlement: At Cahokia, near present-day East
St. Louis, Illinois, was home to about 40,000 people in at 1100
A.D.
iv. Hiawatha: This was legendary leader who inspired the Iroquois, a
powerful group of Native Americans in the northeaster woodlands
of the U.S.

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v. The Norse: These Vikings discovered America in about 1000

A.D., when they discovered modern-day Newfoundland. They
abandoned it later due to bad conditions.
vi. Marco Polo: Italian adventurer who supposedly sailed to the Far
East (China) in 1295 and returned with stories and supplies of the
Asian life there (silk, pearls, etc…)
6) Conclusion

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Topic 2
Introduction: Advent of the Europeans to British supremacy
(1492-1606)
1) Introduction
2) Timeline
i. 1492: Christopher Columbus sails across the Atlantic Ocean and
reaches an island in the Bahamas in the Carribean sea
ii. 1496: 2nd Voyage of Columbus
iii. 1498: 3rd Voyage; John Cobalt sailed the Eastern shore near
present day Worcester Country
iv. 1502: Columbus’s 4th voyage
v. 1506: Death of Columbus
vi. 1507: “America” is first used on Italian Amerigo Vespucci
vii. 1513: Juan Ponce De Leon explores Florida coast
viii. 1524: Giovanni de Verrazano explores the coast from
Carolina North to Nova Scotia, enters new York Harbour
ix. 1540: Francisco Vasquezde Coronado explores south west
x. 1541: Hernando de Soto of Spain discovers Mississipi River
xi. 1565: St Augustine, Florida, the first town established by
Europeans in America is founded by Spanish and later burned by
English in 1586
xii. 1585: First English settlement established at RANOKE
ISLAND, NORTH CAROLINA
xiii. 1588: In Europe, the defeat of Spanish Armada by English
results in Great Britain replacing Spain as dominant world power
and leads to gradual decline of Spanish influence in the New
World and widening of English imperial interests.
xiv. 1600: Nations interest in Americe
xv. 1606: King James I granted charter to Virginia company to
establish colony
3) Early America
i. First Americans crossed the land bridge from Asia

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ii. They Lived in (now) Alaska for 1000 years

iii. They moved south in today’s mainland U.S.
iv. Lived by the Pacific Ocean in the Northwest, in mountains and
deserts of South west and along Mississipi River
v. Early Groups called; Adenans, Hopewillians, Anasazi and
Hohokam.
vi. After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches,
Europeans began to explore. First, they set up settlements in
Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on
plantations.
vii. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route
to the Far East.
viii. Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route
influenced Christopher Columbus to sail west. In doing so, he
inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it.
ix. The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish
later became the dominant nation in the Americas. Spanish
Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America,
destroying the Aztecs and the Incas. Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew
sailed around the world in 1519, becoming the first voyage to do
so. As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of
much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to
challenge the Spanish dominance.
4) Important People
i. Cristopher Columbus
i. Most Famous explorer
ii. Was an Italian, but Queen Isabella of Spain paid for his trips
iii. Landed in 1492 in Bahamas island near Carribean Sea
iv. Believed that sailing West across Atlantic Ocean was
shortest route to asia
v. Ignorant of the Fact that western Hemisphere lay between
Europe and Asia and assuming circumference a third less
than actual

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vi. Convinced that Japan would appear on horizon just 3000

miles to west
ii. Native Americans; red Indians, Mayas, Aztecs, and Incas
iii. John Cabot
i. Explorer sailing for England, landed in Eastern Canada in
1497
ii. Arrival established a British claim to land in North America
5) Spanish Dominance in 1500’s
i. Spain explored and claimed more land in America than any other
country
ii. In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida
iii. A Florentine who sailed for the French, Verrazano made landfall
in North Carolina in 1524, then sailed north along the Atlantic
coast past what is now New York harbor.
iv. Hernando De Soto landed in Florida and explored the way to
Mississipi river in 1541
v. Spain conquered Mexico in 1522.
vi. Established by Spain in mid 1500’s at St Augustine in Florida;
Within 40 years, Spanish adventurers had carved out a huge
empire in Central and South America.
6) England’s Imperial Stirrings

i. North America
i. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the
Spanish had much control in Central and South America.
ii. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded
Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown.
iii. In the 1500s, Britain didn’t really colonize because of
internal conflicts.
1. King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic
Church in the 1530s and launched the English
Protestant Reformation.
2. After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became
basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain
intensified.
3. In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in
revolting against England, but the English crushed the
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uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an

attitude of sneering contempt for natives.
7) Elizabeth Energizes England
i. Colonization
i. After Britain basically defeated Spain (i.e. Spanish Armada
defeat), British swarmed to America and took over lead in
colonization and power.
1. Sparked new literature, like Shakespeare
ii. After Drake circumnavigated the globe, Liz I knighted him
on his ship.
iii. However, English tries at colonization in the New World
failed often and embarrassingly.
iv. Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.
8) England on the Eve of the Empire
i. Reasons for Emigration
i. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming.
ii. Farmers were enclosing land for farming.
iii. Puritanism took a strong root in the woolen districts of
western and eastern England.
iv. Younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried
their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America.
v. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, being a
forerunner to today’s corporations.
9) England Plants the Jamestown Seedling; First European Settlement

i. Jamestown
i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King
James I to make a settlement in the New World.
ii. However, story of colonization started from settlement
farther North along the Atlantic Coast in Virginia,
Massachusetts, NY and 10 other areas due to the growing
tide of immigrants from Europe.
10) Conclusion

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Topic 3
USA as a British Colony
(1606-1783)
1) Introduction
2) England Plants the Jamestown Seedling
a. Jamestown
i. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King
James I to make a settlement in the New World.
b. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same
rights as Englishmen in Britain.
1. On May 24, 1607, about 100 English settlers disembarked
from their ship and founded Jamestown.
a. Forty colonists perished during the voyage.
b. In mosquito-ridden Virginia, disease was rampant. It
didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the
Bahamas in 1609 either.
2. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control
and whipped the colonists into discipline.
a. He had been kidnapped by local Indians and forced
into a mock execution by the chief Powhatan and had
been “saved” by Pocahantas.
b. The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted
peaceful relations with the colonists.
3. Still, the colonists were reduced to eating cats, dogs, rats,
even other people.
4. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr
arrived to alleviate the suffering.
5. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8000 would-be
settlers, only 1200 had survived.
3) Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake
B. The Indian’s Begin to Lose Power
1. At first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists
potential allies and tried to be friendly with them, but as
time passed and colonists raided Indian food supplies,
relations deteriorated and eventually, war occurred.

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2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a

peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to
colonist John Rolfe.
3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a
series of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe,
dead.
4. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in
1646, and effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians
from their ancestral lands.
5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians
were useless, and were therefore banished.
4) Virginia: Child of Tobacco
C. Tobacco Info
1. Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted
soil and ruined the land.
2. King James I detested tobacco.
3. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when
in 1619, settlers created the House of Burgesses.
4. Slavery in the Americas was also born in 1619.
5) Maryland: Catholic Heaven
D. Religious Diversity
1. Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the
second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to
be formed.
2. It was a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge.
3. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco.
4. It had a lot of indentured servants. Black slavery became
popular
6) The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America
E. Their Use
1. As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also
settling in the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened
the door).
2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West
Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655.
7) Colonizing the Carolinas
F. Restoration Period
1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver
Cromwell had ruled for ten years before tired Englishmen
restored Charles II to the throne.
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2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization.

3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally
created in 1670.
4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with
the West Indies.
5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados.
6. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina
proved to be too strong to be wiped out.
8) The Emergence of North Carolina
G. Conflict
1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people
who owned no land.
2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistant to
authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors.
3. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially
separated.
9) Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony
H. Georgia’s Purpose
1. Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British
colonies and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida and
the enemy French in Louisiana.
2. Founded in 1733 by a high-minded group of
philanthropists, it was the last colony founded.
3. Named after King George II of England, Georgia was also
meant to be a haven for wretched souls in debt.
4. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a
dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks.
5. All Christians except Catholics enjoyed religious
toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert
the Indians.
a. John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to
England and founded Methodism.
6. Georgia grew very slowly.
10) The Plantion Colonies
I. Comparisons and Contrasts
1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies.
2. Growth of cities was often stunted by forests.
3. Establishment of schools and churches was difficult.
4. In the South, the crops were tobacco and rice.

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5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious

toleration.
6. Confrontations with Native Americans was often.
11) France Finds a Foothold in Canada
a. Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the colony
race.
i. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic
strife.
ii. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited
toleration to the French Huguenots.
b. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in
overseas colonies.
c. In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence
River.
d. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became
known as the “Father of New France.” He entered into friendly
relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them
defeated the Iroquois.
e. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate to
North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the
Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave.
12) New France Fans Out
a. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver.
b. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians.
c. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley,
Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701.
d. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de La Salle, to thwart
Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico.
e. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and
trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the
garden of France’s North American empire.
13) The Clash of Empires
a. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War (two different fights)
i. The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and
their Indian allies.
ii. Neither side considered America important enough to waste
real troops on.
iii. The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed
Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England,

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pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also

gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America.
b. The War of Jenkin’s Ear
i. An English Captain named Jenkin’s had his ear cut off by a
Spanish commander, who had sneered at him to go home
crying (essentially).
ii. This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia.
iii. This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession
and came to be called King George’s War in America.
iv. France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops
captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cap Breton
Island.
v. However, peace terms of this war gave Louisbourg, which
the New Englanders had captured, back to France,
outraging the colonists, which feared it.
c. George Washington Inaugurates War with France
i. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish,
British, and French.
ii. It was lush and very good land.
iii. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George
Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in
command of about 150 Virginia minutemen.
iv. He was permitted to march his men away with the full
honors of war.
14) Global War and Colonial Disunity
a. The fourth of these wars between empires started in America,
unlike the first three.
b. The French and Indian War (aka Seven Years’ War) began with
Washington’s battle with the French.
c. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia.
d. In previous wars, the Americans were not unified, but now they
were.
e. In 1754, an intercolonial congress was held in Albany, New York.
f. Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan
failed because it compromised too much.
g. The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant
engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal
fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on
American soil.

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h. In the peace treaty at Paris in 1763, Britain got all of Canada, but
the French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar
islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations.
i. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to
compensate for Spain’s losses in the war.
j. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the
world, and a great power in North America.
15) Restless Colonials
a. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out
victors, were very confident. However, the myth of British
invincibility had been shattered.
b. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the
colonial “boors.”
c. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from
different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they
had a lot in common (language, ideals), and barriers of disunity
began to melt.
16) Americans: A People of Destiny
a. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now
roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain.
b. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they
could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day
lose theirs too.
c. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no
longer play the European powers against each other, since it was
only Great Britain in control now.
d. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the
Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of
1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the
Appalachians.
e. In 1765, an estimated on thousand wagons rolled through the
town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in
defiance of the Proclamation.
f. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this
blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set
for the Revolutionary War.
g. In 1700, there were about 250,000 European and African settlers
in North America’s thirteen English colonies. By 1775, on the eve
of revolution, there were nearly 2.5 million. These colonists did
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not have much in common, but they were able to band together
and fight for their independence.
17) Causes of Colonization
a. Improvement in Technology
b. Renaissance in Europe
c. Religious Conflicts in Europe
d. Expanding trade
e. Search for New Routes
f. Pressure of population
g. Trade and Agriculture
h. Desire for wealth
i. Imperial Rac; Imperialistic Designs and Aims
j. Royal Proclamation; Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648,
between Spain and Dutch republic by which each state would have
the right to determine the religion of his own state and also
colonial claims were adjusted.
18) Conclusion

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Topic 4
USA as an Independent Country (1783 - 1819)

1) Introduction
I. As a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the new nation
controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Mississippi River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the
north, remained British territory. Great Britain returned Florida to
Spain, and Spain continued to control the area west of the
Mississippi River.
II. The original 13 colonies made up the first 13 states of the United
States. Eventually, the American land west of the Appalachian
Mountains was divided into territories.
III. At the end of the American Revolution, the new nation was still a
loose confederation of states. But in 1787, American leaders got
together and wrote the Constitution of the United States. The
Constitution became the country's basic law and welded it together
into a solid political unit. The men who wrote it included some of
the most famous and important figures in American history.
Among them were George Washington and James Madison of
Virginia, Alexander Hamilton of New York, and Benjamin
Franklin of Pennsylvania. The authors of the Constitution, along
with other early leaders such as Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, won
lasting fame as the Founding Fathers of the United States.
IV. At the start of its history, the United States faced severe financial
problems. But before long, the skill of its leaders and the spirit and
hard work of its people put the country on a sound economic
footing. Early America also faced threats from powerful European
nations. ut masterful diplomacy by Washington and other leaders
guided the country through its early years in peace. The peace
ended with the War of 1812, in which the United States and Great
Britain fought again. After the war, America focused its attention

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on its development, and entered a period of bustling economic

growth.
2) Establishing a government: The American people began setting up a
new system of government as soon as they declared their independence.
Each of the new states had its own constitution before the American
Revolution ended. The state constitutions gave the people certain
liberties, usually including freedom of speech, religion, and the press. In
1781, the states set up a federal government under laws called the
Articles of Confederation.
3) Background to the Constitution.
I. The Articles of Confederation gave the federal government the
power to declare war and manage foreign affairs. But the Articles
did not allow the government to collect taxes, regulate trade, or
otherwise direct the activities of the states.
II. Under the Articles, each state worked independently for its own
ends. Yet the new nation faced problems that demanded a strong
federal government. The United States had piled up a huge
national debt during the American Revolution. But since the
federal government could not collect taxes, it was unable to pay
the debt and put the country on a sound economic footing. The
government even lacked the means for raising money to provide
for national defence. The federal government had no power to
regulate the nation's trade. In addition, some states issued their
own paper money, causing sharp changes in the value of currency
and economic chaos.
4) Creating the Constitution.
I. In 1787, delegates from every state except Rhode Island met in
Philadelphia to consider revisions to the Articles of Confederation.
The delegates agreed to write an entirely new Constitution.
II. The delegates debated long and hard over the contents of the
Constitution. Some of them wanted a document that gave much
power to the federal government. Others wanted to protect the
rights of the states and called for a weak central government.
Delegates from large states claimed their states should have greater

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representation in Congress than the small states. But small-state

delegates demanded equal representation in Congress.
III. The delegates finally reached agreement on a new Constitution on
Sept. 17, 1787. The document they produced has often been called
a work of political genius. The authors worked out a system of
government that satisfied the opposing views of the people of the
1780's. At the same time, they created a system of government
flexible enough to continue in its basic form to the present day.
IV. The Constitution provided for a two-house legislature--a House of
Representatives and a Senate. Representation in the House was
based on population in order to satisfy the large states. All states
received equal representation in the Senate, which pleased the
small states. The Constitution gave many powers to the federal
government, including the rights to collect taxes and regulate
trade. But the document also reserved certain powers for the states.
The Constitution provided for three branches of government: the
executive, headed by a president; the legislature, made up of the
two houses of Congress; and the judiciary, or federal court system.
The creators of the Constitution provided for a system of checks
and balances among the three branches of government. Each
branch received powers and duties that ensured that the other
branches would not have too much power.
5) Adopting the Constitution: Before the Constitution became law, it
needed ratification (approval) by nine states. Some Americans still
opposed the Constitution, and fierce debate over ratification broke out.
Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to
ratify.
6) The Bill of Rights: Much opposition to the new Constitution stemmed
from the fact that it did not specifically guarantee enough individual
rights. In response, 10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights were
added to the document. The Bill of Rights became law on Dec. 15, 1791.
Among other things, it guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, the press,
and the rights to trial by jury and peaceful assembly.

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7) Setting up the government: The Constitution provided that the

president be elected by an Electoral College, a group of people chosen by
the states. In 1789, the Electoral College unani-mously chose
Washington to serve as the first president. It reelected him unanimously
in 1792. The government went into operation in 1789, with its
temporary capital in New York City. The capital was moved to
Philadelphia in 1790, and to Washington, D.C., in 1800.
8) Early problems and politics: Solving financial problems.
I. Americans were divided over how to deal with the financial
problems that plagued the new government. One group, led by
Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, wanted the federal
government to take vigorous action. Another group, headed by
Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, opposed government
participation in economic affairs.
II. Hamilton proposed that the federal government increase tariffs
and tax certain products made in the United States. The
government would use the tax money to pay both its debts and the
debts of the states. Hamilton also proposed a government-
supported national bank to control government finances.
III. Jefferson and his followers, who included many Southerners,
finally agreed to support some of Hamilton's financial proposals.
In return, Hamilton agreed to support a shift of the national capital
to the South. Congress approved Hamilton's financial plan and
agreed to locate the capital in the South. As a result of this
compromise, the capital moved to Washington, D.C., in 1800.
Jefferson continued to oppose the national bank proposal. But in
1791, Congress chartered a national bank for 20 years.
9) Early problems and politics: Foreign affairs.
I. The new government also faced problems in foreign affairs. In
1793, France went to war against Britain and Spain. France had
helped the Americans in the American Revolution, and it now
expected U.S. assistance in its war. Americans disagreed over
which side to support. Jefferson and his followers wanted the

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United States to back France, while Hamilton and his group

favoured the British.
II. President Washington insisted that the United States remain
neutral in the European war. He rejected French demands for
support, and also sent diplomats to Britain and Spain to clear up
problems with those countries. Chief Justice John Jay, acting for
Washington, negotiated the Jay Treaty with Britain in 1794. The
treaty's many provisions included a trade agreement with Britain
which--in effect--ended American trade with France. It also
included a British promise to remove troops still stationed on U.S.
territory. In 1795, Thomas Pinckney negotiated the Pinckney
Treaty, or Treaty of San Lorenzo, with Spain. This treaty settled a
dispute over the Florida border between the United States and
Spain and also gave the United States free use of the Mississippi
River.
III. In 1796, Washington--annoyed by the disputes within his
Administration--refused to seek a third term as president. John
Adams succeeded him in 1797. At about that time, French
warships began attacking American merchant vessels. Adams, like
Washington, hoped to use diplomacy to solve foreign problems.
He sent diplomats to France to try to end the attacks. But three
agents of the French government insulted the diplomats with
dishonourable proposals, including a demand for a bribe. The
identity of the agents was not revealed. They were simply called X,
Y, and Z, and the incident became known as the XYZ Affair.
IV. The XYZ Affair created a furore in the United States. Hamilton
and his followers demanded war against France. But Adams was
determined to keep the peace. In 1799, he again sent diplomats to
France. This time, the United States and France reached a
peaceful settlement.
10) Establishing political parties: Washington and many other early
American leaders opposed political parties. But in the 1790's, the
disputes over government policies led to the establishment of two
political parties in the United States. Hamilton and his followers, chiefly

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Northerners, formed the Federalist Party. The party favoured a strong

federal government and generally backed Great Britain in international
disputes. Jefferson and his followers, chiefly Southerners, established the
Democratic-Republican Party. The party wanted a weak central
government and generally sided with France in foreign disputes.
11) The Alien and Sedition Acts.
I. The XYZ Affair had a major impact on American internal policies
and politics. After the affair, the Federalist Party denounced the
Democratic-Republicans for their support of France. The
Federalists had a majority in Congress. They set out to silence
their critics, who included Democratic-Republicans and foreigners
living in the United States. In 1798, the Federalist Congress and
President Adams--also a Federalist--approved the Alien and
Sedition Acts. These laws made it a crime for anyone to criticize
the president or Congress, and subjected foreigners to unequal
treatment.
II. A nationwide outcry against these attacks on freedom followed.
The most offensive parts of the Acts soon expired or were
repealed. However, the Alien and Sedition Acts gave the
Federalists the reputation as a party of oppression.
12) Jeffersonian democracy
I. Public reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts helped Thomas
Jefferson win election as president in 1800 and again in 1804.
Jefferson's political philosophy became known as Jeffersonian
democracy. Jefferson envisioned the United States as a nation of
small farmers. In Jefferson's ideal society, the people would lead
simple, but productive, lives and be able to direct their own affairs.
Therefore, the need for government would decline. Jefferson took
steps to reduce government expenses and the national debt. But in
spite of his beliefs and practices, Jefferson found that as president
he could not avoid actions that expanded the role of government.
II. The Louisiana Purchase, the first major action of Jefferson's
presidency, almost doubled the size of the United States. In 1801,
Jefferson learned that France had taken over from Spain a large

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area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains

called Louisiana. Spain was a weak nation, and did not pose a
threat to the United States. But France--then ruled by Napoleon
Bonaparte--was powerful and aggressive. Jefferson viewed French
control of Louisiana as a danger to the United States.
III. In 1803, Jefferson arranged the purchase of the area from France.
The Louisiana Purchase added 2,144,476 square kilometres of
territory to the United States.
13) Jefferson and foreign policy.
I. In 1803, Great Britain and France went to war again, and both
nations began seizing American merchant ships. The British also
impressed American seamen, seizing them and forcing them into
British service.
II. Jefferson again found it necessary to use government powers, this
time to protect American shipping. At his request, Congress
passed trade laws designed to stop the British and French
interfering with American trade. But the warring nations
continued to interfere.
14) The War of 1812
I. James Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809. France
soon promised to end its interference with American shipping, but
Britain did not. Also, people believed the British were encouraging
Indians to attack American pioneers moving westward. For these
reasons, many Americans demanded war against Britain. They
were led by members of Congress from the West and South called
War Hawks. Other Americans, especially New Englanders,
opposed the War Hawks' demand. But on June 18, 1812, at
Madison's request, Congress declared war on Britain and the War
of 1812 had begun.
II. Neither side gained much advantage early in the war. But on Aug.
24, 1814, British troops captured Washington, D.C., and burned
the Capitol and other government buildings. This British action
made Americans realize their nation's survival was at stake. Large
numbers of American volunteers rushed into service, and helped

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stop the British offensive. The Treaty of Ghent of Dec. 24, 1814,
officially ended the War of 1812. Neither side won the war and
little was gained from the struggle.
15) Growing nationalism: A strong spirit of nationalism swept
through the United States following the War of 1812. The war itself gave
rise to increased feelings of self-confidence and unity. The peace that
followed enabled the nation to concentrate on its own affairs. The
bitterness that had marked political disputes eased with the breakup of
the Federalist Party. Meanwhile, the nation expanded westward, new
states entered the union, and the economy prospered. Historians
sometimes call the period from about 1815 to the early 1820's The Era of
Good Feeling because of its relative peace, unity, and optimism.
16) Nationalism and the economy.
I. After the War of 1812, nationalist politicians proposed economic
measures that came to be called the American System. They said
the government should raise tariffs to protect American
manufacturers and farmers from foreign competition. Industry
would then grow and employ more people. More employment
would lead to greater consumption of farm products, and so
farmers would prosper and buy more manufactured goods. In
addition, tariff revenues would enable the government to make
needed internal improvements.
II. The government soon put ideas of the American System into
practice. In 1816, Congress enacted a high tariff, and it chartered
the second Bank of the United States, to give the government more
control over the economy. The government also increased its
funding of internal projects, the most important of which was the
National Road. Begun in 1811, the road stretched from
Cumberland, Maryland, to Vandalia, Illinois, when completed. It
became an important route for the shipment of goods and the
movement of settlers westward.
17) A national culture. Many early Americans had tried to model
their culture on European civilization. Architects, painters, and writers
tended to imitate European models. But in the late 1700's and early

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1800's, art and culture more and more reflected American experiences.
Architects designed simple, but beautiful, houses that blended into their
surroundings. Craftworkers built sturdy furniture that was suited to
frontier life, yet so simply elegant as to be considered works of art. The
nation's literature flourished when it began reflecting American
experiences. Political writings such as the works of Thomas Paine had
high literary merit. The works of Washington Irving, one of the leading
early authors, helped gain respect for American literature.
18) Decline of the Federalists. In 1814 and 1815, New England
Federalists held a secret political meeting in Hartford, Connecticut.
Their opponents charged that they had discussed the secession
(withdrawal) of the New England States from the Union. The Federalists
never recovered from the charge, and the party broke up in about 1816.
James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican presidential candidate in the
election of 1820, was unopposed.
19) New territory. The United States gained two new pieces of
territory between 1815 and 1820. In 1818, a treaty with Britain gave the
country the Red River Basin, north of the Louisiana Territory. Spain
ceded Florida to the United States in 1819.
20) "A fire bell in the night." The Era of Good Feeling did not mean
an end to all the country's disputes. The issue of slavery was causing
deep divisions among the people. Many Northerners were demanding an
end to slavery, while Southerners were defending it more and more.
Jefferson, then retired, accurately viewed the growing dispute as a
warning of approaching disaster, "like a fire bell in the night."

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Topic 5
Expansion of USA: From 13 to 50 States (1820 - 1949)
1) Introduction
i. Between 1821 and 1859, the following States became part of the
Union: Missouri (1821), Arkansas (1836), Michigan (1837), Texas
(1845), Florida (1845), Iowa (1846), Wisconsin (1848), California
(1850), Minnesota (1858) and Oregon (1859). Kansas (1861),
Nevada (1864), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876), Dakota
Territory was split in two (1889),; Montana Territory (1889),
Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), Wyoming (1890), Utah(1896),
Oklahoma (1907), New Mexico (1912), Arizona (1912), Alaska
(1959)
2) Fate of Indian Territories
i. In the 1820s, the USA government began moving what it called
the "Five Civilized Tribes" of South East America (Cherokee,
Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Chickasaw) to lands west of the
Mississippi River.
ii. The 1830 Indian Removal Act gave the President authority to
designate specific lands for the Indians (native Americans).
iii. The 1834 Indian Intercourse Act called the lands Indian
Territory and specified where they were: all of present-day
Oklahoma North and East of the Red River, as well as Kansas and
Nebraska.
iv. But, in 1854 the territory was cut down when Kansas and
Nebraska territories were created. White settlers continued to
invade the West and half the remaining Indian Territory (West
Oklahoma) was opened to whites in 1889.
v. In 1907 Oklahoma became a state of the USA, and Indian
Territory was no more.
3) Timeline
i. August 10, 1821; The southeastern corner of Missouri Territory
was admitted to the US as the 24th state, Missouri. The remainder
became unorganized. Missouri did not include its northwestern
triangle at this point, that being added later in the Platte Purchase
ii. October 4, 1824; The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was enacted,
creating the United Mexican States and replacing the Mexican
Empire, which had collapsed on March 19, 1823.

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iii. November 15, 1824; Arkansas Territory was shrunk, the western
portion becoming unorganized
iv. June 30, 1834: A large portion of unorganized land was added to
Michigan Territory, corresponding to present-day Iowa, western
Minnesota, and eastern North Dakota and South Dakota.
v. June 15, 1836: Arkansas Territory was admitted to the US as the
25th state, Arkansas. It continued to claim Miller County, with
increasing irrelevance.
vi. March 2, 1836: The Treaties of Velasco signified the end of the
Texas Revolution on May 14, 1836, creating the Republic of
Texas.
vii. July 4, 1836: Wisconsin Territory was split off from Michigan
Territory, consisting of present-day Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa,
and eastern North and South Dakota.
viii. January 26, 1837: Michigan Territory was admitted to the US as
the 26th state, Michigan
ix. March 3, 1845: Florida Territory was admitted to the US as the
27th state, Florida.
x. December 29, 1845: The Republic of Texas was admitted to the
US as the 28th state, Texas.
xi. December 28, 1846: The southeast portion of Iowa Territory was
admitted to the US as the 29th state, Iowa. The remainder became
unorganized.
xii. May 29, 1848: The southeastern portion of Wisconsin Territory
was admitted to the US as the 30th state, Wisconsin. The
remainder became unorganized.
xiii. March 2, 1853: Washington Territory was split from Oregon
Territory, consisting of present-day Washington, northern Idaho,
and the western tip of Montana, leaving Oregon Territory with all
of Oregon, southern Idaho and a portion of Wyoming.
xiv. May 11, 1858: The eastern portion of Minnesota Territory was
admitted to the US as the 32nd state, Minnesota.
xv. February 14, 1859: The western portion of Oregon Territory was
admitted to the US as the 33rd state, Oregon.
xvi. January 29, 1861: The eastern portion of Kansas Territory was
admitted as the 34th state, Kansas.
xvii. March 4, 1861: The Confederate States of America (CSA) was
formed. The Southern states seceded at different dates and joined
the CSA at different dates; Its claim to be a separate country was
later denied by its surrender at the end of the Civil War.
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xviii. March 4, 1863: Idaho Territory was created from portions of

Washington, Dakota, and Nebraska Territories, consisting of
present-day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming.
xix. October 31, 1864: Nevada Territory was admitted to the US as the
36th state, Nevada
xx. March 1, 1867; Nebraska Territory was admitted to the US as the
37th state, Nebraska.
xxi. August 1, 1876: Colorado Territory was admitted to the US as the
38th state, Colorado.
xxii. November 2, 1889; Dakota Territory was split in two, and it was
admitted to the US as the 39th state, North Dakota, and 40th state,
South Dakota.
xxiii. November 8, 1889; Montana Territory was admitted to the US as
the 41st state, Montana.
xxiv. November 11, 1889; Washington Territory was admitted to the
US as the 42nd state, Washington.
xxv. July 3, 1890; Idaho Territory was admitted to the US as the 43rd
state, Idaho.
xxvi. July 10, 1890; Wyoming Territory was admitted to the US as
the 44th state, Wyoming.
xxvii. January 4, 1896: Utah Territory was admitted to the US as the
45th state, Utah.
xxviii. November 16, 1907: Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory
were combined and admitted to the US as the 46th state,
Oklahoma.
xxix. January 6, 1912: New Mexico Territory was admitted to the US as
the 47th state, New Mexico.
xxx. February 14, 1912: Arizona Territory was admitted to the US as
the 48th state, Arizona.
xxxi. 1948: Air Force Island, Prince Charles Island, and Foley Island
are discovered and added to Northwest Territories.
xxxii. January 3, 1959: Alaska Territory was admitted to the US as the
49th state, Alaska.
4) Conclusion

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Topic 6
Constitution of the USA: Salient Features
1) Introduction
i. “A Constitution consists of those fundamental rules which
determine & distribute functions & powers among the various
organs of the Government’’
ii. Adopted at Philadelphia convention held in 1787; Came into force
in 1789; Originally 7 articles, but 26 amendments so far
iii. Classic example of rigidity; Theory of separation of powers
combined with remarkable system of checks and balance
iv. Lord Bryce remarked; “yet after all deductions, it ranks above
every other written constitution for the intrinsic excellence of its
scheme, its adaptation to the circumstances of the people, its
simplicity and precision of language, its judicious mixture of
definiteness in principles with elasticity in details.”
2) Salient Features
i. Bill of Rights: Constitution guarantees fundamental rights of
person, property and liberty, Incorporated in the first ten
amendments. Rights of citizens are enforceable by the recourse of
judiciary, these rights cannot be modified or suspended except by a
constitutional amendment. Part and Parcel of constitution;
i. Freedom of Speech
ii. Freedom of Worship
iii. Habeas Corpus
iv. No unreasonable search
v. No unreasonable seizure
ii. Checks and Balances: One of the most powerful weapons in the
US constitution which makes it one of the most important written
documents in world is the system of check and balance between
the three tiers of state i.e. executive, legislative and judiciary.
iii. Brief & Simple: The US Constitution hardly consists of 6000 and
is less than 12 pages in length which makes it one of the shortest
and simply written constitutions of the world.

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iv. Written Constitution: The US constitution is in the written form

and comprises of 7 articles and 27 amendments had been made
since the constitution was made in 1787.
v. Dual Citizenship: The peoples living in America are authorized
to have dual citizenship according to their constitution. The 1st
citizenship of being an American and the 2nd is of the state which
a citizen belongs to.
vi. Secular State: Since the constitution declares America as a secular
state. Therefore no law can be made which prohibits or dents any
religion in the country.
vii. Supremacy of the Constitution: The US Constitution is the
supreme document as described in the article IV. The constitution
is declared superior over the entire citizens, law making agencies
and the government. No law can be passed contrary to the
constitution.
viii. Strong Federation: Article I, section 789 declares the federal form
of government in America. The stress is laid upon the strong
center and relatively weaker states. Bill Of Rights: Bill of rights
were the 1st ten amendments in the US constitution which defined
the rights of the peoples living in America.
ix. Rigid Constitution: US constitution is a rigid constitution
because it requires a difficult procedure to amend it. Every
amendment, which can be moved in two different ways, must be
ratified by three-fourths of the states. consequently, stood the
rigors of industrial of industrial revolution and democratic
upsurge, the turmoil of civil and global wars and economic crises
of thirties.
x. Separation of Powers: The constitution is based on the doctrine
of separation of powers. According to the constitution the national
powers are divided into three departments i.e. executive,
legislature and judiciary.
xi. Bicameralism: American parliament is known as Congress. It
consists of two chambers. Upper house is the Senate and lower
house is the House of Representatives.
xii. Independent Judiciary: The president of USA appoints the
judges but he has no power to remove them. It is only the

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legislature according to Article 1 Section 6, which can impeach the

judge of Supreme Court.
xiii. Universal Suffrage: The Constitution has given right to vote to
every citizen who is 18 years old without any distinction of male
or female. Division of Powers: As the Federal Government
requires a double set of Government. That of center and those of
states there must be a division of powers between the two parts.
All those powers which are not stated in the constitution are to be
exercised by the states.
xiv. Spoils System: This system was introduced by President Andrew
Jackson. According to this system the new president appoints all
important official of the government sacking the previous
administration. This system is known as the ―Spoilt System‖
because the jobs are distributed among the party men regardless of
their merit, experience and talent.
xv. Presidential form of government: The Constitution establishes a
presidential form of government. The constitution vests all
executive powers to the president .The president is the head of the
state as well as the government.
xvi. Republicanism: There would be Republicanism in the political
structure of the US. Laws made by the legislature shall be supreme
as it represents the will of the people. The people who made those
laws are elected by the people themselves. Sovereignty of the
People: The preamble of the US Constitution emphasizes the
theory of popular sovereignty i.e. the ultimate authority has been
vested in the people of the USA.
xvii. Popular Sovereignty: “We the people of U.S.”, ultimate
sovereignty is thus attributed to people
xviii. Dual Citizenship: An American is the citizen of U.S and also of
the State, where he is domiciled
3) Amendments in American Constitution
i. 1st Ten Bill of Rights
ii. 11th Immunity of states from suits from out-of-state citizens and
foreigners not living within the state borders. Lays the foundation
for sovereign immunity
iii. 12th Revises presidential election procedures

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iv. 13th Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as

punishment for a crime 14th Defines citizenship, contains the
Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the
Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post-Civil War issues
v. 15th Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or
previous condition of servitude
vi. 16th Allows the federal government to collect income tax
vii. 17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by
popular vote
viii. 18th Establishes Prohibition of alcohol (Repealed by Twenty-first
Amendment)
ix. 19th Establishes women's suffrage
x. 20th Fixes the dates of term commencements for Congress
(January 3) and the President (January 20); known as the "lame
duck amendment"
xi. 21st Repeals the Eighteenth Amendment
xii. 22nd Limits the president to two terms, or a maximum of 10 years
(i.e., if a Vice President serves not more than one half of a
President's term, he or she can be elected to a further two terms)
xiii. 23rd Provides for representation of Washington, D.C. in the
Electoral College
xiv. 24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-
payment of poll taxes
xv. 25th Codifies the Tyler Precedent; defines the process of
presidential succession
xvi. 26th Establishes the official voting age to be 18 years old.
xvii. 27th Prevents laws affecting Congressional salary from taking
effect until the beginning of the next session of Congress.

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Topic 7
Civil War between the North and the East (1850 - 1869)
I. Civil War
i. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United
States. He defeated Stephen Douglas because of the greater
northern population. Southerners were angered by the growing
abolitionist movement, and when Lincoln was elected, they feared
that their way of life was in jeopardy. South Carolina seceded on
December 20, 1860. Within the next two weeks, six other southern
states had left the union (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Texas). Little did people know that a very bloody
four year war was to come.
II. PEOPLE
i. North(Union), South(Confederacy)
ii. Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis , Robert E Lee , Thomas
"Stonewall" Jackson
iii. U.S. Grant: William T Sherman
III. Causes Leading to Civil war

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i. Election of Lincoln
ii. Discrimination of race
iii. Slavery
iv. The abolitionist (people who wanted to stop slavery) movement
v. Difference in economy
vi. Western expansion
IV. Consequences of the Civil War
i. Physical Devastation: The American Civil War lasted four years.
Measured in physical devastation and human lives, it was the
costliest war the American people have experienced the war killed
over 620,000 men and at least that many more had been wounded
in a nation of about 35 million.
ii. Spread of Disease and Sickness: North lost a total of about
364,000 soldiers (nearly one of every four soldiers). Also more
than 37,000 black soldiers lost their lives fighting for freedom
during the American Civil War. The conditions of the war were so
bad more men died of disease and sickness than on the battlefield.
iii. Hunger and Homelessness: After the war, over 4 million slaves
were freed. They didn't know what the future had in store for
them. With freedom came hunger and homelessness. Some slaves
stayed on the plantations, but others went north. Either way,
thousands of former slaves were without homes, clothes, food,
jobs, and didn't have any education. The Freedman's Bureau
helped both blacks and whites after the war by providing them
with food and medical care.
V. Effects of the Civil War
i. The Civil War was one of the most tragic wars in American
history. More Americans died then in all other wars combined.
Brother fought against brother and the nation was torn apart. In
the end, we must look at the important consequences of the
conflict. There may be others, but this is a good list to work off.
ii. The nation was reunited and the southern states were not allowed
to secede.

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iii. The South was placed under military rule and divided into military
districts. Southern states then had to apply for readmission to the
Union.
iv. The Federal government proved itself supreme over the states.
v. Slavery was effectively ended. While slavery was not officially
outlawed until the passage of the 13th amendment, the slaves were
set free upon the end of the war.
vi. Reconstruction, the plan to rebuild America after the war, began.
vii. Industrialism began as a result of the increase in wartime
production and the development of new technologies.

Course of War

I. Introduction Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”

1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on
April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North
expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick
suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end
this foolishness.
2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward
Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit.
i. The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as
Congressmen gathered in picnics.
ii. However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate
reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall
Jackson’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray.
3. The Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would not be a
short, easy war.
II. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign
1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of
the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B.
McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops but
also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was
outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving
for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance.
2. Finally, he decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond,
called the Peninsula Campaign, taking about a month to capture
Yorktown before coming to the Richmond.

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i. At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s

expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall
Jackson, and after “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode
completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General
Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the
Seven Days’ Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862.
ii. The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost,
would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that
Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation.
3. The Union strategy now turned to total war:
i. Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade.
ii. Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic
foundations.
iii. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the
Mississippi River.
iv. Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through
Georgia and the Carolinas.
v. Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia.
vi. Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and
grind it to submission.
III. The War at Sea
1. The Union blockade started leakily at first, but it clamped down
later.
2. Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas
that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since
Britain herself often used blockades in her wars.
3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through
the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union
navy also seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate
destination” [to the South] as their reasons; the British relented,
since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they
did in World War I).
4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of
an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad
rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened
to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived
just in time to fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the
Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from
the North.

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IV. The Pivotal Point: Antietam

1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the
arrogant General John Pope.]
2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win,
hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and
foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South.
i. At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan.
3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans and were able to
stop the Southerners at Antietam on September 17, 1862 in one of
the bloodiest days of the Civil War.
i. Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that
day, since European powers were very close to helping the
South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected
power at Antietam, that help faded.
ii. Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln
needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which
didn’t actually free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it
was announced on January 1, 1863.
iii. Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to save
the slaves a well.
V. A Proclamation without Emancipation
1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yet-
conquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and
the conquered territories were not liberated; Lincoln freed the
slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he
could.
2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused
to fight for abolition and deserted.
3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left
their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in
one of its purposes: the undermine the labor of the South.
4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and
trying to have a slave insurrection.
VI. Blacks Battle Bondage
1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low,
these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s
accounted for about 10% of the Union army.
2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as
prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels,

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and in one case at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had

surrendered were massacred.
i. Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners,
crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!”
3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or
strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the
Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their
jobs when Union armies conquered territory that included the
plantations that they worked on.
VII. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg
1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for sideburns) took over
the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal
attack at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862.
2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his girls, aka prostitutes) was
badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his
outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to
attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men
mistakenly shot him during dusk, and he died.
3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final
time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General
George G. Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge
flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies
fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.”
i. In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General
George Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge up
a hill that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates.
ii. A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg
Address.
VIII. The War in the West
1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a
mediocre West Point graduate who drank a lot and also fought
under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.”
2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then lost a hard
battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border.
3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut
joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans.
4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and
captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important
Mississippi River.

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5. The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after
the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate
hope for foreign intervention was lost.
IX. Sherman Scorches Georgia
1. After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh
Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he
delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing
his famous “march to the sea” at Savannah.
i. His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging
“total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields, and
destroying everything.
X. The Politics of War
1. The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War was
created in 1861 was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave
Lincoln much trouble.
2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas,
as “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace
Democrats” did not.
i. Copperheads were those who totally against the war, and
denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his “nigger
war.”
ii. The most famous of the copperheads was Clement L.
Valandigham, who harshly denounced the war but was
imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to
Ohio illegally but was not further punished, and also
inspired the story “The Man without a Country.”
XI. The Election of 1864
1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the
Union Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of
opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran
George McClellan.
i. The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to
ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and
the campaign was once again full of mudslinging, etc…
ii. Near Election Day, the victories at New Orleans and
Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to
vote, and Lincoln killed his opponent in the Electoral
College, 212-21.
iii. The popular vote was closer: 2,206,938-1,803,787.

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XII. Grant Outlasts Lee

1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just
so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he
could afford to lose many men while Lee could not.
i. In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with
Grant losing about 50,000 men.
ii. At Cold Harbor, Union soldiers with papers pinned on their
backs showing their names and addresses rushed the fort,
and over 7000 died in a few minutes.
iii. The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore
and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but
Ulysses stayed.
2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burning it, and
cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of
1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over.
XIII. The Martyrdom of Lincoln
XIV. The Aftermath of the Nightmare.
1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the
cream of the American crop.
2. However it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the
U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its
growing power and reputation; plus, slavery was also destroyed,
which was great.
3. It paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of its destiny as
the dominant republic of the Western Hemisphere—and later, the
world.

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Topic 8
Industrialization and its emergence as one of the World Powers
(1870 -1916)
1) Introduction
I. The industrial growth had major effects on American life. The new
business activity centered on cities. As a result, people moved to
cities in record numbers, and the cities grew by leaps and
bounds. The sharp contrast between the rich and the poor and other
features of American life stirred widespread discontent. The
discontent triggered new reform movements.
II. The industrial growth centred chiefly on the North. The war-torn
South lagged behind the rest of the country economically. In the
West, frontier life was ending.
III. America's role in foreign affairs also changed during the late 1800's
and early 1900's. The country built up its military strength and
became a world power.
2) The rise of big business
I. The value of goods produced by American industry increased
almost tenfold between 1870 and 1916. Many interrelated
developments contributed to this growth.
II. Improved production methods. The use of machines in
manufacturing spread throughout American industry after the Civil
War. With machines, workers could produce goods many times
faster than they could by hand. The new large manufacturing firms
hired hundreds, or even thousands, of workers. Each worker was
assigned a specific job in the production process. This system of
organizing labourers, called the division of labour, also sped up
production.
III. Development of new products. Inventors created, and business
leaders produced and sold, a variety of new products. The products
included the typewriter (1867), barbed wire (1874), the telephone
(1876), the phonograph (early form of record player) (1877), the
electric light (1879), and the petrol-engine car (1885).

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IV. Natural resources. America's rich and varied natural resources

played a key role in the rise of big business. The nation's abundant
water supply helped power the industrial machines. Forests
provided timber for construction and wooden products. Miners took
large quantities of coal and iron ore from the ground.
V. A growing population. More than 25 million immigrants entered
the United States between 1870 and 1916. Immigration plus natural
growth caused the U.S. population to more than double during the
same period, rising from about 40 million to about 100 million.
VI. Distribution and communication. In the late 1800's, the American
railway system became a nationwide transportation network. The
total distance of all railway lines in operation in the United States
soared from about 14,500 kilometres in 1850 to almost 320,000
kilometres in 1900. A high point in railway development came in
1869, when workers laid tracks that joined the Central Pacific and
Union Pacific railways near Ogden, Utah. This event marked the
completion of the world's first transcontinental railway system. The
system linked the United States by rail from coast to coast.
VII. The new railways spurred economic growth. Mining companies
used them to ship raw materials to factories over long distances
quickly. Manufacturers distributed their finished products by rail to
points throughout the country. The railways became highly
profitable businesses for their owners.
VIII. Advances in communication provided a boost for the
economy. Railways replaced such mail-delivery systems as the
stagecoach. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the
telephone. These developments, along with the telegraph, provided
the quick communication that is vital to the smooth operation of big
business.
IX. Investment and banking. The business boom triggered a sharp
increase in investments in the stocks and bonds of corporations. As
businesses prospered, people eager to share in the profits invested
heavily. Their investments provided capital that companies needed
to expand their operations.

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X. New banks sprang up throughout the country. Banks helped finance

the nation's economic growth by making loans to businesses. Some
bankers of the era assumed key positions in the American economy
because of their ability to provide huge sums of capital.
3) The South and the West
I. The war-torn South. After the Civil War, Americans in the South
faced the task of rebuilding their war-torn society. The South lagged
behind the rest of the nation economically. Some industry
developed in the region, but the South remained an agricultural area
throughout the period of industrialization.
II. Many Southern farmers--both black and white--owned the land they
worked. But in general, the land of these small, independent farmers
was poor. The best land was given over to tenant farming--a system
in which labourers farm the land and pay rent in money or crops to
the owner. The tenant farming system had neither the virtues of the
plantation system of pre-Civil War days nor of the independent
owner system. The tenant farmers lacked the incentive to improve
land that was not their own, and the owners did not have full
control over production. For these and other reasons, agriculture
remained more backward in the South than elsewhere.
III. The end of the Western frontier. The long process of settling the
United States from coast to coast drew to a close after the Civil
War. In 1862, Congress passed the Homestead Act, which offered
public land to people free or at very low cost. Thousands of
Americans and immigrants started farms in the West under the
provisions of the act.
IV. After 1870, settlement became so widespread in the West that it was
no longer possible to draw a continuous frontier line. The United
States Census of 1890 officially recognized the fact that America's
frontier had ended.
V. The settlement of the West brought an end to the American Indian
way of life. Farmers occupied and fenced in much of the land.
White people moving westward slaughtered buffalo herds on which
Indians depended for survival. Some Indians retaliated against the

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whites by attacking wagon trains and homes. But, as in earlier days,

the federal government sent soldiers to crush the Indian uprisings. In
the end, the Indians were no match for the soldiers and their
superior weapons. Over the years, the federal government pushed
more and more Indians onto reservations.
4) Life during the industrial era
I. The industrial boom had major effects on the lives of the American
people. The availability of jobs in industries drew people from farms
to cities in record numbers. In 1870, only about 25 per cent of the
American people lived in urban areas. By 1916, the figure had
reached almost 50 per cent.
II. The lives of people in the cities contrasted sharply. A small
percentage of them had enormous wealth and enjoyed lives of
luxury. Below them economically, the larger middle class lived
comfortably. But at the bottom of the economic ladder, a huge mass
of city people lived in extreme poverty.
III. The wealthy. The business boom opened up many opportunities for
financial gain. The economic activity it generated enabled many
people to establish successful businesses, expand existing ones, and
profit from investments. Some business leaders and investors were
able to amass huge fortunes. The number of millionaires in the
United States grew from perhaps about 20 in 1850 to more than
3,000 in 1900.
IV. The middle class. Other city people prospered enough to live lives
of comfort, if not wealth. They included owners of small businesses,
and such workers as factory and office managers. They became part
of America's growing middle class.
V. The underprivileged. The laborers who toiled in factories, mills,
and mines did not share in the benefits of the economic
growth. They usually worked at least 60 hours a week for an
average pay of about 20 cents an hour, and had no fringe benefits.
VI. As the nation's population grew, so did the competition for
jobs. The supply of workers outstripped the demand. The
oversupply of workers led to high unemployment. In addition,

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depressions slowed the economy to a near standstill in 1873, 1884,

1893, and 1907.
VII. The everyday life of the city poor was dismal and drab. The poor
lived crowded together in slums. Much of their housing consisted of
cheap apartment buildings called tenements. The crowded slum
neighbourhoods bred crime. Overwork, poor sanitation, and
inadequate diet left slum dwellers vulnerable to disease. Many poor
children received little or no education, because they had to work to
contribute to their families' welfare.
VIII. The farmers. American farmers also suffered hardships after the
Civil War. Advances in agricultural equipment and techniques had
enabled most of the farmers to increase their production. However,
middlemen between the farmers and the consumers took a large
share of the money earned from farm products. The middlemen
included owners of railways, mills, and gins.
IX. The Gilded Age. American author Mark Twain called the era of
industrialization "The Gilded Age." Twain used this term to
describe the culture of the newly rich of the period. Lacking
tradition, the wealthy developed a showy culture supposedly based
on the culture of upper-class Europeans. The enormous mansions of
the newly rich Americans imitated European palaces. The wealthy
filled the mansions with European works of art, antiques, rare
books, and gaudy decorations.
X. Most Americans, however, had a far different idea of culture. They
enjoyed fairs that exhibited industrial machines, the latest
inventions, and other items related to America's material
progress. The American people were eager spectators at circuses,
vaudeville shows, and sporting events. Baseball became so popular
after 1900 that it was called the national pastime. Also after 1900, a
new kind of entertainment, the cinema, began attracting public
interest.
XI. Government and the people. After the Civil War, the Democratic
and Republican parties developed strong political
machines. Members of these organizations kept in contact with the

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people, and did them favours in return for votes. But in general,
political leaders strongly favoured business interests.
XII. Government of the era was also marked by widespread
corruption. Ulysses S. Grant became president in 1869. Members of
Grant's administration used their government positions for their
own financial gain. Corruption also flourished in state and local
government.
5) Reform
I. A strong spirit of reform swept through the United States during the
late 1800's and early 1900's. Many Americans called for changes in
the country's economic, political, and social systems. They wanted
to reduce poverty, improve the living conditions of the poor, and
regulate big business. They worked to end corruption in
government, make government more responsive to the people, and
accomplish other goals. By 1917, the reformers had brought about
many changes. Some reformers called themselves progressives. As a
result, the period of American history from about 1890 to about
1917 is often called the Progressive Era.
II. Early reform efforts included movements to organize labourers and
farmers. In 1886, skilled labourers formed the American Federation
of Labor (AFL)--now the American Federation of Labor-Congress
of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO). Led by Samuel Gompers,
this union bargained with employers and gained better wages and
working conditions for its members. Farmers founded the National
Grange in 1867 and Farmers' Alliances during the 1870's and 1880's.
These groups helped force railways to lower their charges for
hauling farm products and assisted the farmers in other ways.
III. The drive for woman suffrage became strong after the Civil War. In
1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton founded the
National Woman Suffrage Association. The Territory of Wyoming
gave women the right to vote the same year. Soon, a few states
allowed women to vote, but only in local elections.
IV. The Progressive Era. The outcry for reform increased sharply after
1890. Members of the clergy, social workers, and others studied life

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in the slums and reported on the awful living conditions there.

Educators criticized the nation's school system. Increasingly,
unskilled workers resorted to strikes in an attempt to gain
concessions from their employers. Often, violence broke out
between strikers and strikebreakers hired by the
employers. Socialists and others who opposed the U.S. economic
system of capitalism supported the strikers and gained a large
following.
V. As public support for reform grew, so did the political influence of
the reformers. In 1891, farmers and some labourers formed the
People's, or Populist, Party. The Populists called for government
action to help farmers and labourers. They gained a large following,
and convinced many Democrats and Republicans to support
reforms.
VI. Reformers won control of many city and some state
governments. They also elected many people to Congress who
favoured their views. In addition, the first three presidents elected
after 1900--Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and
Woodrow Wilson--supported certain reform laws.
VII. Local and state legislation. Reformers in local and state
government passed many laws to help the poor. Such laws provided
for tenement house inspection, playgrounds, and other
improvements of life in the slums. Some reform governments
expanded public education and forced employers to protect workers
against fires and dangerous machinery in factories.
VIII. Federal legislation. Theodore Roosevelt, who became president in
1901, was a liberal Republican who called for a "square deal" for all
Americans. Roosevelt became the first president to help labourers in
a strike against employers. In 1902, the United Mine Workers struck
for better wages and working conditions. Roosevelt asked the
miners and the mine owners to settle their differences through
arbitration, but the mine owners refused. Angered, the president
threatened to have the army take over the mines. The owners gave
in, and reached a compromise with the miners.

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IX. Republican William Howard Taft succeeded Roosevelt in

1909. Although a conservative, Taft helped further the cause of
reform. In 1912, conservative Republicans backed Taft for their
party's presidential nomination, and liberal Republicans supported
Roosevelt. Taft won the nomination. The liberals then formed the
Progressive, or "Bull Moose," Party and nominated Roosevelt for
president. The Republican split enabled reform Democrat Woodrow
Wilson to win the presidency.
X. The reform movement flourished under Wilson. The many reform
measures passed during Wilson's presidency included the
Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered a high tariff that
protected American business from foreign competition.
6) Foreign affairs
I. During the 1870's and 1880's, the United States paid relatively little
attention to foreign affairs. In comparison to such European nations
as France, Germany, and Great Britain, the United States was weak
militarily and had little influence in international politics. During
the 1890's and early 1900's, however, the United States developed
into a world power and took a leading role in international affairs.
II. The Spanish-American War of 1898 marked a turning point in
United States foreign policy. Spain ruled Cuba, Puerto Rico, the
Philippines, and other overseas possessions during the 1890's. In the
mid-1890's, Cubans revolted against their Spanish rulers. Many
Americans demanded that the United States aid the rebels. On Feb.
15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine blew up off the coast of
Havana, Cuba. No one was certain what caused the explosion, but
many Americans blamed the Spaniards. On April 25, 1898,
Congress declared war on Spain. The United States quickly defeated
Spain, and the Treaty of Paris of Dec. 10, 1898, officially ended the
war. Under the treaty, the United States received Guam, Puerto
Rico, and the Philippines from Spain. Also in 1898, the United
States annexed Hawaii.
III. A world power. After he became president in 1901, Roosevelt
expressed his foreign policy strategy with the slogan, "Speak Softly

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and Carry a Big Stick." Roosevelt meant that the country must back
up its diplomatic efforts with military strength. In 1903, the
president used a threat of force to gain the right to dig the Panama
Canal. America took over the finances of the Dominican Republic
in 1905 to keep that country stable and free from European
intervention. These and other actions showed that the United States
had emerged as a world power.
IV. War clouds in Europe. In 1914, long-standing problems among
European nations led to the outbreak of World War I. Before long,
events would drag the United States into war and test its new role as
a world power.
7) Conclusion

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Topic 9
USA’s role in the Two World Wars
1) 1914 – 1918
2) 1939 - 1945

1) Introduction: A new place in the world (1917-1929)

I. The United States stayed out of World War I until 1917. But then,
German acts of aggression convinced most Americans of the need
to join the war against Germany. For the first time in its history, the
United States mobilized for a full-scale war on foreign territory.
II. The decade following World War I brought sweeping changes. The
economy entered a period of spectacular--though uneven--
growth. The booming economy and fast-paced life of the decade
gave it the nickname of the Roaring Twenties. But the good times
ended abruptly. In 1929, a stock market crash triggered the worst
and longest depression in America's history.
2) World War I and the peace
I. The United States in the war. After World War I began in 1914,
the United States repeatedly declared its neutrality. But increasingly,
German acts of aggression brought America closer to joining the
Allies. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine sank the British
passenger ship Lusitania. The attack killed 1,198 people, including
128 Americans. Woodrow Wilson won reelection to the presidency
in November 1916, using the slogan, "He Kept Us Out of War." But
three months later, German submarines began sinking American
merchant ships. This and other acts of aggression led the United
States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.
II. The American people rallied around their government's decision to
go to war. Almost 2 million men volunteered for service, and about
3 million were conscripted. On the home front, the spirit of
patriotism grew to a fever pitch. Americans willingly let the
government take almost complete control of the economy for the
good of the war effort.

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III. World War I ended in an Allied victory with the signing of an

armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.
IV. The peace conference and treaty. In 1919, the Allies held the Paris
Peace Conference to draw up the terms of the peace with Germany.
Wilson viewed the conference as an opportunity to establish lasting
peace among nations. But the other leading Allies were chiefly
interested in gaining territory and war payments from
Germany. They adopted the Treaty of Versailles, which ignored
almost all of Wilson's proposals.
V. The Treaty of Versailles did make provision for one of Wilson's
proposals--an association of nations (later called the League of
Nations) that would work to maintain peace. But the U.S. Senate
failed to ratify (approve) the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, the Senate
rejected U.S. participation in the League of Nations.
3) Life during the Roaring Twenties
I. In many ways, the 1920's marked the point at which the United
States began developing into the modern society it is today.
II. The role of American women changed dramatically during the
1920's. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution, which became
law on Aug. 26, 1920, gave women the right to vote in all
elections. In addition, many new opportunities for education and
careers opened up to women during the decade.
III. Social change and problems. Developments of the 1920's
broadened the experiences of millions of Americans. The mass
movement to cities meant more people could enjoy such activities as
films, plays, and sporting events. Radio broadcasting began on a
large scale. The car gave people a new way to get around. Cinemas
became part of almost every city and town. The new role of women
also changed society. Many women who found careers outside the
home began thinking of themselves more as the equal of men, and
less as housewives and mothers.
IV. The modern trends of the 1920's brought about problems as well as
benefits. Many Americans had trouble adjusting to the impersonal,

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fast-paced life of cities. This disorientation led to a rise in juvenile

delinquency, crime, and other antisocial behaviour.
V. The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, called the prohibition
amendment, caused unforeseen problems. It outlawed the sale of
alcoholic beverages throughout the United States as of Jan. 16,
1920. Many otherwise law-abiding citizens considered prohibition a
violation of their rights. They ignored the law and bought alcohol
provided by underworld gangs.
VI. Looking backward. Not all Americans saw the changes brought
about during the Roaring Twenties as being desirable. Many people
yearned for a return to old American traditions, a trend that was
reflected in many areas of life. In politics, it led to the return of a
conservative federal government. In his successful presidential
campaign of 1920, Warren G. Harding used the slogan "A Return to
Normalcy." To many people, returning to "normalcy" meant ending
the strong role of the federal government that marked the early
1900's. It also meant isolation, a turning away from the affairs of the
outside world.
VII. In religion, the trend toward tradition led to an upsurge of
revivalism (emotional religious preaching). Revival meetings were
most common in rural areas, but also spread to cities.
VIII. The Ku Klux Klan had died out in the 1870's, but a new Klan
gained a large following during the 1920's. The new Klan had easy
answers for Americans who were troubled by modern problems. It
blamed the problems on "outsiders," including blacks, Jews, Roman
Catholics, foreigners, and political radicals.
4) The economy- boom and bust
I. During the 1920's, the American economy soared to spectacular
heights. Wartime government restrictions on business
ended. Conservatives gained control of the federal government and
adopted policies that aided big business.
II. But in spite of its growth and apparent strength, the economy was
on shaky ground. Only one segment of the economy--
manufacturing--prospered. Business executives grew rich, but

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farmers and labourers became worse off. Finally, in 1929, wild

speculation led to a stock market crash.
III. Government and business. The American people grew tired of the
federal government's involvement in society that marked the
Progressive Era and the war years. They elected to Congress
conservatives who promised to reduce the role of government. Also,
all three presidents elected during the 1920's--Harding, Calvin
Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover--were Republicans who agreed with
the policy.
IV. Technology enabled American manufacturers to develop new
products, improve existing ones, and turn out goods much faster
and more cheaply than ever before. Sales of such items as electric
washing machines, refrigerators, and radios soared. But the
manufacturing boom depended most heavily on the growth of the
car industry. Before and during the 1920's, Henry Ford and others
refined car manufacturing to a science. The cost of cars continued to
drop and sales soared. In just 10 years between 1920 and 1930, the
number of cars registered in the United States almost tripled,
growing from about 8 million to 23 million.
V. Agriculture and labour did not share in the prosperity. A reduced
market for farm goods in war-torn Europe and a slowdown in the
U.S. population growth led to a decline in the demand for American
farm products. Widespread poverty among farmers and labourers
cut into the demand for manufactured goods, a contributing factor
to the forthcoming depression.
VI. Investments, speculation, and the crash. The economic growth of
the 1920's led more Americans than ever to invest in the shares of
corporations. The investments, in turn, provided companies with a
flood of new capital for business expansion. As investors poured
money into the stock market, the value of shares soared. The
upsweep led to widespread speculation, which pushed the value of
shares far beyond the level justified by earnings and dividends.
VII. Such unsound investment practices led to the stock market crash of
1929. In late October, a decline in share prices set in. Panic selling

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followed, lowering share prices drastically and dragging investors to

financial ruin. The stock market crash combined with the other
weaknesses in the nation's economy to bring on the Great
Depression of the 1930's.
5) Depression and a world in conflict (1930-1959)
I. The United States suffered through the Great Depression that
followed the stock market crash of 1929 for more than 10
years. During the depression, millions of workers lost their jobs and
large numbers of farmers were forced to abandon their
farms. Poverty swept through the nation on a scale never before
experienced.
II. The Great Depression was not limited to the United States. It struck
almost every other country in the world. In some countries, the hard
times helped bring to power dictators who promised to restore the
economy. The dictators included Adolf Hitler in Germany and a
group of military leaders in Japan. Once in power, both Hitler and
the Japanese rulers began conquering neighbouring lands. Their
actions led to World War II, the most destructive conflict in world
history. The United States fought in the war from 1941 to 1945, and
played a key role in defeating Germany and Japan.
III. Victory in World War II brought a spirit of great relief and joy to the
United States. The postwar economy boomed. More people shared
in the prosperity than ever before, creating a huge, well-to-do middle
class. Even so, Americans still faced problems. Chief among them
were the new threat of nuclear war, the growing strength of
Communism, and discontent among Americans who did not share
in the prosperity.
6) The Great Depression
I. The road to ruin. The stock market crash sent shock waves through the
American financial community. Banks greatly curtailed their loans to
businesses, and businesses then cut back on production. Millions of
people lost their jobs because of the cutbacks. Spending then dwindled,
and businesses suffered even more. Factories and shops shut down,
causing even higher unemployment. Consumption of farm products

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declined, and farmers became worse off than ever. Thousands of banks
failed and foreign trade decreased sharply. By the early 1930's, the
nation's economy was paralysed.
II. The depression and the people. At the height of the depression in 1933,
about 13 million Americans were out of work, and many others had only
part-time jobs. Farm income declined so sharply that more than 750,000
farmers lost their land. The Dust Bowl, the result of a terrible drought on
the western Great Plains, also wiped out many farmers. Hundreds of
thousands of people lost their life savings as a result of the bank failures.
III. Throughout the depression, many Americans went hungry. People stood
in "bread lines" and went to "soup kitchens" to get food provided by
charities. Often, two or more families lived crowded together in a small
apartment. Some homeless people built shacks of tin and scraps of wood
on waste ground.
IV. Roosevelt, recovery, and reform. Early in the Great Depression,
President Herbert Hoover promised that prosperity was "just around the
corner." But the depression deepened as the election of 1932
approached. The Republicans supported Hoover for reelection. The
Democrats chose Franklin Delano Roosevelt. In his campaign,
Roosevelt promised government action to end the Great Depression and
reforms to avoid future depressions. The people responded, and
Roosevelt won a landslide victory.
V. Roosevelt's programme was called the New Deal. Its many provisions
included public works projects to provide jobs, relief for farmers,
assistance to manufacturing firms, and the regulation of banks.
VI. Roosevelt's efforts to end the depression made him one of the most
popular U.S. presidents. The voters elected him to four terms. No other
president won election more than twice. Roosevelt's New Deal was a
turning point in American history. It marked the start of a strong
government role in the nation's economic affairs that has continued and
grown to the present day.
7) The United States in World War II
I. World War II began on Sept. 1, 1939, when German troops overran
Poland. France, Great Britain, and other nations (called the Allies) went

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to war against Germany. At first, America stayed out of the war. But on
Dec. 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. military base at Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii. The United States declared war on Japan on December
8, and three days later Germany and Italy--Germany's chief ally--
declared war on the United States.
II. The war effort. The American people backed the war effort with fierce
dedication. About 15 million American men served in the armed
forces. About 338,000 women served in the armed forces. At home,
factories were converted into defence plants where aeroplanes, ships,
weapons, and other war supplies were made. The country had a shortage
of civilian men, and so thousands of women worked in the defence
plants. ven children took part in the war effort. Boys and girls collected
used tin cans, old tyres, and other "junk" that could be recycled and used
for war supplies.
III. Allied victory. On May 7, 1945, after a long, bitter struggle, the Allies
forced the mighty German war machine to surrender. Vice President
Harry S. Truman had become president upon Roosevelt's death about a
month earlier. The Allies demanded Japan's surrender, but the Japanese
continued to fight on. Truman then made one of the major decisions in
history. He ordered the use of the atomic bomb, a weapon many times
more destructive than any previous weapon. An American aeroplane
dropped the first atomic bomb used in warfare on Hiroshima, Japan, on
Aug. 6, 1945. A second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on
August 9. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, and the war was
over.
8) Conclusion

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Topic 10
Post 1945 world scenario and emergence of USA
and USSR as the Two World Powers
1) The Threat of Communism
I. The United States and the Soviet Union both fought on the side of
the Allies during World War II. But after the war, the two
countries became bitter enemies. The Soviet Union, as a
Communist country, opposed democracy. It helped Communists
take control of most of the countries of Eastern Europe and also
aided Communists who seized control of China.
II. The Soviet Union and China then set out to spread Communism
to other lands. The United States, as the world's most powerful
democratic country, took on the role of defending non-Communist
nations threatened by Communist take-over. The containment of
Communism became the major goal of U.S. postwar foreign
policy.
III. The Cold War and foreign policy. The postwar struggle between
the American-led non-Communist nations and the Soviet Union
and its Communist allies became known as the Cold War. The
conflict was so named because it did not lead to fighting, or a "hot"
war, on a major scale.
IV. Both the United States and the Soviet Union built up arsenals of
nuclear weapons. The nuclear weapons made each nation capable
of destroying the other. The threat of nuclear war made both sides
cautious. As a result, Cold War strategy emphasized threats of
force, propaganda, and aid to weak nations. The United Nations
(UN), founded in 1945, provided a forum where the nations could
try to settle their Cold War disputes.
V. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the first two presidents of the
Cold War era, pledged American military support to any nation
threatened by Communism. Also, the United States provided
billions of dollars to non-Communist nations.

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VI. The Korean War resulted from the Cold War friction. On June 25,
1950, troops from Communist North Korea, equipped by the
Soviet Union, invaded South Korea. The UN called on member
nations to help restore peace. Truman sent American troops to aid
South Korea, and the UN sent a fighting force made up of troops
from many nations. The war lasted for three years, ending in a
truce on July 27, 1953.
VII. Communism and internal friction. The spread of Communism
caused deep divisions within the United States. Conservatives
blamed the Roosevelt and Truman administrations for allowing
the Communist postwar gains. They also claimed that
Communists were infiltrating the American government. The
charges led to widespread investigations of--and debate over--the
extent of Communist influence in American government and
society. Conservatives believed the investigations were needed to
save the country from Communist control. Liberals charged the
conservatives with conducting "witch hunts"; that is, trying to fix
guilt on people without evidence.
2) Postwar society
I. After World War II, the United States entered the greatest period of
economic growth in its history. Periods of inflation (rapidly rising
prices) and recession (mild business slumps) occurred. But overall,
prosperity spread to more Americans than ever before, resulting in
major changes in American life. However, millions of Americans--
including a high percentage of the nation's blacks--continued to live in
poverty. The existence of poverty amid prosperity brought on a period
of active social protest that has continued to the present day.
II. Prosperity returns. Military spending during World War II drew the
United States out of the Great Depression. Major industries, such as
car manufacturing and housing construction, had all but stopped
during the war. After the war, these industries resumed production on
a much larger scale than ever. elatively new industries such as
electronics, plastics, frozen foods, and jet aircraft became booming
businesses.

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III. The shortage of goods during the war and other factors combined to
create a vast market for American products. A population boom
increased the number of consumers. Between 1950 and 1960 alone, the
population of the United States grew by about 28 million. Trade unions
became stronger than ever, and gained high wages and other benefits
for their members. Wage laws and other government regulations also
helped give workers a greater share of the profits of business. These
developments also meant that more Americans had more money to
spend on goods.
IV. A new life style resulted from the prosperity. After the war, millions of
people needed, and were able to afford, new housing. Construction
companies quickly built huge clusters of houses in suburbs around the
nation's cities. Vast numbers of Americans moved from cities to
suburbs. The suburbs attracted people for many reasons. They offered
newer housing, more open space, and--usually--better schools than the
inner cities.
V. A rise in car ownership accompanied the suburban growth. Increased
car traffic led to the building of a nationwide network of motorways.
The car and prosperity enabled more people than ever to take holidays.
New motels, fast-service restaurants, and petrol stations sprang up to
serve the tourists.
VI. Prosperity and technological advances changed American life in other
ways. Television--an experimental device before the war--became a
feature of most American homes during the 1950's. This wonder of
modern science brought scenes of the world into the American living
room at the flick of a switch. New appliances made house work easier.
They included automatic washing machines, driers, dishwashers, and
waste disposal units.
VII. Poverty and discrimination. In spite of the general prosperity, millions
of Americans still lived in poverty. The poor included members of all
ethnic groups, but the plight of the nation's poor blacks seemed
especially bleak. Ever since emancipation, blacks in both the North and
South had faced discrimination in jobs, housing, education, and other

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areas. A lack of education and jobs made poverty among blacks

widespread.
VIII. During the early 1900's, blacks, joined by many whites, had begun a
movement to extend civil rights to blacks. The movement gained
momentum after World War II. Efforts of civil rights leaders resulted
in several Supreme Court decisions that attacked discrimination. In the
best-known case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the
court ruled that compulsory segregation in state schools was illegal.
IX. In spite of the gains, many civil rights leaders became dissatisfied with
the slow progress of their movement. In 1955, Martin Luther King, Jr.,
a Baptist minister, began organizing demonstrations protesting against
discrimination. Before long, the public protest would become a major
tool of Americans seeking change.
3) Conclusion

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Topic: 11
Civil Rights Movement (1954–65)
1. Introduction
a) The American civil rights struggle is an ongoing fight for the
personal rights, protections, and privileges granted all U.S.
citizens by the Constitution and Bill of Rights.
b) At the end of the American Civil War (1861–65), constitutional
amendments were enacted to protect African Americans recently
released from slavery.
c) The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) declared that all former
slaves were U.S. citizens and received equal protection under the
laws of state and federal governments.
d) The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) assured equal voting rights to
all citizens, regardless of race. Until the 1950s, however, the civil
rights of African Americans were systematically denied,
particularly in the South where the majority of black Americans
resided. A remarkable era of nonviolent
e) African American activism began in 1954, known today simply
as the civil rights movement. It was launched by the Brown v.
Board of Education decision in 1954, in which the Supreme
Court ruled that segregation in the public schools was illegal.
This phase of the civil rights struggle ended with the passage in
1965 of the Voting Rights Act, which nearly a century after the
Fifteenth Amendment had already done so once again assured
voting rights to all citizens.
2. Background of the movement
a) After the Reconstruction Era (1865–77), a period after the Civil War
in which the federal government controlled the southern states that
had se- ceded (withdrawn) from the Union, whites in the South
enacted the Jim Crow laws.
b) These were a series of laws throughout the South that required
segregation, the separation of the races in public places.

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c) White southern state legislatures limited African American rights to

own land, to enter certain occupations, and to gain access to the
courts.
d) By 1900, southern whites had accomplished the disfranchisement
(exclusion from voting) of most southern blacks.
e) In the early twentieth century, because it was too dangerous to
effectively resist racial injustice in the South, most civil rights
struggles were carried out in the North.
f) In 1905, black scholar and author W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963) and
other black leaders began the Niagara movement, named after their
meeting place near the Niagara River bordering the United States and
Canada, to fight racial injustice. Their organization eventually
became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP), which fought for racial equality mainly through
the courts and the press.
g) Until World War II (1939–45), the NAACP’s progress was slow.
After the war, a new sense of urgency prevailed in American black
communities. Soldiers who had risked their lives to fight for the
country expected equal treatment when they returned home.
h) More than one mil- lion African Americans migrated from the rural
South to northern cities in the first decades of the century. Over two
million blacks had registered to vote by the late 1940s.
i) In December 1948, President Harry S. Truman (1884–1972; served
1945–53) ran for his second term as president on a strong civil rights
plank. Although some southern whites quickly abandoned him, he
received 70 percent of the northern black vote and won the election.
Two years later, he began to desegregate the armed forces.
j) By the late 1940s, the NAACP’s chief legal counsel, Thurgood
Marshall (1908–1993), brought the principle of segregation in public
education before the Supreme Court. Marshall argued that
segregation denied blacks equal protection of the laws as guaranteed
by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
k) In 1954, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled against segregation in
public schools in Brown v. Board of Education.

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3. The aftermath of Brown

a) Brown’s most immediate effect was to intensify the resistance of white
southerners to civil rights progress.
b) The Ku Klux Klan, a secret society of white southerners in the United
States that uses terrorist tactics to suppress African Americans and other
minorities, stepped up its violent intimidation of African Americans.
c) Southern congressmen and governors vowed to resist desegregation. In
1957, when nine black students at- tempted to attend classes at a
formerly all-white school in Little Rock, Arkansas, federal troops were
required to protect them from the furious white mobs. Even so, Brown
provided the spark that ignited a movement.
d) African Americans across the country recognized that the highest court
had up- held their rights; leaders began to prepare bolder assaults on
segregation in the South. One common form of protest is a boycott, an
organized re- fusal to do business with someone.
e) In December 1955, blacks in Montgomery, Alabama, organized a bus
boycott after the former NAACP secretary of the Montgomery branch,
Rosa Parks (1913–2005), was arrested for refusing to yield her seat to a
white man.
f) The boycott leader was Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968).
g) Only twenty-six years old, the minister from Atlanta was an inspiring
speaker who invoked Christian morality, American ideals of liberty, and
the ethic of nonviolent resistance in his campaign against racial injustice.
h) In November 1956, despite growing Special counsel for the NAACP
Thurgood Marshall argued that segregation denied blacks equal
protection of the laws as guaranteed by the Constitution.
i) White violence, the bus boycott triumphed when a Supreme Court
decision overturned Montgomery’s laws enforcing bus segregation.
4. Nonviolent activists organize
a) In 1957, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the
Reconstruction Era. African Americans, however, had seen that
court decisions and federal acts had consistently failed to make
changes, so during the late 1950s they moved their struggle for
equality to the streets.

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b) In January 1957, King organized the Southern Christian Leadership

Conference (SCLC), a network of nonviolent civil rights activists
drawn mainly from African American churches.
c) In 1960, four African American students began the sit-in movement,
when they sat at the lunch counter at a Woolworth’s store in
Greensboro, North Carolina, which served only whites.
d) The store closed down the lunch counter. Later that year, several
hundred student activists gathered in Raleigh, North Carolina, to
form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC,
pronounced “snick”) to promote nonviolent resistance to Jim Crow
laws.
e) By the summer of 1960, the sitins had desegregated dozens of lunch
counters and other public accommodations, mainly in southern
border states.
f) Guided by King and other nonviolent activist leaders, protesters
courageously endured insults, intimidation, violence, and arrest
without striking back.
g) The Kennedy administration Black protests intensified during the
presidency of John F. Kennedy (served 1961–63), a Democrat elected
in 1960 with heavy black support. Kennedy had started out his
administration avoiding civil rights measures that might trigger
southern white racial violence and political retaliation.
h) Civil rights leaders stepped up campaigns to pressure Kennedy to
fulfill his campaign promises. In 1961, a nonviolent civil rights group
called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the
freedom rides, in which volunteers rode buses through Sitins,
peaceful demonstrations outside and inside businesses, helped
desegregate several lunch counters and other public
accommodations.
i) The South, testing compliance with a Supreme Court order to
desegregate interstate bus terminal facilities. White mobs beat the
riders in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama. As several
hundred more volunteers stepped in to continue the project, Kennedy

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quietly persuaded southern communities to desegregate their bus

terminals.
j) In 1962, Kennedy again was forced into action. He sent federal
marshals to protect a black student named James Meredith who had
registered at the all-white University of Mississippi at Oxford. After
mobs killed two people at the campus and besieged the marshals, the
president reluctantly called in more troops to restore order. In 1963,
demonstrations throughout the South led to fifteen thou- sand arrests
and widespread white violence.
k) On May 3 and for several days afterward, police in Birmingham beat
and unleashed attack dogs on nonviolent followers of King, in full
view of television news cameras. The resulting public revulsion over
the Birmingham protests spurred Kennedy to urge Congress to enact
a strong civil rights law.
5. I Have a Dream
a) A coalition of African American groups and their white allies sponsored
a march on Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963, to advance the civil
rights bill then before Congress.
b) Standing before the Lincoln Memorial, King delivered his famous plea
for interracial brotherhood in his “I Have a Dream” speech, enthralling
several hundred thousand blacks and whites.
c) On July 2, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights
Act of 1964, which barred segregation in public accommodations, ended
federal aid to segregated institutions, outlawed racial discrimination in
employment, sought to strengthen black voting rights, and extended the
life of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.
d) Voting rights in the South In 1964, SNCC initiated Freedom Summer, a
massive black voter registration and education campaign aimed at
challenging white supremacy in the deep South, starting in Mississippi.
About one thousand college students, most of them white, volunteered.
The freedom workers were not well received by a segment of
Mississippi’s white population.
e) Three volunteers were murdered by a mob led by the deputy sheriff of a
Mississippi town. Nevertheless, the project continued.

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f) In 1965, King led a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to

extend voting rights to black Americans. State and local police almost
immediately attacked the black marchers, stopping the march. The
televised scenes of violence brought about strong national support for the
protection of blacks attempting to vote.
g) Ten days later, twenty-five thousand black and white marchers reached
Montgomery escorted by federal troops. After the Selma-Montgomery
march, Johnson signed a strong Voting Rights Act, which authorized the
attorney general to send federal voting examiners to make sure that
African Americans were free to register. The examiners were granted the
power to enforce national law over local regulations wherever
discrimination occurred.
6. Black power
a) After 1965, the civil rights movement began to fragment, primarily
over the nonviolent tactics of King and his supporters and the goal of
integration into the dominant society. Malcolm X , a leader of the
religious and sociopolitical group the Nation of Islam, questioned the
value of integration into a society that had exploited and abused
African Americans for centuries.
b) He did not believe that the sit-ins, marches, or other tactics of civil
rights activists were effective tools with which to gain rights,
especially when confronted with violent resistance in the South. In
1966, SNCC leader Stokely Carmichael (also known as Kwame Ture
ridiculed nonviolent efforts and demanded “black power,” a militant
slogan that alienated white liberals and divided blacks.
c) The focus of the Black Power Movement began to shift to eco- nomic
injustices in the North. Violent ghetto riots began to break out in
large cities like Detroit and Los Angeles.
d) On April 4, 1968, the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
touched off riots that left Washington, D.C., in flames for three days.
The movement would continue, but this initial remarkable phase of
the nonviolent civil rights struggle was over.
7. A revolutionary movement

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a) The central goal of the African American civil rights movement full
equality between blacks and whites remains a distant vision.
Neighborhoods, private schools, and jobs remain segregated along
racial lines; African American incomes remain significantly lower
than those of whites; and job and educational opportunities are not
distributed equally. Nonetheless, the civil rights movement of 1954–
65 transformed American race relations.
b) In communities throughout the South, “whites only” signs that had
stood for generations vanished from hotels, rest- rooms, theaters, and
other facilities. By the mid-1970s, school desegregation had become
fact as well as law in more than 80 percent of all southern public
schools (a better record than in the North, where residential
segregation remains pronounced).
c) The protection of the right to vote represents the civil rights
movement’s greatest success: When Congress passed the Voting
Rights Act in 1965, barely 100 African Americans held elective office
in the country; by 2000 there were more than 9,000.

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Topic: 12
Separation of Powers: Check and Balances
1. Introduction
a) Checks and Balances Checks and balances refers to a system of
separation of powers within a government.
b) The framework of separation is intended to balance govern- mental
power to prevent any part of the government from overreaching its
defined responsibilities.
c) The Constitution of the United States, writ- ten in 1787 and adopted
in 1788, established a system of checks and bal- ances for the U.S.
federal government.

2. Systems of government throughout the world use different systems of

checks and balances. The Constitution defines three divisions of gov-
ernment for the United States: the legislative branch, the executive
branch, and the judicial branch. Each branch is responsible for a sepa-
rate governmental function, and the conduct of each branch can be eval-
uated and challenged (or “checked”) by the other two branches, at least
to some extent.
3. The three branches
a) The legislative branch is made up of two separate chambers of
Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
b) Congress is responsible for making the nation’s laws. Each
chamber checks the power of the other, as both need to approve
bills (proposed laws) for them to become laws.
c) The legislative branch as a whole is checked by the powers of the
other two branches. The judicial branch has the ability to decide
that a law is unconstitutional and therefore invalid. It also has the
power to interpret what a federal law means. The executive branch
has the ability, through the president, to veto, or reject, a law
passed by Congress.
d) A presidential veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of
Congress. The executive branch, led by the president, has the
responsibility of enforcing the nation’s laws.

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e) The armed forces as well as many administrative and regulatory

departments and agencies are under the control of the executive
branch. The judicial branch checks the executive branch by
interpreting the laws in legal cases involving the executive branch
and its departments.
f) The legislative branch balances the executive branch by overriding
presidential vetoes, approving presidential appointments, and
using the power to impeach and remove executive officers who
commit certain crimes. The judicial branch consists of a system of
federal courts, with the U.S. Supreme Court at the top.
g) The Supreme Court has the responsibility of hearing cases that
involve constitutional questions and federal laws, and it makes
decisions based on its interpretations of those laws. The executive
branch has the ability to appoint judges as openings occur.
h) The legislative branch has to approve those appointments and has
the power to impeach judges if needed. By using amendments to
rewrite laws, Congress has the power to change the effect of a
court’s interpretation of the laws.
4. Makers of the Constitution:
a) The authors of the Constitution embraced the system of checks
and balances, knowing the danger of abuse of governmental
power.
b) By establishing three branches of government, they attempted to
ensure that no single branch would wield more power than the
others by compelling each branch to be checked by the other two.
c) Over time, interpretation of the Constitution and laws has created
a complex system of ways in which the checks and balances
function.
Conclusion

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Questions and their Answers

(Outlines)
CONTENT
1. Causes of American Colonization OR War of Independence
2. War of Independence
3. In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian
democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? OR
A Question on founding father.
4. The American Constitution is a system of Checks and
Balances? Give Silent Features of US Constitution and what
were the flaws in Article of Confederation?
5. System of Check and Balance in American Constitution
6. Is America as a Melting Pot or a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic
7. Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American
Presidency in 1800 as “the Second American Revolution”. Was
the claim justified? Support your answer with evidence.
8. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said, “This great
nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and prosper”.
9. Explain in light of the FDR presidency and the New Deal?
10. Discuss in Details the impacts of Obama's 2nd terms as
the President and policy toward Pakistan?
11. In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of
Jackosnian democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian?

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Causes of American Colonization OR War of

Independence

1. Introduction

o Exploration of America
o Christopher Columbus
o His Visits to America
o Natives American (their groups)

2. Causes of Colonization

o Improvement in Technology
o Renaissance in Europe
o Religious Conflicts in Europe
o Expanding trade
o Search for New Routes
o Pressure of population
o Trade and Agriculture
o Desire for wealth
o Imperial Race
o Royal Proclamation

3. Critical Analysis

4. Conclusion

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War of Independence
1. Introduction

2. Role of Spain and France

3. Role of Blacks

4. School of Thoughts

5. Mercantilism (If required in details)

o Navigation Act of 1651

o Enumerated Act of 1660
o Staple Act of 1663
o Duty Act of 1673
o Enforcement Act of 1696
o Molasses Act 1733
o The Sugar Act of 1764
o The Currency Act of 1764
o The Quartering Act of 1765
o The Stamp Act of 1765
6. Other Causes of War of Independence

o Letters of Samuel Adams

o French Indian War
o Royal Proclamation of 1763
o The Coercive Act/ Intolerable Act
o Self-Government
o Great Awakening
o Boston Tea Party
o British Action on Massachusetts
o 1st Continental Conference
o 2nd Continental Conference
o Declaration of Independence
o Common Sense by Thomas Paine
o Sons of Liberty
o Boston Massacre
7. Critical Analysis

8. Conclusion

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In what ways did the philosophy and purposes of Jacksonian

democracy differ from those of the Jeffersonian democrats? OR A
Question on founding father.
1. Introduction

2. Jacksonian democracy v/s Jeffersonian democrats

o Political
a. Universal Suffrage

b. citizens considered eligible for office holding

c. candidates for president chosen

o Economic
d. Chosen Class

e. Industrialization

f. Attitude toward the Bank of the United States

o Social
g. Views on education

h. attitude toward equality for women

i. attitude toward American Indians

j. attitude toward slavery?

o Religious
k. To what extent was separation of church and state accomplished in each
period?

3. Critical Analysis

4. Conclusion

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The American Constitution is a system of Checks and Balances?

Give Silent Features of US Constitution and what were the flaws
in Article of Confederation?
NOTE:
Candidates should carefully analyze that what is been asked AOC/Salient
feature or check and balance? And then answer accordingly.
1. Introduction
2. Flaws in AOC
o One house congress
o No separate executive
o Considerable powers to state
o Lack system of judiciary
o Central government had insufficient power to regulate commerce.
o It could not tax, generally impotent in setting commercial policy
o It could not effectively support a war effort
o It had little power to settle quarrels between states
3. Salient feature of US Constitution
o Checks and Balances:
o Brief & Simple:
o Written Constitution:
o Dual Citizenship:
o Secular State:
o Supremacy of the Constitution:
o Strong Federation:
o Bill Of Rights:
o Rigid Constitution:
o Separation of Powers:
o Bicameralism:
o Independent Judiciary:
o Universal Suffrage:
o Division of Powers:
o Spoils System:
o Presidential form of government:
o Republicanism:
o Sovereignty of the People
4. Critical Analysis

5. Conclusion

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System of Check and Balance in American Constitution

1. Introduction
The national government is divided into three branches:
1. Legislative
2. Executive
3. Judicial
a. The Legislative Branch of Government Makes the Laws
o May override presidential vetoes with a two-thirds vote
o Has the power over the purse strings to actually fund any executive
actions
o May remove the president through impeachment
o Senate approves treaties
o Senate approves presidential appointments
b. The Legislative Branch has the following checks over the Judicial
Branch:
o Creates lower courts
o May remove judges through impeachment
o Senate approves appointments of judges
c. The Executive Branch of American Government
o Veto power
o Ability to call special sessions of Congress
o Can recommend legislation
o Can appeal to the people concerning legislation and more
d. The Executive Branch has the following checks over the Judicial
Branch:
o President appoints Supreme Court and other federal judges
e. The Judicial Branch of United States Government
o Judges, once appointed for life, are free from controls from the executive
branch
o Courts can judge executive actions to be unconstitutional through the
power of
o Judicial review
f. The Judicial Branch has the following checks over the Legislative
Branch:
o Courts can judge legislative acts to be unconstitutional.
2. Critical Analysis
3. Conclusion
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Is America as a Melting Pot or a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic

America as a Melting Pot

o Melting-pot model of American, prevalent at the beginning of the 20th

century
o Immigrants were encouraged to completely discard the cultural heritage
o It is particularly used to describe the assimilation of immigrants to the
USA
o The melting-together metaphor was in use by the 1780s.
o Israll Zangwill, whose drama Melting Pot published in 1908 popularized
the concept of white melting pot
o After 1970 the desirability of assimilation and the melting pot model was
challenged by proponents of multiculturalism
o Many different types of peoples, ideas and religions successfully co-exist
o The history of America is a history of multiracial society
o The white majority somehow interacted with blacks and Native Indians.
Consisting of Anglo-Saxons, Irishmen, Germans, Jews, Italians, Poles
and other Europeans this majority was not homogeneous.
o All immigrants tried to learn American way of living and become a part
of the “melting pot”
America as a Mixing Bowl/Mosaic

o People of different backgrounds can fit together without losing their

original identity
o Multiculturalism, celebrating diversity and teaching tolerance
o African American civil rights movement should also be mentioned
among the events that changed the ethnic situation in the USA
o The ethnic distribution of population all over the USA resembles “a
mosaic”: the South is black, the West is Asian, Hispanic and Native
Indian
o The report of the Council of Economic Advisers indicates that different
ethnic groups choose not only different parts of the county to live in, but
also different parts of the metropolitan areas
o The separation between ethnic groups involves the distribution of jobs as
well. For instance, in California, Mexicans work as gardeners,
domestics, cooks and food preparers. Koreans open small business.
Filipinos become nurses and medical technicians. African Americans
work in government jobs.

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o Have equal rights with other American citizens the prejudices against
them are still strong
o All scholars point out that there is a line between blacks and others and
doubt that African Americans will ever be included in the “melting pot”.
o Blacks are resistant to exogamy too. Such marriages are regarded as the
betrayal of one’s own race.
Conclusion

In conclusion it would be appropriate to state that the American society now is

in the transition from a “mosaic” to a “melting pot”, creating a new culture,
which will absorb and mix races and cultural peculiarities of different ethnic
groups.

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Thomas Jefferson described his election to the American

Presidency in 1800 as “the Second American Revolution”. Was
the claim justified? Support your answer with evidence.
1. Introduction
"My Presidency is the 2nd American Revolution"

The answer to the 1st question will discuss the difference between federalist
and anti federalist to prove that Jefferson Victory as the president was 2nd
American Revolution.

2. The Second American Revolution

1st common man to become US President

Rejected Washington's Idea of no need of political parties in USA.

3. Justifying the Claim of 2nd American Revolutions

We simply have to write the achievement of Thomas Jefferson and the services
he rendered to the conman man of USA.

1. Rise of common man

2. Laissez Fair Economy

3. Understandable budget for common man

4. Immigration Policy

5. Religious Tolerance

6. Belief and importance to common man

7. Autonomy to States (As of popular demand by US citizens)

4. Critical Analysis

5. Conclusion

"Thomas Jefferson was the best man ever to occupy American Presidency"

John F. Kennedy

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President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 said, “This great nation

will endure as it has endured, will revive and prosper”.
Explain in light of the FDR presidency and the New Deal?
1. Introduction

2. Background (Great Depression & FDR life)

3. Purposes of the New Deal

1. Relief
2. Recovery
3. Reform
4. First New Deal (1933-1934)

5. Second New Deal (1934-1941)

6. Reforms by FDR

o Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

o Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
o Emergency Banking Act/Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
(FDIC)
o Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)
o Civil Works Administration (CWA)
o National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June 1933
o Public Works Association (PWA)
o Federal Securities Act of May 1933/ Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC)
o Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)
o Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA)
o Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (May 1993)
7. Impacts of New Deal

8. Critical Analysis

9. Conclusion

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Discuss in Details the impacts of Obama's 2nd terms as the

President and policy toward Pakistan?

1. Introduction

2. Background of Obama First terms as president

o Raymond Davis case

o Bin Ladin Episode
o Salala Post Attack
o Drone Policy
o Pak withdrawal from Bonn conference
o Karry Lugar Bill

3. Obama Second Term and Policy toward Pakistan

o Aggressive Policy
o Continuation of Do More from US point of view
o Aid Embargos
o Afghan Exit Plan and Role of Pakistan
o Bilateral relations likely to remain Low

4. Critical Analysis

5. Conclusion

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In what respect did the philosophy and rationale of Jackosnian

democracy differ from those of Jeffersonian?
Comparison of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy
1. Political
To what extent was universal white manhood suffrage achieved?
Jefferson - Believed property requirement was a test of character that man of
initiative should be able to meet
Jackson - Property requirements for voting had been eliminated
Which citizens were considered eligible for office holding?
Jefferson - Believed the educated elite should rule, although he proposed
education for all to prepare poorer individuals for public office
Jackson - Believed all men were qualified to hold office and that political
positions should be rotated
How were candidates for president chosen?
Jefferson - Candidates were chosen by caucuses of political leaders
Jackson - Nominating conventions were introduced during Jackson’s time

2. Economic
Concepts of the “Chosen Class”?
Jefferson - Yeoman farmer as the “chosen class”
Jackson - included planters, farmers, laborers, and mechanics in “chosen class”
Industrialization?
Jefferson - Originally feared the consequences of industrialization
Jackson - Accepted industry as essential to American economy

How did the Charles River Bridge vs Warren Bridge decision affect the
access to corporate charters prevalent in Jefferson’s time?
Jefferson - In J’s time corporate charters were granted to favorites of state
legislators & often implied monopoly rights to a business
Jackson - Roger Taney, Jackson’s appointee as Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, ruled in Charles River Bridge decision that corporate charters should be
available to all who chose to risk starting a business

Attitude toward the Banks?

Jefferson - Both disapproved, originally at least, disagreed with a loose
interpretation of the elastic clause
Jackson - saw Bank as a monopoly of the rich
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3. Social
Attitude toward slavery?
Jefferson - Owned slaves, saw slavery as an evil that time would eradicate
Jackson - Owned slaves, but seemed little interested in abolition

Attitude toward equality for women & American Indians

Jefferson - Neither man saw women or American Indians as equals
Jackson - Had a particularly negative attitude toward Native Americans

Education?
Jefferson - An educated man himself, believed education was necessary for
office-holding and for preparing citizens for participation in a democracy
Jackson - Had little education & believed education was relatively unimportant

Obstacles to upward social mobility?

Jefferson - Education & ambition were keys to success; however, he was never
able to build support for his proposed system of public education
Jackson - Ended the Bank & with it, control over credit, CRB decision opened
opportunities for individuals to get corporate charters & thus rise on both
economic and social ladders. Jackson, a self-made man, believed his economic
progress had accounted for his own upward social mobility & others could
follow his example

4. Religion
Separation of church in each period?
Jefferson - Most state constitutions had eliminated established churches after
the Revolution;
Jackson - Massachusetts, the last state to maintain an established church,
ended the practice in 1834

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History of USA (Summary)

1. European Exploration and Settlement
2. Colonial America
3. The States in Union
4. Washington, Adams, and Jefferson
5. Madison, Monroe, and Adams
6. Jackson to the Mexican War
7. Slavery, Civil War, and Reconstruction
8. The Late Nineteenth Century
9. Expansionists and Progressives
10. World War I
11. From Prosperity to Depression
12. World War II
13. The United States in a Divided World
14. The Great Society and the Vietnam War
15. The Nixon Years
16. Ford and Carter
17. The Reagan Years
18. Bush, Clinton, and Bush
19. America's Purpose and Role In A Changed World
20. Economy
21. Government
22. America's addiction to War
23. American Interests in Pakistan
24. World Order by Henry Kissinger
25. Global War and Peace
26. US at A Crossroads

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European Exploration and Settlement

Exploration of the area now included in the United States was spurred after
Christopher Columbus, sailing for the Spanish monarchy, made his voyage in
1492. John Cabot explored the North American coast for England in 1498.
Men who were important explorers for Spain in what now constitutes the
United States include Ponce de León, Cabeza de Vaca, Hernando De Soto,
and Coronado; important explorers for France were Giovanni da Verrazano,
Samuel de Champlain, Louis Jolliet, Jacques Marquette, and La Salle. These
three nations—England, Spain, and France—were the chief nations to
establish colonies in the present United States, although others also took part,
especially the Netherlands in the establishment of New Netherland (explored
by Henry Hudson), which became New York, and Sweden in a colony on the
Delaware River

The first permanent settlement in the present United States was Saint
Augustine (Florida), founded in 1565 by the Spaniard Pedro Menéndez de
Avilés. Spanish control came to be exercised over Florida, West Florida,
Texas, and a large part of the Southwest, including California. For the
purposes of finding precious metals and of converting heathens to Catholicism,
the Spanish colonies in the present United States were relatively unfruitful and
thus were never fully developed. The French established strongholds on the St.
Lawrence River (Quebec and Montreal) and spread their influence over the
Great Lakes country and along the Mississippi; the colony of Louisiana was a
flourishing French settlement. The French government, like the Spanish,
tolerated only the Catholic faith, and it implanted the rigid and feudalistic
seignorial system of France in its North American possessions. Partly for these
reasons, the French settlements attracted few colonists.

The English settlements, which were on the Atlantic seaboard, developed in

patterns more suitable to the New World, with greater religious freedom and
economic opportunity. The first permanent English settlement was made at
Jamestown (Virginia) in 1607. The first English settlements in Virginia were
managed by a chartered commercial company, the Virginia Company;
economic motives were paramount to the company in founding the

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settlements. The Virginia colony early passed to control by the crown and
became a characteristic type of English colony—the royal colony. Another
type—the corporate colony—was initiated by the settlement of the Pilgrims at
Plymouth Colony in 1620 and by the establishment of the more important
Massachusetts Bay colony by the Puritans in 1630.

Religious motives were important in the founding of these colonies. The

colonists of Massachusetts Bay brought with them from England the charter
and the governing corporation of the colony, which thus became a corporate
one, i.e., one controlled by its own resident corporation. The corporate status
of the Plymouth Colony, evinced in the Mayflower Compact, was established
by the purchase (1626) of company and charter from the holders in England.
Connecticut and Rhode Island, which were offshoots of Massachusetts, owed
allegiance to no English company; their corporate character was confirmed by
royal charters, granted to Connecticut in 1662 and to Rhode Island in 1663. A
third type of colony was the proprietary, founded by lords’ proprietors under
quasi-feudal grants from the king; prime examples are Maryland (under the
Calvert family) and Pennsylvania (under William Penn).

The religious and political turmoil of the Puritan Revolution in England, as

well as the repression of the Huguenots in France, helped to stimulate
emigration to the English colonies. Hopes of economic betterment brought
thousands from England as well as a number from Germany and other
continental countries. To obtain passage across the Atlantic, the poor often
indentured themselves to masters in the colonies for a specified number of
years. The colonial population was also swelled by criminals transported from
England as a means of punishment. Once established as freedmen, former
bondsmen and transportees were frequently allotted land with which to make
their way in the New World.

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Colonial America
The colonies were subject to English mercantilism in the form of Navigation
Acts, begun under Cromwell and developed more fully after the Stuart
Restoration. As shown by C. M. Andrews, G. L. Beer, and later historians, the
colonies at first benefited by these acts, which established a monopoly of the
English market for certain colonial products. Distinct colonial economies
emerged, reflecting the regional differences of climate and topography.
Agriculture was of primary importance in all the regions.

In New England many crops were grown, corn being the closest to a staple,
and agricultural holdings were usually of moderate size. Fur trade was at first
important, but it died out when the New England Confederation defeated
Philip in King Philip's War and the Native Americans were dispersed. Fishing
and commerce gained in importance, and the economic expansion of
Massachusetts encouraged the founding of other New England colonies.

In the middle colonies small farms abounded, interspersed with occasional

great states, and diverse crops were grown, wheat being most important. Land
there was almost universally held through some form of feudal grant, as it was
also in the South. Commerce grew quickly in the middle colonies, and large
towns flourished, notably Philadelphia and New York.

By the late 17th century, small farms in the coastal areas of the South were
beginning to give way to large plantations; these were developed with the slave
labor of Africans, who were imported in ever-increasing numbers. Plantations
were almost exclusively devoted to cultivation of the great Southern staples—
tobacco, rice, and, later, indigo. Fur trade and lumbering were long important.
Although some towns developed, the Southern economy remained the least
diversified and the most rural in colonial America.

In religion, too, the colonies developed in varied patterns. In Massachusetts

the religious theocracy of the Puritan oligarchy flourished. By contrast, Rhode
Island allowed full religious freedom; there Baptists were in the majority, but
other sects were soon in evidence. New Jersey and South Carolina also
allowed complete religious liberty, and such colonies as Maryland and

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Pennsylvania established large measures of toleration. Maryland was at first a

haven for Catholics, and Pennsylvania similarly a haven for Quakers, but
within a few decades numerous Anglicans had settled in those colonies.
Anglicans were also much in evidence further south, as were Presbyterians,
most of them Scotch-Irish.

Politically, the colonies developed representative institutions, the most

important being the vigorous colonial assemblies. Popular participation was
somewhat limited by property qualifications. In the proprietary colonies,
particularly, the settlers came into conflict with the executive authority.
Important points of difference arose over the granting of large estates to a few,
over the great power of the proprietors, over the failure of the proprietors (who
generally lived in England) to cope with problems of defense, and over
religious grievances, frequently stemming from a struggle for dominance
between Anglicans and other groups. In corporate Massachusetts religious
grievances were created by the zealous Puritan demand for conformity.

These conflicts, together with England's desire to coordinate empire defenses

against France and to gain closer control of the colonies' thriving economic
life, stimulated England to convert corporate and proprietary colonies into
royal ones. In general, royal control brought more orderly government and
greater religious toleration, but it also focused the colonists' grievances on the
mother country. The policies of the governors, who were the chief instruments
of English will in the colonies, frequently met serious opposition. The colonial
assemblies clashed with the governors notably with Edmund Andros and
Francis Nicholson—especially over matters of taxation. The assemblies
successfully resisted royal demands for permanent income to support royal
policies and used their powers over finance to expand their own jurisdiction.

As the 18th century, progressed, colonial grievances were exacerbated. The

British mercantile regulations, beneficial to agriculture, impeded the colonies'
commercial and industrial development. However, economic and social
growth continued, and by the mid-18th cent. There had been created a greater
sense of a separate, thriving, and distinctly American, albeit varied,
civilization. In New England, Puritan values were modified by the impact of
commerce and by the influence of the Enlightenment, while in the South the

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planter aristocracy developed a lavish mode of life. Enlightenment ideals also

gained influential adherents in the South. Higher education flourished in such
institutions as Harvard, William and Mary, and King's College (now
Columbia Univ.). The varied accomplishments of Benjamin Franklin
epitomized colonial common sense at its most enlightened and productive
level.

A religious movement of importance emerged in the revivals of the Great

Awakening, stimulated by Jonathan Edwards; the movement ultimately led to
a strengthening of Methodism. Also inherent in this movement was egalitarian
sentiment, which progressed but was not to triumph in the colonial era. One
manifestation of egalitarianism was the long-continued conflict between the
men of the frontiers and the wealthy Eastern oligarchs who dominated the
assemblies, a conflict exemplified in the Regulator movement. Colonial
particularizim, still stronger than national feeling, caused the failure of the
Albany Congress to achieve permanent union. However, internal strife and
disunity remained a less urgent issue than the controversy with Great Britain.

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The States in Union

After the British and colonial forces had combined to drive the French from
Canada and the Great Lakes region in the French and Indian War (1754–60;
see under French and Indian Wars), the colonists felt less need of British
protection; but at this very time the British began colonial reorganization in an
effort to impose on the colonists the costs of their own defense. Thus was set
off the complex chain of events that united colonial sentiment against Great
Britain and culminated in the American Revolution (1775–83; the events are
described under that heading).

The Revolution resulted in the independence of the Thirteen Colonies:

Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, and Georgia; their territories were recognized as extending north to
Canada and west to the Mississippi River. The Revolution also broadened
representation in government, advanced the movement for separation of
church and state in America, increased opportunities for westward expansion,
and brought the abolition of the remnants of feudal land tenure. The view that
the Revolution had been fought for local liberty against strong central control
reinforced the particularism of the states and was reflected in the weak union
established under the Articles of Confederation (see Confederation, Articles
of).

Before ratification of the Articles (1781), conflicting claims of states to Western

territories had been settled by the cession of Western land rights to the federal
government; the Ordinance of 1787 established a form of government for
territories and a method of admitting them as states to the Union. But the
national government floundered. It could not obtain commercial treaties or
enforce its will in international relations, and, largely because it could not raise
adequate revenue and had no executive authority, it was weak domestically.
Local economic depressions bred discontent that erupted in Shays's Rebellion,
further revealing the weakness of the federal government.

Advocates of strong central government bitterly attacked the Articles of

Confederation; supported particularly by professional and propertied groups,
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they had a profound influence on the Constitution drawn up by the

Constitutional Convention of 1787. The Constitution created a national
government with ample powers for effective rule, which were limited by
“checks and balances” to forestall tyranny or radicalism. Its concept of a
strong, orderly Union was popularized by the Federalist papers of Alexander
Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, which played an important part in
winning ratification of the Constitution by the separate states.

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Washington, Adams, and Jefferson

The first person to be elected President under the Constitution was the hero of
the Revolution, George Washington. Washington introduced many
government practices and institutions, including the cabinet. Jay's Treaty
(1794) allayed friction with Great Britain. Hamilton, as Washington's
Secretary of the Treasury, promulgated a strong state and attempted to
advance the economic development of the young country by a neomercantilist
program; this included the establishment of a protective tariff, a mint, and the
first Bank of the United States as well as assumption of state and private
Revolutionary debts. The controversy raised by these policies bred divisions
along factional and, ultimately, party lines.

Hamilton and his followers, who eventually formed the Federalist party,
favored wide activity by the federal government under a broad interpretation of
the Constitution. Their opponents, who adhered to principles laid down by
Thomas Jefferson and who became the Democratic Republican or Democratic
party, favored narrow construction—limited federal jurisdiction and activities.
To an extent these divisions were supported by economic differences, as the
Democrats largely spoke for the agrarian point of view and the Federalists
represented propertied and mercantile interests.

Extreme democrats like Thomas Paine had ebullient faith in popular

government and popular mores; Joel Barlow, too, envisioned a great popular
culture evolving in America. From such optimists came schemes for broad
popular education and participation in government. Men like John Adams had
mixed views on the good sense of the masses, and many more conservative
thinkers associated the “people” with vulgarity and ineptitude. The Federalists
generally represented a pessimistic and the Democrats an optimistic view of
man's inherent capacity to govern and develop himself; in practice, however,
the values held by these two groups were often mixed. That a long road to
democracy was still to be traveled is seen in the fact that in the late 18th cent.
few but the economically privileged took part in political affairs.

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The Federalists were victorious in electing John Adams to the presidency in

1796. Federalist conservatism and anti-French sentiment were given vent in
the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 and in other acts. Deteriorating relations
with France were seen in the XYZ Affair and the “half war” (1798–1800), in
which U.S. warships engaged French vessels in the Caribbean. The so-called
Revolution of 1800 swept the Federalists from power and brought Jefferson to
the presidency. Jefferson did bring a plainer and more republican style to
government, and under him the Alien and Sedition Acts and other Federalist
laws were allowed to lapse or were repealed.

Jefferson moved toward stronger use of federal powers, however, in

negotiating the Louisiana Purchase (1803). In foreign policy he steered an
officially neutral course between Great Britain and France, resisting the war
sentiment roused by British impressment of American seamen and by both
British and French violations of American shipping. He fostered the drastic
Embargo Act of 1807 in an attempt to gain recognition of American rights
through economic pressure, but the embargo struck hardest against the
American economy, especially in New England.

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Madison, Monroe, and Adams

Under Jefferson's successor, James Madison, the continued depredations of
American shipping, combined with the clamor of American “war hawks” who
coveted Canada and Florida, led to the War of 1812, which was, however,
opposed in New England. The Treaty of Ghent settled no specific issues of the
war, but did confirm the independent standing of the young republic.
Politically, the period that followed was the so-called era of good feeling. The
Federalists had disintegrated under the impact of the country's westward
expansion and its new interests and ideals. Democrats of all sections had by
now adopted a Federalist approach to national development and were
temporarily in agreement on a nationalist, expansionist economic policy. This
policy was implemented in 1816 by the introduction of internal improvements,
a protective tariff, and the second Bank of the United States.

The same policies were continued under James Monroe. The Monroe
Doctrine (1823), which proclaimed U.S. opposition to European intervention
or colonization in the American hemisphere, introduced the long-continuing
U.S. concern for the integrity of the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, the
strength of the federal government was increased by the judicial decisions of
John Marshall, who had already helped establish the power of the U.S.
Supreme Court. By 1820, however, sectional differences were arousing
political discord. The sections of the country had long been developing along
independent lines.

In the North, merchants, manufacturers, inventors, farmers, and factory hands

were busy with commerce, agricultural improvements, and the beginnings of
the Industrial Revolution. In the South, Eli Whitney's cotton gin had brought
in its wake a new staple; cotton was king, and the new states of Alabama,
Louisiana, and Mississippi were the pride of the cotton kingdom. The
accession of Florida (1819) further swelled the domain of the South. The
American West was expanding as the frontier rapidly advanced. Around the
turn of the century settlement of territory W of the Appalachians had given rise
to the new states of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Settlers continued to
move farther west, and the frontier remained a molding force in American life.

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The Missouri Compromise (1820) temporarily resolved the issue of slavery in

new states, but under the presidency of John Quincy Adams sectional
differences were aggravated. Particular friction, leading to the nullification
movement, was created by the tariff of 1828, which was highly favorable to
Northern manufacturing but a “Tariff of Abominations” to the agrarian South.

In the 1820s and 30s the advance of democracy brought manhood suffrage to
many states and virtual direct election of the President, and party nominating
conventions replaced the caucus. Separation of church and state became
virtually complete.

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Jackson to the Mexican War

An era of political vigor was begun with the election (1828) of Andrew Jackson
to the presidency. If Jackson was not, as sometimes represented, the
incarnation of frontier democracy, he nonetheless symbolized the advent of the
common man to political power. He provided powerful executive leadership,
attuned to popular support, committing himself to a strong foreign policy and
to internal improvements for the West. His stand for economic individualism
and his attacks on such bastions of the moneyed interests as the Bank of the
United States won the approval of the growing middle class. Jackson acted
firmly for the Union in the nullification controversy. But the South became
increasingly dissident, and John C. Calhoun emerged as its chief spokesman
with his states' rights doctrine.

Opponents of Jackson's policies, including both Northern and Southern

conservative propertied interests, amalgamated to form the Whig party, in
which Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were long the dominant figures.
Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren, attempted to perpetuate Jacksonian
policies, but his popularity was undermined by the panic of 1837. In 1840, in
their “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” campaign, the conservative Whigs adopted
and perfected the

Democratic party's techniques of mass appeal and succeeded in electing

William Henry Harrison as President. The West was winning greater attention
in American life, and in the 1840s expansion to the Pacific was fervently
proclaimed as the “manifest destiny” of the United States.

Annexation of the Republic of Texas (which had won its own independence
from Mexico), long delayed primarily by controversy over its slave-holding
status, was accomplished by Harrison's successor, John Tyler, three days
before the expiration of his term. Tyler's action was prompted by the surprising
victory of his Democratic successor, James K. Polk, who had campaigned on
the planks of “reoccupation of Oregon” and “reannexation of Texas.” The
annexation of Texas precipitated the Mexican War; by the Treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo the United States acquired two fifths of the territory then
belonging to Mexico, including California and the present American
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Southwest. In 1853 these territories were rounded out by the Gadsden

Purchase.

Although in the dispute with Great Britain over the Columbia River country,
Americans demanded “Fifty-four forty or fight,” under President Polk a
peaceful if more modest settlement was reached. Thus the United States gained
its Pacific Northwest, and “manifest destiny” was virtually fulfilled.

In California the discovery of gold in 1848 brought the rush of forty-niners,

swelling population and making statehood for California a pressing question.
The westward movement was also stimulated by many other factors. The great
profits from open-range cattle ranching brought a stream of ranchers to the
area (this influx was to reach fever pitch after the Civil War). The American
farmer, with his abundant land, was often profligate in its cultivation, and as
the soil depleted he continued to move farther west, settling the virgin territory.
Soil exhaustion was particularly rapid in the South, where a one-crop economy
prevailed, but because cotton profits were frequently high the plantation
system quickly spread as far west as Texas. Occupation of the West was also
sped by European immigrants hungry for land.

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Slavery, Civil War, and Reconstruction

By the mid-19th century, the territorial gains and westward movement of the
United States were focusing legislative argument on the extension of slavery to
the new territories and breaking down the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The
Wilmot Proviso illustrated Northern antislavery demands, while Southerners,
too, became increasingly intransigent. Only with great effort was the
Compromise of 1850 achieved, and it was to be the last great compromise
between the sections. The new Western states, linked in outlook to the North,
had long since caused the South to lose hold of the House of Representatives,
and Southern parity in the Senate was threatened by the prospective addition
of more free states than slaveholding ones. The South demanded stronger
enforcement of fugitive slave laws and, dependent on sympathetic Presidents,
obtained it from Millard Fillmore and especially from Franklin Pierce and
James Buchanan.

The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which repealed the Missouri
Compromise, led to violence between factions in “bleeding Kansas” and
spurred the founding of the new Republican party. Although there was
sentiment for moderation and compromise in both North and South, it became
increasingly difficult to take a middle stand on the slavery issue, and extremists
came to the fore on both sides. Southerners, unable to accept the end of
slavery, upon which their entire system of life was based, and fearful of slave
insurrection (especially after the revolt led by Nat Turner in 1831), felt
threatened by the abolitionists, who regarded themselves as leaders in a moral
crusade. Southerners attempted to uphold slavery as universally beneficial and
biblically sanctioned, while Northerners were increasingly unable to
countenance the institution.

Vigorous antislavery groups like the Free-Soil party had already arisen, and as
the conflict became more embittered it rent the older parties. The Whig party
was shattered, and its Northern wing was largely absorbed in the new
antislavery Republican party. The Democrats were also torn, and the
compromise policies of Stephen A. Douglas were of dwindling satisfaction to a
divided nation. Moderation could not withstand the impact of the decision in

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the Dred Scott Case, which denied the right of Congress to prohibit slavery in
the territories, or the provocation of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
(1859). The climax came in 1860 when the Republican Abraham Lincoln
defeated three opponents to win the presidency.

Southern leaders, feeling there was no possibility of fair treatment under a

Republican administration, resorted to secession from the Union and formed
the Confederacy. The attempts of the seceding states to take over federal
property within their borders (notably Fort Sumter in Charleston, S.C.)
precipitated the Civil War (1861–65), which resulted in a complete victory for
the North and the end of all slavery.

The ensuing problems of Reconstruction in the South were complicated by

bitter struggles, including the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson in
1868. Military rule in parts of the South continued through the administrations
of Ulysses S. Grant, which were also notable for their outrageous corruption.
A result of the disputed election of 1876, in which the decision was given to
Rutherford B. Hayes over Samuel J. Tilden, was the end of Reconstruction
and the reentry of the South into national politics.

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The Late Nineteenth Century

The remainder of the 19th century, was marked by railroad building (assisted
by generous federal land grants) and the disappearance of the American
frontier. Great mineral wealth was discovered and exploited, and important
technological innovations sped industrialization, which had already gained
great impetus during the Civil War. Thus developed an economy based on
steel, oil, railroads, and machines, an economy that a few decades after the
Civil War ranked first in the world. Mammoth corporations such as the
Standard Oil trust were formed, and “captains of industry” like John D.
Rockefeller and financiers like J. P. Morgan controlled huge resources.

The latter part of the 19th century, also saw the rise of the modern American
city. Rapid industrialization attracted huge numbers of people to cities from
foreign countries as well as rural America. The widespread use of steel and
electricity allowed innovations that transformed the urban landscape. Electric
lighting made cities viable at night as well as during the day. Electricity was
also used to power streetcars, elevated railways, and subways. The growth of
mass transit allowed people to live further away from work, and was therefore
largely responsible for the demise of the “walking city.” With the advent of
skyscrapers, which utilized steel construction technology, cities were able to
grow vertically as well as horizontally.

Into the “land of promise” poured new waves of immigrants; some acquired
dazzling riches, but many others suffered in a competitive and unregulated
economic age. Behind the facade of the “Gilded Age,” with its aura of peace
and general prosperity, a whole range of new problems was created, forcing
varied groups to promulgate new solutions. In the 1870s the expanding
Granger movement attempted to combat railroad and marketing abuses and to
achieve an element of agrarian cooperation; this movement stimulated some
regulation of utilities on the state level. Labor, too, began to combine against
grueling factory conditions, but the opposition of business to unions was
frequently overpowering, and the bulk of labor remained unorganized.

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Some strike successes were won by the Knights of Labor, but this union,
discredited by the Haymarket Square riot, was succeeded in prominence by the
less divisive American Federation of Labor. Massachusetts led the way (1874)
with the first effective state legislation for an eight-hour day, but similar state
and national legislation was sparse, and the federal government descended
harshly on labor in the bloody strike at Pullman, Ill., and in other disputes.
Belief in laissez faire and the influence of big business in both national parties,
especially in the Republican party, delayed any widespread reform.

The Presidents of the late 19th century, were generally titular leaders of modest
political distinction; however, they did institute a few reforms. Both Hayes and
his successor, James A. Garfield, favored civil service reforms, and after
Garfield's death Chester A. Arthur approved passage of a civil service act; thus
the vast, troublesome presidential patronage system gave way to more regular,
efficient administration. In 1884 a reform group, led by Carl Schurz, bolted
from the Republicans and helped elect Grover Cleveland, the first Democratic
President since before the Civil War. Under President Benjamin Harrison the
Sherman Antitrust Act was passed (1890).

The attempt of the Greenback party to combine sponsorship of free coinage of

silver and other aids to the debtor class with planks favorable to labor failed,
but reform forces gathered strength, as witnessed by the rise of the Populist
party. The reform movement was spurred by the economic panic of 1893, and
in 1896 the Democrats nominated for President William Jennings Bryan, who
had adopted the Populist platform. He orated eloquently for free silver, but
was defeated by William McKinley, who gained ardent support from big
business.

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Expansionists and Progressives

By the 1890s a new wave of expansionist sentiment was affecting U.S. foreign
policy. With the purchase of Alaska (1867) and the rapid settlement of the last
Western territory, Oklahoma, American capital and attention were directed
toward the Pacific and the Caribbean. The United States established
commercial and then political hegemony in the Hawaiian Islands and annexed
them in 1898. In that year expansionist energy found release in the Spanish-
American War, which resulted in U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico, the
Philippine Islands, and Guam, and in a U.S. quasi-protectorate over Cuba.

American ownership of the Philippines involved military subjugation of the

people, who rose in revolt when they realized that they would not be granted
their independence; the Philippine Insurrection (1899–1901) cost more
American lives and dollars than the Spanish-American War. Widening its
horizons, the United States formulated the Open Door policy (1900), which
expressed its interest in China. Established as a world power with interests in
two oceans, the United States intervened in the Panama revolution to facilitate
construction of the Panama Canal; this was but one of its many involvements
in Latin American affairs under Theodore Roosevelt and later Presidents.

By the time of Roosevelt's administration (1901–9), the progressive reform

movement had taken definite shape in the country. Progressivism was partly a
mode of thought, as witnessed by the progressive education program of John
Dewey; as such it was a pragmatic attempt to mold modern institutions for the
benefit of all. Progressives, too, were the muckrakers, who attacked abuse and
waste in industry and in society. In its politics as shaped by R. M. La Follette
and others, progressivism adopted many Populist planks but promoted them
from a more urban and forward-looking viewpoint. Progressivism was
dramatized by the magnetic Roosevelt, who denounced “malefactors of great
wealth” and demanded a “square deal” for labor; however, in practice he was
a rather cautious reformer. He did make some attacks on trusts, and he
promoted regulation of interstate commerce as well as passage of the Pure
Food and Drug Act (1906) and legislation for the conservation of natural
resources.

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Roosevelt's hand-picked successor, William H. Taft, continued some reforms

but in his foreign policy and in the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, passed in his
administration, favored big business. Taft's conservatism antagonized
Roosevelt, who split with the Republican party in 1912 and ran for the
presidency on the ticket of the Progressive party. But the presidency was won
by the Democratic reform candidate, Woodrow Wilson. Wilson's “New
Freedom” brought many progressive ideas to legislative fruition.

The Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission were
established, and the Adamson Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act were passed.
Perhaps more than on the national level, progressivism triumphed in the states
in legislation beneficial to labor, in the furthering of education, and in the
democratization of electoral procedures. Wilson did not radically alter the
aggressive Caribbean policy of his predecessors; U.S. marines were sent to
Nicaragua, and difficulties with Mexico were capped by the landing of U.S.
forces in the city of Veracruz and by the campaign against Francisco (Pancho)
Villa.

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World War I
The nation's interest in world peace had already been expressed through
participation in the Hague Conferences, and when World War I burst upon
Europe, Wilson made efforts to keep the United States neutral; in 1916 he was
reelected on a peace platform. However, American sympathies and interests
were actively with the Allies (especially with Great Britain and France), and
although Britain and Germany both violated American neutral rights on the
seas, German submarine attacks constituted the more dramatic provocation.
On Apr. 6, 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies
and provided crucial manpower and supplies for the Allied victory.

Wilson's Fourteen Points to insure peace and democracy captured the popular
imagination of Europe and were a factor in Germany's decision to seek an
armistice; however, at the Paris Peace Conference after the war, Wilson was
thwarted from fully implementing his program.

In the United States, isolationist sentiment against participation in the League

of Nations, an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles, was led by Senator
William E. Borah and other “irreconcilables.”

The majority of Republican Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, insisted

upon amendments that would preserve U.S. sovereignty, and although Wilson
fought for his original proposals, they were rejected. Isolationist sentiment
prevailed during the 1920s, and while the United States played a major role in
the naval conferences for disarmament and in the engineering of the Kellogg-
Briand Pact, which outlawed war, its general lack of interest in international
concerns was seen in its highly nationalistic economic policies, notably its
insistence (later modified) on collecting the war debts of foreign countries and
the passage of the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act.

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From Prosperity to Depression

The country voted for a return to “normalcy” when it elected Warren G.
Harding President in 1920, but the ensuing period was a time of rapid change,
and the old normalcy was not to be regained. The Republican governments of
the decade, although basically committed to laissez faire, actively encouraged
corporate mergers and subsidized aviation and the merchant marine.

Harding's administration, marred by the Teapot Dome scandal, gave way on

his death to the presidency of Calvin Coolidge, and the nation embarked on a
spectacular industrial and financial boom. In the 1920s the nation became
increasingly urban, and everyday life was transformed as the “consumer
revolution” brought the spreading use of automobiles, telephones, radios, and
other appliances. The pace of living quickened, and mores became less
restrained, while fortunes were rapidly accumulated on the skyrocketing stock
market, in real estate speculation, and elsewhere. To some it seemed a golden
age. But agriculture was not prosperous, and industry and finance became
dangerously overextended.

In 1929 there began the Great Depression, which reached worldwide

proportions. In 1931, President Herbert Hoover proposed a moratorium on
foreign debts, but this and other measures failed to prevent economic collapse.
In the 1932 election Hoover was overwhelmingly defeated by the Democrat
Franklin D. Roosevelt. The new President immediately instituted his New
Deal with vigorous measures. To meet the critical financial emergency he
instituted a “bank holiday.” Congress, called into special session, enacted a
succession of laws, some of them to meet the economic crisis with relief
measures, others to put into operation long-range social and economic
reforms. Some of the most important agencies created were the National
Recovery Administration, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the
Public Works Administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and the
Tennessee Valley Authority. This program was further broadened in later
sessions with other agencies, notably the Securities and Exchange Commission
and the Works Progress Administration (later the Work Projects
Administration).

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Laws also created a social security program. The program was dynamic and,
in many areas, unprecedented.

It created a vast machinery by which the state could promote economic

recovery and social welfare. Opponents of these measures argued that they
violated individual rights, besides being extravagant and wasteful. Adverse
decisions on several of the measures by the U.S. Supreme Court tended to slow
the pace of reform and caused Roosevelt to attempt unsuccessfully to revise the
court. Although interest centered chiefly on domestic affairs during the 1930s,
Roosevelt continued and expanded the policy of friendship toward the Latin
American nations which Herbert Hoover had initiated; this full-blown “good-
neighbor” policy proved generally fruitful for the United States.

Roosevelt was reelected by an overwhelming majority in 1936 and won easily

in 1940 even though he was breaking the no-third-term tradition.

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World War II
The ominous situation abroad was chiefly responsible for Roosevelt's
continuance at the national helm. By the late 1930s the Axis nations (Germany
and Italy) in Europe as well as Japan in East Asia had already disrupted world
peace. As wars began in China, Ethiopia, and Spain, the United States sought
at first to bulwark its insular security by the Neutrality Act. As Axis aggression
led to the outbreak of the European war in Sept., 1939, the United States still
strove to stay out of it, despite increasing sympathy for the Allies. But after the
fall of France in June, 1940, the support of the United States for beleaguered
Britain became more overt. In Mar., 1941, lend-lease aid was extended to the
British and, in November, to the Russians. The threat of war had already
caused the adoption of selective service to build the armed strength of the
nation. Hemisphere defense was enlarged, and the United States drew closer to
Great Britain with the issuance of the Atlantic Charter.

In Asian affairs the Roosevelt government had vigorously protested Japan's

career of conquest and its establishment of the “Greater East Asia Co-
Prosperity Sphere.” After the Japanese takeover of French Indochina (July,
1941), with its inherent threat to the Philippines, the U.S. government froze all
Japanese assets in the United States. Diplomatic relations grew taut, but U.S.-
Japanese discussions were still being carried on when, on Dec. 7, 1941,
Japanese bombs fell on Pearl Harbor.

The United States promptly declared war, and four days later Germany and
Italy declared war on the United States. (For an account of military and naval
events).

The country efficiently mobilized its vast resources, transforming factories to

war plants and building a mighty military force which included most able-
bodied young men and many young women. The creation of a great number of
government war agencies to control and coordinate materials, transportation,
and manpower brought unprecedented government intervention into national
life. Rationing, price controls, and other devices were instituted in an attempt
to prevent serious inflation or dislocation in the civilian economy.

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The war underscored the importance of U.S. resources and the prestige and
power of the United States in world affairs. A series of important conferences
outlined the policies for the war and the programs for the peace after victory;
among these were the Moscow Conferences, the Casablanca Conference, the
Cairo Conference, the Tehran Conference, and the Yalta Conference, at which
Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin planned for postwar
settlement. Roosevelt was also a key figure in the plans for the United Nations.

After Roosevelt's sudden death in April, 1945, Harry S. Truman became

President. A month later the European war ended when Germany surrendered
on May 7, 1945. Truman went to the Potsdam Conference (July–August),
where various questions of the peacetime administration of Europe were
settled, many on an ad interim basis, pending the conclusion of peace treaties.
Before the war ended with the defeat of Japan, the United States developed
and used a fateful and revolutionary weapon of war, the atomic bomb. The
Japanese surrender, announced Aug. 14, 1945, and signed Sept. 2, brought the
war to a close.

Peacetime readjustment was successfully effected. The government's “G.I.

Bill” enabled many former servicemen to obtain free schooling, and millions of
other veterans were absorbed by the economy, which boomed in fulfilling the
demands for long-unobtainable consumer goods. The shortening of the
postwar factory work week and the proportionate reduction of wages
precipitated a rash of strikes, causing the government to pass the Taft-Hartley
Labor Act (1947).

Some inflation occurred by 1947 as wartime economic controls were

abandoned. Congress passed a host of Truman's measures relating to
minimum wages, public housing, farm surpluses, and credit regulation; thus
was instituted acceptance of comprehensive government intervention in times
of prosperity. The nation's support of Truman's policies was signified when it
returned him to the presidency in 1948 in an upset victory over Thomas E.
Dewey.

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The United States in a Divided World

The most striking postwar development was America's new peacetime
involvement in international affairs. U.S. support for the United Nations
symbolized its desire for peace and order in international relations. However,
relations between the United States and the Soviet Union worsened during the
late 1940s. In addition, a serious human problem was presented by Europe,
prostrated and near starvation after years of war. The Truman Doctrine
attempted to thwart Soviet expansion in Europe; massive loans, culminating in
the Marshall Plan, were vital in reviving European economies and thus in
diminishing the appeal of Communism.

As the cold war intensified, the United States took steps (1948) to nullify the
Soviet blockade of Berlin and played the leading role in forming a new alliance
of Western nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

In the Korean War, U.S. forces played the chief part in combating the North
Korean and Chinese attack on South Korea. Thus the United States cast off its
traditional peacetime isolationism and accepted its position as a prime mover
in world affairs.

International policy had significant repercussions at home. The fear of

domestic Communism and subversion almost became a national obsession,
culminating in such sensational events as the Alger Hiss case and the trial and
execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Security measures and loyalty checks
in the government and elsewhere were tightened, alleged Communists were
prosecuted under the Smith Act of 1940, and employees in varied fields were
dismissed for questionable political affiliations, past or present. The most
notorious prosecutor of alleged Communists was Senator Joseph McCarthy,
whose extreme methods were later recognized as threats to freedom of speech
and democratic principles.

Two decades of Democratic control of the White House came to an end with
the presidential election of 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower was swept into
office over the Democratic candidate, Adlai E. Stevenson. Although it did not
try to roll back the social legislation passed by its Democratic predecessors, the

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Eisenhower administration was committed to a laissez-faire domestic policy.

By the mid-1950s, America was in the midst of a great industrial boom, and
stock prices were skyrocketing. In foreign affairs the Eisenhower
administration was internationalist in outlook, although it sternly opposed
Communist power and threatened “massive retaliation” for Communist
aggression. Some antagonism came from the neutral nations of Asia and
Africa, partly because of the U.S. association with former colonial powers and
partly because U.S. foreign aid more often than not had the effect of
strengthening ruling oligarchies abroad.

In the race for technological superiority the United States exploded (1952) the
first hydrogen bomb, but was second to the USSR in launching (Jan. 31, 1958)
an artificial satellite and in testing an intercontinental guide dmissile.
However, spurred by Soviet advances, the United States made rapid progress
in space exploration and missile research. In the crucial domestic issue of racial
integration, the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of decisions supported the
efforts of African-American citizens to achieve full civil rights. In 1959, Alaska
and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states of the Union. Despite hopes for
“peaceful coexistence,” negotiations with the USSR for nuclear disarmament
failed to achieve accord, and Berlin remained a serious source of conflict.

In 1961, the older Eisenhower gave way to the youngest President ever elected,
John F. Kennedy, who defeated Republican candidate Richard M. Nixon.
President Kennedy called for “new frontiers” of American endeavor, but had
difficulty securing Congressional support for his domestic programs
(integration, tax reform, medical benefits for the aged). Kennedy's foreign
policy combined such humanitarian innovations as the Peace Corps and the
Alliance for Progress with the traditional opposition to Communist
aggrandizement.

After breaking relations with Cuba, which, under Fidel Castro, had clearly
moved within the Communist orbit, the United States supported (1961) an ill-
fated invasion of Cuba by anti-Castro forces. In 1962, in reaction to the
presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, the United States blockaded Soviet
military shipments to Cuba and demanded the dismantling of Soviet bases
there. The two great powers seemed on the brink of war, but within a week the

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USSR acceded to U.S. demands. In the meantime, the United States achieved
an important gain in space exploration with the orbital flight around the earth
in a manned satellite by Col. John H. Glenn. The tensions of the cold war
eased when, in 1963, the United States and the Soviet Union reached an
accord on a limited ban of nuclear testing.

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The Great Society and the Vietnam War

On Nov. 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a
motorcade in Dallas, Tex. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, proclaimed a
continuation of Kennedy's policies and was able to bring many Kennedy
measures to legislative fruition. Significant progress toward racial equality was
achieved with a momentous Civil Rights Act (1964), a Voting Rights Act
(1965), and the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished the poll
tax.

Other legislation, reflecting Johnson's declaration of a “war on poverty” and

his stated aim of creating a “Great Society,” included a comprehensive
Economic Opportunity Act (1964) and bills providing for tax reduction,
medical care for the aged, an increased minimum wage, urban rehabilitation,
and aid to education.

Public approval was given in the landslide victory won by Johnson over his
Republican opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater, in the 1964 presidential
election. The victory also represented voter reaction against Senator
Goldwater's aggressive views on foreign policy. Ironically, international
problems dominated Johnson's second term, and Johnson himself pursued an
aggressive course, dispatching (Apr., 1965) troops to the Dominican Republic
during disorders there and escalating American participation in the Vietnam
War. Authorization for the latter was claimed by Johnson to have been given
(Aug., 1964) by Congress in the Tonkin Gulf resolution, which was passed
after two U.S. destroyers were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese PT
boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. The federal military budget soared, and inflation
became a pressing problem.

The Vietnam War provoked increasing opposition at home, manifested in

marches and demonstrations in which casualties were sometimes incurred and
thousands of people were arrested. An impression of general lawlessness and
domestic disintegration was heightened by serious race riots that erupted in
cities across the nation, most devastatingly in the Watts district of Los Angeles
(1965) and in Detroit and Newark (1967), and by various racial and political

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assassinations, notably those of Martin Luther King, Jr., and Senator Robert F.
Kennedy (1968).

Other manifestations of social upheaval were the increase of drug use,

especially among youths, and the rising rate of crime, most noticeable in the
cities. Opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War so eroded
Johnson's popularity that he chose not to run again for President in 1968.

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The Nixon Years

Johnson's position as leader of the Democratic party had been seriously
challenged by Senator Eugene McCarthy, who ran as a peace candidate in the
primary elections. Antiwar forces in the Democratic party received a setback
with the assassination of Senator Kennedy, also a peace candidate, and the
way was opened for the nomination of Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey, a
supporter of Johnson's policies, as the Democratic candidate for President.
Violence broke out during the Democratic national convention in Chicago
when police and national guardsmen battled some 3,000 demonstrators in
what a national investigating committee later characterized as “a police riot.”
The Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon, ran on a platform promising an
end to the Vietnam War and stressing the need for domestic “law and order”;
he won a narrow victory, receiving 43.4% of the popular vote to Humphrey's
42.7%. A third-party candidate, Gov. George C. Wallace of Alabama, carried
five Southern states. The Congress remained Democratic.

Pronouncing the “Nixon doctrine”—that thenceforth other countries would

have to carry more of the burden of fighting Communist domination, albeit
with substantial American economic aid—Nixon began a slow withdrawal of
American troops from Vietnam. Criticism that he was not moving fast enough
in ending the war increased and massive antiwar demonstrations continued,
and when Nixon in the spring of 1970 ordered U.S. troops into neutral
Cambodia to destroy Communist bases and supply routes there, a wave of
demonstrations, some of them violent, swept American campuses. Four
students were killed by national guardsmen at Kent State Univ. in Ohio, and
448 colleges and universities temporarily closed down. Antiwar activity
declined, however, when American troops were removed from Cambodia after
60 days.

The institution of draft reform, the continued withdrawal of U.S. soldiers from
Vietnam, and a sharp decrease in U.S. casualties all contributed toward
dampening antiwar sentiment and lessening the war as an issue of public
debate. Racial flare-ups abated after the tumult of the 1960s (although the issue
of the busing of children to achieve integration continued to arouse

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controversy). The growing movement of women demanding social, economic,

and political equality with men also reflected the changing times. A dramatic
milestone in the country's space program was reached in July, 1969, with the
landing of two men on the moon, the first of several such manned flights.
Significant unmanned probes of several of the planets followed, and in 1973
the first space station was orbited.

In domestic policy Nixon appeared to favor an end to the many reforms of the
1960s. He was accused by civil-rights proponents of wooing Southern support
by seeking delays in the implementation of school integration. Such actions by
his administration were overruled by the Supreme Court. Nixon twice
attempted to appoint conservative Southern judges to the U.S. Supreme Court
and was twice frustrated by the Senate, which rejected both nominations. In an
attempt to control the spiraling inflation inherited from the previous
administration, Nixon concentrated on reducing federal spending. He vetoed
numerous appropriations bills passed by Congress, especially those in the
social service and public works areas, although he continued to stress defense
measures, such as the establishment of an antiballistic missiles (ABM) system,
and foreign aid.

Federal budget cuts contributed to a general economic slowdown but failed to

halt inflation, so that the country experienced the unprecedented misfortune of
both rising prices and rising unemployment; the steady drain of gold reserves
after almost three decades of enormous foreign aid programs, a new balance-
of-trade deficit, and the instability of the dollar in the international market also
affected the economy. In Aug., 1971, Nixon resorted to the freezing of prices,
wages, and rents; these controls were continued under an ensuing, more
flexible but comprehensive program known as Phase II. Another significant
move was the devaluation of the dollar in Dec., 1971; it was further devalued
in 1973 and again in 1974.

In keeping with his announced intention of moving the United States from an
era of confrontation to one of negotiation, Nixon made a dramatic visit to the
People's Republic of China in Feb., 1972, ending more than 20 years of
hostility between the two countries and opening the way for a normalization of
relations. A trip to Moscow followed in the spring, culminating in the signing

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of numerous agreements between the United States and the Soviet Union, the
most important being two strategic arms limitations accords, reached after
lengthy talks begun in 1969. The attainment of a degree of friendly relations
with China and the USSR was especially surprising in view of the provocative
actions that the United States was taking at that time against North Vietnam.
Although U.S. ground troops were being steadily withdrawn from Vietnam,
U.S. bombing activity was increasing. Finally Congress halted the bombing
and limited Nixon's power to commit troops. A cease-fire in Vietnam was not
achieved until Jan., 1973.

In the presidential election of 1972, the Democratic party reforms that

increased the power of women and minority groups in the convention resulted
in the nomination of Senator George S. McGovern for President. Senator
McGovern called for an immediate end to the Vietnam War and for a drastic
cut in defense spending and a guaranteed minimum income for all citizens. His
candidacy was damaged by the necessity to replace his original choice for Vice
President and by the continuing perception of McGovern as a radical. Nixon
was reelected (Nov., 1972) in a landslide, losing only Massachusetts and the
District of Columbia.

But Nixon's second term was marred, and finally destroyed, by the Watergate
affair, which began when five men (two of whom were later discovered to be
direct employees of Nixon's reelection committee) were arrested after breaking
into the Democratic party's national headquarters at the Watergate apartment
complex in Washington, D.C. Nixon resigned on Aug. 9, the first president in
the history of the republic to be driven from office under the threat of
impeachment.

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Ford and Carter

Nixon was succeeded by Vice President Gerald R. Ford. (Nixon's first Vice
President, Spiro T. Agnew, had resigned in Oct., 1973, after being charged
with income tax evasion.) Ford promised to continue Nixon's foreign policy,
particularly the improvement of relations with China and the USSR (in his last
days in office, Nixon had made trips to the Middle East and the Soviet Union
to promote peace).

In domestic affairs, the United States was hurt by skyrocketing fuel prices due
to an Arab oil embargo. The embargo was imposed (1973) in retaliation for
U.S. support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Ford attempted to formulate
new policies to stem the ever-increasing inflation rate, which by late 1974 had
reached the most severe levels since the period following World War II. He
was also confronted with mounting unemployment and with the threat of a
devastating world food crisis.

Ford's popularity suffered a sharp setback when he granted Nixon a complete

and unconditional pardon for any crimes that Nixon may have committed
during his term as President. The public disapproval of this decision, along
with the deteriorating economy, contributed to a sharp reversal in Republican
fortunes in the elections of 1974.

In Dec., 1974, Nelson A. Rockefeller, a former governor of New York, was

sworn in as Vice President following extensive hearings before Congressional
committees. Thus, neither the President nor the Vice President had been
popularly elected, both having been chosen under the terms of the Twenty-fifth
Amendment. Ford's tenure as President was hindered by difficult economic
times and an inability to work with the Democrat-controlled Congress. Ford
vetoed dozens of bills, many of which were overridden by Congress to provide
funding for social programs. Ford also lacked broad support within his own
party, as former California governor (and future President) Ronald Reagan
made a strong challenge for the Republican presidential nomination.

The Democratic contender in the 1976 presidential election, former Georgia

governor James E. “Jimmy” Carter, ran a brilliant and tireless campaign based

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on populist appeals to honesty and morality. His position as a newcomer to

national politics was considered an asset by an untrusting nation in the wake of
the Watergate scandal. In spite of a late surge by Ford, Carter narrowly won
the election. The day after being sworn in as President, Carter pardoned
thousands of draft evaders from the Vietnam War. In domestic affairs, Carter
focused a great deal of attention on energy issues, creating the Department of
Energy in 1977 and insisting on the necessity of nuclear energy as an
alternative to fossil fuel consumption. However, nuclear energy in the United
States suffered a severe setback in 1979 when an accident at the Three Mile
Island power facility near Harrisburg, Penn. resulted in the partial meltdown of
the reactor core.

States with large energy industries such as Texas, Louisiana, Wyoming, and
Colorado all benefited from extremely high energy prices throughout the
1970s. Alaska's economy also boomed as the Alaska pipeline began
transporting oil in 1977. Soaring oil prices as well as increased foreign
competition dealt a severe blow to American industry, especially heavy
industries such as automobile and steel manufacturing located in America's
Rust Belt. Central cities in the United States experienced great hardship in the
1960s and 70s. Rising crime rates and racial unrest during the 1960s
accelerated the outmigration of people and businesses to the suburbs. By the
late 1970s, many large cities had lost their middle class core populations and
suffered severe budgetary problems.

Inflation continued to rise dramatically as it had during Ford's administration

and eventually reached a 30-year high in 1979. Efforts to control inflation such
as raising interest rates plunged the economy into recession. In 1977 Carter
signed the Panama Canal Treaty and a year later Congress voted to turn over
the canal to Panama in 1999. Carter's greatest achievement in foreign policy
came in 1978 when he mediated unprecedented negotiations between Egypt
and Israel at Camp David, Md. The talks led to the signing of a peace treaty by
Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem
Begin in 1979. Also in that year the United States resumed official diplomatic
relations with China and Carter entered into a second round of Strategic Arms
Limitation Talks (SALT II) with the Soviet Union.

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Carter's pledge to stand against nations that abused human rights resulted in a
grain and high-technology embargo of the Soviet Union in response to the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Carter also organized a boycott of the 1980
Moscow Olympics. His decision in 1979 to allow Muhammad Reza Shah
Pahlevi, the deposed leader of Iran, to receive medical treatment in the United
States inflamed the already passionate anti-American sentiment in that nation.
On Nov. 4, 1979, a group of militants seized the U.S. embassy in Iran, taking
66 hostages. The Iran hostage crisis destroyed Carter's credibility as a leader
and a failed rescue attempt (1980) that killed eight Americans only worsened
the situation. (The hostages were only released on Jan. 20, 1981, the day
Carter left office.) With the hostage crisis omnipresent in the media and the
nation's economy sliding deeper into recession, Carter had little to run on in
the 1980 presidential election. Republican nominee Ronald Reagan promised
to restore American supremacy both politically and economically.

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The Reagan Years

The nation enthusiastically responded to Ronald Reagan's neoconservative
message as he soundly defeated Carter and third-party candidate John
Anderson to become, at the age of 70, the oldest man to be elected president.
Reagan's coattails proved to be long as the Republicans made large gains in the
House of Representatives and won control of the Senate for the first time since
1954, ushering in a new wave of conservatism. His program of supply-side
economics sought to increase economic growth through reduced taxes which
would in turn create even greater tax revenue. Critics argued that his tax cuts
only benefited corporations and wealthy individuals. Reagan drastically cut
spending on social programs as part of his vow to balance the federal budget.

In labor disputes, Reagan was decidedly antiunion. This was never more
evident than in 1981 when he fired 13,000 striking air traffic controllers. In
Mar., 1981, Reagan was wounded in an assassination attempt but fully
recovered, dispelling doubts regarding his age and health. The U.S. economy
continued to worsen; in 1983 the unemployment rate reached its highest point
since the Great Depression at almost 11%. By the end of that year, however,
oil prices began to drop, slowing the inflation rate and helping the economy to
begin a recovery.

Reagan's deregulaton of the banking, airline, and many other industries

spurred enormous amounts of economic activity. In 1984 the unemployment
rate fell and the dollar was strong in foreign markets. With the economy
recovering, Reagan was unstoppable in the 1984 presidential election.

Democratic nominee Walter F. Mondale chose U.S. Representative Geraldine

Ferraro as his running mate; she was the first woman to gain a major party's
vice presidential nomination. Reagan scored an overwhelming victory,
carrying 49 states and winning a record 525 electoral votes. Economic recovery
did not last, however; while Reagan was cutting government funding for social
programs the defense budget skyrocketed to levels not seen since World War
II. The federal budget deficit also soared and in 1987, Reagan submitted the
first trillion-dollar budget to Congress. In addition, the deregulated economy
proved extremely volatile; financial scandals were prevalent and the trade
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imbalance grew. Finally in 1987 the stock market crashed, falling a record 508
points in a single day.

Reagan's foreign policy was aggressively anti-Communist as he discarded the

policy of détente employed by Nixon, Ford, and Carter. He revived Cold War
rhetoric, referring to the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and used increased
defense spending to enlarge the U.S. nuclear arsenal and fund the Strategic
Defense Initiative, a plan popularly known as “Star Wars.” In 1981, Reagan
imposed sanctions against Poland after the establishment of a military
government in that country. Reagan also sought aid for the Contras—
counterrevolutionaries seeking to overthrow the Marxist-oriented Sandanista
government in Nicaragua.
At the same time the United States was secretly mining Nicaraguan harbors.
In 1983 241 U.S. marines stationed in Beirut, Lebanon as part of a UN
peacekeeping force were killed by terrorists driving a truck laden with
explosives in a suicide mission. Later that year Reagan ordered the invasion of
the tiny Caribbean nation of Grenada; the action was roundly criticized by the
world community, but succeeded in toppling the pro-Cuban regime. In 1986
the space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after liftoff, killing the entire
seven-person crew, including six astronauts and a civilian schoolteacher.
Reagan's aggressive policies in the Middle East worsened already bad relations
with Arab nations; he ordered (1986) air strikes against Libya in retaliation for
the Libyan-sponsored terrorist attack in West Berlin that killed two American
servicemen.
Although the president had vowed never to negotiate with terrorists, members
of his administration did just that in the Iran-contra affair. Against the wishes
of the Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense, Reagan officials
arranged the illegal sale of arms to Iran in exchange for the release of
American hostages in the Middle East. The profits from the sales were then
diverted to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. Reagan improved his image before
he left office, however, by agreeing to a series of arms reduction talks initiated
by Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev. Reagan was also able leave a powerful
legacy by appointing three conservative Supreme Court justices, including
Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman to serve on the high court.

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Bush, Clinton, and Bush

Reagan had groomed his Vice President, George H. W. Bush, to succeed him.
The presidential election of 1988 was characterized by negative campaigning,
low voter turnout, and a general disapproval of both candidates. The
mudslinging especially hurt the Democratic nominee, Massachusetts governor
Michael Dukakis, who rapidly lost his lead in the polls and eventually lost by a
substantial margin. Bush vowed a continuation of Reagan's policies and in
foreign affairs he was as aggressive as his predecessor. In 1989, after a U.S.-
backed coup failed to oust Panamanian President Manuel Noriega, Bush
ordered the invasion of Panama by U.S. troops. Noriega was eventually
captured in early 1990 and sent to Miami, Fla. to stand trial for drug
trafficking.

Bush's major military action, however, was the Persian Gulf War. After Iraq
invaded Kuwait on Aug. 2, 1990, Bush announced the commencement of
Operation Desert Shield, which included a naval and air blockade and the
steady deployment of U.S. military forces to Saudi Arabia. In November the
United Nations Security Council approved the use of all necessary force to
remove Iraq from Kuwait and set Jan. 15, 1991, as the deadline for Iraq to
withdraw.

A few days before the deadline Congress narrowly approved the use of force
against Iraq. By this time the United States had amassed a force of over
500,000 military personnel as well as thousands of tanks, airplanes, and
personnel carriers. Less than one day after the deadline, the U.S.-led coalition
began Operation Desert Storm, beginning with massive air attacks on
Baghdad. Iraqi troops were devastated by continual air and naval
bombardment, to the point that it took only 100 hours for coalition ground
forces to recapture Kuwait. On Feb. 27, with the Iraqi army routed, Bush
declared a cease-fire.

The quick, decisive U.S. victory, combined with an extremely small number of
American casualties, gave President Bush the highest public approval rating in
history. Mounting domestic problems, however, made his popularity short-
lived. When Bush took office, he announced a plan to bail out the savings and
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loan industry, which had collapsed after deregulation during the Reagan
administration. In 1991 it was estimated that it would cost taxpayers $500
billion to save the industry.

The United States went through a transitional period during the 1980s and
early 90s, economically, demographically, and politically. The severe decline
of traditional manufacturing which began in the 1970s forced a large-scale shift
of the economy to services and other sectors. States with large service, trade,
and high-technology industries (such as many Sun Belt states) grew in
population and thrived economically. Meanwhile, states heavily dependent on
manufacturing, including much of the Midwest, suffered severe unemployment
and outmigration. Midwestern states grew less than 5% during the 1980s while
Sun Belt states grew between 15% and 50%.

In addition, the end of the Cold War, precipitated by the dissolution of the
Warsaw Pact and the collapse of Soviet Communism, resulted in a reduction
of the U.S. armed forces as well as the opening of new markets in an
increasingly global economy. In Apr., 1992, after the severe police beating of
an African American, one of the worst race riots in recent U.S. history erupted
in Los Angeles, killing 58, injuring thousands, and causing approximately $1
billion in damage. Smaller disturbances broke out in many U.S. cities. After
the Persian Gulf War the nation turned its attention to the domestic problems
of recession and high unemployment. Bush's inability to institute a program for
economic recovery made him vulnerable in the 1992 presidential election to
the Democratic nominee, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton.

Clinton won the election, gaining 43% of the popular vote and 370 electoral
votes. Incumbent Bush won 38% of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes.
Although independent candidate H. Ross Perot did not win a single electoral
vote, he made a strong showing with 19% of the popular vote, after a populist
campaign in which he vowed to eliminate the $3.5 trillion federal deficit.
Clinton, generally considered a political moderate, was particularly successful
in appealing to voters (especially in the Midwest and West) who had
previously abandoned the Democratic party to vote for Reagan. Bush, for his
part, was unable to convince voters that he could transform his success in
international affairs into domestic recovery. One of his last actions as president

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was to send (Dec., 1992) U.S. troops to Somalia as part of a multinational

peacekeeping force administering famine relief.

The economy gradually improved during Clinton's first year in office, and this,
along with a tax increase and spending cuts, caused some easing of the budget
deficit. The North American Free Trade Agreement, signed by the United
States, Canada, and Mexico in 1992 and designed to make its participants
more competitive in the world marketplace, was ratified in 1993 and took
effect Jan. 1, 1994.

During his first two years in office, Clinton withdrew U.S. troops from
Somalia after they had suffered casualties in an ill-defined mission; he also sent
troops to Haiti to help in reestablishing democratic rule there. The president
proposed a major overhaul of the way American health care is financed, but it
died in Congress. Clinton's problems with Congress were exacerbated in 1994
after the Republicans won control of both the Senate and the House and
attempted, largely unsuccessfully, to enact a strongly conservative legislative
program, dubbed the “Contract with America.” There were prolonged
stalemates as the president and Congress clashed over the federal budget; in
Apr., 1996, a fiscal 1995 budget was agreed upon after seven months of
stopgap spending measures and temporary government shutdowns.

In Apr., 1995, in the worst act of terrorism ever on American soil, a bomb was
exploded at the federal building in Oklahoma City, Okla., killing 169 people.
Late in 1995, the antagonists in the Yugoslavian civil war accepted a U.S.-
brokered peace plan, which U.S. troops were sent to help monitor. U.S. efforts
also contributed to Arab-Israeli acceptance of agreements to establish limited
Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza.

By 1996, President Clinton had improved his standing in the polls by

confronting House Republicans over the federal budget, and he subsequently
adopted a number of Republican proposals, such as welfare reform, as his
own, while opposing the more conservative aspects of those proposals. Clinton
won his party's renomination unopposed and then handily defeated
Republican Bob Dole and Reform party candidate Ross Perot in the November
election.

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As his second term began, Clinton's foes in and out of Congress pursued
investigation of Whitewater and other alleged improprieties or abuses by the
president. By late 1997 independent prosecutor Kenneth Starr had been given
information that led to the Lewinsky scandal, which burst on the national
scene in early 1998. Battle lines formed and remained firm through Clinton's
impeachment (Oct., 1998), trial (Jan., 1999), and acquittal (Feb., 1999), with a
core of conservative Republicans on one side and almost all Democrats on the
other. The American people seemed to regard the impeachment as largely
partisan in intent. Lying behind their attitude, however, was probably the
sustained economic boom, a period of record stock-market levels, relatively
low unemployment, the reduction of the federal debt, and other signs of well-
being (although critics noted that the disparity between America's rich and
poor was now greater than ever). This, combined with the afterglow of
“victory” in the cold war, continued through the end of the 1990s.

In foreign affairs, the United States (as the only true superpower) enjoyed
unprecendented international influence in the late 1990s, and in some areas it
was able to use this influence to accomplish much. There was steady, if
sometimes fitful, progress toward peace in the Middle East, and George
Mitchell, a U.S. envoy, brokered what many hoped was a lasting peace in
Northern Ireland. On the other hand, America had little influence on Russian
policy in Chechnya, and it remained locked in a contest of wills with Iraq's
President Saddam Hussein nine years after the end of the Persian Gulf War.
The reluctance of the Congress to pay the country's UN dues nearly led to the
embarrassment of the loss of the American General Assembly vote in 1999
even as Secretary-General Kofi Annan expressed a desire for greater American
involvement in the organization.

Meanwhile, in Kosovo the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, led by the

United States, was unable to prevent a Yugoslav campaign against Kosovar
Albanians but ultimately forced Yugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro) to
cede contral of the province; U.S. and other troops were sent into Kosovo as
peacekeepers. That conflict showed that the United States was again reluctant
to commit military forces, such as its army, that were likely to suffer significant

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casualties, although it would use its airpower, where its great technological
advantages enabled it strike with less risk to its forces.

Negotiations in the Middle East, which continued in 2000, broke down, and
there was renewed violence in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank late in the
year. The Clinton administration worked to restart the negotiations, but the
issues proved difficult to resolve. In the United States, the Nasdaq Internet and
technology stock bubble, which had begun its rise in 1999, completely deflated
in the second half of 2000, as the so-called new economy associated with the
Internet proved to be subject to the rules of the old economy. Signs of a
contracting economy also appeared by year's end.

The 2000 presidential election, in which the American public generally

appeared uninspired by the either major-party candidate (Vice President Al
Gore and the Republican governor of Texas, George W. Bush) ended amid
confusion and contention not seen since the Hayes-Tilden election in 1876. On
election night, the television networks called and then retracted the winner of
Florida twice, first projecting Gore the winner there, then projecting Bush the
winner there and in the race at large. The issue of who would win Florida and
its electoral votes became the issue of who would win the presidency, and the
determination of the election dragged on for weeks as Florida's votes were
recounted. Gore, who trailed by several hundred votes (out of 6 million) in
Florida but led by a few hundred thousand nationally, sought a manual
recount of strongly Democratic counties in Florida, and the issue ended up
being fought in the courts and in the media. Ultimately the U.S. Supreme
Court called a halt to the process, although its split decision along ideological
lines was regarded by many as tarnishing the court. Florida's electoral votes, as
certified by the state's Republican officials, were won by Bush, who secured a
total of 271 electoral votes (one more than needed) and 48% of the popular
vote (Gore had 49% of the popular vote). Bush thus became the first person
since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 to win the presidency without achieving a
plurality in the popular vote.

The slowing economy entered a recession in Mar., 2001, and unemployment

rose, leading to continued interest rate reductions by the Federal Reserve
Bank. The Bush administration moved quickly to win Congressional approval

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of its tax-cut program, providing it with an early legislative victory, but other
proposed legislation moved more slowly. The resignation of Senator Jeffords
of Vermont from the Republican party cost it control of the Senate, a setback
due in part to administration pressure on him to adhere to the party line.
Internationally, the United States experienced some friction with its allies, who
were unhappy with the Bush administration's desire to abandon both the
Kyoto Protocal (designed to fight global warming) and the Antiballistic Missile
Treaty (in order to proceed with developing a ballistic missile defense system).
Relations with China were briefly tense in Apr., 2001, after a Chinese fighter
and U.S. surveillance plane collided in mid-air, killing the Chinese pilot.

The politics and concerns of the first eight months of 2001 abruptly became
secondary on Sept. 11, when terrorists hijacked four planes, crashing two into
the World Trade Center, which was destroyed, and one into the Pentagon; the
fourth crashed near Shanksville, Pa. Some 3,000 persons were killed or missing
as a result of the attacks. Insisting that no distinction would be made between
terrorists and those who harbored them, Bush demanded that Afghanistan's
Taliban government turn over Osama bin Laden, a Saudi-born Islamic militant
whose Al Qaeda group was behind the attacks. The U.S. government sought to
build an international coalition against Al Qaeda and the Taliban and, more
broadly, against terrorism, working to influence other nations to cut off sources
of financial support for terrorists.

In October, air strikes and then ground raids were launched against
Afghanistan by the United States, with British aid. Oman, Pakistan, and
Uzbekistan permitted the use of their airspace and of bases within their borders
for various operations. The United States also provided support for opposition
forces in Afghanistan, and by December the Taliban government had been
ousted and its and Al Qaeda's fighters largely had been routed. Bin Laden,
however, remained uncaptured, and a force of U.S. troops was based in
Afghanistan to search for him and to help with mopping-up operations.

The terrorist attacks stunned Americans and amplified the effects of the
recession in the fall. Events had a severe impact on the travel industry,
particularly the airlines, whose flights were temporarily halted; the airlines
subsequently suffered a significant decrease in passengers. Congress passed

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several bills designed to counter the economic effects of the attacks, including a
$15 billion aid and loan package for the airline industry. A new crisis
developed in October, when cases of anthrax and anthrax exposure resulted
from spores that had been mailed to media and government offices in bioterror
attacks.

Although consumer spending and the stock market rebounded by the end of
the year from their low levels after September 11, unemployment reached 5.8%
in Dec., 2001. Nonetheless, the economy was recovering, albeit slowly, aided
in part by increased federal spending. In early 2002 the Bush administration
announced plans for a significant military buildup; that and the 2001 tax cuts
were expected to result in budget deficits in 2002–4. Prompted by a number of
prominent corporate scandals involving fraudulent or questionable accounting
practices, some of which led to corporate bankruptcies, Congress passed
legislation that overhauled securities and corporate laws in July, 2002.

The fighting in Afghanistan continued, with U.S. forces there devoted mainly
to mopping up remnants of Taliban and Al Qaeda forces. U.S. troops were
also based in Pakistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan to provide support for the
forces in Afghanistan. In the Philippines, U.S. troops provided support and
assistance to Philippine forces fighting guerrillas in the Sulu Archipelago that
had been linked to Al Qaeda, and they also trained Georgian and Yemeni
forces as part of the war on terrorism.

During 2002 the Bush administration became increasingly concerned by the

alleged Iraqi development and possession of weapons of mass destruction, and
was more forceful in its denunciations of Iraq for resisting UN arms
inspections. In March, Arab nations publicly opposed possible U.S. military
operations against Iraq, but U.S. officials continued to call for the removal of
Saddam Hussein. President Bush called on the United Nations to act forcefully
against Iraq or risk becoming “irrelevant.” In November the Security Council
passed a resolution offering Iraq a “final opportunity” to cooperate on arms
inspections, this time under strict guidelines, and inspections resumed late in
the month, although not with full Iraqi cooperation. Meanwhile, the U.S.
Congress voted to authorize the use of the military force against Iraq, and the
United States continued to build up its forces in the Middle East.

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The November election resulted in unexpected, if small, gains for the

Republicans, giving them control of both houses of Congress. After the
election, Congress voted to establish a new Department of Homeland Security,
effective Mar., 2003. The department regrouped most of the disparate agencies
responsible for domestic security under one cabinet-level official; the resulting
government reorganization was the largest since the Department of Defense
was created in the late 1940s.

Dec., 2002, saw the negotiation of a free-trade agreement with Chile (signed in
June, 2003), regarded by many as the first step in the expansion of NAFTA to
include all the countries of the Americas. President Bush ordered the
deployment of a ballistic missile defense system, to be effective in 2004; the
system would be designed to prevent so-called rogue missile attacks. In
advance of this move the United States had withdrawn from the Anti-Ballistic
Missile treaty with Russia in June. North Korea, often described as one of the
nations most likely to launch a rogue attack, had admitted in October that it
had a program for developing nuclear weapons, and the United States and
other nations responded by ending fuel shipments and reducing food aid. In
the subsequent weeks North Korea engaged in a series of well-publicized
moves to enable it to resume the development of nuclear weapons, including
withdrawing from the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The United States,
which had first responded by refusing to negotiate in any way with North
Korea, adopted a somewhat less confrontational approach in 2003.

President Bush continued to press for Iraqi disarmament in 2003, and

expressed impatience with what his administration regarded as the lack of Iraqi
compliance. In Feb, 2003, however, the nation's attention was pulled away
from the growing tension over Iraq by the breakup of the space shuttle
Columbia as it returned to earth. Seven astronauts were killed in this second
shuttle mishap, and focus was once again directed toward the issues of the
safety of the space shuttle and the dynamics of the decision-making process at
NASA.

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Despite vocal opposition to military action from many nations, including

sometimes rancorous objections from France, Germany, and Russia, the
United States and Great Britain pressed forward in early 2003 with military
preparations in areas near Iraq. Although Turkey, which the allies hoped to
use as a base for opening a northern front in Iraq, refused to allow use of its
territory as a staging area, the bulk of the forces were nonetheless in place by
March. After failing to win the explicit UN Security Council approval desired
by Britain (because the British public were otherwise largely opposed to war),
President Bush issued an ultimatum to Iraqi president Saddam Hussein on
March 17th, and two days later the war began with an airstrike against
Hussein and the Iraqi leadership. Ground forces invaded the following day,
and by mid-April the allies were largely in control of the major Iraqi cities and
had turned their attention to the rebuilding of Iraq and the establishment of a
new Iraqi government. No weapons of mass destruction, however, were found
by allied forces during the months after the war, and sporadic guerrilla attacks
on the occupying forces occurred during the same time period, mainly in
Sunni-dominated central Iraq.

The cost of the military campaign as well as of the ongoing U.S. occupation in
Iraq substantially increased what already had been expected to be a record-
breaking U.S. deficit in 2003 to around $374 billion. The size of the deficit, the
unknown ultimate cost of the war, and the continued weak U.S. economy (the
unemployment rate rose to 6.4% in June despite some improvement in other
areas) were important factors that led to the scaling back of a tax cut, proposed
by President Bush, by more than half to $350 billion.

In Aug., 2003, a massive electrical blackout affected the NE United States.

Much of New York and portions of Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and neighboring Ontario,
Canada, lost power, in many cases for a couple days. The widespread failure
appeared to be due in part to strains placed on the transmission system, its
safeguards, and its operators by the increased interconnectedness of electrical
generation and transmission facilities and the longer-distance transmission of
electricity. An investigation into the event, however, laid the primary blame on

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the Ohio utility where it began, both for inadequate system maintenance and
for failing to take preventive measures when the crisis began.

The economy improved in the latter half of the 2003. Although the
unemployment rate inched below 6% and job growth was modest, overall
economic growth was robust, particularly in the last quarter. A major
Medicare overhaul was enacted and signed in December, creating a
prescription drug benefit for the first time. The same month the Central
American Free Trade Agreement was finalized by the United States,
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, and in early 2004, Costa
Rica and the Dominican Republic agreed to become parties to the accord. The
United States also reached free-trade agreements with Australia and Morocco.

U.S. weapons inspectors reported in Jan., 2004, that they had failed to find any
evidence that Iraq had possessed biological or chemical weapons stockpiles
prior to the U.S. invasion. The assertion that such stockpiles existed was a
primary justification for the invasion, and the report led to pressure for an
investigation of U.S. intelligence prior to the war. In February, President Bush
appointed a bipartisan commission to review both U.S. intelligence failures in
Iraq and other issues relating to foreign intelligence; the commission's 2005
report criticized intelligence agencies for failing to challenge the conventional
wisdom about Iraq's weapon systems, and called for changes in how U.S.
intelligence gathering is organized and managed. The Senate's intelligence
committee, reviewing the situation separately, concluded in its 2004 report that
much of the CIA's information on and assessment of Iraq prior to the war was
faulty.

Also in February, U.S., French, and Canadian forces were sent into Haiti to
preserve order. Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide had resigned under
U.S.-French pressure after rebel forces had swept through most of the country
and threatened to enter the capital. U.S. forces withdrew from Haiti in June
when Brazil assumed command of a UN peacekeeping force there.

By March, John Kerry had all but secured the Democrat nomination for
president. With both major party nominees clear, the focus of the political
campaigns quickly shifted to the November election. Both Bush and Kerry had

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elected not to accept government funding, enabling them each to raise record
amounts of campaign funding, and the post-primary advertising campaign
began early. In July, Kerry chose North Carolina senator John Edwards, who
had opposed him in the primaries, as his running mate.

U.S. forces engaged in intense fighting in Iraq in Apr., 2004, as they attempted
to remove Sunni insurgents from the town of Falluja. The battling there was
the fiercest since the end of the invasion, and ultimately U.S. forces broke off
without clearing the fighters from the city, a goal that was not achieved until
after similar fighting in November. Guerrilla attacks by Sunni insurgents
continued throughout the year. Also in April a radical cleric attempted to spark
a Shiite uprising, and there was unrest and fighting in a number of other Iraqi
cities. By mid-April the Shiite militia was in control only in the region around
An Najaf, but the militia did not abandon its hold there until after intense
battling in August. At the end of June, Paul Bremer, the head of the U.S.-led
Coalition Provisional Authority, turned over sovereignty to an Iraqi interim
government.

Nonetheless, the unrest called into question the degree to which Iraq had been
pacified, and the 160,000 U.S.-led troops still in Iraq were, for the time being,
the true guarantor of Iraqi security. Meanwhile, the prestige of the U.S.
military had been damaged by revelations, in May, that it had abused Iraqis
held in the Abu Ghraib prison during 2003–4.

In July, 2004, the U.S. commission investigating the terror attacks of Sept. 11,
2001, criticized especially U.S. intelligence agencies for failings that
contributed to the success of the attacks, and called for a major reorganization
of those agencies, leading to the passage of legislation late in the year. In the
following months the country's focus turned largely toward the November
presidential election, as the campaigns of President Bush and Senator Kerry
and their surrogates escalated their often sharp political attacks. In a country
divided over the threat of terrorism and the war in Iraq, over the state of the
economy and the state of the nation's values, election spending reached a new
peak despite recent campaign financing limitations, and fueled a divisive and
sometimes bitter mood. Ultimately, the president appeared to benefit from a
slowly recovering economy and the desire of many voters for continuity in

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leadership while the nation was at war. Amid greatly increased voter turnout,
Bush secured a clear majority of the popular vote, in sharp contrast to the 2000
election that first made him president. Republicans also increased their
margins of control in both houses of Congress, largely through victories in the
more conservative South.

The very active 2005 hurricane season saw several significant storms make
landfall on the U.S. coast. In August, Hurricane Katrina devastated the
Mississippi and SE Louisiana coasts, flooded much of New Orleans for several
weeks, and caused extensive destruction inland in Louisiana, Mississippi, and
Alabama, making it the most expensive natural disaster in U.S. history. The
following month, Hurricane Rita caused devastation along the SW Louisiana
coast and widespread destruction in inland Louisiana and SE Texas.

Katrina displaced many Louisiana residents, some permanently, to other parts

of the state and other states, particularly Texas. Some 200,000 persons were
left at least temporarily unemployed, reversing job gains that had been made in
the preceding months. The storm had a noticeable effect on the economy,
driving up the already higher prices of gasoline, heating oil, and natural gas (as
a result of well and refinery damage) to levels not seen before, and causing
inflation to rise and industrial output to drop by amounts not seen in more
than two decades.

The striking ineffectiveness of federal, state, and local government in

responding to Hurricane Katrina, particularly in flooded New Orleans but also
in other areas affected by the storm, raised questions about the ability of the
country to respond to major disasters of any kind. President Bush—and state
and local officials—were criticized for responding, at least initially,
inadequately to Katrina, but the Federal Emergency Management Agency in
particular seemed overwhelmed by the disaster's scale and incapable of
managing the federal response in subsequent weeks. Many Americans
wondered if the lessons of the events of Sept. 11, 2001, and the changes in the
federal government that followed had resulted in real improvements or if those
very changes and their emphasis on terror attacks had hindered the ability of
the United States to respond to natural disasters.

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The perceived failings in the federal response to Katrina seemed to catalyze

public dissatisfaction with President Bush, as Americans became increasingly
unsettled by the ongoing war in Iraq, the state of the U.S. economy, and other
issues less than a year after Bush had been solidly reelected. Congress,
meanwhile, passed a $52 billion emergency spending bill to deal with the
effects of Katrina, but did not make any significant spending cuts or reductions
in tax cuts to compensate for the additional outlays until Feb., 2006, when
Congress passed a bill cutting almost $40 billion from a variety of government
benefit programs, including Medicare, Medicaid, and student loans.

Internationally and domestically, the United States government was the

subject of condemnation from some quarters for aspects of its conduct of the
“war on terror” in the second half of 2005. In Aug., 2005, Amnesty
International denounced the United States for maintaining secret, underground
CIA prisons abroad. Subsequent news reporting indicated that there were
prisons in eight nations in E Europe and Asia, and in December the United
States acknowledged that the International Committee of the Red Cross had
not been given access to all its detention facilities. A Swiss investigator for the
Council of Europe indicated (Dec., 2005) that reports that European nations
and the United States had been involved in the abduction and extrajudicial
transfer of individuals to other nations were credible, and he accused (Jan.,
2006) the nations of “outsourcing” torture. In Jan., 2006, the New York–based
Human Rights Watch accused the U.S. government of a deliberate policy of
mistreating terror suspects.

In Dec., 2005, the National Security Agency was revealed to be wiretapping

some international communications originating in the United States without
obtaining the legally required warrants. The practice had begun in 2002, at the
president's order. The administration justified it by asserting that the president's
powers to defend the United States under the Constitution were not subject to
Congressional legislation and that the legislation authorizing the president to
respond to the Sept., 2001, terror attacks implicitly also authorized the
wiretapping. Many politicians, former government officials, and legal scholars,
however, criticized the practice as illegal or unconstitutional. The revelations

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and assertions did not derail the renewal of those parts of the USA PATRIOT
Act, a sometimes criticized national security law originally enacted in 2001
after the Sept. 11th attacks; with only minor adjustments most of the law was
made permanent in Mar., 2006.

There are a great number of articles on Americans of major importance, on the

principal government agencies and departments, and on numerous topics of
American history, e.g., Whiskey Rebellion, Ohio Company, Independent
Treasury System, and Santa Fe Trail. There are also articles on more than
2,000 cities, towns, and villages in the United States. The state articles supply
bibliographies for state history. Aspects of American culture are discussed
under American architecture, American art, American literature, and jazz.
Many general articles (e.g., slavery; diplomatic service) have useful material
and bibliographies relating to the United States.

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America's Purpose and Role

In A Changed World
Public opinion reports on Americans' attitudes toward foreign policy sketch a
picture of retrenchment, war-weariness, and scepticism toward global
engagement, even as there is also a growing concern that the world is
increasingly becoming unstable and dangerous. Nothing about this picture is
new or controversial. Some may worry about it more than others, but it is now
commonly accepted that the US is downsizing its international role, and that
the administration, the Congress, and the general public are more absorbed
with domestic concerns than with foreign challenges or threats.

The fact that the US is turning inward in the aftermath of the Bush
administration's expansive foreign policy and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
is hardly surprising. The main message of Maximalist, Stephen Sestanovich's
new history of American foreign policy since the Truman era, is that the shift
from a “maximalist” policy to one of retrenchment and back again is par for
the course. Eisenhower followed a policy of “scaling back from overextension”
after the Korean War, just as Nixon adopted a “retrenchment strategy that
would enable the United States to regain its balance” after Vietnam. Kennedy
displayed a “confident readiness to act” and to bear the burdens of leadership
after what he called “eight years of drugged and fitful sleep,” just as Reagan
“brought a new maximalist edge to the East-West competition” following the
malaise of the Carter years.

One important question the Americans face today, however, is whether the
current policy of retrenchment is a standard correction after a period of
maximalism, or something else. Sestanovich notes that for a number of
reasons, “the retrenchment [currently] under way in American foreign policy
may turn out to be different” from those of the past. He writes that “the
emblematic foreign policy choice” of President Obama's first term was his
imposition of a time limit on the surge in Afghanistan in 2009, a move that
“took a consensus in favour of incremental adjustments to America's global
role and pushed it toward a more thorough-going transformation.” A similar

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message was sent when the president rejected a plan prepared by his top
advisors to aid the Syrian opposition.

Pressures for a course adjustment are already building; a process that could be
accelerated by the Russian intervention in Ukraine. But public attitudes and
resource constraints will probably prevent any administration from swinging
too far in the opposite direction. An expansive maximalist policy would risk
making commitments that exceed America's power and resources, and in any
event it is not what is needed to achieve balance between realism—meaning
the defence of their critical national interests—and idealism—meaning the
advance of democracy and freedom in the world. What's needed to achieve
such a balance is political will and strategic vision in meeting the three
interrelated challenges of supporting freedom, defending the national security,
and restoring America's economic health.

The first challenge involves making it clear that America will do whatever it
can to support people fighting for fundamental rights. For many reasons,
democracy is seen to be on the defensive today. Authoritarian states are
pushing back aggressively against groups working for greater democracy, the
turmoil in the Middle East has destroyed the early promise of the Arab Spring,
and China's growing economic and military power has altered the balance of
forces in the world at a time when the US and many European countries have
entered a period of economic and political malaise.

In fact, though, the prospect for democracy in the world is actually much more
promising than it appears, and there are opportunities for progress in the years
ahead that could be encouraged by a more forward-leaning policy. Despite the
recent problems, for instance, the much-anticipated reversal of the “third
wave” of democratic expansion of the 1980s and early 1990s has not occurred.
The number of electoral democracies now stands at one hundred and twenty-
two countries, just one below the high-water mark of one hundred and twenty-
three reached in 2005 and four more than in 2012. It also appears that Tunisia
could become the first Arab democracy, a beachhead in the region of the world
most resistant to democratic change. In addition, movements for civic renewal
have emerged in some of the grimmest political environments. In contrast to

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the hope for change that these movements embody, the violence and
repression used against them expose the insecurity of authoritarian regimes.

The road ahead for such reform movements will be long and very difficult one,
but they are a natural by-product of a world in which people have more access
to information. The challenge for the United States is to help create the
conditions that will allow such movements to survive and to grow. Institutions
already exist to provide them with material and technical assistance. Today,
American leadership must make it clearer than they have that supporting
people fighting for democratic values is not an afterthought but a core element
of America's national policy; and that America will use diplomacy and other
instruments of policy to protect democratic movements.

Committing to preserving US leadership in the world is, therefore, the second

major challenge for the US policy-makers. This is not an expression of
American arrogance or a reckless form of overreaching. Rather, it is the
recognition of a fundamental geopolitical reality. “A world without US
primacy,” Samuel Huntington once wrote, “will be a world with more
violence and disorder and less democracy and economic growth than a world
where the United States continues to have more influence than any other
country in shaping global affairs.” The urgent challenge now is for the US to
exercise leadership in a convincing manner so that the vacuum is not filled by
hostile powers or by chaos and violence.

But continued US primacy is simply not possible unless the US addresses a

third critical challenge: to bring the spiralling US public debt under control.
Over the last decade, the gross federal debt has nearly tripled to more than $17
trillion and now exceeds the total national GDP. While there are many
reasons for the continuing surge in public debt, the principal factor has been
the growth of entitlement spending, which has gone from less than one-third of
the federal budget a half-century ago to more than two-thirds today. In the
words of Robert J. Samuelson, “The welfare state is taking over government.”
Other priorities are steadily being squeezed, from investment in infrastructure
and human capital to international programmes and even defence spending,
which is expected to shrink by forty per cent over the next decade. Unless
America can summon the political will and bipartisan consensus to reverse the

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domestic decline, no amount of strategic vision will enable the US to exercise

the kind of leadership that it aspires to.

The challenge the US faces today is as great as any in American history. The
national security of the US and the values the Americans cherish, in addition
to the future of democracy in the world, rest on Americans' ability to rise to
this occasion.

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Economy
The mineral and agricultural resources of the United States are tremendous.
Although the country was virtually self-sufficient in the past, increasing
consumption, especially of energy, continues to make it dependent on certain
imports. It is, nevertheless, the world's largest producer of both electrical and
nuclear energy. It leads all nations in the production of liquid natural gas,
aluminum, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. It is also a leading producer of copper,
gold, coal, crude oil, nitrogen, iron ore, silver, uranium, lead, zinc, mica,
molybdenum, and magnesium. Although its output has declined, the United
States is among the world leaders in the production of pig iron and ferroalloys,
steel, motor vehicles, and synthetic rubber. Agriculturally, the United States is
first in the production of cheese, corn, soybeans, and tobacco. The United
States is also one of the largest producers of cattle, hogs, cow's milk, butter,
cotton, oats, wheat, barley, and sugar; it is the world's leading exporter of
wheat and corn and ranks third in rice exports. In 1995, U.S. fisheries ranked
fifth in the world in total production. Major U.S. exports include motor
vehicles, aircraft, food, iron and steel products, electric and electronic
equipment, industrial and power-generating machinery, chemicals, and
consumer goods. Leading imports include ores and metal scraps, petroleum
and petroleum products, machinery, transportation equipment (especially
automobiles), and paper and paper products. The major U.S. trading partners
are Canada (in the world's largest bilateral trade relationship), Mexico, Japan,
the United Kingdom, South Korea, and Germany. The volume of trade has
been steadily increasing. The gross domestic product has continued to rise, and
in 1998 it was easily the largest in the world at about $8.5 trillion. The
development of the economy has been spurred by the growth of a complex
network of communications not only by railroad, highways, inland waterways,
and air but also by telephone, radio, television, computer (including the
Internet), and fax machine. This infrastructure has fostered not only
agricultural and manufacturing growth but has also contributed to the leading
position the United States holds in world tourism revenues and to the ongoing
shift to a service-based economy. In 1996 some 74% of Americans worked in
service industries, a proportion matched, among major economic powers, only
by Canada.

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Government
The government of the United States is that of a federal republic set up by the
Constitution of the United States, adopted by the Constitutional Convention of
1787.

There is a division of powers between the federal government and the state
governments. The federal government consists of three branches: the
executive, the legislative, and the judicial. The executive power is vested in the
President and, in the event of the President's incapacity, the Vice President.
(For a chronological list of all the presidents and vice presidents of the United
States, including their terms in office and political parties, see the table entitled
Presidents of the United States.) The executive conducts the administrative
business of the nation with the aid of a cabinet composed of the Attorney
General and the Secretaries of the Departments of State; Treasury; Defense;
Interior; Agriculture; Commerce; Labor; Health and Human Services;
Education; Housing and Urban Development; Transportation; Energy; and
Veterans' Affairs.

The Congress of the United States, the legislative branch, is bicameral and
consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch is
formed by the federal courts and headed by the U.S. Supreme Court. The
members of the Congress are elected by universal suffrage as are the members
of the electoral college, which formally chooses the President and the Vice
President.

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America's addiction to War

They can't help themselves. Whatever the situation, the reaction of US
policymakers is more war. Weak economy? War will get things going. Strong
economy? Military spending will cool it off. Two wars (Afghanistan and Iraq)
finally winding down? Time to ramp up secret arms sales to a pair of pipsqueak
insurgencies (Libya and Syria). Other superpowers love militarism. But only
the United States would send troops, rather than aid workers, to people
devastated by natural disasters like tsunamis and earthquakes … even within
the US.

As Joel Andreas puts it, American politicians are addicted to war. And those
who identify with the antiwar left are like an addict's long-suffering spouse,
trapped in a dysfunctional relationship where we enable the militarism we
claim to deplore. The ruling elite's addiction to militarism is fully visible in
President Obama's announcement of plans to re-invade Iraq. He's starting
small, with a few hundred military advisers and probably airstrikes via the
precise, never-fails, cares-so-much-about-civilians technology of drones.
Sending a few hundred military advisers was, of course, how JFK initiated
America's involvement in the Vietnam War.

But we've already been through all that in Iraq. We invaded. We propped up a
wildly unpopular pro-US puppet regime. We fought. We lost and lost big. We
withdrew. Now our pet autocracy is collapsing.

Twenty or so years later, we come back and invade the right way as obnoxious
tourists and predatory sneaker company executives.

What's up with Obama? Why is he treating Iraq like it's Vietnam in 1962 as
though this were one of those hey, let's just send a little help and see what
happens affairs as in no way, no how will “combat troops” go in again, unless
they do? Even by presidential standards, Obama's behaviour is bizarre.
Somewhere in the multi-verse there must be one version of this story in which
a half-dozen Cabinet members, steeled in their resolve by the support of the
Secret Service, rush into the Oval Office and bundle the president off to an
institution that can give him the treatment he seems to require.

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Alas, we live here. In this country, the President's re-invasion of Iraq is

supported by 320 million enablers not least of whom is the media. It's not just
the sickening worship of all things soldierly, as when so-called journalists say
“thank you for your service” to armchair generals who will never be on the
wrong end of a shot fired in anger. The media drowns us in so much
misinformation that it's impossible for all but the most dedicated between-the-
lines readers to come to an intelligent assessment of the facts.

Consider, for example, The New York Times. Given how often the paper has
gotten burned by its pro-militarist establishmentarianism (supporting the failed
right-wing coup attempt against Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, supporting the
2003 invasion of Iraq, not returning Edward Snowden's phone call), you'd
think its editors would be reluctant to support Gulf War III. And yet, a June
17th piece bearing the headline “Your Iraq Questions, Answered,” in which
Times reporters reply to readers, is illustrative.

One reader asks:

“ISIS seems to have legit online following. Is this reflective of support on the
ground?”

Rod Nordland, Kabul bureau chief — but reporting from Iraq — replies:

“ISIS has a huge and very aggressive social media operation, but I don't know
how anyone could characterize that as a legitimate following. I suspect a lot of
their followers, clicks and retweets are voyeuristic because the material posted
is so bloody and savage, and ISIS is completely unapologetic about it.
Hopefully, most of their following is aghast.”

So much for any smidge of journalistic objectivity! Then things turn stupid:

“Most people in the territory ISIS controls do not seem terribly supportive of
them, but they hate the Shiite-dominated Iraqi government far more, and ISIS
takes pains to treat the Sunnis in their dominions with consideration at least at
first. That is the central challenge that the Iraqi government faces, to convince
people in ISIS-dominated areas that their government wants to include them,
and has more to offer than the ISIS extremists.”

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Anyone who has studied history or read Che Guevara — which you'd hope an
employee of The New York Times might have done — knows that ISIL, as a
guerrilla army outgunned and outmanned by the central government it seeks to
overthrow, would never have gotten as far as it has without substantial support
among civilians.

Even more egregious than Nordland's failure to convey this truism to Times
readers is his closing combination of childlike naiveté and taking sides. Al-
Maliki had been in office for eight years. If he were interested in building a
pluralistic post-sectarian political coalition, rather than ruthlessly excluding all
but his own Shiites from positions of influence, he would have done so by
now. Even with ISIL on the road toward Baghdad, he hasn't shifted his Shiite-
centric approach. With the most respected news source in the US spoon-
feeding such nonsense, it's no wonder we can't break free of the militarist traps
laid for Pentagon generals by defence contractors, for the president by his
generals and for us by the president. When's the last time you read an
uncompromising antiwar opinion on the op-ed page of a major newspaper?
Have you ever seen someone completely against war interviewed on network
television news even on “liberal” MSNBC? Even the state radio for the
intellectual elite, NPR, rarely grants airtime to experts who oppose militarism.
I'm an addict to news and I can honestly say that it's rare to see more than one
antiwar talking head on TV in a year … and that's on daytime shows with low
viewership. As long as the alternatives to war aren't allowed a voice, our
addiction to war is safe.

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American Interests in Pakistan

A famous English writer and poet Walter Savage Landor once said, “We talk
on principle, but we act on interest.” The undeniable reality about relations
among states is their vault on interests. Interest only is the permanent thing
that sets the overall goal and agenda of a country's foreign policy. With the
turn of events in the international arena, a country adopts its strategy and
tactics to meet its interests and achieve the foreign policy goals. Geography,
economy, nature and volume of trade, political atmosphere, cultural and social
values, military strength, population size and location constitute conditions for
foreign policy strategy.

History of the Pak-US relations reveals that the latter has at all times used the
former for its covetous interests, and when fulfilled, left the former in the lurch.
This is the relationship that both partners have sustained, sometimes happily,
other times not so happily.

From Pakistan's wars with India to Soviet entrance into Afghanistan, from
grabbing of Kashmir to dismemberment of East Pakistan, from disintegration
of USSR to devastation of 9/11, from Pakistan's nuclear tests in 1998 to
America’s nuclear deal with India and in the post 9/11 'India-supportive'
scenario in the region and beyond against Pakistan, from Iran-Pakistan gas
pipeline to TAPI, from Silk Route to Gwadar, from economic adversity to
political quandary, from peaceful Pakistan to fight against extremism and
terrorism, from CSF to USAID, the US has always negatively exploited and
browbeaten Pakistan.

United States has a variety of interests in Pakistan at all levels i.e. short, mid
and long term. Broadly speaking, these can be divided into geostrategic
interests and the protracted War on Terror. Among geostrategic interests, the
US has severe reservations owing to Pakistan's inclination toward Russia,
China and the SCO. American administration doesn't like better Pakistan-
Russia ties. Pakistan and China have time-tested relations but the US would
only bear it if American aims and interests are not put at stake. America would
do anything to thwart Pakistan's joining of SCO as full member.

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America has been forcing Pakistan incessantly to shun IP pipeline as it wants

the country to go for TAPI project. Through this, the US wants to achieve a
dual advantage. On one hand, it wants to inflict more harm to already
cornered Iran — though after nuclear non-proliferation deal, the US has no
lawful reasons to keep its traditional animosity with Iran — while on the other,
it plans to shift Central Asian gas resources to South Asia that will not only
help India rise against China but will also severely damage Russian interests in
the region.

The US wants the completion of TAPI project at all costs, and at the earliest. It
doesn't care if the route of TAPI is perilous and passes from the insecure areas.
It is dead against Pak-China trade corridor through Silk Route as it may make
other regional powers functional ergo powerful. The operations at the Gwadar
Port, one of the world's deepest seaports, are still in the doldrums; despite the
fact that fully functioning of this harbour can change the fate of Pakistan. The
Indo-US manoeuvring or war in this region has been successfully countered by
Pakistan and China but it has shattered the regional balance and peace. The
emergence of China against the aspirations and designs of USA around the
globe, and especially in this region, has changed the state of affairs.

The US has been chanting “do more” mantra to Pakistan. It is actually the
wrapping of a comprehensive pack of American interests and benefits. By
unending demand to 'do more', the US wants Pakistan to go on with the
operations in its tribal areas. Other stipulations include covert permission to
launch drone attacks, and a full-fledge, unconditional cooperation in the war
against terror. The imminent US withdrawal from Afghanistan is impossible
without Pakistan's support. At present, the US has no option but to support
Pakistan because it is fully entangled in the quagmire of war against terror and
the proposed withdrawal.

Pakistan has genuine, strong and rational concerns against America. First of
all, America has made civil nuclear deal with India at a time when Pakistan is
facing acute water and energy crises. It is also pressurizing Pakistan to go for
TAPI instead of IP despite knowing that IP gas pipeline is more feasible, safer,

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and more result-oriented. The US knows that Pakistan and India are archrivals
— Kashmir issue is still unresolved due to Indian stubbornness and hypocrisy
of world powers — but America's unconditional support to India is really
questionable. With American support, India has built up its presence in
Afghanistan thus rendering Pakistan's Western border unsafe. American
antagonism towards Gwadar port and Pak-China trade corridor is another
issue of concern for Pakistan.

One thing is crystal clear that America cannot afford a destabilized Pakistan
because if it happens, the extremists and militants would take over the whole
region and this is totally against the American imperial designs. War on terror
— which actually is war for terror — has now unfortunately become an
anathema for Pakistan.

It is time for America to do more for Pakistan because it needs Pakistan more
than Pakistan needs the US. Pakistan should with sensitivity realize its
position and importance without any fear and becoming marionette and
satellite, and behave accordingly.

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World Order by Henry Kissinger

The author's own orchestration of the opening of relations with China gives an
extra piquancy to his views on Iran: if the US can engage with one isolated
regional superpower, why not another?

No clash of civilisations or end of history – this argument for a balance of

power is the summation of Kissinger's thinking

Western politicians who last year advocated bombing Syria now ask whether
Damascus should be treated as a tacit ally against Islamic State. John Kerry
talks of Iran as a possible partner in that war, while David Cameron meets the
country's president in New York. The quote of the summer from the president
of the United States was that “we don't have a strategy” on how to prevent a
conflagration in the Middle East. Yet as old enmities and alliances dissolve
and re form at high speed, we are having to develop one, and fast.

One person who has never lacked a strategy is the former US secretary of state
Henry Kissinger, now 91. However, his thoughtful new book aims not so
much to advocate specific policies as to portray the shape of the world over the
past 2000 years or so, with reflections on where it will go in the next 50.

The book circles much of the globe, covering India, Europe, China and the
Middle East. Four specific conceptions of “order” attract most of his attention:
the European system, specifically its Westphalian model of sovereign states
with equal status within the system; an Islamic system based on a wider idea of
an ummah, or community; a Chinese system based on traditional ideas of the
Middle Kingdom as a great regional power; and the American order, finding a
new purpose a century ago under Woodrow Wilson, eventually dominant
across the globe, and now under unprecedented pressure.

This may sound like Samuel Huntington's idea of the “Clash of Civilizations,”
but actually it is more like a bracing mixture of Metternichian pragmatism and
– more unexpectedly – Edward Said's critique of “Orientalism”. Kissinger
notes that when he told Chinese premier Zhou Enlai that China seemed
mysterious, Zhou pointed out that China was not at all mysterious to 900
million of his compatriots. “In our time the quest for world order will require
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relating the perceptions of societies whose realities have largely been self-
contained,” Kissinger argues. In other words, cultural (a preferable term to
civilisational) aspects shape societies' worldviews, but culture is not an
impermeable barrier to a wider model of order that can bring different regimes
together. In that sense, this is a distinctly anti-Huntingtonian book in that it
recognises the need to engage with civilisations rather than asserting the
inevitability of their clashing; it also diverges from Francis Fukuyama's famous
thesis about the “end of history” by arguing strongly that history and identity
are central to societies’ perceptions of themselves today. Kissinger also takes
on critics who accuse him of stressing realism above all other considerations, a
characterisation he regards as simplistic: “idealists do not have a monopoly on
moral values; realists must recognise that ideals are also part of reality.”

The book draws on a wide range of historical examples to make points about
present-day issues. Unsurprisingly, Kissinger spends considerable time on the
position of China in the international order, noting its central place in Asia for
all but the past century or two. He characterises China's historical role in East
Asia as “conceptual,” whereas that of the US is “pragmatic,” the former
shaped by a long history of external attacks on its borders. Certainly the
historical basis to Chinese behaviour has emerged ever more clearly in the past
few years, as leaders in Beijing have expressed a desire for a prominent global
influence based on longstanding ideas of China as a great power. However,
there is plenty of pragmatism in Chinese behaviour, too. Today, Beijing feels
that Washington is weak and that its commitment to the region is hedged; as a
result, China and Japan's leaders each now claim that the other's military
ambitions in the region are a reason to stockpile arms.

Kissinger uses his “adaptive cultural” thesis to criticise the nation-building

project of George W. Bush in Iraq. He notes that he was supportive of the
original invasion of Iraq in 2003, but expresses scepticism about the value of
Bush's vision, which “proved beyond what the American public would support
and what Iraqi society would accommodate”. In the end, withdrawal from
Iraq resembled “Vietnamisation” in 1973-5, with equally dispiriting results.
Since the book went to press, the collapse of the al-Maliki government has left

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Iraq on the brink of dissolution and the new government under Haider al-
Abadi is dependent on the success of western air strikes to consolidate power.

The author's own orchestration of the opening of relations with China gives an
extra piquancy to his views on Iran: if the US can engage with one isolated
regional superpower, why not another? Yet although he gives a detailed and
nuanced account of Iran's sense of its own imperial heritage over the centuries,
he argues unequivocally that Tehran today is not Beijing in 1972.

The book also enables us to assess Kissinger's own era in government in

historical perspective. Few would now dispute the wisdom of ending China's
isolation from the “family of nations”. He reminds us of the importance of
1972-73, Nixon's high point in foreign policy (Kissinger was national security
adviser, before becoming secretary of state): as well as the opening to China,
this year saw the end of the American troop presence in Vietnam, détente in
eastern Europe, and peace agreements in the Middle East (after an Arab-Israeli
war that could have led to major conflagration). There were of course darker
aspects of that era, including the bombing of North Vietnamese strongholds in
Cambodia that worsened a domestic crisis and allowed the murderous Khmer
Rouge to come to power, and the overthrow of the Allende government in
Chile. Yet when we look back at the 1970s as an era of crisis both domestic
and international, it is remarkable how much of the international politics of
that decade has come out on the positive side of the ledger and how a wider
crisis was averted. Kissinger notes that “nuclear weapons must not be
permitted to turn into conventional arms”.

Kissinger was a key shaper of a world order that remained stable for a quarter
century or more until our own post-cold war era. This urgently written book is
a fine account of world order in the longue duree, and also a memorandum to
future generations of policymakers that the next half-century will be no easier
to manage than the most recent one.

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Global War and Peace

Contemporary world is fraught with perpetuated violence and killings to
undermine the sustainability of mankind's future. Complex societal conflicts
need rational and flexible strategies using men of new ideas, diplomacy and
peaceful means to conflict management. War is not a prelude to peacemaking.
The sadistic warriors are using obsessive power to victimize the global
humanity. Tim Roemer in his article “The Threats We Forget” published in
Foreign Policy recently, notes that the Islamic State and Ebola are the “twin
plagues” unleashed upon the world. The IS is trying to create a “house of
blood”; and Ebola is the modern-day African ogre, and the two are
“monumental crises” that the world must face together.

While the Ebola crisis is adequately considered by the global community, IS

has been mishandled by the US and its European allies. The IS did not grow
out of nowhere. The US and its allies have failed to imagine the ripple effects
of their own follies and continued aggressive war as well as prolonged
occupation of Iraq and Afghanistan. IS, Iran-backed Badr group and several
other groups are all active in Iraq and Syria. So are the US and its allies
launching bombing campaigns and killing thousands of innocent civilians!
Several millions of Arab refugees scattered around helplessly are the direct
results of this insanity.

President Obama and other Western leaders don't touch the facts of this
prevalent global madness aimed at dismantling and occupying the entire oil-
producing Arab region. Tim Roemer points out:

“The world is an unpredictable place right now — and things could grow
worse. The Islamic State might quickly escalate geopolitical problems in the
Middle East, destabilize Jordan or Turkey, and begin a more systematic export
of radicalized fighters around the world. That is why the United States needs
to take immediate and bipartisan action against these threats.”

Western Hypocrisy or Emerging “Jihadist” Challenge?

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Do the Islamic societies breed jihadis or did the US-led bogus war on terrorism
produce reactionary jihadists? Where do the “Jihadists” come from? Most
North American and western European intelligence establishments operate
“Jihadi” watch websites to alert the public consciousness of the ongoing war
on terror. It's a one-way descriptive fantasy of the Jihadi alarm bell. All of the
Jihadi groups are fighting reactionary wars against American-led wars in
Afghanistan, Iraq and, more broadly, across the Arab world. They owe their
existence to American strategic warfare policies and practices.

To counteract the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the US State

Department and CIA envisaged, created and trained Al-Qaeda. The “Jihadi”
group was financed and led by the US armed forces' personnel to fight against
the former USSR-installed Afghan Communist regime. How strange the US
excelsior club of “Jihadi” movement does not come to terms with the
contemporary radical “Jihadist” ideology based in Iraq and Syria! All of the
Jihadis were used by the Western nations in ideological conflict zones. But
once they became a liability, they were abandoned and were termed terrorists.
While the US is bombing the innocent civilians in Iraq, Syria and Yemen,
these radical Jihadi enterprises are attracting more minds and souls in the same
war theatres.

Certainly, a disconnect is prominent in what the US policy proclaims and what

is being done on ground. The radicalized Jihadi groups are the means by
which the US war economy and Europeans maintain their manipulation of
ideas and ideals to support the continuous military interventions.

Political Deceptions and Lies of the War on Terrorism

All the monsters of history are to be found among the absolute leaders
exercising absolute power in disregard of the peoples' interests. Since the
Washington-based major military-industrial war complex orchestrated the
bogus War on Terrorism, American politics in one-sided endeavour to unfold
unthinkable futuristic disasters. Glenn Greenwald in his article “The 'War on
Terror' – by Design – Can Never End,” writes:

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“There's no question that this "war" will continue indefinitely. There is no

question that US actions are the cause of that, the gasoline that fuels the fire.
The only question — and it's becoming less of a question for me all the time —
is whether this endless war is the intended result of US actions or just an
unwanted miscalculation.”

He further states:

“Why would anyone in the US government or its owners have any interest in
putting an end to this sham bonanza of power and profit called “the war on
terror”?”

Arguably, conflicts generate mistrust and drain out all positive human energies
and thinking for peaceful change, and transformation to sustainable future and
productivity. Is it hard for Obama administration to understand this truth? To
cover up their secretive and unhealthy minds, the US policymakers continue to
lie and deceive the well informed global mankind.

Societies evolve and progress when they are open to rational communications
and enjoin cooperation and mutual respects, not conflicts and illegal and
immoral intelligence spying as stumbling blocks. “Is America at war with itself
and that war is illusion,” wonders William Boardman in his article “A
Country At War With An Illusion.” He writes:

“We are waging war on terrorism even as we embody terrorism. No wonder

we seem sometimes to be at war with ourselves, and have been for most of the
21st century.”

How to Decode Insanity into Rationality?

Wars are planned by insane minds and sadistic political strategists. Wars kill
people, dehumanize the civic culture and destroy the human habitats and
undermine the natural environment to support life. There is not a single
historic reference to indicate if wars were a prelude to peacemaking. The
hourly paid Western news media intellectuals propagate and misinform the
masses that Islamic terrorism is threatening the Western nations and their
security, values and living standards. After the 9/11, George Bush used to
contend “they hate our freedom.” Outside America, no impartial observer
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believes that America enjoys political freedom or the capacity to make public-
interest-based foreign policy. The Washington-based political lobbyists and the
powerful industrial-military complex set the US foreign policy agenda and
conduct the warfare.

From George W. Bush, Tony Blair (Former British PM), Dick Cheney,
Rumsfeld, Condoleezza Rice and all other conspirators and liars onward to
Barack Obama, all have consumed precious time and opportunities to cause
massive deaths and destruction across the globe. Most probably, they will
escape moral and political accountability. Were they not responsible for the
longest bogus wars against the innocent people in Afghanistan and Iraq? Were
they not the cruellest people to set up Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, Bagram
prison in Afghanistan and the Guantanamo Bay? These were not the hallmarks
of human freedom, liberty, democracy and justice!

It might be hard for any morally and intellectually conscientious American

policymaker to see the mirror. How dare you claim that the “Jihadists” are
waging war against the Western nations and their civilizations? You are the
reason for the emergence of radicalized “Jihadists” across the globe.

The IS owes its origin to the US strategy and military intervention in Iraq.
American and British leaders infested Iraqi culture with coerced sectarian
divides and violence. But after the facts, America and some of its European
allies fear a less engaged role and cumbersome futuristic domination of the oil-
rich Iraq and the neighbouring Saudi Arabia and UAE. They want to contain
the IS. American and Europeans do not seem to be bothered by the bloody
sectarian rampage carried out by the Badr group sponsored by Iran and
fighting against the Sunnis in Iraq.

One wonders, if there is a cure to a cruel mindset?

Absolute political power cannot be justified as simple favourable perversion to

torture, kill the innocent mankind and destroy the universal harmony and
natural habitats on the Earth. Should all the political leaders take a space
journey and view the 10,000 mile per hour orbiting planet Earth and try to
understand its operational existence and governance by its Creator and the
vitality of human life and habitats. Do these leaders have the capacity to learn
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from scientific observations? If not, how could they be leaders to lead the 21st
century informed humanity?

What is the cure to raging indifferences and cruelty to the interests of the
people of the United States and for that matter the whole of the mankind?
Professor P.L Thomas of South Carolina's Furman University speaks out loud
and clear in “Obama's Failed Hope and Change: Forget the Politicians. They
are Irrelevant.” He writes:

“Forget the politicians. They are irrelevant. The politicians are put there to
give you the idea that you have freedom of choice. You don't. You have no
choice! You have owners! They own you. They own everything. They own all
the important land. They own and control the corporations. They've long since
bought, and paid for the Senate, the Congress, the State houses, the city halls,
they got the judges in their back pockets and they own all the big media
companies, so they control just about all of the news and information you get
to hear.”

If the leaders of a powerful nation like the US are not flexible and intelligent
enough to realize the attributes of the 21st century effective leadership and be
able to know and manage their comparative political strengths and
weaknesses, how could they deal with the futuristic global challenges of
security and peacemaking?

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US at A Crossroads
The basic feature of US foreign policy during the Cold War was inclusiveness
— a willingness to embrace any country that opposed communism, whatever
its type of government. The US contested the Soviet system and held the line
militarily, and its consistent and comprehensive approach eventually led to the
Soviet Union's implosion. After the Cold War, came the “war on terror”
during which the United States has not been as inclusive as it was in its war
against communism. Aside from those in the “coalition of the willing,” even
most European countries have distanced themselves from Washington. Iraq
also has exposed the weaknesses in American policymaking. All these factors
have brought the US at a crossroads.

Washington officials have recently announced that the United States is going
to increase its military presence in Iraq. At the same time, a number of US
troops have been deployed in Iraqi Kurdistan. Simultaneously, the White
House is applying a lot of pressure on Iran in the negotiations on the issue of
Iranian nuclear programme. The US is trying to extract as many concessions
from the Iranians as it possibly can, including the reduction in support that
Tehran has been, and is still, providing to Damascus. Yet, Washington refuses
to decrease the tension around the situation in eastern Ukraine, claiming that
Russia had been sending military equipment and troops there.

Europeans have found themselves in a position similar to Iran, since the US

officials have been twisting their arms in order to make them adopt a new
package of anti-Russia sanctions. Therefore, it's no coincidence that Russia
and China have taken a number of major steps to increase their efforts in the
fields of energy and economic cooperation. The question then arises as to what
is the ultimate goal of the US foreign policy — Ukraine, the Middle East or
China? Should the Washington think tanks be presented with such a question,
one would definitely hear an answer that the Obama administration can
handle a number of different matters simultaneously. However, should you
persist, the outcome of your inquiry can prove to be rather peculiar.

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It's a general belief in Washington now that if choosing between the two recent
crises — in the Middle East and Ukraine — the Middle Eastern one is by far
the most important to American interests. There are a number of indicators to
prove this statement:

Firstly, the Middle East is now torn apart by a full-scale war, especially in Iraq
and Syria, and the US is carrying out air strikes against the positions of IS
militants in these two countries on a daily basis.

Secondly, under the US national security doctrine the protection of the US

population at home and overseas is imperative and Washington believes that
the jihadists present by far a more pressing threat to US citizens than Russia.

Finally, Washington think tanks believe that the regional structure of the
Middle East is now going down in flames, and it will take several decades to
build a new one, while the European structure has been “slightly shaken” by
the events in Ukraine.

Moreover, American politicians, lawmakers and analysts believe that the

United States, while focusing on Russia and the Ukraine crisis, is not paying
enough attention to Iraq, Syria and Iran. Therefore, Obama administration is
being accused that its obsession with Ukraine had allowed IS militants to
establish control over large parts of Iraq and Syria.

However, for those concerned with Vladimir Putin's actions aimed at restoring
Russian influence in the post-Soviet space, the Middle East looks more like a
dangerous distraction. Supporters of this approach fear that the US may once
again be drawn into the “war on terror” in the Middle East, while the main
security threat to US interests is growing in Europe. This position is based on
the premise that the US has not fully realized how serious are the actual
challenges that are associated with the strengthening of Russia. The supporters
of this approach are sure that the return of the Crimea along with a de facto
secession of the southeast territories from Ukraine is just the beginning of
redistribution of the world at the expense of the United States. Moreover, they
are convinced that Russia will become a threat to the rest of Ukraine, and even
the Baltic states.

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US-at-Crossroads1.jpgThe fact that Washington dismisses the possibility of its

direct military involvement in the Ukraine crisis makes it pretend that it is not
as tense as it could be, but in fact it is indirectly raising the stakes in the game
called “the creation of a new world order.” The worst case scenario, which is
being discussed behind closed doors in the White House, is the alleged
possibility of Moscow putting its tactical nuclear weapons to actual use. This,
of course, would be the biggest crisis in the field of international security since
the Cuban Missile Crisis, and it would be by far graver and more dangerous
than the next phase of war in Iraq that has been going on for 35 years now.

Naturally, the vast majority of sensible and sane politicians and experts in the
US don't believe in the nuclear scenario, although many of them still fear that
Moscow will start a full-scale conventional assault in Ukraine or provoke a
“rebellion” of the Russian-speaking population in the Baltic States that are
Nato members. Should Russia invade the Baltic States and should Nato fail to
react, they argue, Moscow will show the world that the Western military
alliance is in fact a “paper tiger.”

This part of the US political elite hopes that the ever increasing pressure on the
Russian economy will hold Putin back from escalating the Ukrainian conflict
though their opponents are convinced that the economic crisis may instead
push Russia to take a number of unpredictable steps by switching to “brute
force” scenario.

Against this background Obama flew to the APEC summit in China. For
supporters of the American 'pivot' to Asia, the ever growing Chinese influence
is the main challenge in the long run. A handful of think tanks are convinced
that while the US will try to deal with the two above-mentioned crises, China
will be able to establish control over East Asia and the Asia Pacific region,
which is slowly being transformed into a major centre of the world economy.
These think tanks insist that the Obama administration must take steps to
prevent China from growing stronger in military, political and economic
terms. Russia's turn to China in search for a new major energy market can only
make China stronger if Russia provides it with gas and modern weapons.
Americans are increasingly nervous about the formation of a new alliance in
Asia — between China and Russia. These think tanks, apparently, are closer to

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the actual understanding of the processes that affect the formation of a new
world order.

Time will tell how well the Obama administration sets the US strategic
priorities right, since it seems to be a turning point in the process of creation of
a new world order, and it will be too late to change anything once the bets are
made. It looks like the major challenge the United States is facing today is
China, not Russia or the Middle East. The rapid rise of China is truly a
significant development, though it may look deceptively long term from the
outside, therefore one may get the impression that it is not leading to a
possibility of an immediate conflict between China and the United States.

The collapsing states in the Middle East and the possible spread of terrorism
are the threats that the US should, one way or the other, deal with now. The
first occupation of Iraq and the consequent actions of Washington have
unleashed a chain of colour revolutions that led to the events that cannot be
controlled anymore. The supporters of the US in the region — Riyadh and
Doha which assisted the White House in its plan of redrawing the regional
map — are now facing the threat of an imminent collapse due to the rise of
radical jihadists.

Not Iran only will benefit from this course of events; China and, to some
extent, Russia, will benefit too. But it's imperative for the US now to find a
balanced approach to China, Russia and the Middle East, since a failure to
achieve this goal would not only endanger the international peace, but would
also affect the very survival of the United States as a superpower and America
will have to settle for a role of a regional power only, with no real influence
whatsoever over the situation in Europe and Asia. It seems that this will be the
most likely scenario since the recent actions of Barack Obama are showing that
he has realized his miscalculations and now he's desperately trying to get out
of trouble he has created himself.

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Multiple Choice Questions

(MCQs)
From 1800- 1825
1. 1800 election was one of only 2 elections which were transferred to House
of Representatives, other being 1824 election. This happened because
electoral votes tied
2. Population of US according to 1800 census was 5.3 Million
3. Oliver Evans made steam engine in 1801
4. War of Tripoli started in 1801, City of Tripoli was bombarded in 1804 and
a treaty with Pasha of Tripoli was signed in 1805
5. Under Expansion of Judiciary act of 1801, Adams created 16 new federal
judgeships and appointed federalists to them in what was dubbed as
Midnight Appointments
6. Organic act, passed in 1801, officially organized D.C. and put it under
control of Federal government
7. Virginian Dynasty spanned from 1801 to 1825
8. Treaty of Amiens was signed in 1802 as ceasefire between France and UK
9. Famous Marbury vs. Madison case was headed by CJ John Marshall, a
federalist, in 1803and this case set up the tradition of Judicial Review
10. Louisiana Purchase was carried out by Monroe (Governor of Virginia)
and Livingston (US ambassador in France)
11. 12th Amendment was ratified in 1804. It was passed in order to rectify
the flaw in 1800 election and directed electors to cast votes distinctly for
POTUS and VP. Prior to that, all electors voted for POTUS and the runner-
up was elected as VP. This consequently
a. prevented a deadlock in case of equal votes
b. Prevented the POTUS and VP’s being from opposing parties
12. Clarke and Lewis expedition of 1804-06 was crucial in solving issue of
Oregon with UK later

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13. Burr-Hamilton duel took place in 1804

14. Embargo Act was enacted to assert American sovereignty from 1807 to
1809 but backfired
15. According to census of 1810, population was 7.2 Mn
16. William Henry Harrison defeats pan-Indian alliance at Battle of
Tippecanoe in 1811
17. Henry Dearborn was sect. of war in 1812 war
18. Tecumseh, native Indian warrior against US, was killed in Battle of
Thames in 1813
19. In 1814, Francis Scott Key, a Washington lawyer, while prisoner on
British ship, wrote a song, “The Start-Spangled Banner”, in his book
published later, The Defense of Fort Mchenry, which became US national
anthem in 1931
20. Battle of New Orleans, most famous battle of 1812 war, was fought in
January 1815, by Andrew Jackson who got title of Hero of New Orleans.
This battle was fought after the after the Peace Treaty was concluded!
21. The start of the American Industrial Revolution is often attributed to
Samuel Slater who introduced cotton milling
22. Tariff Laws were passed in 1816&1824 (Protective tariffs to curb
import of cheap British products)
23. 1816 election was the last election competed by Federalist Party
24. Charter to renew First Bank of US in 1811 failed. Second Bank of US
was established in 1816 which was to expire in 20 years. Bank would have $
35 Mn capital one-fifth of which will be provided by government. Bank
would have 25 directors (one-fifth appointed by govt.). Its renewal in 1836
also failed, so it worked as a normal bank till its bankruptcy in 1841
25. Erie Canal (363 Miles) was built from New york rom 1817-25 and
opened in 1825
26. Missouri requested admission as a slave state in 1818. At that time no. of
slave and Free states was balanced i.e. 11. Petition was taken up in 1819
and Missouri compromise was reached in 1820 thanks to Maine’s petition
at the critical time.
27. Rush-Bagot Treaty of Joint occupation of Oregon (US & GB) signed in
1818 (for 10 years) and renewed in 1826
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28. Economic collapse of 1819 resulted in a 6-year depression

29. Purchase of Florida for $ 5Mn (Transcontinental treat or Adams-Onis
treaty) was signed in 1819 and Spain ratified the treaty in 1821. Spain gave
up her claim on Texas and Oregon also
30. Cast Iron plough was invented in 1819
31. Famous case heard by John Marshal
a. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)-rendered state-defying of National bank
unconstitutional
b. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)-ruling about federal govt’s authority to control
interstate commerce
32. 1820 election (James Monroe) was the 3rd and last instance where there
was no opposing candidate. First 2 being 1789 and 1792 (George
Washington)
33. According to census of 1820, population was 9.6 Mn
34. US accorded recognition to Mexico in 1822
35. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison unsuccessfully advocated a joint
declaration with GB
36. Monroe doctrine came in Dec 1823, Roosevelt added a corollary to it
in 1904- right to interfere in domestic affairs of Latin American countries
37. Russo-American treaty took place in 1824
38. 1824 election was one of only 2 elections which were transferred to
House of Representatives, other being 1800 election. This happened
because no candidate got sufficient plurality by electors.
39. 1824 election is the only election in which candidate who got most
electoral votes could not become POTUS, that person being Andrew
Jackson
40. During and after 1824 election, Democratic - Republican Party
segregated into 4 factions due to Corrupt Bargain in which Henry Clay
manipulated HOR to elect John Q. Adams rather than Jackson. Out of
these factions emerged the 2nd Party System and came into play in 1828
election where contenders clearly came from two opposing parties:
Democratic and National Republicans (later merged into Whigs)
41. New Harmony Community (a stunt of Robert Owen to form utopian
society) was formed in 1825

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42. Second great awakening, a Christian revival movement, started in

1800s, peaked in 1820s and declined in 1870s. It is well known for its
Camp Meetings. It. A famous activist was Charles Grandison Finney
43. Mormons, a faction of Christians, was formed by Joseph Smith. Its
center is Utah

From 1826- 1850

44. American Temperance society was formed in 1826
45. Second party system ranges from 1828 to 1854. Two main political
parties were Democrats and National Republicans who merged laterin
Whigs (1833). 1828 election was the first election where 2ndparty system
came out explicitly
46. Andrew Jackson hailed from frontier (west)and was dubbed as Old
Hickory. His cabinet was dubbed as Kitchen Cabinet
47. Under spoils system, Jackson rusticated 1000 officers
48. Eaton affair created a rift between Calhoun and Jackson
49. Tariff of 1828, dubbed as Black Tariff or Tariff of Abomination was
passed to protect woolen industry.
50. The Indian Removal Act was passed in 1830
51. Peter Cooper invented steamlocomotive in 1830, first railroad was
developed in 1828 and opened for passengers in 1831
52. Webster-Hayne debate (on nature of union) occurred in 1830. Webster
espoused federal supremacy whereas Hayne advocated state-rights.
Calhoun presided over the debate
53. Famous Cherokee vs. Georgia case was taken by Supreme Court in
1831in which court said it cannot hear the case because Cherokees are not
a foreign nation but a dependent one
54. Calhoun wrote address to people of South Carolina in 1831
55. Nat Turner led slave abolition movement in Virginia in 1831
56. Famous Worcester vs. Georgia case was taken by Supreme Court in
1832 in which court prevented Georgia from prosecuting a Cherokee

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messenger Worchester saying that only center has authority to enforce

prosecution, not the state
57. In Tariff of 1832, many tariffs were reduced but were not enough to
placate South Carolina which issued Nullification Ordinance in 1833. To
warn South Carolina, Jackson passed Force Law(1833) and to appease
South Carolina, Henry Clay passed Compromise Bill (1833)
58. Jackson ordered withdrawal of federal money from National bank in
1832
59. In Georgia-Worcester case (1832), SC ruled Georgia’s actions
unconstitutional
60. Special Circular (use of hard current to buy land)was issued in 1836
61. Whigs Party came into being in 1834, founded by Henry Clay, and had
4 presidents. This party got dissolved due to internal discord on issue of
slavery in 1854.
a. Henry Harrison (1841-41)- Died in office
b. Tyler (1841-45) -rose from VP to POTUS after Harrison’s death-
deserted by Whigs because his supporters were a minority
faction(runaway democrats) and due to issue of Bank Bill. He is the
only POTUS to be expelled from party while in office
c. Zachary Taylor- (1849-50)- Died in office- Served in War of Mexico
d. Fillmore (1850-53)- rose from VP to POTUS after Taylor’s death
62. Henry Clay moved the compromise bill of 1833 to curb Nullification
Ordinance and mediated. He also moved the compromise of 1850. He was
dubbed “The Great Pacificator”. He espoused close ties with Latin
American countries and supported re-chartering of 2nd National bank. He
also used to support the protective tariffs.
63. Crop Reaper was invented in 1834
64. Texan revolt occurred in 1835. Texas (aka Lone star state) got
independence and framed their constitution in 1836. Massacre of Alamo
occurred in 1836 conducted by Santa Anna. Till its cession to US in 1845,
it stayed independent country for 9 years
65. Bureau of Indian affairs was established in 1836. 94 treaties were
conducted with Indians
66. Bank Panic occurred in 1837- a 4 year recession
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67. Caroline affair (Canadian rebellion)occurred in 1837

68. Samuel Morse invented Electric telegraph in 1837
69. After Jackson, till Lincoln (excluding), all presidents served for a single
term
70. Independent US Treasury was formed in 1840
71. Creole affair(Slave ship issue) took place in 1841
72. Webster-Ash burton treaty was signed in 1842 to solve issues of
Northern boundary with British
73. A hot issue of 1844 election was Texas’s annexation
74. Word Manifest Destiny (westward expansion after 1829) was coined
by John Sullivan, a journalist, in 1845in an article titled Annexation.
Politically it was used by Winthrop for the first time at issue of terminating
joint occupation of Oregon. This divine concept was used as a tool to
initiate Mexican war (to gain Texas and California) and Oregon treaty
75. Oregon treaty (US & GB) took place in 1846- Oregon was dividedalong
49th parallel. At that time 54o40’ or fight was slogan of expansionists
76. Elias Howe invented sewing machine in 1846
77. Oneida community was founded in 1847 and continued till 1881
78. Treaty of Guadeloupe-Hidalgo was carried out in Jan 1848to end
Mexican war. US got 500,000 square mile area and paid $ 15 Mn for New
Mexican territory. US also got California, Texas, Utah, Nevada, and
Arizona. Boundary between US and Mexico was fixed at Rio Grande
79. Gold Rush occurred in California in 1848
80. Wilmot Proviso was a rider-act presented in 1846 on the discussion on $
2 Mn appropriation bill. Was put to debate twice and failed both times
81. Issue of admitting states gained after Mexican war caused division in
political parties.
82. Free soil Party was created (1848) with alliance of Conscience Whigs
and anti-slavery Democrats. It got merged in 1854 in Republican party
(created 1854)
83. Compromise of 1850 consists of 5 laws. According to it
a. California was admitted as a free state
b. Texas gave up New Mexico for $ 10 Mn
c. North Mexico named as Utah
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d. Texas , New Mexico & Utah admitted as neutral states- federation

would not pass any law regarding slavery there
e. Slave trade was abolished in DC
f. Fugitive slave act was passed. Fugitive Slave cases put under Federal
Jurisdiction and run-away slaves to be returned
84. Compromise of 1850 unconsciously espoused the doctrine of Popular
Sovereignty
85. Gag rule was a way of muting all anti-slavery petitions in HOR. It was
repealed in 1844 with efforts of John Quincy Adams

From 1851- 1900 & Civil War

86. Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel
by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in 1852
87. Gadsden purchase was conducted in 1853 with Mexico, ratified by
senate in 1854, to build a transcontinental railroad
88. Kansas-Nebraska act was passed in 1854, proposed by Stephen
Douglas, an attempt to legalese the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty. It
repealed Missouri compromise, giving states right to decide the status.
89. Eventually both Kansas and Nebraska entered as Free states.
90. The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to
annex Cuba as a slave state
91. Appeal of independent democrats of Congress was written by Chase,
signed by Free-Soil Democrats
92. In Kansas, two opposing constitutions, Topeka Constitution (anti-
slavery- 1855) and Lecompton Constitution (pro-slavery- 1857) were
proposed. In Congress debate (1858), former won and Kansas entered
union as Free state (1861)
93. In 1856, Pottawatomie massacre took place- free men under John
Brown attacked Pro-Salves
94. Kansas-Nebraska act had huge impact on 1856 election in which
Buchanan, a democrat, won

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95. In 1857, Supreme Court heard the famous Dred Scot vs. Sanford case -
ruled in favor of slave owners and also declared Missouri Compromise
unconstitutional plus declared Negros as Non-Citizens of US. This
decision was later overruled by 15th amendment(1870)
96. Lincoln-Douglas debate took place in 1858, as a contest for Senate seat
from Illinois
97. In 1859, John Brown’s Raid on Harper Ferry took place- An attempt to
eradicate slavery by armed slave revolt
98. According to 1860 census, population was 31.4 Mn
99. 1860 election was won by Abraham Lincoln- a republican; democrats
were divided on nomination (Douglas was main nominee). Another party
called Constitutional Union Party also participated Civil War
100. First state to secede was South Carolina (20 Dec 1860) and by Feb, 6
more states seceded. In Feb 1861, 7 states -SAFMGTL (Some apples feel more
good than lemon)–met at Montgomery (Alabama) and formed a Confederate
state of America with Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president.
Richmond (Virginia) was selected as capital. This happened even before
Lincoln took office (4thMarch 1861).
101. 4 more states – VNAT (Very Tasty And Nectarous)- joined confederation
later to make total 11 states
102. Union had 25 states on its side
103. War started with attack of Southern forces on Fort Sumter on 12th April
1861. War was conducted on 2 fronts- east and west. Lincoln called for
75,000 volunteers
104. 1st battle of Bull Run/Manassas was conducted in east in 1861, a failed
attempt by US to take Richmond.
105. 2nd attempt at Richmond was conducted in 1862(7 days war), driven
back by confederation
106. 2nd battle of Bull Run/Manassas was conducted in 1862
107. Confederation got a ship Alabama from GB, it sunk 63 US ships
108. Battle of Gettysburg (1863) was the battle with most (50,000) causalities
in war. It was conducted near Pennsylvania, and put t halt to General Lee’s
invasion of North

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109. Final battle of civil war took place in Appomattox, Confederation

surrendered in April 1865
110. Lincoln changed 5 generals during the war
111. Confederation resorted to conscription in 1862, US in 1863
112. Prominent generals of US were
a. McDowell (Lost 1st battle of Bull Run)
b. McClellan (Led 2ndsiege at Richmond)
c. Sherman (notorious march through Georgia, 1864)
d. Grant (Chief of US forces in Civil War, won final battle at
Appomattox)
113. Prominent generals of confederation were
a. Beauregard (Initiated war with Fort Sumter attack, won
first battle of Bull run)
b. Johnston (won first battle of Bull run, injure in 2nd siege
on Richmond)
c. Robert E. Lee (Lost Final battle)
114. GB stayed Neutral though it wanted to help Southerners, France too
stayed neutral following GB, because of timid leader Napoleon 3. Russia
supported US by sending 12 vessels
115. Trent affair occurred in 1861 between US and GB
116. Proclamation of Emancipation was read by Lincoln in 1862,
operational from 1st Jan, 1863. It freed slaves only in South
117. Congress passed National Banking Acts in 1863 and 1864 to stimulate
sale of war bonds
118. Gettysburg address was given by Lincoln in Nov 1863
119. War-time nurses were called Angels of the Battlefields
120. Charles and Mary Beard called Civil war as second American
revolution
121. William Seward was Lincoln’s Secretary of State
122. 6 volumes of "Medical and Surgical History of the War of the
Rebellion" were published. It was prepared under the direction of Joseph
Barnes
123. Lincoln’s Sect of war was Edwin Stanton

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124. 10 percent plan was given by Lincoln for admission of Southern states in
union
125. Assassination of Lincoln occurred on 12th April 1865, at hands of John
Wilkes Booth, a Maryland actor, while Lincoln was watching a drama Our
American Cousin at Ford Theatre. Booth shouted SIC SEMPER
TYRANNIS. ASSASSINATORS WERE TRIALED BY A MILITRY
TRIBNAL “HUNTER COMISSION”
126. Andrew Johnson was a democrat
127. Ban on slavery all over US (except as punishment)was added in
constitution as 13th Amendment in 1865
128. Hiram Rhodes Revels was first ever African-American in US Congress
(Senate)
129. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $ 7.2 Mn, became
49thstate in 1959
130. National Labor Union was founded in 1866, dissolved in 1873
131. 14th Amendment was ratified in 1868. It is about equal protection for all
citizens under law. This amendment was later used in the Supreme Court
Case: Brown vs. Board of Education
132. Ku Klux Klan was formed in Tennessee in 1868
133. Democrats called themselves as Redeemers
134. Andrew Johnson was the first president to be impeached in 1868.
Blame was "Violation of Office Tenure act high crimes and
misdemeanors. Impeachment failed
135. 15th Amendment was ratified in1870. It grants citizenship (right to
vote) to all residents no matter which race or color. This amendment
overruled the decision of SC on Dred Scott case (1857 )
136. Thomas Edison invented Phonograph in 1877
137. Rise and Fall of Confederate govt. was written in 1881 by Jefferson
Davis
138. In 1886, France gifted USA with Statue of Liberty, at the time of
president Grover Cleveland. It was designed by French sculptor Fredric
Bartholdi and symbolized immigrants

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From 1900- 1925

139. Spanish American war ended in 1898 by treaty of Paris
140. USA got Philippines in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1899
141. Boxer rising in China and Open Door policy in china occurred in 1900
142. Platt Amendment was introduced in 1901
143. USA Steel Corp. was formed in 1901
144. Teddy Roosevelt was given Nobel Prize in 1906
145. Ford-T was designed in 1908
146. Teddy Roosevelt formed Bull Moose Party (Progressive) in 1912 after
split in Republican Party.
147. Panama Canal was opened in 1914
148. Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915
149. Lafayette escadrilles were American volunteers fighting for France in
1916
150. Zimmermann Telegram was captured in 1917- German attempt to incite
Mexico
151. USA entered war in April1917, Selective Service Act was passed in
1917, Espionage and sedition act was passed in 1917, War Industries
Board was formed in 1917
152. US Bought Virgin Islands in 1917 from Denmark for $ 25 Mn
153. Paris Peace Conference was held in 1919, at the end of which Treaty of
Versailles was signed. Important participants were Big Four. This treaty
could not be ratified in US due to stiff opposition from Henry Cabot who
opposed 10th article of treaty
154. 1919: Wilson got peace Nobel prize for his 14 points
155. Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1919, ratified in 1920: gave
women the right to vote
156. US entered WW1 in 1917
157. Ww1 was also called A war to end all wars
158. Woodrow Wilson was a democrat president
159. The United States remained officially at war until 1921

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From 1926- 1950

160. Black Thursday is the day when stock markets crashed in USA
161. The Great Depression lasted for a decade
162. Hawley-Smoot tariff of 1930restricted foreign imports highly,
worsening conditions
163. Dust Bowl is name given to the region which faced drought in great
depression
164. Four freedoms were given by Roosevelt (Speech, religion, from want,
from fear)
165. F.D. Roosevelt was elected to office 4 times. He was 32nd president of
USA
166. TVA was established in 1933 under FD Roosevelt
167. US entered WW2 in December 8, 1941after attack on Pearl Harbor
(1941)
168. Following peace conferences were held in wake of world war 2
a. Atlantic Charter (1941)
b. Moscow conference (1943)
c. Yalta conference (1945)- Post war plan for Europe was discussed
d. Potsdam conference (1945)
e. San Francisco (1945)- Charter of UNO was adopted
169. Truman’s domestic policy was known a Fair Deal
170. GI bill of rights and Atomic Energy Act were passed by Truman
171. Truman doctrine was presented in 1947
172. Marshall plan(aka European Recovery Plan)was presented in 1947 and
enacted in 1948
173. Korean war started in 1950 and armistice was conducted in 1953

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From 1951 onwards

174. Dulles was sect of state of Eisenhower, architect of Eisenhower doctrine
175. Vietnam war lasted from 1955-75
176. Bay of Pigs invasion occurred in 1961
177. Apollo program was put forward by Kennedy in 1961 and succeeded in
1969
178. Ronald Regan used to call Soviet Union an evil empire
179. Hawaii became part of USA in 1959, 50th state to join USA
180. Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in 1962
181. Civil Rights Acts of 1964 discarded all discrimination towards blacks
including segregation
182. Martin Luther King was assassinated in 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee
183. Nixon presented his 5 principles for Latin America in 1969
184. SALT was signed between US and USSR in 1971
185. Richard Nixon was the first US president to visit China in 1972
186. US built Panama Canal in 1914, held it till 1977 when Torrijos –Carter
Treaty provided for the transition of control to Panama. In 1999, complete
control was given to Panama Canal Authority
187. Camp David Accord was signed in 1978 between Egyptian and Israeli
presidents under Jimmy Carter.
188. Regan and Gorbachev met in 1988 in New York
189. Bush and Gorbachov met at Malta Summit 1989
190. US established diplomatic relations with China in 1979
191. Henry Kissinger was sect. of state for Nixon and Ford, wrote a book
The White House Years
192. George H. W. Bush (senior) was a former head of CIA.

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Uptill 1977
193. New Hampshire was the first state to adopt a constitution in 1776
194. On July 8, 1776, Liberty Bell rang from the tower of Independence Hall
summoning the citizens of Philadelphia to hear the Declaration of
Independence by Colonel John Nixon.
195. Thomas Paine wrote a book Common Sense (1776) which aroused the
public revolutionary spirit
196. Virginia Statute of religious freedom was drafted by Jefferson in 1777,
included in Virginia’s state law in 1786
197. Benjamin Franklin was a Pennsylvanian Radical
198. Samuel Adams, John Adams and John Hancock were Massachusetts’
radicals
199. George Washington, Madison, Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry
were Virginian radicals
200. Alexander Hamilton and Robert Livingston were New York radicals
201. American capitals were
a. Philadelphia (1st and 2nd Continental Congress)
b. Then due to WOI it was changed frequently to Baltimore, Lancaster
and York and finally again back to Philadelphia
c. Under AOC it was changed to New York City
d. Under US Constitution, first ever capital was New York City, changed
to Philadelphia (1790) and finally to Washington DC (1800)where
congress held its first meeting In 1800
202. ROBERT MORRIS became the Congress' superintendent of finance in
1781 and setup Bank of North America
203. Continental congress issued paper money called “Continental”
204. Annapolis Convention, presided by John Dickinson, was held in
September 1786, first attempt to modify the AOC to give Congress more
control, but failed. It called for Philadelphia convention.
205. Shay’s rebellion took place in 1786-87in Massachusetts
206. Three-fifth compromise was suggested by James Wilson and Roger
Sherman.
207. Benjamin Franklin is called the “sage of constitutional convention”

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208. The committee of detail was headed by John Rutledge

209. The preamble of constitutionwaswritten by Committee of Style
210. Anti-federalists were led by Patrick Henry, federalists by Alexander
Hamilton
211. Constitution was ratified by 9th stateson June 21, 1788,New Hampshire
being that state; became operational on 4th March 1789 with first
meeting of congress and repealing of AOC on 3rd March
212. George Washington is the only president not to belong to any political
party; he called political parties “factions”
213. Bill of rights (9 proposed by Massachusetts, 12 proposed by GW, but 10
accepted amendments), sent to states on 25th Sep, 1789, ratified by 9
states and became operational in Dec 1791. Connecticut and Georgia
ratified them in 1941
a. 1st Amendment: Freedom of speech, no religion established
b. 2nd Amendment: A state militia and right to keep arms
c. 9th Amendment: Rights not listed will be protected
d. 10th Amendment: Powers not enlisted in constitution are reserved by
states
214. Supreme Court of USA was established in 1789
215. Population of US according to census of 1790 was 3.9 Mn
216. First cotton mill was established in 1790by Samuel Slater
217. The First Bank of USwas established in 1791 at Philadelphiaas a
private corporation with an expiration date of 20 years.Bank would
have $ 10 Mn capital one-fifth of which will be provided by
government. Bank would have 25 directors (one-fifth appointed by
govt.)
218. National currency was issued in 1792 (Mint Act) by establishing a mint
at Philadelphia
219. 11th amendment in US Constitution was passed by Congress in 1794,
ratified in 1795 was in order to overrule the U.S. Supreme Court's
decision in Chisholm v. Georgia
220. Jay’s treaty was signed with UK in 1794
221. Washington DC was previously called Federal City
222. French Revolution broke out in 1789
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223. Anglo-French war broke out in 1792

224. Ellen Whitney invented Cotton Gin in 1793
225. First party system ranges from almost 1794 to 1828. Two major parties
were Federalists and Democratic-republicans (Jeffersonian).
226. Election of 1796 was the first election where candidates at all levels ran
from well-organized partiesand the only electionwhere POTUS and VP
were from opposing parties
227. Alien and sedition acts passed in 1798, contained 4 sub-laws and
expired in 1801
228. Virginia resolution (1798-Madison) and Kentucky resolutions(1798 &
99-Jefferson) were passed in state legislatures, in opposition of Alien &
Sedition Acts and the principles incorporated in theme became known as
principles of ‘98
229. George Washington died in 1799

History of USA
Solved MCQS - 2012
230. FDR highest vote in which term? 2nd Term
231. Harvard was established in which year? 1636
232. How many states signed Declaration of Independence? 13 Colonies
233. Ronald Reagan said Evil Empire about which state? USSR
234. Fourth Constitution Amendment is about? Search and Seizure
235. Paris Treaty in which year? 1783
236. First US Consensus in which year? 1790
237. Fourteen points of Wilson deals with? Germany
238. NASA US space shuttle Colombia in which year? 1981
239. Intermediate Range Nuclear Treaty signed between Reagan and
Gorbachev in which year? 1987
240. I have a dream speech by Martin Luther in which year? 1963
241. Capital Punishment in America is followed in how many states? 35
242. Malcolm X killed in which year? 1965
243. National Organization of Women was established in which year? 1966
244. American Bar Association established in 1878.
245. Miranda rule pertains to warn you in advance before arresting you.
246. Truman doctrine was to contain communism in Greece and Turkey.
247. Reader Digest was introduced in America in 1922.

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GENERAL OBJECTIVES
248. The term muckraker is closely associated with reform-oriented
journalists who wrote continued a tradition of investigative journalism
reporting, and emerged in the United States after 1900.

249. Indentured servitude is practice of contracting to work for a fixed period

of time, typically three to seven years, in exchange for transportation, food,
clothing, lodging and other necessities. They included men and women, most
were under the age of 21. They were Europeans mostly.

250. Clara Barton was a famous nurse in Civil War, made American Red
Cross.

251. Louis Armstrong was a trumpeter.

252. Babe Ruth is a baseball player in USA.

253. Dean Rusk was a sect of state of US.

254. Affirmative actions policy is to help under-represented communities in

USA. It was signed in an executive order signed by Kennedy.

255. NASA stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

256. Camp David is located in Maryland.

257. Black birding is illegal importation of slaves.

258. Alaska has the longest coastline in USA, Florida on second.

259. USA has an area of3.79 million square miles (9.83 Million Km square).

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260. National Security of USA is a document prepared by Executive Branch

of government.

261. Constitution of USA has 7 articles, 10 bill of rights, 27 ratified and6

ungratified amendments.

262. HOR requires 25 years of age with 7 years of citizenship minimum.

263. Until now, 33 amendments have been proposed, 27 ratified.

264. In US constitution:
 Article 1: Legislature (also census)
 Article 2: Executive
 Article 3: Judiciary
 Article 4: Relations between states
 Article 5: Amendments
 Article 6: Central Govt
 Article 7: Ratification

265. In US constitution, amendments are

 proposed by two-third of Congress or State legislatures (States
convention)
 ratified by third-fourth of Congress or State conventions (only
21st Amendment)

WANT TO LEARN MORE

 http://www.usahistory.org/
 http://www.usahistory.com
 http://www.thedigitalusa.com
 http://studymore.org.uk/america.htm
 http://www.theusaonline.com/

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Useful Quotations for Paper

America is the nation of nations.
―Obama

Revolution was in Hearts and Minds of Peoples

―John Adams

I cannot Leave Half America free and half Slave.

―Abraham Lincoln

Thomas Jefferson was the man who ever occupied American Presidency.
―J.F Kennedy

No Taxation without Representation.

―Washington

America is a casualty shy country.

―Opposition during Vietnam war

World needs to be a safe place for democracy.

―Woodrow Wilson

George Washington is a week old man under the British influence.

―France

We are all Republicans, We are all Federalist.

―Jefferson

A good Indian is only a Dead Indian.

―Jackson

I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the
strenuous life.
―Theodore Roosevelt

We have stood apart, studiously neutral.

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Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best.

The world must be made safe for democracy.

―Woodrow Wilson‖
A government of laws, and not of men.

In politics the middle way is none at all.

―John Adams

A share in two revolutions is living to some purpose.

As to religion, I hold it to be the indispensable duty of government to protect

all conscientious professors thereof, and I know of no other business which
government hath to do therewith.
―Thomas Paine

A house divided against itself cannot stand.' I believe this government cannot
endure permanently, half slave and half free.
―Abraham Lincoln

Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil; in its worst state, an
intolerable one. Government, like dress, is the badge of lost innocence; the
palaces of kings are built upon the ruins of the bowers of paradise.

To give victory to the right, not bloody bullets,

but peaceful ballots only, are necessary.
(Quoted as: The ballot is stronger than the bullet.)

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BEST WISHES

Aamir Khan Mahar

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USA History by Aamir Mahar

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