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Table of Contents
Chapter No Title Page No
1 Construction Planning
1.1 Basic Concepts in the Development of Construction
1
Plans
1.2 Choice of Technology and Construction Method 2
1.3 Defining Work Tasks 3
1.4 Defining Precedence Relationships Among Activities 6
1.5 Estimating Activity Durations 10

ww 1.6 Estimating Resource Requirements for Work Activities 14

w.E 1.7 Coding Systems

1.8 References
15
17
2
asy
Fundamental Scheduling Procedures
2.1 Relevance of Construction Schedules 18

En
2.2 The Critical Path Method 19

gin
2.3 Calculations for Critical Path Scheduling 20

ee
2.4 Activity Float and Schedules
2.5 Presenting Project Schedules

rin
2.6 Critical Path Scheduling for Activity-on-Node and with
22
25

30
Leads, Lags, and Windows
2.7 Calculations for Scheduling with Leads, Lags and
g.n 33

et
Windows
2.8 Resource Oriented Scheduling 34
2.9 Scheduling with Resource Constraints and Precedence 36
2.10 Use of Advanced Scheduling Techniques 38
2.11 Scheduling with Uncertain Durations 38
2.12 Crashing and Time/Cost Tradeoffs 42
2.13 Improving the Scheduling Process 45
2.14 References 46
3 Cost Control, Monitoring and Accounting
3.1 The Cost Control Problem 47
3.2 The Project Budget 47

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3.3 Forecasting for Activity Cost Control 48

3.4 Financial Accounting Systems and Cost Accounts 49
3.5 Control of Project Cash Flows 51
3.6 Schedule Control 52
3.7 Schedule and Budget Updates 54
3.8 Relating Cost and Schedule Information 54
3.9 References 56
4 Quality Control and Safety During Construction
4.1 Quality and Safety Concerns in Construction 57

ww 4.2 Organizing for Quality and Safety

4.3 Work and Material Specifications
57
58

w.E4.4 Total Quality Control 59

asy
4.5 Quality Control by Statistical Methods
4.6 Statistical Quality Control with Sampling by Attributes
61
61

En
4.7 Statistical Quality Control with Sampling by Variables 66
4.8 Safety
4.9 References gin 71
71
5
ee
Organization and Use of Project Information
5.1 Types of Project Information
rin 73
5.2 Accuracy and Use of Information
g.n 74

5.3 Computerized Organization and Use of Information

5.4 Organizing Information in Databases
et 76
78
5.5 Relational Model of Databases 80
5.6 Other Conceptual Models of Databases 81
5.7 Centralized Database Management Systems 84
5.8 Databases and Applications Programs 85
5.9 Information Transfer and Flow 87
5.10 References 88

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CE2351 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – II L T P C

3104
OBJECTIVE
This course is in continuation of Structural Analysis – Classical Methods. Here in advanced
method of analysis like Matrix method and Plastic Analysis are covered. Advanced topics such
as FE method and Space Structures are covered.
UNIT I FLEXIBILITY METHOD 12
Equilibrium and compatibility – Determinate vs Indeterminate structures – Indeterminacy -
Primary structure – Compatibility conditions – Analysis of indeterminate pin-jointed plane
frames, continuous beams, rigid jointed plane frames (with redundancy restricted to two).
UNIT II STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD 12
Element and global stiffness matrices – Analysis of continuous beams – Co-ordinate
transformations – Rotation matrix – Transformations of stiffness matrices, load vectors and

ww
displacements vectors – Analysis of pin-jointed plane frames and rigid frames( with redundancy
vertical to two)
UNIT III FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 12

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Introduction – Discretisation of a structure – Displacement functions – Truss element – Beam
element – Plane stress and plane strain - Triangular elements

asy
UNIT IV PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 12
Statically indeterminate axial problems – Beams in pure bending – Plastic moment of resistance
– Plastic modulus – Shape factor – Load factor – Plastic hinge and mechanism – Plastic

En
analysis of indeterminate beams and frames – Upper and lower bound theorems
UNIT V SPACE AND CABLE STRUCTURES 12

gin
Analysis of Space trusses using method of tension coefficients – Beams curved in plan
Suspension cables – suspension bridges with two and three hinged stiffening girders
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
53
TEXT BOOKS
ee rin
1. Vaidyanathan, R. and Perumal, P., “Comprehensive structural Analysis – Vol. I & II”, Laxmi
Publications, New Delhi, 2003
g.n
2. L.S. Negi & R.S. Jangid, “Structural Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi,
2003.
et
3. BhaviKatti, S.S, “Structural Analysis – Vol. 1 Vol. 2”, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2008
REFERENCES
1. Ghali.A, Nebille,A.M. and Brown,T.G. “Structural Analysis” A unified classical and Matrix
approach” –5th edition. Spon Press, London and New York, 2003.
2. Coates R.C, Coutie M.G. and Kong F.K., “Structural Analysis”, ELBS and Nelson, 1990
3. Structural Analysis – A Matrix Approach – G.S. Pandit & S.P. Gupta, Tata McGraw Hill
2004.
4. Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures – Jr. William Weaver & James M. Gere, CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

CHAPTER 1
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Equilibrium and compatibility – Determinate vs Indeterminate structures –
Indeterminacy -Primary structure – Compatibility conditions – Analysis of indeterminate
pin-jointed planeframes, continuous beams, rigid jointed plane frames (with redundancy
restricted to two).

1.1 INTRODUCTION
These are the two basic methods by which an indeterminate skeletal structure is
analyzed. In these methods flexibility and stiffness properties of members are employed.
These methods have been developed in conventional and matrix forms. Here conventional

ww
methods are discussed.
Thegivenindeterminatestructureisfirstmadestaticallydeterminatebyintroducing

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suitable numberof releases. The number of releases required is equal to
staticalindeterminacy∝s. Introductionofreleasesresultsin
displacementdiscontinuitiesatthesereleases under the externally applied loads. Pairs
ofunknown
asy biactions(forces
andmoments)areappliedatthesereleasesinordertorestorethecontinuityorcompatibility of
structure.
En
The computation of these unknown biactions involves solution of linear

gin
simultaneousequations.Thenumberoftheseequationsisequaltostaticalindeterminacy∝s.
Aftertheunknownbiactionsarecomputedall

ee
theinternalforcescanbecomputedintheentirestructureusingequationsofequilibriumandfreeb
odiesofmembers.Therequired displacements can also be computed using methods of
displacement computation.
rin
g.n
Inflexibilitymethodsinceunknownsareforces atthereleasesthemethodisalsocalled
force method.Since computation of displacement is also required at releases for

et
imposing conditions of compatibility the method is also called compatibility method. In
computationofdisplacementsuseismadeof flexibilityproperties,hence,themethodis also
called flexibility method.

1.2 EQUILIBRIUM and COMPATABILITY CONDITIONS

Thethreeconditionsofequilibriumarethesumofhorizontalforces,verticalforcesandmom
ents at anyjoint should beequal to zero.
i.e.∑H=0;∑V=0;∑M=0
Forces should be in equilibrium
i.e.∑FX=0;∑FY=0;∑FZ=0
i.e.∑MX=0;∑MY=0;∑MZ=0
Displacement of a structure should be compatable
The compatibility conditions for the supports can be given as
1.Roller Support δV=0
2.Hinged Support δV=0, δH=0
3.Fixed Support δV=0, δH=0, δө=0

SCE 1 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

1.3.DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Ifskeletalstructureissubjectedtograduallyincreasingloads,withoutdistortingthe
initialgeometryofstructure,thatis,causingsmalldisplacements,thestructureissaidto be stable.
Dynamic loads and buckling or instability of structural system are not
consideredhere.Ifforthestablestructureitispossibletofindtheinternalforcesinall the members
constituting the structure and supporting reactions at all the supports providedfrom
staticallyequationsofequilibrium only,thestructureissaidtobe determinate.

Ifitispossibletodetermineallthesupport reactionsfromequationsof equilibrium

alonethestructureissaidtobeexternallydeterminateelseexternally indeterminate.If structureis
externallydeterminatebutitisnotpossible todetermineall

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internalforcesthenstructureissaidtobe
systemmaybe:
internallyindeterminate. Thereforeastructural

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(1)Externally indeterminate but internally determinate
(2)Externally determinate but internally indeterminate

asy
(3)Externallyand internallyindeterminate
(4)Externally and internallydeterminate

En
1.3.1.DETERMINATEVs INDETERMINATESTRUCTURES.

gin
Determinatestructurescanbesolvingusingconditionsofequilibriumalone(∑H=0;∑V=0
;∑M=0). No otherconditions arerequired.

ee
Indeterminatestructurescannotbesolvedusingconditionsofequilibriumbecause(∑H≠0;
∑V≠0;∑M≠ 0).Additionalconditionsarerequiredforsolvingsuchstructures.
Usuallymatrixmethods areadopted. rin
1.4 INDETERMINACYOF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM g.n
(∝k)Indeterminacy.
∝s= P (M – N + 1) – r = PR– r ∝k= P (N – 1) + r – s+∝k= PM –c
et
The indeterminacy of a structure is measured as statically (∝s) or kinematical

P = 6 for space frames subjected to general loading

P = 3 for plane frames subjected to inplane or normal to plane loading.
N = Numberof nodes in structural system.
M=Numberofmembersofcompletelystiffstructurewhichincludesfoundationas
singlyconnectedsystem ofmembers.
Incompletelystiffstructurethereisnorelease present.Insinglyconnectedsystem
ofrigidfoundationmembersthereisonlyoneroute
betweenanytwopointsinwhichtracksarenotretraced. Thesystemisconsidered comprising of
closed rings or loops.
R = Numberof loops or rings in completely stiff structure.
r = Number of releases in the system.
c = Number of constraints in the system.
R = (M – N + 1)
SCE 2 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

For plane and space trusses∝sreduces

to:∝s=M- (NDOF)N+ P
M= Number ofmembers in completely stifftruss.
P = 6 and 3 for space and plane trussrespectively
N= Number of nodes in truss.
NDOF = Degrees of freedomat node which is 2 for plane truss and 3 for space truss.
For space truss∝s=M- 3N+ 6
For plane truss∝s= M- 2 N+ 3

Test for static indeterminacy of structural system

∝s> 0

ww
If
If ∝s= 0
Structure is statically indeterminate
Structure is statically determinate

w.E
and if∝s<0 Structure is a mechanism.
Itmaybenotedthatstructuremaybemechanismevenif ∝s >0ifthereleasesare
presentinsuchawaysoastocausecollapseasmechanism.Thesituationofmechanism is
unacceptable.
asy
Statically Indeterminacy
En
Itisdifferenceoftheunknownforces(internalforcesplusexternalreactions)andthe
equations of equilibrium.
Kinematic Indeterminacy gin
resultants.

1.5 PRIMARY STRUCTURE

ee
Itisthenumberofpossiblerelativedisplacementsofthenodesinthedirectionsofstress

rin
g.n
Astructure formed bythe removingthe excess orredundant restraints froman
indeterminatestructuremakingit staticallydeterminateis called primarystructure. This is
required forsolvingindeterminatestructures byflexibilitymatrixmethod.

Indeterminatestructure PrimaryStructure
et

SCE 3 Dept of Civil

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1.6.ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES :BEAMS

1.6.1Introduction

 Solvestaticallyindeterminate beams of degree more than one.

 Tosolvetheprobleminmatrixnotation.
 Tocomputereactionsatallthesupports.
 To compute internal resisting bending moment at any section of the
continuousbeam.
Beamswhicharestaticallyindeterminatetofirstdegree,wereconsidered. If the structure is
statically indeterminate to a degree more than one, then the approach presented in the
force method is suitable.

ww
Problem 1.1
Calculate the support reactions in the continuous beam ABC due to loading as shown in

w.E
Fig.1.1 Assume EI to be constant throughout.

asy
En
gin
ee Fig 1.1
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et
Fig 1.2

Select two reactions vise, at B(R1 ) and C(R2 ) as redundant, since the given beamis
statically indeterminate to second degree. In this case the primary structure is a cantilever
beam AC.The primary structure with a given loading is shown in Fig. 1.2

In the present case, the deflections (Δ L)1 and (Δ L) 2 of the released structure at B and C
can be readily calculated by moment-area method. Thus

SCE 4 Dept of Civil

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(Δ L) 1 = − 819.16 / EI

(Δ L) 2 = − 2311.875/ EI (1)

Forthepresentproblemthe flexibility matrix is,

a11= 125/3EI ,a21= 625/6EI

a12= 625/6EI , a22 = 1000/3EI (2)

In the actual problem the displacements atBandCare zero. Thus the

compatibility conditions for the problem may be written as,
a11 R1+ a12 R2 + (Δ L) 1 = 0

ww
a21 R1+ a22 R2+ (Δ L) 2 = 0(3)

w.E
Substituting the value of E and I in the above equation,

R1 = 10.609 KN and R2 = 3.620 KN

asy
Using equations of static equilibrium, R3 = 0.771 KN m and R4 = −0.755KN m

Problem 1.2
En
AFixedbeamAB
gin ofconstantflexuralrigidityisshowninFig.1.3Thebeam
issubjectedtoauniformdistributedloadofwmomentM=wL
2

ee
kN.m.DrawShearforceandbendingmomentdiagramsbyforcemethod.

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et
Fig 1.3 Fixed Beam

SCE 5 Dept of Civil

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Fig 1.3 Fixed Beam with R1 and R2 as Redundant

ww
w.E Select vertical reaction(R1)and the support moment(R2)at B
redundant.Theprimarystructureinthiscaseisacantileverbeamwhichcould
beobtainedbyreleasingtheredundant R1 andR2.
as the

TheR1 isassumedto
asy
En
positive in the upward direction andR2 is assumed to be positive in the
counterclockwisedirection.Now,calculatedeflectionat B duetoonlyapplied
loading.Let
gin
(ΔL )bethetransversedeflectionat
1
B and(ΔL 2 ) betheslopeatB
duetoexternalloading.Thepositivedirectionsoftheselectedredundantare showninFig.8.3b.

ee rin
g.n
Fig 1.4 Primary Structure with external loading et

Fig 1.5 Primary Structure with unit load along R1

SCE 6 Dept of Civil

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Fig 1.6 Primary Structure with unit Moment along R2

ww
w.E Fig 1.7 Reaction

asy
En
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Fig1.8.Bending Moment Diagram
g.n
et
Fig1.9.Shear Force Diagram

The deflection(Δ L1)and(Δ L2)of the released structure can be evaluated from unit load
method. Thus,

(Δ L1) =wL4/8EI – 3wL4/8EI = −wL4/2EI (1)

(Δ L2) = wL3/6EI – wL3 /2EI = − 2wL3/3EI (2)
SCE 7 Dept of Civil

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The negativesign indicates that (ΔL)isdownwards

1 and rotation(ΔL2)is

clockwise.
Problem 1.3.
A continuous beam ABC is carrying a uniformly distributed loadof 1 kN/m in addition
toaconcentratedloadof10kNasshowninFig.7.5a, Draw bending momentandshearforce
diagram.Assume EItobeconstantforallmembers.

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asy
Fig1.10.Continuous Beam
En
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ee rin
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Fig1.11.Primary Structure et

SCE 8 Dept of Civil

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Fig1.12.Flexibility Coefficients

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asy
En
gin
Fig1.13.Reactions

ee rin
Itisobservedthatthecontinuousbeamisstaticallyindeterminatetofirstdegree.
ChoosethereactionatB, RBy astheredundant.Theprimarystructureisa
g.n
et

SCE 9 Dept of Civil

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simplysupportedbeamasshowninFig.1.11.Now, compute the deflection at B, in the

releasedstructure due to uniformly distributed load and concentrated load. Thisis
accomplished by unit load method.Thus,
−2083.33 1145.84
ΔL = −
EI EI

−3229.17(1)
ΔL=
EI
Inthenextstep,applyaunitloadatBinthedirectionof
RBy(upwards)and

ww
calculatethedeflectionat B of the following structure.Thus(seeFig.7.5c),
L
3
166.67

w.E a11 =
48EI
=
EI
(2)

asy
Now,deflectionatBintheprimary structure due to redundant RB is,

En Δ B= 166.67 ×RB
(3)

gin EI
In theactual structure, the deflection at B is zero. Hence, thecompatibility equation may be
written as
ee
Δ L+Δ B=0(4)
rin
Theothertworeactionsarecalculatedbystaticequilibriumequations(videFig.
1.13)
RA =7.8125kN g.n
RB =2.8125kN
et

SCE 10 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

UNIT II STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD

Element and global stiffness matrices – Analysis of continuous beams – Co-ordinate

transformations – Rotation matrix – Transformations of stiffness matrices, load vectors and
displacements vectors – Analysis of pin-jointed plane frames and rigid frames( with redundancy
vertical to two)

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Thegivenindeterminatestructureisfirstmadekinematic allydeterminatebyintroducing
constraints atthenodes.Therequirednumberofconstraintsisequaltodegrees offreedomatthe
nodesthatis kinematicindeterminacy∝k.Thekinematic allydeterminatestructurecomprises
offixedendedmembers,hence,allnodal displacementsarezero.Theseresultsinstress resultant

ww
discontinuitiesatthesenodesundertheactionofappliedloadsorin
jointsarenotinequilibrium.
Inordertorestoretheequilibriumofstressresultantsatthenodes
otherwordstheclamped

w.E
thenodesareimpartedsuitableunknowndisplacements.Thenumberofsimultaneousequationsrepresen
tingjointequilibriumofforcesisequaltokinematicindeterminacy∝k.Solutionof
theseequationsgivesunknownnodaldisplacements.Usingstiffnesspropertiesofmembersthe

asy
memberendforcesarecomputedandhencetheinternalforcesthroughoutthestructure.
Since nodal displacements are unknowns, the method is also called displacement method.
Since
En
equilibriumconditionsareappliedatthejointsthemethodisalsocalledequilibriummethod.
Sincestiffness properties ofmembers areusedthemethodis alsocalledstiffnessmethod.

gin
In the displacement method of analysis the equilibrium equations are written by
expressingtheunknownjointdisplacementsintermsofloadsby usingload-displacementrelations.
Theunknownjointdisplacements(thedegreesoffreedomof thestructure)are calculated by solving
equilibriumequations.Theslope-deflection
beforethehigh
methodisused.
ee andmoment-distributionmethodswereextensively

rin
speedcomputingera.Aftertherevolutionincomputerindustry,only
used
directstiffness

2.1.1.PROPERTIES OFTHESTIFFNESS MATRIX

g.n
Theproperties ofthestiffness matrixare:
 It isasymmetricmatrix
 Thesum of elements in anycolumn must be equal to zero.
et
 It is an unstableelementthereforethedeterminantis equal to zero.

2.2.ELEMENT AND GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRICES

Local co ordinates

In the analysis for convenience we fix the element coordinates coincident with the member
axis called element (or) local coordinates (coordinates defined along the individual member axis )

Global co ordinates

It is normally necessary to define a coordinate system dealing with the entire structure is
called system on global coordinates (Common coordinate system dealing with the entire structure)
SCE 11 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

Transformationmatrix

The connectivitymatrixwhich relates theinternalforcesQ and theexternal forces R is known

as the forcetransformation matrix. Writingit in amatrixform,
{Q} =[b]{R}
whereQ=member forcematrix/vector, b=forcetransformationmatrix
R = external force/loadmatrix/ vector

2.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

ww
w.E
asy
Fig 2.1 Cantilever Beam
En Fig 2.2 Cantilever Beam with unit load along P1

gin
ee rin
g.n
Fig 2.3 Cantilever Beam with unit Moment along P2
et

Fig 2.4 Cantilever Beam with unit Displacement along U1

SCE 12 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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SCE 13 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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SCE 14 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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Fig 2.5 A Four member Truss

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asy
En
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Fig 2.6 Kinematic ally Determinate Structures
et

SCE 15 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

ww
w.E Fig 2.7Unit Displacement along U

asy
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SCE 16 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
En
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et
2.4.ANALYSIS OF PIN JOINTED PLANE FRAMES
An introduction to thestiffnessmethodwasgivenin thepreviouschapter.Thebasicprinciples
involvedin the analysisof beams,trusseswerediscussed.Theproblemsweresolvedwith hand
computation by thedirectapplicationofthebasicprinciples. Theprocedurediscussedin theprevious
chapterthough enlighteningarenotsuitableforcomputerprogramming.Itisnecessary to keephand
computation to aminimumwhileimplementingthisprocedureon thecomputer.
In thischaptera formalapproachhasbeen discussedwhichmay bereadily programmedon a
computer.In thislesson thedirectstiffnessmethod asapplied toplanar truss structureisdiscussed.
SCE 19 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

Planetrussesaremadeupofshortthinmembersinterconnectedathingestoformtriangulated
patterns.Ahingeconnectioncanonlytransmitforcesfromonemembertoanothermemberbutnot
themoment. For analysispurpose, thetruss is loaded atthe joints. Hence, atruss member is
subjectedtoonlyaxialforcesandtheforcesremain constant alongthelengthofthemember.The forcesin
thememberatitstwo endsmustbeof thesamemagnitudebutactin theoppositedirections for
equilibriumas shown in Fig.2.8

ww
w.E
asy Fig 2.8 Truss member in Equilibrium

En
gin
ee rin
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Fig 2.9 Force Displacement Relationship
et

SCE 20 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee
Fig 2.10 Frame Member in Local Coordinate System

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SCE 21 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
En
Fig 2.11Plane Frame Member in (a) Local Coordinate System (b) Global coordinate System

gin
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et

SCE 22 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
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Fig 2.12 Rigid Frame

SCE 23 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
En
gin
Fig 2.13 Node and Member Numbering

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SCE 24 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
Fig 2.14 Fixed end action due to external loading in element 1 and 2

En
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Fig 2.14 Equivalent Joint Load

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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asy
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Fig 2.15 Support Reactions

SCE 28 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

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SCE 30 Dept of Civil

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

CHAPTER III
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Introduction – Discretization of a structure – Displacement functions – Truss element –

Beamelement – Plane stress and plane strain - Triangular elements

3.1.INTRODUCTION
TherearetwoversionofFEM:
1. FlexibilityMethodorForceMethod
2. StiffnessMethodorDisplacementMethod.
 Thesetofequationsinthestiffnessmethodaretheequilibriumequationsrelatingdisplacement

ww sofpoints.
 Rayleigh-Ritzisanapproximatemethodbasedonenergyprincipleby
whichwecanobtainequilibriumequationsinmatrixform.

w.E
3.1.1 IMPORTANT DEFINITION

asy
Nodesarepointsonthestructureatwhichdisplacementsandrotations are tobefoundorprescribed.
Element is a small domainonwhichwecan solvethe boundaryvalue

En
problemintermsofthedisplacementsandforcesofthe nodesonthe element.
Thediscrete representationofthe structuregeometrybyelements and nodesis called a mesh.

gin
Theprocessofcreating a mesh(discreteentities) is called discretization.
Interpolationfunctionisakinematicallyadmissibledisplacementfunctiondefinedonanelement that

ee
canbeusedforinterpolatingdisplacement valuesbetweenthe nodes.

rin
Themesh,boundaryconditions,loads,andmaterial propertiesrepresentingthe actual structureis
called a model.

g.n
Element stiffnessmatrix relate thedisplacementstothe forcesat the elementnodes.
Globalstiffnessmatrix is anassemblyofelement stiffnessmatrix that relates the
displacementsofthe nodesonthemeshtoappliedexternal forces.

3.1.2.StepsinFEMprocedure
et
1.Obtainelementstiffnessandelementloadvector.
2.Transformfromlocalorientationtoglobalorientation.
3.Assembletheglobalstiffnessmatrixandloadvector.
4.Incorporatetheexternalloads
5.Incorporatetheboundaryconditions.
6.Solvethealgebraicequationsfornodaldisplacements.
7.Obtainreactionforce,stress,internalforces,strainenergy.

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8.Interpretandchecktheresults.
9.Refinemeshifnecessary,andrepeattheabovesteps.

3.2.DISCRETISATION OF STRUCTURE

Discretizationis the process of separating the length, area or volume we want to analyze into
discrete (or separate) parts or elements.

ww
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asy
En
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et

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asy
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et

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3.3.DISPLACEMENT FUNCTIONS

 The continuum is separated by imaginarylines or surfaces into a number of finite element

ww
w.E
asy
 En

their boundaries.
gin
The elements are assumed to beconnected at discrete number of nodal points situated on


ee
Generalized displacements are the basic unknowns.
A function uniquely defines displacement field in terms of nodal displacements.

Compatibility between elements. rin

 2D – 3D elasticity problems, displacement compatibility.
g.n


Plates and shells, displacements and their partial derivatives.
et
All possible rigid body displacements included (if not will not converge).
 All uniform strain states included.The displacement function, uniquely defines
strain within an element in terms of nodal displacements.
 These strains with any initial strain, together with elastic properties define the
stress state.

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asy
En
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et

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asy
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et

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asy
En
gin
3.4 TYPES OF ELEMENT

ee
Three are three types of elements are available.
rin
 1D Elements
 2D Elements
 3D Elements g.n
3.4.11D Elements (Beam Element)
et
A beam can be approximated as a one dimensional structure. It can be split into one
dimensional beam elements. So also, a continuous beam or a flexure frame can be discretized
using 1D beam elements.
A pin jointed truss is readily made up of discrete 1D ties which are duly assembled.
3.4.22 D Elements(Triangular Element)
A planewall ,plate, diaphragm, slab, shell etc., can be approximated as an assemblage of
2D elements. Triangular elements are the most used ones. when our 2D domain has curved
boundaries it may be advantageous to choose elements that can have curved boundaries.
3.4.33 D Elements(Truss Element)
Analysisof solid bodies call for the use of 3 D elements. These have the drawback that
the visualizations is complex. The size of the stiffness matrix to be handled can become
enormous and unwieldy.

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ww
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asy
En
gin
3.5 PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN
ee rin
g.n
The plane stress problem is one in which two dimensions ,length and breadth are
comparable and thickness dimension is very small (less than 1/10).Hence normal stress σ 2 and
shear stresses τxz,τyzare zero.
{σ }= [D]{e } et
[D]=Stress strain relationship matrix (or) constitutive matrix for plane stress problems.
We have seen that in the Z direction the dimension of the plate in the plane stress
problem is very small. In plane strain problem, on the contrary the structure is infinitely long in
the Z direction. Moreover the boundary and body forces do not vary in the Z directions.
{σ }= [D]{e }
[D]=Stress strain relationship matrix (or) constitutive matrix for plane strain problems.

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CHAPTER 4
PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

Statically indeterminate axial problems – Beams in pure bending – Plastic moment of resistance
Plastic modulus – Shape factor – Load factor – Plastic hinge and mechanism – Plastic
analysis of indeterminate beams and frames – Upper and lower bound theorems

4.1.Statically indeterminate axial problems

Intheseanalysesweused superposition often,knowing thatforalinearly

elasticstructureitwasvalid.However,an elastic analysisdoesnotgiveinformation about
theloadsthatwill actually collapseastructure.An indeterminatestructuremay sustainloads

ww
greaterthantheloadthatfirstcauses ayieldtooccur at anypointinthestructure.
Infact,astructurewillstandaslongasitisabletofindredundancies
astructurehasexhaustedallofitsredundancieswillextraloadcausesit
toyield.Itisonly when
tofail.Plasticanalysisis

w.E
themethodthroughwhichtheactualfailureloadof astructureis
calculated,andaswillbeseen,thisfailureloadcanbesignificantly greaterthan the elasticload capacity.
Tosummarizethis,Prof.SeandeCourcy(UCD)usedtosay:

asy
“astructureonlycollapseswhenithas exhaustedallmeans ofstanding”.
Before analyzingcomplete structures, we review material and cross section
behaviorbeyondtheelasticlimit.
4.2. Beams in pure bending
En
4.2.1. MaterialBehavior

Auniaxialtensilestressonaductilegin materialsuchasmild steeltypicallyprovidesthe

ee
followinggraphofstress versus strain:

rin
g.n
et

Ascanbeseen,thematerialcansustainstrainsfarinexcessofthestrainatwhichyield occurs
beforefailure.This propertyofthematerialis calledits ductility.Thoughcomplex models do exist to
accurately reflect theabovereal behaviourofthe
material,themostcommon,andsimplest,modelistheidealizedstress-straincurve.Thisis
thecurveforanidealelastic-plasticmaterial(whichdoesn’texist), andthegraphis:

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ww As canbeseen, oncetheyieldhasbeenreacheditis takenthatanindefiniteamountofstraincan

w.E
occur. Sincesomuchpost-yieldstrainismodeled, theactualmaterial(orcross section)mustalso
becapableofallowingsuchstrains.Thatis,itmustbesufficientlyductilefortheidealized
straincurvetobevalid.Nextweconsiderthebehaviourof acrosssectionofanideal
stress-
elastic-

asy
plasticmaterialsubjecttobending.In doingso,weseektherelationshipbetween
momentandtherotation(ormoreaccurately, thecurvature)ofacross section.
applied

En
4.2.2.Moment-RotationCharacteristics ofGeneralCross Section

Weconsider
gin
anarbitrarycross-sectionwithaverticalplaneofsymmetry,whichisalsotheplane
ofloading.Weconsiderthecrosssectionsubjecttoanincreasingbendingmoment,andassess thestresses
ateach stage.
ee rin
g.n
et
Cross sectionandStresses

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w.E Moment-Rotation Curve

Stage1– ElasticBehaviour

Theappliedmomentcauses asy
stresses overthecross-sectionthatareallless thantheyieldstress of
thematerial.
Stage2–YieldMoment En
gin
Theappliedmomentisjustsufficientthattheyieldstressof thematerialisreachedatthe

ee
outermostfibre(s)ofthecross-section.Allotherstressesinthecrosssectionarelessthanthe
yieldstress.Thisislimitofapplicabilityofanelasticanalysisandof
fibresareelastic, theratioofthedepthoftheelastictoplasticregions,
Stage3–Elasto-PlasticBending rin
elasticdesign.Sinceall

g.n
Themomentapplied to thecrosssection hasbeenincreasedbeyond theyieldmoment.Sinceby
theidealizedstress-strain curvethematerial cannotsustain
et
astressgreaterthanyieldstress,the
fibresattheyieldstresshaveprogressedinwardstowardsthecentreof thebeam.Thusoverthe cross
sectionthereisanelasticcoreandaplasticregion.Theratioofthedepthoftheelasticcore
totheplasticregionis .Sinceextramomentis beingappliedandnostressisbiggerthantheyield
stress,extrarotationof thesectionoccurs:themoment-rotationcurvelossesitslinearityand curves,
givingmorerotationperunitmoment(i.e.loosesstiffness).
Stage4–PlasticBending

Theappliedmomenttothecrosssectionissuch thatallfibresin thecrosssection areatyield

stress.ThisistermedthePlasticMomentCapacityof thesection sincetherearenofibresatan
elasticstress,Alsonotethatthefullplasticmomentrequiresaninfinitestrainattheneutralaxis

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andsoisphysicallyimpossibletoachieve.However,itisclosely approximatedin practice.Any

attemptatincreasingthemomentat thispointsimply resultsinmorerotation,oncethecross-
sectionhassufficientductility.Thereforeinsteelmembersthecrosssectionclassificationmust
beplasticandinconcretemembers thesectionmustbeunder-reinforced.

Stage5–StrainHardening

Duetostrainhardeningofthematerial,asmallamountofextramomentcanbesustained.

Theabovemoment-rotationcurverepresents thebehaviourofacrosssectionofaregular elastic-

plasticmaterial.However,itis usuallyfurthersimplifiedasfollows:

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
With thisidealizedmoment-rotation curve,thecrosssectionlinearlysustainsmomentupto the
plasticmomentcapacityofthesectionandthenyieldsinrotationanindeterminateamount.
Again,tousethisidealization,theactual
thatisitmustbeductile.
Analysis ofRectangularCross Section
et
sectionmustbecapableofsustaininglargerotations–

Sincewenowknowthatacross
sectioncansustainmoreloadthanjusttheyieldmoment,weareinterestedinhowmuchmore.Inotherword
swewanttofindtheyieldmomentandplasticmoment,andwedosoforarectangularsection.Takingthestre
ssdiagramsfromthoseofthe moment-rotationcurveexaminedpreviously,wehave:

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ww
4.3.ShapeFactor
Thus theratioofelastictoplasticmomentcapacityis:

w.E
asy
En
Thisratioistermedtheshapefactor,f,andisapropertyofacrosssectionalone.Fora
rectangularcross-section,wehave:

gin
ee rin
Andsoarectangularsectioncansustain50%moremomentthantheyieldmoment,
g.n
beforeaplastichingeisformed.Thereforetheshapefactorisagoodmeasureoftheefficiency
ofacross sectioninbending.Shapefactors forsomeothercross sections are
et

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4.4.PlasticHinge

ww Notethatoncetheplasticmomentcapacityisreached,thesectioncanrotatefreely–
thatis,itbehaveslikeahinge,exceptwithmomentofMpatthehinge.Thisis termedaplastichinge,and
isthebasisforplasticanalysis.Attheplastichingestressesremainconstant,butstrainsand hencerotations

w.E
canincrease.

asy
4.4.1.Methods ofPlasticAnalysis

1. TheIncrementalMethod

En
gin
Thisisprobably themostobviousapproach:theloadson thestructureareincrementeduntilthe
firstplastichingeforms.Thiscontinuesuntilsufficient hingeshaveformedtocollapsethe
structure.Thisisalabour-intensive,‘brute-force’,approach,butonethatismostreadilysuited
forcomputerimplementation.

2. TheEquilibrium(orStatical) Method
ee rin
In
overlaidtoidentifythelikelylocations of g.n
thismethod,freeandreactantbendingmomentdiagramsaredrawn.Thesediagramsare
plastichinges.Thismethodthereforesatisfies the
equilibriumcriterionfirstleavingthetwo remainingcriteriontoderivedtherefrom.

3.The Kinematic (or Mechanism) Method

et
In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are then written for
this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending moment diagram. This method
satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the remaining two criteria to be derived there from.
We will concentrate mainly on the Kinematic Method, but introduce now the Incremental Method
to illustrate the main concepts.

4.4.1.1. IncrementalMethod
Example1– ProppedCantilever
We now assess the behaviorof a simple statically indeterminate structure under
increasingload.Weconsideraproppedcantilever withmid-spanpointload:

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Sincethepeakmomentsarelessthan theyieldmoments,weknow
thatyieldstresshasnotbeen reachedatany pointin
thebeam.Also,themaximummomentoccursatAandsothispointwill firstreachtheyieldmoment.

ww
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asy
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et
4.4.1.2.EquilibriumMethod
Introduction
Toperformthis analysis wegenerallyfollowthefollowingsteps:
1.Findaprimary structurebyremoving redundantuntilthestructureis staticallydeterminate;

2.Drawtheprimary(orfree)bendingmomentdiagram;

3.DrawthereactantBMDforeachredundant,as appliedtotheprimary structure;

4.ConstructacompositeBMDbycombingtheprimaryand reactantBMDs;

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5.DeterminetheequilibriumequationsfromthecompositeBMD;

6.Choosethepointswhereplastichingesarelikelytoformandintroduceintotheequilibrium equations;

7.Calculatethecollapseloadfactor,orplasticmomentcapacityas required.

Fordifferentpossiblecollapsemechanisms,repeatsteps 6and7,varyingthehingelocations.
WenowapplythismethodtotheIllustrativeExamplepreviouslyanalyzed.

Steps 1to3oftheEquilibriumMethodareillustratedinthefollowingdiagram:

ww
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asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
ForStep4,inconstructingtheCompositeBMD,wearbitrarilychoosetensionontheunderside of
thebeamaspositive.ByconventionintheEquilibrium Method,insteadof drawingthetwo BMDson
oppositesides(asisactually thecase),thereactantBMDisdrawn‘flipped’overthe
lineandsubtractedfromtheprimaryBMD:thenetremainingareais thefinal BMD.Thisisbest
explainedbyillustrationbelow:

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asy
En
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et

ForStep7, wesolvethis equationforthecollapseload:

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asy
En
gin
4.4.1.3 KinematicMethodUsingVirtualWork
Introduction
ee rin
g.n
Probably theeasiestway tocarry outaplasticanalysisisthrough theKinematicMethodusing
virtual
et
work.Todothisweallowthepresumedshapeatcollapsetobethecompatible
displacementset,andtheexternalloadingandinternalbendingmomentstobetheequilibrium set.Wecan
thenequate externalandinternalvirtualwork,andsolveforthecollapseloadfactor
forthatsupposedmechanism.
Remember:
Equilibrium set:theinternalbendingmoments atcollapse;
Compatibleset:thevirtualcollapsedconfiguration (seebelow).

Notethatin theactual collapseconfiguration thememberswillhaveelasticdeformationin

betweentheplastichinges.However,sinceavirtual displacementdoesnothavetobereal,only
compatible,wewillchoosetoignoretheelasticdeformationsbetweenplastichinges,andtake
themembers tobestraightbetweenthem.

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4.5.CollapseMechanism

Soforourpreviousbeam,we know thatwe require twohingesforcollapse(onemore thanits

degreeofredundancy),andwethinkthatthehinges willoccurunderthepoints ofpeakmoment,
AandC.Thereforeimposeaunitvirtual displacementatCandrelatethecorrespondingvirtual rotations
ofthehinges using,

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4.5.1 OtherCollapseMechanisms
Forthecollapsemechanismlookedatpreviously,itseemed obviousthat theplastichingein the
spanshouldbebeneaththeload.Butwhy?Usingvirtual workwecan examineanypossible
collapsemechanism.Solet’sconsiderthefollowingcollapsemechanismandseewhytheplastic hingehas
tobelocatedbeneaththeload.

PlasticHinge betweenAandC:
ImposingaunitvirtualdeflectionatB,wegetthefollowingcollapsemechanism:

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Andsoweseethatthecollapseloadfactorforthismechanismdependsonthepositionofthe
plastichingeinthespan.
4.6.PlasticAnalysisofBeams

Example2–Fixed-FixedBeamwithPointLoad

ww Tostarttheproblem, weexaminetheusual elasticBMDtoseewheretheplastic hingesare

w.E
likelytoform:

asy
En
gin
Wealsoneedtoknowhowmanyhinges arerequired.Thisstructureis 3˚staticallyindeterminate

ee
andsowemightexpectthenumberofplastichingesrequiredtobe4.However,sinceoneofthe

rin
indeterminaciesishorizontalrestraint,removingitwouldnotchangethebendingbehaviourof thebeam.

g.n
Thusforabendingcollapseonly2indeterminaciesapplyandsoitwill only take3 plastichinges

et
tocausecollapse.SolookingattheelasticBMD,we’llassumeacollapsemechanismwiththe3plastichinges
at thepeakmomentlocations:A,B,andC.

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et

WeneedtocheckthatthisisthecorrectsolutionusingtheUniquenessTheorem:

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asy
En
gin
ee rin
AndsotheappliedloadisinequilibriumwiththefreeBMDofthecollapseBMD.
g.n
2.Mechanism:
Fromtheproposedcollapsemechanismitis apparentthatthebeamis amechanism.
3.Yield:
et
FromthecollapseBMDitcanbeseenthatnowhereis exceeded.PM
Thusthesolutionmeetsthethreeconditionsandso,bytheUniquenessTheorem,isthecorrect solution.

Example3–ProppedCantileverwithTwoPointLoads

Forthefollowingbeam,foraloadfactorof2.0,findtherequiredplasticmoment capacity:

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Allowingfortheloadfactor,weneedtodesignthe beamfor thefollowingloads:

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asy
En
gin
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Once againwe try to picture possible failure mechanisms. Since
g.n
maximummomentsoccurunderneathpointloads,thereare tworeal possibilities:
et

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Mechanism-1

Mechanism-2

ww
Therefore,we analyseboth and apply the UpperboundTheoremto find the
designplasticmomentcapacity.

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Mechanism1:PlasticHingeatC:

asy
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Mechanism2:PlasticHingeatD:

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1.Equilibrium:
UsingtheBMDatcollapse,we’llcheckthattheheightofthefreeBMDisthatof
theequivalentsimply-supportedbeam.FirstlythecollapseBMDfromMechanism1is:

ww
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asy
En
gin
Hence,thetotalheightsofthefreeBMDare:

ee rin
Checkingtheseusingasimply-supportedbeamanalysis
g.n
et

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Thus,usingappropriatefreebodydiagrams ofACandDB:

AndsotheappliedloadisinequilibriumwiththefreeBMDofthecollapseBMD.
2.Mechanism:

ww Fromtheproposedcollapsemechanismitisapparentthatthebeamisamechanism.Also,since
itisaproppedcantileverand
requiretwoplastichingesforcollapse,andthesewehave
thusonedegreeindeterminate,we

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3.Yield:
FromthecollapseBMDitcanbeseenthatnowhereis thedesignexceeded.144kNmThus
bytheUniqueness
asy
Theoremwehavethecorrectsolution.Lastly,we’llexaminewhytheMechanism2collapseisnotthecorrect
solution.Sincethevirtual

En
theUniquenessTheorem,itmustnotbethe
workmethodprovidesan upperbound,then,by
correctsolutionbecauseitmustviolatetheyieldcondition.
Using
collapseMechanism2:
gin
thecollapseMechanism2todeterminereactions,wecan draw thefollowingBMDfor

ee rin
g.n
et
FromthisitisapparentthatMechanism2isnottheuniquesolution,andsothedesignplastic moment
capacity must be144kNmasimpliedpreviously fromtheUpperboundTheorem.
4.BasicCollapseMechanisms:
In frames,the basicmechanismsofcollapseare:

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Beam-typecollapse

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asy
En
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SwayCollapse ee rin
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et
CombinationCollapse

5.CombinationofMechanisms
Oneofthemostpowerfultoolsinplasticanalysisis CombinationofMechanisms.Thisallows us
toworkoutthevirtualworkequationsforthebeamandswaycollapsesseparatelyandthen
combinethemtofindthecollapseloadfactorforacombinationcollapsemechanism.

Combinationof mechanismsis based onthe ideathat thereareonlya certain number of

independentequilibriumequationsforastructure.Anyfurtherequationsareobtainedfroma

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combinationoftheseindependentequations.

Sinceequilibriumequationscanbeobtainedusing
virtualworkappliedtoapossiblecollapsemechanism,itfollowsthatthereareindependent
collapsemechanisms,andothercollapsemechanismsthatmaybeobtainedformacombination
oftheindependentcollapsemechanisms.

6.SimplePortalFrame

Inthisexamplewewillconsiderabasicprismatic(soallmembershavethesame
plasticmomentcapacity)rectangularportalframewithpinnedfeet:

ww
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w.E
Wewillconsiderthisgeneralcasesothatwecaninferthepropertiesandbehaviourofallsuch

asy
frames.Wewillconsidereachofthepossiblemechanisms outlinedabove.
7.Beam collapse:

En
Thepossiblebeamcollapselooks as follows:

gin
ee rin
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w.E
4.7.CollapseMode

asy
Sincewedon’tknowtherelativevaluesofHandV,wecannotdeterminethe

En
correctcollapsemode.However,wecanidentifythesecollapsemodesifweplot the

gin
threeloadfactorequationsderivedaboveonthefollowinginteractionchart:

ee rin
g.n
et

Noticethateachmechanismdefinesaboundary andthatitisonlytheregion
insidealloftheseboundariesthatissafe.Now,foragivenrationofVtoH,we
willbeabletodeterminethecriticalcollapsemechanism.Notealsothatthebeamcollapsemechanismison
lycriticalforthisframeatpointPonthechart–
thispointisalsoincludedintheCombinedmechanism.Thebendingmomentdiagramscorresponding
toeachofthemechanismsare approximately:
Aninterestingphenomenon isobserved atpointQonthechart,wheretheSway
andCombinedmechanismsgivethesameresult.Lookingatthebendingmoment diagrams,we cansee
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thatthis occursasthe momentatthe topofthe leftcolumn becomesequaltothe mid-spanmomentof the

beam:

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asy
En
4.8. Upper bound(Unsafe)Theorem:

This canbestatedas:
If
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abendingmomentdiagramisfoundwhichsatisfiesthe conditionsof equilibrium

equalto the trueloadfactorat collapse.

Thisis
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andmechanism(butnotnecessarilyyield),thenthecorresponding loadfactoris

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eithergreaterthanor

calledtheunsafetheorembecauseforanarbitrarilyassumedmechanismtheloadfactoris
eitherexactly right(when
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theyieldcriterionismet)oriswrongandistoolarge,leadinga designer
tothinkthattheframecancarrymoreloadthanis actuallypossible.

4.9. Lowerbound(Safe)Theorem:
et
Ifabendingmomentdiagramisfoundwhichsatisfiestheconditionsofequilibriumandyield
(butnotnecessarilythatofmechanism),then thecorrespondingload factoriseitherlessthanor
equaltothetrueloadfactor atcollapse.

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

CHAPTER 5
SPACE AND CABLE STRUCTURES

Analysis of Space trusses using method of tension coefficients – Beams curved in plan
Suspension cables – suspension bridges with two and three hinged stiffening girders
5.1ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSSES USING METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS

5.1.1.Tension Co-efficient Method

The tension co efficient for a member of a frame is defined as the pull or tension in that
member is divided by its length.
t = T/l
Where t = tension co efficient for the member
T= Pull in the member

ww l = Length

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5.1.2.Analysis Procedure Using Tension Co-efficient – 2D Frames

1.List the coordinates of each joint (node)of the truss.

asy
2.Determine the projected lengths Xij and Yij of each member of the truss. Determine the support
lengths lij of each member using the equation lij =√Xij2+Yij2
3. Resolve the the applied the forces at the joint in the X and Y directions. Determine the support

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reactions and their X and Y components.
4.Identify a node with only two unknown member forces and apply the equations of equilibrium.

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The solution yields the tension co efficient for the members at the node.
5.Select the next joint with only two unknown member forces and apply the equations of

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equilibrium and apply the tension co efficient.
6.Repeat step 5 till the tension co efficient of all the members are obtained.

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7.Compute the member forces from the tension co efficient obtained as above using
Tij= tijx lij
5.1.3.Analysis Procedure Using Tension Co-efficient – Space Frames
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support lengths lij of each member using the equation lij =√X ij2+Yij2 +Zij2 et
1.In step 2 above the projected lengths Zij in the directions are also computed.Determine the

2.In step 3 above the components of forces and reactions in the Z directions are also to be
determined.
3.In step 4 and 5,each time, nodes with not more than three unknown member forces are to be
considered.
Tetrahedron: simplestelementofstablespacetruss (sixmembers,fourjoints)expandbyadding
3members and1jointeachtime
DeterminacyandStability
b+r<3junstable
b+r=3jstaticallydeterminate(checkstability)
b+r>3jstaticallyindeterminate(checkstability)

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InternalForces
In orderto asy
obtain theinternalforcesataspecifiedpoint,weshouldmakesection cut

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perpendiculartotheaxis ofthememberatthis point.This sectioncutdivides thestructureintwo
parts.Theportionofthestructureremovedfromthepartintoconsiderationshouldbereplaced

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bytheinternalforces.Theinternalforcesensuretheequilibriumoftheisolatedpartsubjectedto
theactionofexternalloadsandsupportreactions.Afreebody diagramofeithersegmentofthe
cutmemberisisolatedandtheinternalloads
appliedtothesegmentintoconsideration.
5.1.Example
ee couldbederivedbythesixequations

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ofequilibrium

Inthefollowingexampleweshallconstructtheinternalforces
g.n
diagramsforthegiveninFig.spaceframestructure. Theintroducedglobalcoordinatesystemis
showninthesamefigure.
et

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CE2351 Structural Analysis II

The introduced local coordinate systems of the different elements of the space frame are
presentedinFig.Thetypical sectionswheretheinternalforcesmustbecalculated,inorderto
constructtherelevant diagrams,arenumbered from1to8inthesamefigure.Thetypical
sectionsareplacedatleastatthebeginningandattheendofeachelement(segment)ofthe
frame.Theinternalforces diagrams,inthelimitsof eachelement,couldbederivedbyusingthe
corresponding referenceandbasediagrams.

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5.2.Example

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5.2 BEAMS CURVED IN PLAN
5.2.1Introduction
et
Arches are in fact beams with an initial curvature. The curvature is visible only in
elevation.In plan they they would appear in straight.the other cases of curved beams are ring beams
supporting water tanks,Silos etc.,beams supporting corner lintels and curved balconies etc.,Ramps
in traffic interchanges invariably have curved in plan beams.
Curved beams in addition to the bending moments and shears would also develop torsional
moments.
5.2.2.Moment,Shear and Torsion
The three diverse force components have one thing in common – the strain energy stored
in a beam due to each type of force. Among the 3 we normally ignore the strain energy due to
shear forces as negligible.
U = ∫M 2ds/2EI+∫T 2ds/2GJ

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5.3. SUSPENSION CABLE

5.3.1. Indroduction

Cablesandarchesareclosely related toeach otherandhencethey aregroupedin thiscoursein

thesamemodule.Forlongspanstructures(fore.g.incasebridges)engineerscommonlyuse
cableorarchconstructionduetotheirefficiency.Inthefirst lessonofthismodule,cables
subjectedtouniformandconcentratedloadsarediscussed.Inthesecond lesson,arches in
generalandthreehingedarchesinparticularalongwithillustrativeexamplesareexplained.
In thelasttwolessons ofthismodule, twohingedarchandhingeless arches
areconsidered.Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures depending on
change in geometry ofthestructurewhilesupportingtheload.Rigidstructuressupportexternallyapplied
loadswithout appreciable change intheir shape(geometry). Beamstrussesand framesare examplesof
rigidstructures.

ww Unlikerigidstructures,deformablestructuresundergochangesin
theirshapeaccordingtoexternallyappliedloads.However,itshouldbenotedthatdeformationsarestillsma
ll.Cablesandfabricstructuresaredeformablestructures.Cablesaremainly used to supportsuspension

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roofs,bridgesand cablecarsystem. They
transmissionlinesandforstructuressupportingradioantennas.In
arealsousedin electrical
thefollowingsections,cables
subjectedtoconcentratedloadandcables subjectedtouniformloads areconsidered.

Theshapeassumedby asy aropeorachain(withnostiffness)undertheactionofexternal

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loadswhenhungfromtwosupportsisknownasafunicularshape. Cableisafunicular structure.Itiseasy
tovisualizethatacablehungfromtwosupportssubjectedtoexternal loadmustbeintens

load.(videFig.5.1and5.2). gin
cable.Acablemaybedefinedasthestructureinpuretensionhavingthefunicularshapeof the

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As stated earlier, the cables are considered to be perfectly flexible (no flexuralstiffness)
and inextensible.Astheyareflexibletheydonotresistshearforceandbendingmoment.Itissubjected to

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axial tension only anditisalwaysacting tangentialtothecable at anypoint along thelength.If the
weightof thecableisnegligibleascomparedwith theexternally appliedloadsthenitsself weightis
neglectedintheanalysis.In thepresent analysisself weightisnotconsidered.
g.n
Consideracableasloadedin Fig.5.3.Letusassume thatthecablelengthsandsagat()areknown.

et
Thefour reactioncomponentsatACDEBandB, cable tensionsineach ofthefour segmentsand three
sagvalues:a totalof eleven unknown quantitiesaretobedetermined.Fromthegeometry,onecould
writetwoforceequilibriumequations(0,0==ΣΣyxFF)ateachofthepointandDCBA,,,Ei.e.atotal of ten
equationsandtherequiredonemoreequationmay bewrittenfromthegeometryof thecable.
Forexample,ifoneof thesagisgiven then theproblemcan besolvedeasily.Otherwiseif the total length
ofthecableisgiventhentherequired equationmaybewritten as

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Fig 5.1 Deformable Structure

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Fig 5.2Unloaded Cable

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Fig 5.3Cable in Tension
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Cablesubjectedtouniformload.

Cablesareusedtosupportthedeadweightandliveloads
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ofthebridgedeckshavinglongspans.
Thebridgedecksaresuspendedfromthecableusingthehangers.Thestiffeneddeckprevents
thesupportingcablefrom changingitsshapebydistributingtheliveloadmovingoverit,fora
longerlengthofcable.In suchcases cableis assumedtobeuniformlyloaded.

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Fig 5.5.Cable Subjected to Uniformly Fig 5.6.Free Body Diagram
Distributed load

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Considera cable which isuniformlyloaded asshown inFig 5.4.

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Duetouniformlydistributedload,thecabletakesaparabolicshape.Howeverduetoits owndeadweightit

DeterminereactioncomponentsatA andB,tensioninthecable andthesag

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takesashapeof acatenary. Howeverdeadweight of thecableis neglected in the presentanalysis.

5.3.Example
ofthecable shown
inFig.5.7.Neglectthe selfweightofthe cable in the analysis.

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Fig 5.7.

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Sincetherearenohorizontalloads,horizontalreactionsatAandBshouldbethesame. Taking
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Fig 5.8

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Fig 5.9 g.n
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