INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

DC GENERATORS
 DC GENERATORS

Overview:

• Basic structure of dc machines

• Armature and field windings
• Emf equations
• Classification of DC Machines
• Characteristics of DC Generator

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 INTRODUCTION

• Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical

input to mechanical output or vice versa are called electric
machines. The process of translation is known as
electromechanical energy conversion.
• An electric machine is therefore a link between an electrical
system and a mechanical system, as shown;
Electrical Mechanical
System System
Electrical
e, i
Machine
T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator

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 INTRODUCTION

• If the conversion is from mechanical to electrical, the

machine is said to act as a generator.
• If the conversion is from electrical to mechanical, the
machine is said to act as a motor.
• Machines are called ac machines if the electrical system is
ac and dc machines if the electrical system is dc.
• In the electrical system the primary quantities involved are
voltage and current, while the analogous quantities in the
mechanical system are torque and speed.
• The coupling medium between these different systems is
the magnetic field, as illustrated.

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 Coupling
Electrical Magnetic Mechanical
System field System

T, n
e, i

• In electrical machine, conversion of energy from electrical to

mechanical form or vice versa, results from the following two
electromagnetic phenomena:

 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is

induced in the conductor.
 When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.

• These two effects occur simultaneously whenever energy

conversion takes place.
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 Principle of Generator

When a conductor cuts a magnetic flux, an

electromagnetic force is induced in it.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:
• First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a
circuit changes, an emf is always induced in it. (OR,
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an emf is
induced in that conductor.)
• Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal
to the rate of change of flux-linkages

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 Basic Construction of DC Generator
Therefore, the basic essential parts of an electrical generator
are:
a) a magnetic field

b) conductor(s) which can move to cut the flux

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 Example of Generator

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 Simple Loop Generator
Basic Construction Components:
o Armature: a single-turn rectangular copper coil
rotating about its own axis
o Field magnets: may be permanent magnets or
electromagnets; provide a magnetic field.
o Slip-rings: connected to two ends of coils; they
are insulated from each other and from the main
shaft.
o Brushes: made of carbon/copper; press against
each slip ring; collect induced current in the coil
and convey it to external load.
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 Basic Construction

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 Working Principle

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 Working Principle

 A single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two

opposite poles of magnet.
 Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which
rotates inside the magnetic field about its own axis ab.
 When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field.

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 Working Principle

Position 1
o Flux linked with the coil is maximum
o Coil sides AB & CD are moving parallel to the flux lines i.e. they do not cut
the flux lines; hence there is no emf induced in it.

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 Working Principle

As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is induced in it proportional

to the rate of change of the flux linkage.
Position 3
o Flux linked with the coil is minimum
o The rate of change of flux linkages is maximum; hence the emf induced is
maximum

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 Working Principle

Position 5
o Flux linked with the coil is maximum
o Coil sides AB & CD are moving parallel to the flux lines i.e. they do not cut
the flux lines; hence there is no emf induced in it.

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 Working Principle

At 90° rotation. At 270 ° rotation.

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 Working Principle
• In the first half revolution of the coil, the current through the load flows
from M to L.
• In the second half revolution of the coil, the current through the coil
reverses in direction i.e. from L to M.
• Thus, in a simple generator, since the current is periodically reversing, it is
producing alternating current (AC).

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 Commutation Working Principle

• For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external

circuit, the slip-rings are replaced by split-rings.
• The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is
cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by
a thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material.

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 Commutation Result

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 Commutation Working Principle

• The coil ends are joined to the two

segments on which rest the carbon or
copper brushes.
• In the first half revolution current flows
along (ABMLCD) i.e. the brush No. 1 in
contact with segment ‘a’ acts as the
positive end of the supply and ‘b’ as the
negative end.

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 Commutation Working Principle

• In the next half revolution, the

direction of the induced current in
the coil has reversed.
• But at the same time, the positions of
segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ have also
reversed with the result that brush
No. 1 comes in touch with the
segment which is positive i.e. segment
‘b’ in this case.

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 Commutation Working Principle

• Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.

• This current is unidirectional but not continuous like pure
direct current.

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 Construction of DC Generator

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 Component of DC Generator

• Yoke
• Pole cores & pole shoes
• Field coils
• Armature core
• Armature winding
• Commutator
• Brushes & bearings

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 Component of DC Generator

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 Component of DC Generator

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 Yoke

• The outer frame or yoke serves double purposes:

– Provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a
protecting cover for the whole machine.
– Carries the magnetic flux produced by the pole.

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 Yoke

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 Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

• The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The
pole shoes serve two purposes:
– Spread out the flux in the air gap, reduce the reluctance of
the magnetic path
– Support the existing coils

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 Pole Shoes

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 Pole Construction

• The pole core itself may be a solid piece of steel and the pole
shoe is laminated and fastened to the pole.

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 Pole Coils (Field coils)

• A former-wound copper wire coil.

• When current is passed through these coils, they
electromagnetize the poles to produce necessary flux to be
cut by revolving armature conductors.

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 Pole Coil

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 Armature Core

• Houses the armature conductor or coils and causes them to

rotate and cuts the flux.

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 Armature Core

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 Armature Winding

• The armature winding is the main current-carrying winding in

which the electromotive force or counter-emf of rotation is
induced.
• The current in the armature winding is known as the
armature current.

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 Armature Winding

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 Commutator

• The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of

current from the armature conductors.
• Rectified the alternating current into direct current.

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 Brush

• The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block

shaped. The only function of these carbon brushes of DC
generator is to collect current from commutator segments.
• The brushes are housed in the rectangular box shaped brush
holder.

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 Brush

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 Types of DC Generator

• Generators are classified according to the way their fields are

excited.
o Separately excited
o Self-excited.
• Shunt Wound
• Series Wound
• Compound Wound

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 Types of DC Generator

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 Separately Excited

• The field magnets are energized from an independent external

DC source.

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 Self Excited

• Field magnets are energized by currents produced in the

generator itself.
• Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some
flux in the poles. When the armature is rotating, e.m.f
generated and hence some induced current is produced
which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby
strengthening the residual pole flux.
• Three types of self-excited:
Shunt Wound
Series Wound
Compound Wound

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 Shunt Wound
• Field windings are connected in parallel with the armature
conductors, will experience full generator voltage.

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 Shunt Wound

𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 0
+
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
𝑬𝒈
𝑹𝒂
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝐿
𝑽𝒕
−
𝑉𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

In practice, 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ is neglected

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 Series Wound
• Field windings are connected in series with the armature
conductor, will carry full load current.
• As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few
turns of thick wire or strips.

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 Series Wound

𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0
+
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒

𝑹𝒂 𝑬𝒈 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑽𝒕
−

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 Compound Wound

• Has a combination of series and parallel connection of field

windings.

Short Shunt Long Shunt

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 Long Shunt DC Compound Wound

𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0
+
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝑹𝒂 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
𝑬𝒈 𝑽𝒕
− 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ

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 Short Shunt DC Compound Wound

𝑉𝑡 − 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒

𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
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 Series & Shunt Winding

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 Compound Winding

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 Types of DC Generator

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 Example 1.1

A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230V and

the resistance of the shunt field and armature
are 50Ω and 0.03Ω respectively. Calculate the
generated e.m.f.
(Ans: 243.6V)

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 Example 1.2

A long shunt compound generator delivers a

load current of 50A at 500V and has armature,
series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05Ω,
0.03Ω and 250Ω respectively. Calculate the
generated voltage and the armature current.
Allow 1V per brush for contact drop.
(Ans: 506.16V, 52A)

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 Example 1.3

A short-shunt compound generator delivers a

load current of 30 A at 220 V, and has armature,
series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0.05 Ω,
0.30 Ω and 200 Ω respectively. Calculate the
armature current and the induced e.m.f. Allow
1.0 V per brush for contact drop.

(Ans: 31.145 A, 232.56 V)

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 Characteristics of DC Generator

Three most important characteristics or curves of a DC

generator:
• No-load Saturation Characteristic: 𝐸0 /𝐼𝑓
• Internal or Total Characteristic: 𝐸/𝐼𝑎
• External Characteristic: 𝑉/𝐼

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 No-load Saturation Characteristic:
𝑬𝟎 /𝑰𝒇

• Also known as Magnetic Characteristic or Open-circuit

Characteristic (OCC).
• Relationship between no-load generated emf in armature, 𝐸0
and the field or exciting current, 𝐼𝑓 at a fixed speed.
• The shape is practically the same for all generators whether
separately-excited or self-excited.

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 Method of no-load (OCC) test
• Disconnect field winding from machine.
• Connect field winding to external (variable) dc source.
• Adjust the excitation current until maximum admissible (read
from ammeter).
• Rotate armature at constant speed (prime mover).
• Read no-load generated voltage across armature terminals.

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 No-load test curve
High flux density,
saturation of poles starts

Low flux density, the reluctance

of iron path is negligible

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 Points to note

• The curve starts at 𝐸𝑜 > 0

 This emf is induced inspite of 𝐼𝑓 =0 due to residual magnetism
 The length 𝑂𝐴 represents emf due to residual magnetism only
• Then, 𝐸0 increases linearly with 𝐼𝑓
 Increasing field flux, increases induced EMF (OCC follows straight
line)
• Beyond a certain point, the curve bends over
 As the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the flux
becomes constant
 Even, increases further, flux remains constant, hence Eg also
remains constant (OCC curve looks like B-H characteristics)

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 OCC for different speed
The OCC of a generator
for a particular speed, N2
can be deduced from the
curve at another speed
N1 by using, E ∝ N
N2
∴ E2 = E1 ×
N1

N1 > N2

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 Critical Resistance

• Critical Resistance for a Series or Shunt Generator

– Critical resistance at a particular speed is the maximum
possible load resistance with which the generator would
just excite.
– It is given by the slope of the tangent to the initial portion
of the OCC curve.
– Hence, a generator will build up the voltage only when the
total circuit resistance (i.e. load resistance + field winding
resistance) is less than the critical resistance.

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 Critical Resistance
– Say the field resistance is reconnected to the armature in
series.
– Say a variable resistance load is connected to the
generator.
– This resistance can be represented by the slope of a
straight line passing through the origin in the OCC curve
(∵ V = IR); this line is called the resistance line – the
steeper the line (i.e. the higher the slope), the greater the
resistance.

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 Critical Resistance

Lower
resistance,
higher emf

Max emf induced by

given field resistance

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 Critical Resistance
• The following will be seen with varying the load resistance:
– At lower load resistance, the generator will build up to a
higher voltage
– At higher load resistance, the generator will build up to a
lower voltage
– If the load resistance is increased too much, the machine
will fail to build up ANY voltage – because the electrical
power induced in the armature is not sufficient to increase
the pole flux after supplying the I2R losses.

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 Two more things

• How to find Critical Resistance, 𝑅𝐶 ?

• How to draw OCC at different speed?

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 Critical Speed, 𝑵𝑪
Critical speed of a shunt generator is that speed for which the
given shunt field resistance represents critical resistance.

Curve 2 corresponds
to the critical speed
because Rsh line is
tangential to it. Here,
since E ∝ N

𝐵𝐶 𝑁𝐶
=
𝐴𝐶 𝑁

𝐵𝐶
𝑁𝐶 = ×𝑁
𝐴𝐶
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 Example 1.4
The magnetization curve of a DC shunt generator at 1500 rpm
is:

𝐼𝑓 (𝐴) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0

𝐸0 (𝑉) 6 60 120 172.5 202.5 221 231 237 240

For this generator, find:

a) No-load emf for field resistance of 100Ω
b) The critical field resistance at 1500 rpm
c) The magnetization curve at 1200 rpm and from there the
open-circuit voltage for a field resistance of 100Ω

(Ans: 227.5 V, 250 Ω)

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 Answer Rcritical

Rsh = 100 Ω
V build-up = 227.5 V

1A
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 Answer

• Curve 2:
For 1200 r.p.m., the induced voltages for different field
currents would be (1200/1500) = 0.8 of those for 1500 r.p.m.
The values of these voltages are tabulated below:

The 100 Ω line cuts the curve at point C which corresponds

to an induced voltage of 166 V.

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 Example 1.5

The OCC of a DC shunt generator is as follow

𝐼𝑓 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

𝐸0 60 120 138 145 149 151 152
If 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 53 Ω, calculate the open circuit voltage and armature
current when the terminal voltage is 100V. Neglect armature
reaction and assume 𝑅𝑎 = 0.1 Ω.
(Ans: 150 V, 440 A)

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 Answer

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 Uses of DC Generators

• Shunt Generators
– They are used for ordinary lighting and power
supply purposes.
– They are also used for charging batteries because
their terminal voltages are almost constant or can
be kept constant.

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 Uses of DC Generators

• Series Generators (rarely used)

– They are not used for power supply because of
their rising characteristics.
– However, their rising characteristic makes them
suitable for being used as boosters in certain types
of distribution systems particularly in railway
service

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 Uses of DC Generators

• Compound Generators
– The most widely used d.c. generator because its
external characteristic can be adjusted for
compensating the voltage drop in the line
resistance.
– Hence, such generators are used for motor
driving which require d.c. supply at constant
voltage, for lamp loads and for heavy power
service such as electric railways.

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