The significance of

thermal insulation
Arguments aimed at
overcoming misunderstandings

Dr. Volker Kienzlen

Hans Erhorn
Helmut Krapmeier
Prof. Dr. Thomas Lützkendorf
Johannes Werner
Prof. Andreas Wagner
 Publisher

KEA

KEA Climate Protection and Energy Agency

of Baden-Württemberg GmbH

Kaiserstr. 94a
76133 Karlsruhe
Tel.: (0721) 984 71-0
Fax: (0721) 984 71-20
[email protected]

Co-publishers and authors

Dr. Volker Kienzlen

Climate Protection and Energy Agency
of Baden-Württemberg GmbH (KEA)

2 Hans Erhorn
Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP)

Helmut Krapmeier
Energy Institute Vorarlberg

Prof. Dr. Thomas Lützkendorf

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Johannes Werner
ebök Planung und Entwicklung GmbH

Prof. Andreas Wagner

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Published: April 2014

Third edition: May 2015
The significance
of thermal insulation
3

Arguments aimed at
overcoming misunderstandings
4
Preamble
The energy renovation of existing build-
ings represents a key component of the
“Energiewende” (energy revolution).

The building envelope and the system

technology used within the building
itself form a single unit. Prior to a build­
ing renovation project, these two aspects
should thus in principle be analysed
together. Within this publication, how­
ever, only the building shell is to be
addressed, with a focus being placed
on thermal insulation. 5
The authors provide their views on the
most frequent objections, prejudices
and misunderstandings in connection
with structural thermal insulation and
the use of insulating materials.
 BAC KGROU N D

6
Why structural thermal
insulation is necessary.
There are a number of key reasons to drastically reduce our
consumption of fossil fuels. These include the need to limit the i
mpact of the already apparent changes to our climate as well as the
requirement to increase supply security by reducing dependency on
imports from the world's crisis-prone regions. Dwindling supplies of
fossil fuels and the resulting increase in energy prices are further
factors that need to be taken into consideration. Around 40% of
energy consumption in Germany can be attributed to the building
sector, predominantly for heating purposes. Sophisticated, cost-ef-
fective solutions are available on the market that provide a simple
means for reducing energy consumption by a factor of four com-
pared to unrenovated existing buildings. In the case of more ambi-
tious refurbishments, consumption can even be reduced by a factor
of ten. The structural thermal insulation required to reduce heating
consumption plays a key role here.

Structural thermal insulation 7

2 is necessary in order to prevent building damage resulting from

the formation of moisture on the inside of external building
components (hygrothermal insulation),

2 prevents the build-up of mould, which can be a contributing

factor in building damage and health risks (hygienic thermal
insulation),

2 guarantees sufficiently high surface temperatures on the inside

of external building components during the winter, contributing
to ensuring a feeling of comfort inside the building (comfort-
promoting thermal insulation); this allows for the same level of
comfort to be achieved with lower room air temperatures and
thus less energy consumption,
 2 reduces undesired heat input and thus the overheating of rooms
during the height of summer (summer thermal insulation),

2 contributes to reducing energy consumption in summer and

winter (energy-saving thermal insulation),

2 supports the preservation of resources and reduces the burden

placed on the environment (environmentally-driven thermal
insulation),

2 an support the durability of the building structure, contribute

to the rectification of structural damage (sustainability-driven
thermal insulation), facilitate a reduction in heating and cool-
ing costs and ensure that the property's value remains stable
(economically-driven thermal insulation,

2 can be used to enhance the design of facades (design-driven

thermal insulation)
8
2 can be implemented economically – especially when combined
with renovation measures that are required in any case

High-rise buildings in Freiburg

renovated to meet the
passive house level of performance


10
Valuable heat
Over many centuries, "heat" was a valuable commodity. Back when
wood and coal briquettes were used for heating, you would never find
that all rooms were heated – this was even true in the case of wealthy
households. Besides the kitchen, only the parlour at the most would
also be heated with a tiled stove. Only in rare exceptional cases would
otherrooms enjoy heating. Attics and cellar rooms would generally be
left unheated. During heating periods, the average room temperature
was around 15°C, meaning that for a long time warm clothing was also
worn indoors.

The advancement of heating technology, greater demands in terms

of comfort and the availability of cost-efficient energy sources later
generally led to the full heating of all rooms. The first energy crisis dur-
ing the mid-1970s raised awareness in Germany about supply security
and thus triggered a change of thinking in society. Compared to the
building standard of the 1960s, the legislator has reduced fossil fuel re-
quirements for heating in new buildings by a factor of five, introducing
11
thermal insulation regulations and later energy-saving ordinances in
several stages to this end. The requirement to further tighten these pro-
visions under European law will lead to a further significant reduction
in the energy consumption of new buildings. Across Europe, the polit-
ical objective is to achieve "nearly zero energy buildings" from 2020, a
goal which in Germany is defined in the Energy Saving Ordinance as the
"ultra-low-energy house" (Niedrigstenergiehaus).

In contrast however, the steady increase in levels of prosperity has

meant that the living space per person has risen over the past 60 years
from between approximately 8 and 12 m2 to the current figure of around
45 m2. There are also the heated and cooled areas used by the general
public, including schools, libraries, nurseries, museums, theatres, restau-
rants and airports. Even in the area of residential construction, the use
of cooling systems has been observed for many years. Savings made
thanks to the improved energy performance of buildings have thus
12

Thermography
been offset in part by the increasing living space and growing demands
per capita.

One challenge is now to adjust existing buildings in line with modern

requirements. In some cases, these were constructed under completely
different premises with regard to usage and energy efficiency.

Ultimately, however, the question must also be asked whether all rooms
in a building always have to be heated to 20°C or above or whether
a deliberate limitation and acceptance of tolerance limits in terms
of winter and summer room temperatures – alongside structural
measures – could make an important contribution to saving energy,
preserving resources and protecting the climate. Critically scrutinising
demands in terms of comfort should thus – in addition to improving
buildings themselves – represent a further approach to resolving this
issue.

In summary, it can be said that heating energy is Germany's most

13
significant energy consumption sector. Reducing the use of heating
energy thus poses a challenging task for our generation, but one which
can be tackled using a variety of approaches. If we do not succeed in
achieving a turnaround in our consumption of heating energy, we will
be unable to realise the desired energy revolution in our country.

Passive-house-certified office building

in Tübingen before (top) and after
insulation (middle and bottom)


14
Basics of building physics
When looking at a building's energy balance, the losses and heat gains,
on the one hand, and the energy to be provided, on the other, have to
be compared. It should be noted here that energy-saving approaches
– despite their high level of relevance – only account for part of the de-
mands made as regards the thermal insulation of building components.
The overriding aspect here is undoubtedly healthy and damage-free
construction.

Hygrothermal insulation

Ensuring structures that remain damage-free over the long term and
allow for healthy living represents a crucial building task. Here, ther-
mal insulation performs the task, among others, of making sure that
room-side surface temperatures do not fall below a critical level and
thus that damage from condensation and the formation of mould
can be avoided. Since the end of the 1980s1, it has been known that for
mould to grow, it is not necessary for condensation to form on building 15
component surfaces. Instead, a relative humidity level of 80% at such
surfaces over a period of three to five days is sufficient to bring on this
development. The relative humidity in a room in turn is greatly depend-
ent on the local temperature of the air in the room itself. The higher the
temperature, the lower the relative humidity. For this reason, the rela-
tive humidity in the middle of a room or close to interior walls is always
considerably lower than in areas close to exterior walls, at the corners
of exterior walls and even behind furniture positioned close to exterior
walls. Thermal insulation ensures that the temperature of the internal
surfaces of exterior building components does not fall so low that the
cooling room air circulating close to them reaches a critically high lev-
el of humidity. The thermal insulation in place thus now has to meet
minimum requirements that are around twice as stringent as those
that were common in the construction industry between the 1950s and
1970s. If no action is taken to "upgrade" and improve the thermal insu-
 lation system during a renovation project, alternative measures must
be drawn on in order to effectively prevent the formation of mould (e.g.
by enhancing the continual ventilation of rooms). These generally entail
higher heating costs – the poorer the thermal insulation, the greater the
moisture-related minimum air change rate required. Generally speak-
ing, a good thermal insulation reduces the risk of building damage as
well as heating costs. It is thus also of high significance from a social
perspective, as it combines the efforts made to improve public health
and the required environmental initiatives in an exemplary manner.

Energy-saving thermal insulation

In the case of unrenovated old buildings, heat losses are dominated

by the transfer of heat through building components – a process re-
ferred to as transmission. The better a component conducts heat, the
greater the heat losses. The thermal quality of a building component is
16 assessed with the help of the U-value. The U-value indicates the heat
output required per m2 of a component's surface in order to maintain
a temperature difference of one kelvin between an interior space and
its surroundings. Typical exterior walls found on old buildings have
U-values of between 1.4 and 1.8  W/m²K. At an outside temperature
of approximately zero degrees, a heat output of approximately 30 to
40 W per square metre of external wall surface must thus be ensured
to maintain an inside temperature of 20°C. Modern, well-insulated ex-
terior walls achieve U-values of between 0.1 and 0.3 W/m²K, meaning
they lose five to tentimes less energy via transmission than the existing
building stock. Similar situations can also be observed for other build-
ing components such as ceilings and basement ceilings. For design rea-
sons, however, objections are occasionally raised to excessive insulation
thicknesses. An important objective of current research and develop-
ment work is thus the creation of highly efficient, sustainable insulat-
ing materials and systems which also provide a considerable insulating
effect even when smaller cross-sections are used. It must still be consid-
ered that the higher – and thus the poorer – the U-value of the building
component ("cold radiation"), the lower the surface temperature on the
inside in the winter. Conversely, high surface temperatures during the
winter months lead to cosy living conditions.

Ventilation

In order to remove harmful substances from the air inside buildings

and, in particular, to eradicate moisture from interior spaces, it is neces-
sary to regularly exchange the room air for fresh air. Rooms were tradi-
tionally ventilated by opening windows as well as via joints on windows
and other building components. This process was also supported by the
exchange of air through the fireplace. Nevertheless, Pettenkofer com-
plained about the poor quality of the air in inside areas back in the 19th
century. The investigations of the Berlin Health Insurance Fund (Berliner
Ortskrankenkasse) performed in 1905 reveal appalling images of mouldy 17
walls in houses from the Gründerzeit era2.

For many years already, it has been the generally accepted practice that
a sufficiently air-tight building shell (referring especially to the wall and
ceiling areas as well as all connections and penetrations) must be perma-
nently ensured in order to avoid building damage and an excessive un-
controlled exchange of air3. A significant air exchange dependent on the
outside temperature and wind speed leads to considerable heat losses.
Water vapour in the room air can also condensate in joint cross-sections.
Moisture in exterior building components can lead to building damage
over the long term and must thus be avoided at all costs.

Contrary to the general expectation of many people, these leaks in building

structures do not allow for a sufficient exchange of air – which is required
for hygienic reasons. This is because weather conditions fluctuate greatly
and the location of leaks is dependent on the building's specific design.
Insulated wooden facade
It makes sense that the exchange of air has to be planned taking
account of spatial and temporal conditions and that this exchange
has to be ensured manually and/or technically. When performing reno-
vations or constructing new buildings, the planner thus has to draw up
or review a ventilation concept. This may still include the exchange of
air through the opening of windows. Energy-efficient window ventila-
tion entails exchanging used, moisture-laden room air for outside air via
wide open windows. The process is to be conducted in as short a time
as possible while interrupting the heat supply to the greatest possible
extent. This limits the losses to the energy content of the exchanged
room air itself. With longer ventilation periods, the opening of windows
leads to the cooling of building-component surfaces and thus to an in-
creased risk of mould formation. Regular shock ventilation requires the
presence and attentiveness of residents; with today's way of life, such
ventilation can frequently not be implemented to a sufficient level. Hy-
grometers on the inside of external walls indicate to residents when
the room humidity reaches critical values in excess of 70 % during the 19
winter. In the middle of a room or at interior walls, the level of humidity
should not exceed 60 %. Fan-supported ventilation systems, which en-
sure the necessary exchange of air regardless of the weather conditions
and user activity, represent a better solution. Pure exhaust fans with air
vent openings in the exterior walls of living and sleeping areas ensure
the adequate removal of moisture provided by a sufficient exchange of
air. Systems with supply and exhaust functions lead to ventilation heat
losses being drastically reduced, especially in conjunction with highly
efficient heat recovery.

All ventilation types differ in terms of the installation work, the degree
of ventilation heat losses, the energy requirements for fans, the acoustic
conditions and the achievable level of comfort as well as in terms of the
costs for the installation process, heating energy and their operation.


20
Views on objections
to the implementation
of insulation measures
Sufficient thermal insulation that is appropriate from a structural
perspective has the primary task of ensuring healthy living and dam-
age-free structures and is also part of a comprehensive energy concept.
The topic of energy efficiency is frequently reduced to saving energy
through the application of additional insulating layers. However, the
condition of the existing structure, its usage, the building technology
and the energy sources, among other factors, must also be incorporated
within the framework of the energy concept. This requires developing a
plan for addressing the specific situation – a task which depending on
the size of the building and the complexity of its usage is assumed by
an architect or energy consultants.

The topic of subsequently supplied thermal insulation is currently the

subject of intensive debate. It is frequently looked at outside the con-
text of a complex planning and building task and there are misunder-
standings and misinterpretations.

In the following sections, views are provided on the most frequent ob- 21
jections, prejudices and misunderstandings in connection with struc-
tural thermal insulation4 and the use of insulating materials. Focus is
placed here on building renovation, but most statements apply in equal
measure to new constructions.
22

1 C L AIM 1

»Houses have to be
able to breathe!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

The common assumption that "houses have to breathe" originates

from a measurement error made by Pettenkofer some 150 years ago5,6.
Pettenkofer presumably failed to seal off the fireplace when taking his
measurements. As early as 1928, Erwin Raisch demonstrated in com-
prehensive experiments that a relevant exchange of air can take place
through window and door joints as well as unplastered structural joints,
but not through plastered walls7.

As is the case with many assumptions, there is a kernel of truth in it. It

is indeed true that a minimum rate of air change is required in every
building in order to ensure that residents are supplied with sufficient
fresh air and also that the moisture and harmful emissions they cause
can be discharged. The poorer the quality of a building's thermal insula-
tion, the greater the necessary air exchange, as the room air in front of
23
poorly insulated walls cools more significantly and thus can absorb less
moisture. The exchange of air through homogeneous, jointless exterior
building components does not take place to any considerable extent as
part of any construction type, however. In unrenovated old buildings,
air is exchanged, as described above, not only by opening windows, but
also in an uncontrolled manner through joints, with the process being
supported by the chimney draught. For example, the roof area, which is
traditionally not used as a living space in most cases, is rarely air tight
and this is also true for the connection to the cellar.

Even without an air flow (convection), moisture is transported through

many structural components by means of diffusion, even if these com-
ponents are air tight. Nevertheless, there is not one commonly used
construction method in Europe for which the transportation of water
vapour in this way is sufficient to eradicate the moisture that forms in a
flat. The volume of water vapour to be removed by means of ventilation
 must be up to 100 times greater than the volume removed via diffu-
sion through exterior building components if damp and mould damage
is to be avoided. The individual points at which building components
"breathe" are their unsealed joints. Here, large quantities of moisture
are "discharged" accordingly. This, however, also illustrates the danger
of condensation collecting in unsealed structural joints. The transporta-
tion of water vapour through a building component must be planned in
such a way that a permanent build-up of moisture inside the respective
component can be excluded.

The interior surfaces of a building have an important buffer function:

Open-pored interior surfaces such as lime, clay and gypsum plaster as
well as open-pored furnishings are able to absorb relatively large vol-
umes of humidity in the short term, but are unable to discharge it out-
side. If the room humidity then falls, the water vapour that has accu-
mulated here will once again slowly be released into the room air. This
allows for spikes in humidity in the bathroom or kitchen to be cush-
24
ioned and for phases in which the room air tends to be overly dry to be
reduced. This, of course, only works where surfaces are not covered by
tiles, vinyl wallpaper or impervious coatings that prevent the exchange
of water vapour. This buffer function is restricted, however, to a few
millimetres in depth below the surface. Such buffer effects should be
avoided, however, at critical thermal bridges (e.g. poorly insulated win-
dow lintels), as this extends the periods during which there are high
levels of humidity at the respective building component surface, sup-
porting the formation of mould.

The idea of the "breathing wall" with regard to the exchange of air
between inside and outside areas thus lacks any functional basis.

Problems emerge in existing buildings whenever structural or usage

changes lead to a significant reduction in the exchange of air or a con-
siderable drop in the surface temperatures of building components.
 25

This means that thermal bridges should always be minimised during

a renovation or conversion project and it must be examined how the
required exchange of air will take place afterwards. This check has been
required for some time by standards introduced under building law.
26

2 C L AIM 2

»Thermal insulation
leads to mould!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

It should be noted that mould problems in flats have continued to ac-

count for a significant share of building damage over the course of re-
cent decades. In the 1996 and 2008 Building Damage Reports, 12.7  %
and 14  %, respectively, of building damage was attributed to mould
problems. This affects new buildings, which in general are moved into
much too quickly and not given sufficient time to dry, as well as ren-
ovated buildings and – to a very great extent – unrenovated existing
buildings.

As stated previously, mould can occur wherever warm room air cools at
building component surfaces, thus causing the relative humidity of the
air to increase greatly; in extreme cases, this can even lead to the for-
mation of condensation. The pH value and capillarity of a surface also
impact the tendency for mould to form. Additional thermal insulation
27
always leads to an increase in the room-side surface temperature of
exterior building components and thus in principle reduces the risk of
mould. For the following reasons, however, mould problems can still
emerge even with good thermal insulation:

In particular, points in the building shell at which the thermal insula-

tion is interrupted or weakened (remaining thermal bridges) may now
be the places with the lowest surface temperature. In particular when
new windows are put in, condensation no longer forms
first – as was the case previously – on the window „Thermal insulation
panes. Critical situations as regards humidity can thus generally reduces
no longer be immediately identified, meaning the re- the risk of mould.”
quired ventilation is not implemented. Such points can
be outside corners as well as connections in the facade insulation to
the cellar or a roof insulation system. Balcony panels, integrating ga-
rage ceilings or letterbox installations are other possible problem areas.
Planning such details helps to identify structurally feasible and cost-ef-
ficient solutions. To this end, there are now a large number of tested
and proven remedies.

In particular at thermal bridges in insulating layers on the warm side

of building components (inside insulation), lower surface temperatures
than those observed before the renovation can occur, leading to an in-
creased level of risk. For this situation too, however, there are secure and
proven constructions. Interior insulation must be planned in particular
detail and applied in an expert manner, as it is less fault-tolerant than
external insulation.

The installation of new, better-sealed windows also leads to a reduced

exchange of air through joints. Should heating and ventilation practices
remain the same, this will result in a significantly higher moisture con-
tent in the room air compared to before the renovation. This difference
can be offset by adjusting the ventilation methods via windows or us-
ing a mechanical system. Mould growth is avoided if a high level of rel- 29
ative humidity is also permanently prevented at unfavourable sections
of exterior building components (thermal bridges) through the use of
sufficient heating and ventilation.

As people are unable to sense the level of relative humidity in their en-
vironment – in contrast to their ability to feel temperature changes – it
is highly recommended to use a hygrometer during the winter months
in order to monitor humidity levels.

Following the energy renovation:

multi-family home in Freiburg (top) and
historical buildings in Tübingen's old
town (bottom)
30

3
C L AIM 3

»Thermal insulation
becomes a fire hazard!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

Many of the insulating materials frequently used – as well as other
building materials – are manufactured so that they are at least classi-
fied as building material class B1 ("low flammability") by the building
inspectorate. The permissibility of building materials of various build-
ing material classes is governed in the respective building regulations
(regional building codes).

Of course – irrespective of the use of insulating materials – all fire

protection regulations must be complied with in order to ensure that
escape routes remain usable in the event of fire and that the spread of
any blaze can be prevented: For example, barriers made of non-flam-
mable materials must be installed above windows and doors or as a
peripheral fire block, ensuring sufficiently long resistance to fire. High
buildings may generally only be insulated using non-flammable mate-
31
rials. Depending on the building and its usage type, it must therefore be
evaluated carefully which material is suitable for which use8.

It must be considered, however, that interior furnishings made from

wood and plastics have a high fire load. Timber facade cladding, which
is commonly used in practice and permitted for small buildings, must
be assessed more critically as regards fire protection than the use of
external thermal insulation composite systems with polystyrene. The
high-profile reports on fire damage in connection with external ther-
mal insulation composite systems usually relate to projects that were
still in the construction phase, meaning that the systems had not yet
achieved their final level of functional capacity.

Large permanent fire loads such as wooden sheds or rubbish containers

must be avoided close to a facade, as must the storage of large volumes
of flammable building materials or waste during the construction phase.
32

4
C L AIM 4

»Insulating materials
damage your health!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

As is the case with all building materials, the potential health risks
posed by insulating materials and how these can be countered must
be examined. In the case of materials which emit particles, i.e. fibres
or dust, it must be ensured that they are installed in a
manner that seals them from the room air. For mineral
„If the correct
fibres, regulations have been in place for a number of
product is selected
years stating that no respirable fibres may be released.
and is properly
Materials that may emit gaseous materials should
applied, there are
wherever possible not be in contact with the room air.
no health risks.”
Renewable (ecological) insulating materials, as is also
the case with synthetic insulating materials, are also of-
ten chemically treated in order to improve their flammability properties
and to prevent pest infestations or decay. The type, volume and possible
impact of additives of this kind must be taken into consideration when 33
selecting the product. The publicly accessible and non-proprietary WEC-
OBIS9 building material information system offers a source of informa-
tion in this regard.

If the right product is selected and the correct storage, application and
usage conditions are in place, health impacts are not to be expected
when the insulating materials are in their installed state. Compliance
with occupational health and safety guidelines also ensures this is the
case during the application stage.


34

5 C L AIM 5

»The production of insulating

materials consumes more energy
than the materials save!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

Those who oppose construction methods that incorporate a high de-

gree of insulation argue that the production of the insulating materials
uses more energy than the materials actually save during their service
life in the building.

The non-renewable, i.e. fossil, primary energy requirements for the pro-
duction of insulating materials (grey energy) differ considerably: While
less than 100  kWh/m3 is used for the production of materials requir-
ing little processing such as wood shavings or cellulose fibres, up to
1,300 kWh/m3 is needed for the manufacture of foam glass, PU or XPS10.

When calculating the energy pay-back period for insulating materials,

the expenditure for their production is compared to the saving of pri-
mary energy resulting from their insulating effect. The energy pay back
is thus dependent on the original situation, insulation thickness, insu- 35
lation type, heating method and energy source as well as the climate at
the respective location. As a rule, the energy pay back period of insulat-
ing materials is less than two years.

If appropriate insulating materials are selected, the energy amortisa-

tion period can often be cut to less than 12 months. For the production
of organic insulating materials such as cellulose insulation, hemp, etc.,
less than 50 kWh/m3 is used up, meaning that the manufacturing ex-
penditure is amortised in terms of energy in just a few months.

Even the energetically least favourable combination of costly insulating

materials and a high insulation thickness generally leads to an energy
amortisation period of less than five years and should thus be viewed as
a very practical solution when its service life is taken into account11,12,13,14.
36

6
C L AIM 6

»Thermal insulation
results in big problems
when it comes to disposal!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

The fact that the disposal of composite structures can prove problem-
atic should not actually be dismissed out of hand. The less bonding
involved, the easier it is to remove insulated structures. Ventilated struc-
tures with detachable mechanical connections have an
advantage relative to bonded composite structures. „The less bonding
When assessing the disposal issue, it also helps to look involved, the easier
at the life-cycle balance: The energy expenditure dur- the removal process
ing the production phase has already been taken into is.”
account. This is overcompensated several times over
thanks to energy savings during the usage phase. The life-cycle balance
is hardly affected by the disposal of the materials – as has been shown
by numerous studies. In the worst case scenario, disposal involves dis-
posing of the entire system. Investigations on the removal process have
37
been complied in a study by the Research Institute for Thermal Insula-
tion (FIW)15. If the entire system is thermally recycled, the energy con-
tent stored in the building material can be used. Procedures for the
material recycling of insulating materials are at the development stage.
38

7 C L AIM 7

»Insulated facades are

coloured by algae
and pose a health risk«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

In buildings with high-quality thermal insulation, the final rendering is

damp for far longer than is the case with uninsulated brickwork. In the
case of exterior walls with poor thermal insulation, heat losses mean
that the external surface is –permanently heated dry, while the high
mass of the external wall means that even during the early hours of
the morning on cool and clear days the dew-point temperature is only
fallen below in rare cases. In contrast, with external thermal insulation
composite systems, the top layer (plaster) often has a low mass with
little heat storage capacity. In particular on clear nights, it thus cools
more quickly owing to the radiation exchange with the cold outside
space. This means that the moisture content of the external plaster on
insulated facades is generally higher than on uninsulated brickwork, al-
lowing for algae to grow more easily and thus leading to a green colour-
ation of the surface. This, however, is a purely "cosmetic" problem and 39
should not be put on the same level as noxious mould in internal areas.
In nature, algae growth is frequently observed if surfaces are damp for a
long period – including on glass or metal surfaces and on trees.

In densely developed areas, this effect occurs far less frequently than in
very leafy and spacious building spaces. Here, the relative humidity of
the surrounding air is higher than in heavily populated inner-city areas
due to the higher moisture turnover of the plant life.

DThe tendency of some plaster manufacturers to counter algae growth

using pesticide and fungicide mixes in the paint should be evaluat-
ed critically. These poisonous substances are washed out as the paint
layer is weathered and ultimately reach the earth and ground water.
Eaves can be used to lessen the wetting of the facade, as this reduc-
es the radiation exchange with the cold outside space and intrusions
from driving rain. Heavy top layers (thick plaster) do not cool down as
 quickly at night and also reduce the frequency of instances in which
the dew-point is fallen below. Pure lime plaster is alkaline and prevents
the growth of algae. The level of alkalinity falls over the years, however,
with the increasing accumulation of fine dust and dirt on the surface.
Some paint manufacturers have developed facade paints which include
infrared-reflecting components, thus enabling them to limit the radia-
tion exchange with the outside space16. This leads to an increase in the
surface temperature, but here too ageing effects are to be expected due
to the accumulation of fine dust and impurities. The recently published
idea of actively heating the final rendering dry contradicts the purpose
of the insulation, however, and does thus not represent a meaningful
contribution to solving the problem17.

40

Bank building before and after

the energy renovation and
facade modernisation


42

8 C L AIM 8

»Facade and roof greening

can replace thermal insulation!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

Even if green facades have a great deal of charm, their energetic prop-
erties are only negligibly more favourable than those of a non-green
facade; the thermal properties of insulated facades are fallen far short
of. The vegetation merely serves to reduce the transfer
of heat from the wall surface to the outside air. Thick
„Green facades
layers of ivy also fail to create a standing air layer, as
cannot achieve the
even the smallest of air movements result in the com-
thermal properties
plete ventilation of the plant layer. The vegetation does,
of an insulated
however, have a positive effect in the summer: It pre-
facade”.
vents the sun from shining directly on the facade and
thus the wall from heating up, while the evaporation
through the leaves leads to a significant cooling of the surrounding air.
Ideally, vegetation and insulation would be combined. In the case of ivy,
however, there is the risk that the final rendering could be destroyed. 43
For this reason, insulated facades should be equipped with trellis and
appropriate plants should be grown.

With roof greening too, the positive impact is generally restricted to the
summer. Roof insulation, however, has a positive effect on the indoor
climate both during the summer and winter months. The improvement
achieved in the insulating effect via the substrate layer is minimal, es-
pecially as it is to be expected that the substrate layer will be fully pen-
etrated by moisture during the heating period. With some systems, it is
allowed to take the drainage layer, which can comprise insulating ma-
terials, into account with regard to thermal insulation.
44

9 C L AIM 9

»Thick walls in older houses

already provide sufficient insulation!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

In buildings with a wall thickness of 60 cm or more, either solid bricks

or quarry stones were traditionally applied. While these materials are
very good at storing heat, they are also almost as good
at transmitting it. Even with very thick historical wall „The insulating effect
structures, U-values of below 1 W/m K are the absolute
2
of thick walls
exception. Their thermal insulation is thus insufficient is not enough!”
and as a rule – with today's conditions of use – requires
improvement with a view to structural protection alone.

The high storage capacity merely slows down the warming and cooling
processes. Here too, external thermal insulation can lead to a reduction
in heat losses of 80% to 90%. Storage mass is of benefit in terms of
summer thermal insulation, allowing for heat generated in inside areas
during the day to be stored and then discharged to the outside air dur-
45
ing the night by means of overnight ventilation. For this day/night cycle,
only around the first 10 cm on the room side are activated, however, and
exterior insulation does not hinder this effect.
46

10 C L AIM 10

»Infra-red reflecting paints

and materials are enough:
they allow for energy savings
of 20 percent and more!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

The effectiveness of infrared-reflecting (IR-reflecting) layers on the

inside and outside of exterior walls is greatly overestimated18. In recent
years, products have been advertised in some cases that have prom-
ised unrealistic savings figures. Back in 1982, Gertis et
„Infrared-reflecting
al. demonstrated that IR-reflecting layers – especially
coatings should be
on the outside of external walls – have almost no ef-
viewed rather
fect from a thermotechnical perspective, as the con-
critically”
vective heat transfer brought about by the wind domi-
nates here19. In the case of poorly insulated heater niches, however, the
room-side application of IR-reflecting film can bring about a reduction
in the heat losses of these building components in excess of 10%. On
other room-side surfaces, the use of infrared-reflecting layers should
be assessed rather critically, as this leads to a reduction in the building
component surface temperature and thus increases the risk of mould 47
forming. An IR-reflecting external coating can represent a promising
measure for reducing algae infestations (see argument 7).
48

11 C L AIM 11

»Thermal insulation prevents

solar radiation reaching the brickwork
and thus reduces its contribution
to saving energy!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

One theory put forward by opponents of high quality insulation is

that the solar radiation that falls on an uninsulated, solid exterior wall
during the winter would contribute to covering heating requirements.
The Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IPB) has led the scientific
debate on this assumption for decades. Nevertheless, doubts are cast
by relevant stakeholders at regular intervals.

An additional simulation is also currently being conducted by Prof.

Andreas Wagner at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). An un-
insulated south-facing wall made from solid bricks with a thickness of
36.5 cm records a loss in heat (solar gains minus transmission heat loss-
es) of 102  kWh/m2 during the period between March and October. If
the wall is not exposed to solar input, the heat loss in the same period
comes to 109 kWh/m2. Solar input thus has a negligible effect in terms
49
of reducing the loss of heat from the inside to the outside of the build-
ing.

If a 15 cm insulating layer is added, the resulting heat loss is reduced to

14 kWh/m2. Even if the solar input received by the wall
is not taken into account, this figure still stands at 15 „Solar input has
kWh/m . This once again illustrates that good facade
2 a negligible impact
insulation on traditional brickwork can also effective- on reducing heat
ly reduce heat loss from south-facing walls (in this ex- losses.”
ample by 86%). With optimal solar input, however, the
observed uninsulated wall's heat loss is only reduced by almost 7%. It
appears far more sensible to make active use of the solar gain on the
insulated exterior wall, for example via photovoltaic systems or thermal
solar collectors.
50

12 C L AIM 12

»Thermal insulation is
expensive and does not pay off!«
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

Whether a measure "pays off" or not depends on, among other factors,
the assumptions, boundary conditions and methods on the basis of
which an economic efficiency calculation is performed. In principle, all
measures which generate lower overall costs over their service life com-
pared to a basic scenario can be deemed as economical. The values de-
fined in technical regulations (DIN Standards, VDI Guidelines) are used
for the service life. In practice, many building components even achieve
considerably longer service lives. The basic variant is often the still un-
renovated building component. Here, it must be taken into account
that many properties have already been partially renovated. Under
certain circumstances, this reduces the saving potential to be achieved
through the application of the insulation measures and thus impacts
their cost effectiveness. The Energy Saving Ordinance (EnEV) takes this
into consideration in the requirements it places on measures for exist- 51
ing buildings.

The annual costs of the different options, the cash/capital value, inter-
nal rate of return or possibly also an equivalent heating price represent
appropriate benchmarks for assessing the cost effectiveness of addi-
tional insulation.

If the decision is taken to combine maintenance work and measures for

improving a building's thermal insulation, a differentiation should be
made between the costs for the renovation work that would need to be
performed in any case and the additional expenditure for the solution
aimed at improving energy efficiency. All of a building's components
have a finite service life and have to be refurbished or exchanged on a
periodic basis. The roof, facade and windows as well as the heating sys-
tem and sanitary installations have to be restored or replaced regularly
in order to preserve their functional capacity. If energy modernisation
measures are performed, additional expenses are incurred. These meas-
 ures can involve the application of insulating material or making im-
provements to the glazing quality of windows as well as the doubling
up of rafters in order to accommodate greater insulation thicknesses.

The full costs of the investment comprise the total of the "business-
as-usual costs" of a structurally necessary renovation project and the
additional costs related to energy-efficiency measures. These full costs
cannot always be paid back through the cost savings made thanks to
improved thermal insulation. This expectation is also unrealistic, as the
extent of the measure and the benefits it generates go far beyond en-
ergy savings. Buying a new fuel-efficient car will not allow you to amor-
tise its purchase costs, but you may be able to amortise the additional
costs you paid compared to a standard model of the car. If only the ad-
ditional costs are taken into account, however, it can be shown that, for
example, the costs per saved kWh are already often smaller than those
for their provision of consumption. The annual costs for interest and
amortisation – in due consideration of the lower heating costs – as a re-
52
sult of an insulation measure are thus smaller than the original heating
and maintenance costs prior to the measures. Specific cost-efficiency
assessments must always be conducted on an individual basis.

When performing the calculations, appropriate assumptions for ener-

gy price developments should be applied, provided this is required by
the chosen method. Each projection is of course uncertain, especially
as the development of energy prices in the past has been very volatile.
It is therefore recommended to analyse options with different price-in-
crease rates. With the very long usage periods of structural thermal in-
sulation measures, the use of a plausible, average energy price during
the respective measure's service life is recommended as an alternative
to dynamic calculation methods in order to avoid exorbitant and unre-
alistic price estimates. The loan interest is generally used as the interest
rate, provided the measure was funded using borrowed capital. Should
the investor use equity capital, the interest rate currently paid on his or
her other capital should be used.
Assessments based on the possibly different perspectives of tenants
and landlords are not looked at here.

The policy objective is to promote energy renovation. The federal

government, states and even a number of local authorities are there-
fore offering grants or subsidised loans for energy renovation projects.
The economic benefits of these promotion measures must be taken
into account in connection with the specific case when calculating en-
ergy efficiency.

As a result, investments thus very often turn out to be economical if

reinvestment cycles that were pending anyway are used for the ener-
gy improvement measures. The application of facade insulation to a
building in excess of 30 years old then proves to be especially econom-
ically beneficial if the exterior plaster has to be replaced or extensively
repaired anyhow. This also applies to the insulation of roofs if bricks and
flashings need to be replaced in any case.
53
Generalised statements regarding the cost efficiency must be viewed
with a great deal of caution, however. For a well-founded statement to
be provided, the expected investment costs of the specific project must
always be compared with the realistically projected savings made on
heating costs under the actual boundary conditions. Ultimately, when
assessing the economic benefits, it must be considered that an energy
renovation project increases the value of the respective property and
also considerably increases levels of home comfort. The current Valu-
ation Ordinance thus incorporates the quality of a building's energy
performance in determining its value. Quality surcharges, which take
account of a building's energy performance, are increasingly been in-
cluded in the rent index.
54

13 C L AIM 13

»Thermal insulation
defaces buildings« 20
VI EWE D O BJ E CTIVE LY

In addition to the technical and economic objections discussed above,

the issue of design is also a topic that is subject to very emotional dis-
cussion. A number of renowned media sources (see footnote 17) equate
thermal insulation to the end of building culture. They believe that the
supporters of thermal insulation want to see every timber framework
and building from the Gründerzeit era disappear behind a faceless layer
of insulating material. No party who is seriously interested in energy
renovation can have this objective, however. Unfortunately, there are
actually examples of buildings with facade insulation that are suffi-
ciently dubious from a design perspective. Nevertheless, there are also
a large number of uninsulated buildings that are far from design suc-
cesses. The issue of design is thus not primarily a question of whether
thermal insulation is applied or not, but rather the use of creative archi-
tecture in handling the various materials. A large number of successful 55
renovation projects demonstrate this.

Interior insulation can represent a very viable option for facades which
should not be changed on the outside. As the line of argument in re-
sponse to claim 2 shows, the problems and risks associated with interi-
or insulation have diminished significantly thanks to the introduction
of capillary-active insulating materials which allow the wall to dry in-
wards. Interior insulation must be planned carefully in order to mini-
mise the thermal bridge effect of integrating walls and ceilings and to
prevent mould problems in areas where thermal bridges remain.

The reveal depth should be taken into account when using thick, exte-
rior insulating layers. To ensure appropriate insulation thicknesses, it is
generally necessary to adjust the installation position of the windows.
They should not only be moved into the insulation layer for structur-
al-physical reasons, but also for design reasons in order to ensure rea-
 sonable proportions. Folding shutters, rolling shutters and sliding shut-
ters can be combined optimally with insulated facades and allow for
solutions with an appealing design.

It must also be considered that inner-city buildings generally have one,

or a maximum of two, designed facades. The facades facing neighbour-
ing buildings or the courtyard can almost always be insulated from the
outside without any design limitations.

56

Listed building ensemble following

a renovation (top) and renovated
multi-family home in Weimar (bottom)
58
Conclusion
Building is becoming increasingly complex. While a few years ago it was
still enough for a craftsman to have mastered the manual skills of his
trade, he must now also be familiar with issues such as domestic venti-
lation and thermal bridges. Architects in turn are required to deal with
the subject of building physics and the opportunities and limitations of
modern building materials much more than was the case in the past.
All construction professionals require each other in order to produce
good building work overall. Experienced and skilled building specialists
will succeed in working together to design/renovate buildings in such
a way that they allow their customers to enjoy comfortable, healthy
living conditions with very low, socially acceptable follow-up costs over
the long term. Integral planning is therefore the order of the day.

In selecting the insulating material, qualities such as pressure resist-

ance, moisture resistance, heat storage capacity, acoustic properties,
flammability, durability, long-term behaviour, workability, energy
expenditure during production and, of course, thermal conduction
59
must be weighed up.

With an increasing level of insulation in building components, the air-

tight and thermal-bridge-minimising planning of component connec-
tions and the interplay between different components become even
more important. In order to avoid building damage, limit ventilation
heat losses and not least for reasons relating to residential hygiene, a
property-specific ventilation concept is also required for each renova-
tion project. At least a basic exchange of air must be ensured – irrespec-
tive of the user – to provide the required moisture protection, taking
account of modern lifestyle habits.

Historic structures must not be allowed to disappear under thick lay-

ers of insulation without a second thought. The design quality of our
cities should not be negatively affected as a result of energy efficien-
cy measures and instead, where possible, should be improved. There is
a great deal of potential in many cases here. This is indeed leading to
60

good construction work becoming more complex. Damage is possible

if planners and those implementing the building project are unfamiliar
with structural and physical interrelationships or do not take account
of the interface to neighbouring disciplines. Design aspects are also
often neglected due to the selection of the "cheapest" solution, which
discredits the overall objective.

There are multiple reports about "renovation disasters" which bear

witness to the inability of those involved in the work on the respective
property. There is also the fact that self-proclaimed specialists are loud-
voiced in stating half-truths, which put many people open to a reno-
vation off going about the corresponding projects. However, correctly
planned and implemented renovations lead to a considerable improve-
ment in levels of home comfort, significantly reduced energy costs and
ultimately an increase in the value of the respective property.
The need for a minimum level of thermal insulation required in order to
avoid mould and condensation and that allows for a minimum rate of
air change is viewed as obvious. The poorer the thermal insulation, the
greater the air exchange has to be in order to avoid damage. Thermal
insulation thus pays off twice over. Furthermore, the improved thermal
insulation of external building components increases the level of com-
fort in inside areas (prevention of "cold radiation").

There is a great deal of discussion about the cost effectiveness of struc-

tural thermal insulation. Here, it must be considered that the level of
cost efficiency is also dependent on the energy price and its develop-
ment in future. There is widespread consensus that energy prices will
increase further in the medium term. Over the past ten years, heating
costs in Germany have more than doubled – a fact that is easily forgot-
ten in the heated debate on energy prices. With a life expectancy for
structural thermal insulation of 40 years or more, a reasonable increase
in energy prices must be taken into account in all cost-efficiency assess-
61
ments.

Ultimately, improved thermal insulation contributes to providing for

the future and supply security. It leads to the preservation of resources
and reduces undesirable environmental impacts.

Image: Exemplary energy-renovated

building with curtain-wall facade
62
Authors
Dr.-Ing. Volker Kienzlen
KEA Climate Protection and Energy Agency Klimaschutz- und
of Baden-Württemberg GmbH Energieagentur
Baden-Württemberg
Kaiserstr. 94a · 76133 Karlsruhe GmbH
(0721) 984 71-12
[email protected]

Hans Erhorn
Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics IBP
Nobelstr. 12 · 70569 Stuttgart
(0711) 970-3380
[email protected]

Helmut Krapmeier
Energy Institute Vorarlberg
Stadtstr. 33 / CCD · A-6850 Dornbirn
+43 5572 31202-61
[email protected]

63
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil.
Thomas Lützkendorf
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Kaiserstr. 12 · 76131 Karlsruhe
(0721) 608-48336
[email protected]

Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Wagner

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Kaiserstr. 12 · 76131 Karlsruhe
0721/608-46511
[email protected]

Johannes Werner
ebök Planung und Entwicklung GmbH
Schellingstr. 4/2 · 72072 Tübingen
(07071) 9394-0
[email protected]
 FO OTN OTE S
1 Hans Erhorn: Schimmelpilzanfälligkeit 12 die neue quadriga: Wieviel Energie für
von Baumaterialien [Susceptibility of den Bau? [The New Quadriga: How
Building Materials to Mould]. Research Much Energy for Construction?] Issue
report of the Fraunhofer Institute for 01/2003 www.quadriga-news.de
Building Physics, IBP Research News 17
13 Mathias Schuß (dissertation at the
(1990), no. 196, Stuttgart
Vienna University of Technology): Life-cy-
2 Gesine Asmus (publisher): Hinterhof, Kel- cle-Analyse von Passivhäusern [Life-cycle
ler und Mansarde. Einblicke in Berliner Analysis of Passive Houses], 2004
Wohnungselend 1901-1920 [Backyard,
14 G. Wind, Ch. Heschl: Graue Energie – ein
Cellar and Attic. Insights into Berlin's
wesentlicher Faktor zur Energieoptimie-
Desperate Housing Situation 1901-1920].
rung von Gebäuden [Grey Energy – an
Rowohlt, Reinbek 1982
Important Factor in the Energy Opti-
3 Johannes Werner, Matthias Laidig: misation of Buildings], Pinkafeld Study
Empfehlung von Luftdichtheitsanforde- Center
rungen [Recommendation for Airtight-
15 C. Sprengard, S. Treml, A. Holm: Technolo-
ness Requirements]. In: Fachverband
gien und Techniken zur Verbesserung der
Luftdichtheit im Bauwesen (publisher:
Energieeffizienz von Gebäuden durch
FLiB book 1 2012)
Wärmedämmstoffe [Technologies and
4 www.wecobis.de Techniques for Improving the Energy
Efficiency of Buildings Using Thermal In-
5 Dr Max von Pettenkofer: Über den
sulation Materials], FIW Report FO-12/12
Luftwechsel in Wohngebäuden [Air Ch-
64 ange in Residential Buildings], Munich, 16 Künzel, H.-M., et al.: Algen auf Au-
Literarisch-Artistische Anstalt der J.G. ßenwänden. Bauphysik als Ursache?
Cotta’schen Buchhandlung, 1858 Bauphysik als Lösung! [Algae on Exterior
Walls. Building Physics as a Cause?
6 http://www.luftdicht.de/geschichte/
Building Physics as a Solution!] Third
pettenkofer1858.pdf *
Dahlberg Colloquium, Wismar (2001)
7 Erwin Raisch: Die Luftdurchlässigkeit von
17 http://baufuesick.wordpress.
Baustoffen und Baukonstruktionen [The
com/2011/04/11/endlich-das-mit-strom-
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beheizte-wdvs *
and Building Structures], Gesund-
heits-Ingenieur 1928, issue 30, volume 51 18 http://baufuesick.wordpress.
com/2008/02/18/warme-
8 www.energiesparaktion.de/downloads/
schutz-mit-ir-reflektierenden-
Kacheln/Gedanken_zu_einer_Kampag-
folien-und-beschichtungen *
ne_gegen_den_Waermeschutz. pdf *
19 Gertis, K. and Erhorn, H.: Infrarotwirksa-
9 www.wecobis.de/bauprodukt­gruppen/
me Schichten zur Energieeinsparung bei
daemmstoffe.html *
Gebäuden? [Infrared-reflective Layers as
10 http://nachhaltiges-bauen.de/ a Means of Saving Energy in Buildings?],
baustoffe/Wärmedämmverbund- GI 103 (1982), number 1, pages 20-24 and
systeme (WDVS) * 333-34
11 Dr Wolfgang Feist: Life-cycle energy ana- 20 www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/
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Passive House Institute, 1997
*letzter Aufruf: 14.01.2015
PICTU R ES
Page 9:
High-rise buildings in Freiburg renovated to
meet the passive house level of performance
(image; triolog)
Page 12:
Passive-house certified office building in
Tübingen (image: ebök Planung und
Entwicklung GmbH)
Page 18:
Insulated wooden facade in the Freiburg
district of Vauban (image: triolog)
Page 25:
Application of an external thermal insulation
composite system (image: triolog)
Page 28 (top):
Renovated multi-family home in Freiburg
(image: Freiburger Stadtbau)
Page 28 (bottom):
Historic buildings in Tübingen‘s old town
following energy renovation (image: ebök)
Page 41:
Bank building in Villingen-Schwenningen
before and after being renovated and
modernised (image: ebök)
Page 57 (top):
Listed building ensemble in a workers‘
settlement in Freiburg following a
comprehensive renovation (image: triolog)
Page 57 (bottom):
Renovated building in Weimar with an 8
cm external thermal insulation composite
system and decorative profiles
(image: I. Lützkendorf)
Page 60:
Energy-renovated and modernised
residential accommodation in Essen with a
curtain-wall facade (image: Sigurd Steinprinz
/ Architektur Contor Müller Schlüter)
KEA
Climate Protection and Energy Agency
of Baden-Württemberg GmbH

Kaiserstr. 94a
76133 Karlsruhe
Tel.: (0721) 984 71-0
Fax: (0721) 984 71-20
[email protected]