Principles of Biology

Instructor: Jace Robinson

 Your Instructor

 Instructor: Jace Robinson

 Office: Z221
 Phone: (847) 925-6414
 Email: [email protected]
 Office Hours:
 By Appointment Only
 Introduction to the
Course
 What you can expect from me:
 Make biology interesting through applications
to the “real world” and interesting examples of
nature at it’s “best and worst”
 Show you how biology impacts you everyday
 Commitment to your learning
 A mentor, someone to ask questions about
academic and/or professional directions
(limited to my knowledge)
 Introduction to the
Course
 What I expect from you:
 Effort: “The only time success comes before
work is in the dictionary.” - Vince Lombardi
 Thoughts and opinions: In science, these both
play vital roles. Be creative, be ingenious.
 Good writing skills: This is often a major key to
success, both academically and professionally.
 Introduction to the
Course
 What I encourage in you:
 Participation:
 Ask questions, that’s how you learn. If you knew
the material, you would just be wasting time
here. I guarantee that if you don’t know, neither
do 9 other people in the room.
 Answer questions, who cares if you right or
wrong. Trial and error, as well as guess and
check, are at the heart of science.
 Introduction to the
Course
 Ground Rules of Classroom Etiquette:
 While I am talking, no other conversations or
talking should be occurring.
 If you need to leave, for any reason, please do
so quietly as to not disturb your fellow
classmates.
 Cell phones MUST, as a minimum, be on
vibrate mode. Preferably, they should be
turned off for lecture.
 Work should be turned in ON TIME. Life, in
many respects, is about meeting deadlines.
 Quiet snacks are fine in the lecture hall, but no
What is Science?
 What is Science?

 A study which strives to measure, explain and

make generalizations about natural
phenomena
 All sciences: Geology, Geography, Biology,
Physics, Social Sciences all strive to explain
natural phenomena of the world around us
 These sciences simply focus on different
aspects of the natural world
 How Science Works

 Science is a process that follows a

simple methodology:
 Make observations
 Form hypotheses that possibly explain natural
phenomena
 Experiment and make observations
 Collect data
 Form conclusions that is consistent with the
data
 Some Definitions in
Science
 Fact: A single piece of information (or datum)
 Multiple pieces of information = data

 Conclusion: A generalization based upon data

 Law: A broad generalization based upon many, many
scientific conclusions
 Example: Law of Gravity

 Theory: An explanation of the occurrence of the law.

The “why” behind the law.
 Theories are consistent with the laws and data of
the sciences
 Some Misconceptions
of Science
1. Theories are just guesses
• Theories explain the laws of science, and are
consistent with them.

2. Science proves or disproves something

• Science does not prove or disprove anything
• Scientific conclusions simply support or reject
hypotheses based upon data

3. Scientific answers are true

• True and Truth are philosophical ideas
• All scientific conclusions, theories or laws can
be rejected if there is sufficient evidence
Introduction to the
Study of Biology
 Introduction to the Study of
Biology

 Biology is the scientific study of life

 Components of Biological Study:
 Dependent variable: result or change due to the
independent variables
 Independent variable: variable that are
manipulated to cause a change in the dependent
variable.
 Control group: standard that is not manipulated
 Experimental group: group that are manipulated
during the testing of the experimental variable.
 Introduction to the Study of
Biology

 Two general types of biological studies:

 Controlled
 Control of all variables, less realistic

 Field
 Certain variables are uncontrollable,
more realistic
 Some Benefits of Biological
Endeavors

 Increased food production

 Better understanding of nature
 Advanced medical techniques &
medications
 Enhanced abilities for conservation of
natural resources
 Understanding of intrinsically
interesting natural phenomena
Figure 1.3 Life is Organized
1 The 7
Biosphere Tissues
6 Organs
2 and Organ
Ecosystems Systems

10
3 Mole-
Communities cules 8
Cells
5
Organisms

4 9 Organelles
Populations
 Life is Organized
 Organization of life begins with the cell

 Each level has new, or emergent,

properties which follow laws of physics
and chemistry
Living Things Acquire
Materials
and Energy
 Life requires energy (ability to
do work)
 Food provides nutrient
molecules for energy
 All energy comes from the sun
 Cell metabolism includes many
chemical reactions
 Organisms require homeostasis
– stability in temperature,
moisture level, acidity, etc.
 Living Things Respond
 Interact with the
environment to find
food and shelter
 Response often
involves movement
 Ability to respond
improves survival
 Responses collectively
constitute the
organism’s behavior
 Living Things Reproduce and
Develop
 Reproduction allows
organisms to make more
organisms like themselves
 Unicellular organisms
simply split into two
 Multicellular organisms
often unite sperm and egg
(young must develop into
adults)
 Development instructions
are encoded in genes
 Genes are sequences of
DNA
Adaptation & Evolution
 Variations in genes allow for
adaptation
 Adaptation to new conditions
give rise to new species
 Individuals with more
adaptations produce more
offspring
 Theory of Evolution: Descent
with Modification
 All forms of life possess DNA
 Suggests common ancestor
Binomial Nomenclature
 Each species is given a two-part
Latin name (begun by Carolus
Linnaeus)
 The first (genus) name is
capitalized, the second (specific
epithet) is not. Both are
underlined or else italicized.
 Human: Homo sapiens
 Giant Fishing Spider:
 Dolomedes tenebrosus
 Organismal Classification
 The discipline of
identifying and
classifying
organisms is
called taxonomy
 Organisms are
classified
according to their
evolutionary
relationships
 General Classification Theme

Kingdom (largest)

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species
 Northern watersnake
Classification
 Kingdom Animalia
 Phylum Chordata
 Class Reptilia
 Order Squamata
 Family Colubridae
 Genus Nerodia
 Species
 Nerodia sipedon
 Larger Classifications

 Domains are even larger groups than Kingdoms

 Fig. 1.7, pg 8

Larger Classifications
 Domain Bacteria (Kingdom Monera)
 Larger Classifications
 Domain Archaea (Kingdom Monera)

Methane-producing cells Hydrothermal vent species

 Larger Classifications
 Domain Eukarya (Kingdom Protista)
 Larger Classifications
 Domain Eukarya (Kingdom Fungi)
 Larger Classifications
 Domain Eukarya (Kingdom Plantae)
 Larger Classifications
 Domain Eukarya (Kingdom Animalia)
Basic Chemistry of
Life
What is Life Made Of ?
 Structure of an Atom
 Atoms contain
subatomic Cloud of negative Electrons
particles charge (2 electrons)
Nucleus

 Nucleus:
 protons have a
positive charge
 neutrons have no
charge (a) (b)
 electrons outside of
nucleus; negative
charge
The Periodic Table of Elements
Periodic Table Basics

 92 naturally occurring basic elements make

up all living and nonliving matter

 Elements cannot be broken down to

substances with different chemical or physical
properties
 Relevance of
CHNOPS
 Six elements make
up
~ 98% of living
things:
 C = Carbon
 H = Hydrogen
 N = Nitrogen
 O = Oxygen
 P = Phosphorus
 S = Sulfur
Elements and
Compounds
 Chemical Reactions

 Chemical reactions are changes (shifting

movements) in the position of electrons.
 Electrons possess energy; therefore energy is
typically given off or absorbed during chemical
reactions.
 Chemical bonds between atoms allow organisms
to maintain their organization.
 Chemical Reactions

 Chemical reactions convert reactants to

products
 Compound

 Is a substance consisting of two or more

elements combined in a fixed ratio
 Has characteristics different from those of
its elements
 Ionic Bonds

 Electrons are transferred from one atom to

another (atoms lose or gain electrons)
 Atoms with transferred electrons become
charged and are called “ions”
 Oppositely charged ions attract each other
 Ionic Bonds

 An anion
 Is negatively charged ions

 A cation
 Is positively charged
 Ionic Bonds

 An ionic bond
 Is an attraction between anions and cations
 −

Na Cl Na Cl

Na Cl Na Cl−
Sodium atom Chlorine atom Sodium ion Chloride ion
(a cation) (an anion)
Figure 2.10-2
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Covalent Bonds
Hydrogen atoms (2 H)

 Is the sharing of a pair of

electrons

 Each atom benefits by

having more atoms, at
least some of the time

Hydrogen
molecule (H2)
Figure 2.7-3
 Covalent Bonds

 A molecule
 Consists of two or more atoms held together by
covalent bonds

 A single bond
 Is the sharing of one pair of electrons

 A double bond
 Is the sharing of two pairs of electrons
 Single & Double Covalent
Bonds

Single Covalent Bond Double Covalent Bond

(Sharing only 2 electrons) (Sharing 4 electrons)
 Hydrogen Bond

 Weak attractive force between slightly (+)

hydrogen atom of one molecule and slightly (-)
atom in another or the same molecule

 Many hydrogen bonds taken together are

relatively strong (i.e. DNA)
 Hydrogen Bonds

Figure 2.9

 A hydrogen bond
−
 Forms when a
hydrogen atom
covalently
bonded to one O
electronegative
atom is also H H
attracted to  

another H2O
electronegative
atom
The Shape of Molecules
 Molecules have many
different shapes
 Shapes often
determine a
molecule’s biological
function
 Examples:
 Cell Surface Antigens
 Hormones
 DNA

HLA-A2: Human Class 1 MHC Molecule

 pH Scale
Measures amount of free
Hydrogen ions in solution
(acid = high amount; base =
low)

Ranges from 0 to 14 with

neutral pH of 7
 pH and Metabolism

 Chemical reactions within cells require very

specific conditions
 Optimal function of reactions (e.g., enzymatic
reactions) requires proper pH
 Chemical buffers keep pH steady and within
normal limits within organisms
Chemistry of Water:

The Substance of Life

 Water Is Important

 Water is the biological

medium here on Earth
 All living organisms require
water more than any other
substance
 ¾ of the Earth’s surface is
submerged by water
 Makes Earth habitable
 The Solvent of Life

 Water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity

 The different regions of the polar water
molecule can interact with ionic compounds
called solutes and dissolve them
 It can form aqueous solutions
 The Importance of Being a
Solvent

 Water can also interact with polar molecules

such as proteins

(a) Lysozyme molecule (b) Lysozyme molecule (purple)

in a nonaqueous in an aqueous environment
environment such as tears or saliva
 Cohesion

Two types
 Water molecules exhibit of Adhesion
cohesion water-
conducting
 Cohesion cells
 Is the bonding of a high
percentage of the
molecules to neighboring
molecules
Cohesion
 Is due to hydrogen bonding Direction
 Helps pull water up through of water 300 m
the vessels of plants movement

Figure 2.17
 Cohesion

 Surface tension
 Is a measure of
how hard it is to
break the surface
of a liquid
 Is related to
cohesion
 Resists Temperature Change

 Water minimizes temperature fluctuations to within limits

that permit life
 Heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break
 Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form

 Helps organisms maintain temperate “normality” within

their bodies
 H-bonds are difficult to break at boiling point and become
rigid at freezing point
 Moderates climate and allows mammals to cool through
sweating
Solid Is Less Dense Than Liquid

 Unlike most
substances, frozen
water is less dense
than liquid water
 Ice expands and
floats on water, so
lakes freeze from
top down and
aquatic life survives
Water Must Be
Important
Organic Chemistry:
An Introduction
 Carbon: The Essential
Element

 The backbone of biological molecules

 All living organisms
 Are made up of chemicals based mostly on the
element carbon
 Carbon: The Essential
Element

 Carbon is an essential atom in life.

 Carbon is a small atom, with a total of 6
electrons:
 2 in the inner shell
 4 in the outer shell

 C needs 4 electrons to complete its outer

shell:
 It covalently bonds w/ CHNOPS
 Organic chemistry only deals with covalent bonds
 Carbon: The Essential
Element

 Since it can bind in vast combinations with

CHNOPS = Diversity!
 Also, the C-C bond is quite stable
 Carbon chains can be very long
 Hydrocarbons are chains of C bonded only to H
atoms
 Carbon chains can also form cyclic rings
 The Formation of Bonds with Carbon

 The bonding versatility of carbon

 Allows it to form many diverse molecules,
including carbon skeletons
Molecular Diversity Arising from Carbon
Skeleton Variation

 Carbon chains
 Form the skeletons of most organic molecules
 Vary in length and shape
H H H H H
(a) Length H C C C H
H C C H
H H H H H
Ethane Propane
H
H C H
H H H H H H
(b) Branching H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H
Butane 2-methylpropane
(commonly called isobutane)
H H H H H H H H
(c) Double bonds H
C C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H
1-Butene 2-Butene
H H H
H C H H
(d) Rings H C C H C C H
H C H C
H C H C C
C

Figure 4.5 A-D Cyclohexane Benzene

 Hydrocarbons

 Hydrocarbons
 Are molecules consisting of only carbon and
hydrogen
 Hydrocarbons

 Are found in many of a cell’s organic molecules

Fat droplets (stained red)

100 µm
(a)
Figure 4.6 A, B A fat molecule(b) Mammalian adipose cells
 Isomers

 Are molecules with the same molecular

formula but different structures and properties
 Three types of isomers are
 Structural
 Geometric
 Enantiomers
 Enantiomers
 Are important in the pharmaceutical industry

L-Dopa
D-Dopa
(effective against
(biologically
Parkinson’s
Figure 4.8 inactive)
disease)
 Functional Groups

 Are the chemically reactive groups of atoms within an

organic molecule
 Give organic molecules distinctive chemical properties

Aix sponsa
 Functional Groups

 Carbon chains and rings form skeletons of

organic molecules
 Functional Groups: Specific combinations of
atoms that always react the same way
regardless of the C skeleton
 Hydroxyl (Alcohol) group = R - OH
Functional Groups
 Some Terminology

 Hydrophobic: Molecule that is not soluble in

water.
 Example: Oil

 Hydrophilic: Molecule that is soluble in water.

 Example: Glucose (Sugar)

 Monomer: A single organic molecule

 Polymer: Many identical organic molecules
linked together
 What is Organic Chemistry?

 Organic Chemistry focuses on molecules that

contain both C and H atoms.
 Four Classes of Organic Molecules:
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids
 Organic Molecules: A
Summary

 Always contain carbon and hydrogen

 Always covalent bonding
 Often quite large, with many atoms
 Usually associated with living organisms
 Carbohydrates

 Chains of carbon atoms covalently bonded to

CHNOPS atoms
 3 Types of Carbohydrates:
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

 Almost universally used as an intermediate

energy source in living organisms
 Monosaccharides

 Monosaccharides:
 simple sugars
 3-7 carbon atoms
in composition
 Disaccharides

 Disaccharides:
 Composed of 2
monosaccharide
 Joined by dehydration
synthesis
 Dehydration: Release of
H2O during chemical
reaction

 Example: Lactose (Known

as milk sugars for those
who are lactose
intolerant)
 Polysaccharides

 Polysaccharides:
 Composed of
monosaccharide
polymers (3 or more
identical
monosaccharides)
 Function as:
 energy storage
molecules
(glycogen)
 structural molecules
(cellulose, chitin)
 Polysaccharides

 Amylose
 Is the major
storage form of Amylose Cellulose
glucose in plants

 Cellulose
 Structural
component of plant
cell walls
 More Polysaccharides

 Glycogen
 Consists of glucose
monomers
 Is the major
storage form of
glucose in animals
 Chitin
CH2O
H
H O OH
H
OH H
OH H
H NH
C O
CH3

 Is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and

fungal cell walls
 Is used as surgical thread
 Lipids

 Are composed of several different organic

molecules, varies by lipid type
 4 Types of Lipids:
 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Steroids
 Waxes
 Fats

 Are constructed from

two types of smaller
molecules, a single
glycerol and usually
three fatty acids
 Triglycerides

 Composed of:
 1 glycerol
 3 fatty acids

 Long, hydrocarbon chains

cause:
 Hydrophobic - insoluble in
water

 Serve as:
 Long term energy storage
(Oils)
 Insulation (Lard)
 Saturated vs.
Unsaturated
 Saturated Fats:
 Carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen, so no C=C double
bonds.
 High melting temperature, so solid at room temperature.
 Typically of animal origin (exception, Avocado).

 Unsaturated Fats:
 Some carbon atoms double-bonded due to lack of
hydrogen atoms.
 Lower melting temperature, so liquid at room temperature.
 Typically of plant origin.
 Phospholipids

 Serve as membrane
components
 Extremely important
molecules!!!

 Composed of:
 Polar (charged)
phosphate “head”
 Hydrophilic
 2 hydrocarbon “tails”
 Hydrophobic
 Steroids

 Composed of 4 fused C-ring molecules

 Differ by types of functional groups attached
to carbon skeleton
 Examples:
 Cholesterol - component of cell membranes
 Hormones - testosterone, estrogen
 Waxes

 Composed of long, hydrocarbon chains bound together by

long chain alcohols
 Are:
 Hydrophobic
 High melting point

 Function primarily as preventative of desiccation (water-loss)

 Found in:
 Animal skin and fur
 Protective covering for fruits
 Proteins

 Made up of:
 Amino acid subunits
 Subunits covalently bonded together with peptide bonds

 Proteins function as:

 Support - Hair and Nails
 Enzymes - Make chemical reactions possible
 Transport - Move chemicals
 Defense - Antibodies
 Hormones - Chemical messages
 Motion - Contraction of muscles
 Amino Acids

 There are 20 amino

acids

 Each has 3 parts:

 An –NH2 (amino
group)
 A –COOH (acidic
group)
 A variable R group
which is the carbon
skeleton
  20 different amino acids make up proteins
CH CH 3 3
CH3

CH3 CH3 CH CH2

H CH3 CH3 CH2 H3C CH

O O O O O
H3N H3N H3N
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C C C C C C C
+ + +
O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H
Glycine (Gly) Alanine (Ala) Valine (Val) Leucine (Leu) Isoleucine (Ile)
Nonpolar

CH3
CH2
S
H2C CH2
NH O
CH2
H2N C C
CH2 CH2 CH2 O–
O O O H
H3N+ C C H3N+ C C H3N+ C C
O– O– O–
H H H
Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe) Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro)
 OH NH2 O
NH2 O C
OH CH3 SH C CH2
Polar OH
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
O O O O O O
H3N H3N H3N H3N H3N H3N
+
C C C C +
C C C C +
C C +
C C
+ +
O– O– O– O– O– O–
H H H H H H
Cysteine Tyrosine Asparagine Glutamine
Serine (Ser) Threonine (Thr) (Gln)
(Cys) (Tyr) (Asn)

Acidic Basic

NH3+ NH2 NH+

–
O O O– O
C C CH2 C NH2+
NH
Electrically CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 O CH2
charged O
H3N CH2 CH2 H3N
C C O CH2 C C
+ +
O– H3N CH2 O–
C C O CH2 H
H +
H3N
O–
H C C CH2
+ O
O –
H3N
H +
C C
O–
H
Aspartic acid Glutamic acid Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)
(Asp) (Glu)
Four Shapes of Proteins

 Primary:
 Chain of amino
acids

 Secondary:
 Protein folding

 Tertiary:
 Many proteins fold
into globular shape
 Shapes of Proteins

 Quaternary:
 2 or more
polypeptides in
tertiary shape
combine
 Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA)

 Made up of
nucleotides

 A complex of three
molecular parts:
 Phosphate
(phosphoric acid)
 Pentose sugar
 Nitrogen-containing
base
 Nucleotide Bases

 5 nitrogen-containing
bases in 2 groups:
 Pyrimidines:
 Cytosine, Thymine
(DNA only), Uracil
(RNA only)
 Purines:
 Adenine, Guanine

 DNA uses A, C, T, G

 RNA uses A, C, U, G
Structure of DNA
 ATP: The Raw Energy of Life

 ATP - Adenosine
Triphosphate

 Composed of:
 The nucleotide
Adenosine
 3 phosphate groups

 As each phosphate
group is cleaved off,
energy is released
The Cell
The Basis of Life
 Basic Cell Structure

 Cell is the smallest unit

of life

 Formed by plasma
membrane (phospolipid
bilayer)

 Contains DNA
 Prokaryotes =
nucleoid
 Eukaryotes = nucleus

 Contains fluid called

cytoplasm
 Why Are Cells So
Small?
 Surface area to volume relationship constrains
the size that any cell can reach
 Volume increases at a higher degree than
surface area
 Big cells (high volume) cannot bring
nutrients/food into cell fast enough, nor can it
expel wastes properly
 Big cells also cannot properly move materials
around within the cell
 Types of Cells

 Prokaryotic cells (i.e

Bacteria and
Archaea)
 Simplistic cells
 Generally lack
complicated
organization
 Typically have
flagella or cilia
 Often surrounded
by cell wall
 Types of Cells

 Eukaryotic
 Highly organized with many structures
 Contain organelles, large molecules that
perform specific tasks
 Much larger than prokaryotic cells
 Animals = no cell walls
 Plants, Fungi = cell walls
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
 Organelles?

 Organelles are highly structured groupings of macromolecules

that perform specific cell tasks
 They are bound a plasma membrane
 They, in and of themselves, are NOT living
 Their functions, taken as a whole, allow for the CELL to perform
exhibit those characteristics of life
 Examples
 Rough and smooth ER
 Golgi Bodies
 Mitochondria
 Chloroplast
 Nucleus
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Nucleus
 Houses the DNA with
eukaryotic cells

 Composed of 4 structures
 Nuclear envelope – separates
nucleus from cytoplasm
 Nucleoplasm – fluid within
nucleus
 Nucleolus – construction site
for ribosomes
 Chromatin – collection of all
DNA and associated proteins
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 The Endomembrane
System
 A continuous internal
membrane system
 Begins at the nuclear
envelope
 Composed of the:
 Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
 Smooth ER
 Golgi Bodies
 Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Rough ER
 Plasma membranes
embedded with ribosomes
 Produce a diverse number
of proteins within the cell
 Send protein products to
be embedded into ER
membrane or into the
cytoplasm
 Pancreatic cells have
large amount of rough ER
for production of digestive
enzymes
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Smooth ER
 Plasma membrane that
contains no embedded
ribosomes
 Produces lipids for use in cell
membranes
 Breaks down fatty acids
 Degrades some toxins within
the cell
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum (a
type of smooth ER) is
involved in muscle
contraction
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Golgi Bodies
 Receive and modify molecules
produced by the ER
 Modify proteins produced in
rough ER
 Modify lipids produced in
smooth ER
 Package modified products into
vesicles (“bubbles” of plasma
membrane)
 Produce lysosomes (digest all
bio molecules) and
peroxisomes (digest fatty
acids and H2O2)
 Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

chromatin ribosome

b RNA
messages are
translated into
polypeptide
nuclear chains on
pore
envelope ribosomes.
(two
lipid
bilayers)
cytoplasm vesicle
nucleolus
 Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look
smooth ER channel, cross-section

f Secretory Pathway Ends

g Endocytic Pathway Begins

budding vesicle
h PLASMA
d SMOOTH ER e GOLGI BODY MEMBRANE
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Mitochondria
 Often called the
“powerhouse” of the cell
 Organelles that produces
majority of ATP in the cell
 Found in the vast majority
of eukaryotic cells and in
NO prokaryotic cells
 Have their own DNA
(structured as a circular
chromosome)
 Evolve very rapidly
Eukaryotic Cells: A Finer Look

 Chloroplasts
 Site of photosynthesis in plants
and algae
 Composed of stacked disks
called granum (plural = grana)
 Photosynthesis occurs at the
thylakoid membrane
surrounding each granum
 Also contain their own DNA
(arranged as a circular
chromosome)
 Evolve rapidly, but not as fast
as mitochondria
 Origin of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts:
The Endosymbiotic Theory

 Earliest eukaryotic cell ingested (either

purposefully or unintentionally) an ancient
bacterial species (would become the present
day mitochondrion)
 Instead of being digested, a symbiotic
relationship was formed between the
bacterium and the eukaryote
 Chloroplasts occurred via the same process,
but with the ancestor to the algae and land
plants
 Origin of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts:
The Endosymbiotic Theory

 Evidence supporting the endosymbiotic theory

 Have their own independent DNA
 Arranged as a circular chromosome instead of
as a linear chromosome
 Evolve very rapidly just like prokaryotes(think
how fast bacteria evolve resistance to
antibiotics – we’ll cover this later)
 Similar in size to other prokaryotes
 Divide on their own (you inherit them from your
mother, thanks mom!)
What’s on the Surface?

 Plants and fungi have cells with cell walls (plants

possess cellulose, while fungi have chitin)
 Animals do NOT possess cell walls (more on this
later)
 Cell wall functions to support those cells (give them
shape) as well as protect them
 Porous enough to allow water through
 However, they do form barriers between cells
 So, how do these cells exchange materials or
communicate?
 Cell Junctions

 Areas where cells exchange

signals/material, recognize
each other or glue together

 For plants, plasmodesmata

are channels that extend
across the cell walls
 Cell Junctions

 In animal cells
 Tight junctions “glue” two
cells together and seal the
space between.
 Adhering junctions provide
additional support to tissues
that undergo continuous
stretching
 Gap junctions provide open
channels for the exchange
of materials between cells
 Cellular Skeleton?

 Cells require internal

support, such as a
frame, just as our
bodies do

 The cytoskeleton is
an organized set of
filaments that
provide structure,
support, and allow
for movement
 Cellular Skeleton?

 Cytoskeleton is composed of three different

filaments
 Microtubules
 Largest type of filament
 Keep organelles in place, or move them to new
locations
 Microfilaments
 Thinnest of all the filaments
 Anchor membrane proteins within the plasma
membrane
 Function to split two animal cells during
cytokinesis
 Movement within Cells?

 Microfilaments and
microtubules function
like train tracks

 Motor proteins function

like the engine, driving
the movement of
organelles or vesicles

 Requires ATP (fuel)

 How Do Cells Move?

 Cytoskeleton also plays a large role in the

movement of many cells
 Occurs via cilia, flagella, and false feet
(pseudopodia)
 How Do Cells Move?

 Flagella and cilia move through the use of a sliding

mechanism
 Pairs of microtubules extend upward to the tip of
the flagellum/cilium
 When ATP causes contraction, small dynein arms of
one microtubule pair grabs the other microtubule
pair, pulling them downwards
 This downward motion causes the pair of
microtubules to bend in one direction slightly, then
releases
 How Do Cells Move?

 This downward
movement causes a
“back and forth”
motion of the entire
cilium/flagellum

 A beating motion
ensues, just like the
swimming motion of
flagella, or the
sweeping motion of
cilia
How Do Cells Move?