Complex Number - Wikipedia
Complex Number - Wikipedia
Complex number
A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi,
where a and b are real numbers, and i is a solution of the equation x2 = −1,
which is called an imaginary number because there is no real number that
satisfies this equation. For the complex number a + bi, a is called the real
part, and b is called the imaginary part. Despite the historical nomenclature
"imaginary", complex numbers are regarded in the mathematical sciences as
just as "real" as the real numbers, and are fundamental in many aspects of the
scientific description of the natural world. [1][2]
Geometrically, complex numbers extend the concept of the onedimensional number line to the twodimensional complex
plane by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part. The complex number a + bi
can be identified with the point (a, b) in the complex plane. A complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely
imaginary; the points for these numbers lie on the vertical axis of the complex plane. A complex number whose imaginary
part is zero can be viewed as a real number; its point lies on the horizontal axis of the complex plane. Complex numbers
can also be represented in polar form, which associates each complex number with its distance from the origin (its
magnitude) and with a particular angle known as the argument of this complex number.
Contents
Overview
Definition
Cartesian form and definition via ordered pairs
Complex plane
History in brief
Notation
Equality and order relations
Elementary operations
Conjugate
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Addition and subtraction
Multiplication and division
Reciprocal
Square root
Polar form
Absolute value and argument
Multiplication and division in polar form
Exponentiation
Euler's formula
Natural logarithm
Integer and fractional exponents
Properties
Field structure
Solutions of polynomial equations
Algebraic characterization
Characterization as a topological field
Formal construction
Construction as ordered pairs
Construction as a quotient field
Matrix representation of complex numbers
Complex analysis
Complex exponential and related functions
Holomorphic functions
Applications
Control theory
Improper integrals
Fluid dynamics
Dynamic equations
Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
Signal analysis
Quantum mechanics
Relativity
Geometry
Fractals
Triangles
Algebraic number theory
Analytic number theory
History
Generalizations and related notions
See also
Notes
References
Mathematical references
Historical references
Further reading
External links
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Overview
Complex numbers allow solutions to certain equations that have no solutions in real numbers. For example, the equation
has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. Complex numbers provide a solution to this
problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with an indeterminate i (sometimes called the imaginary unit) that is
taken to satisfy the relation i2 = −1, so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this case the
solutions are −1 + 3i and −1 − 3i, as can be verified using the fact that i2 = −1:
According to the fundamental theorem of algebra, all polynomial equations with real or complex coefficients in a single
variable have a solution in complex numbers.
Definition
A complex number is a number of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i
is an indeterminate satisfying i2 = −1. For example, 2 + 3i is a complex number. [5]
A complex number may therefore be defined as a polynomial in the single
indeterminate i, with the relation i2 + 1 = 0 imposed. From this definition, complex
numbers can be added or multiplied, using the addition and multiplication for
polynomials. Formally, the set of complex numbers is the quotient ring of the
polynomial ring in the indeterminate i, by the ideal generated by the polynomial i2 + 1
(see below). [6] The set of all complex numbers is denoted by ℂ, or .
The real number a is called the real part of the complex number a + bi; the real
number b is called the imaginary part of a + bi. By this convention, the imaginary
part does not include a factor of i: hence b, not bi, is the imaginary part. [7][8] The real
An illustration of the
part of a complex number z is denoted by Re(z) or ℜ(z); the imaginary part of a complex plane. The real part
complex number z is denoted by Im(z) or ℑ(z). For example, of a complex number
z = x + iy is x, and its
imaginary part is y.
A real number a can be regarded as a complex number a + 0i whose imaginary part is 0. A purely imaginary number bi is
a complex number 0 + bi whose real part is zero. It is common to write a for a + 0i and bi for 0 + bi. Moreover, when the
imaginary part is negative, it is common to write a − bi with b > 0 instead of a + (−b)i, for example 3 − 4i instead of
3 + (−4)i.
Cartesian form and definition via ordered pairs
A complex number can thus be identified with an ordered pair (Re(z),Im(z)) in the Cartesian plane, an identification
sometimes known as the Cartesian form of z. In fact, a complex number can be defined as an ordered pair (a,b), but then
rules for addition and multiplication must also be included as part of the definition (see below). [9] William Rowan
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Hamilton introduced this approach to define the complex number system. [10]
Complex plane
A complex number can be viewed as a point or position vector in a two
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand
diagram (see Pedoe 1988 and Solomentsev 2001), named after JeanRobert
Argand. The numbers are conventionally plotted using the real part as the
horizontal component, and imaginary part as vertical (see Figure 1). These two
values used to identify a given complex number are therefore called its
Cartesian, rectangular, or algebraic form.
A position vector may also be defined in terms of its magnitude and direction
Figure 1: A complex number z,
relative to the origin. These are emphasized in a complex number's polar form. plotted as a point (red) and position
Using the polar form of the complex number in calculations may lead to a vector (blue) on an Argand diagram;
more intuitive interpretation of mathematical results. Notably, the operations a+bi is its rectangular expression.
of addition and multiplication take on a very natural geometric character
when complex numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds
to vector addition while multiplication corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding their arguments (i.e. the
angles they make with the x axis). Viewed in this way the multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to rotating
the position vector counterclockwise by a quarter turn (90°) about the origin: (a+bi)i = ai+bi2 = b+ai.
History in brief
Main section: History
The solution in radicals (without trigonometric functions) of a general cubic equation contains the square roots of negative
numbers when all three roots are real numbers, a situation that cannot be rectified by factoring aided by the rational root
test if the cubic is irreducible (the socalled casus irreducibilis). This conundrum led Italian mathematician Gerolamo
Cardano to conceive of complex numbers in around 1545, [11] though his understanding was rudimentary.
Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with
complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher. Complex numbers thus form an
algebraically closed field, where any polynomial equation has a root.
Many mathematicians contributed to the full development of complex numbers. The rules for addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli. [12] A
more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the Irish mathematician William Rowan
Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to the theory of quaternions.
Notation
Because it is a polynomial in the indeterminate i, a + ib may be written instead of a + bi, which is often expedient when b
is a radical. [13] In some disciplines, in particular electromagnetism and electrical engineering, j is used instead of i, [14]
since i is frequently used for electric current. In these cases complex numbers are written as a + bj or a + jb.
Equality and order relations
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Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both their real and imaginary parts are equal. That is, complex numbers
and are equal if and only if and . If the complex numbers are written in polar form,
they are equal if and only if they have the same argument and the same magnitude.
Because complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on a twodimensional plane, there is no natural linear
ordering on the set of complex numbers. Furthermore, there is no linear ordering on the complex numbers that is
compatible with addition and multiplication – the complex numbers cannot have the structure of an ordered field. This is
because any square in an ordered field is at least 0, but i2 = −1.
Elementary operations
Conjugate
The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + yi is defined to be
x − yi. It is denoted by either or z*.[15]
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z can be extracted using the
conjugate:
Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its own conjugate.
Conjugation distributes over the standard arithmetic operations:
Geometric representation of z and its
conjugate in the complex plane
Addition and subtraction
Complex numbers are added by separately adding the real and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say:
Similarly, subtraction is defined by
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Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane, the addition
has the following geometric interpretation: the sum of two complex numbers A
and B, interpreted as points of the complex plane, is the point X obtained by
building a parallelogram, three of whose vertices are O, A and B. Equivalently, X
is the point such that the triangles with vertices O, A, B, and X, B, A, are
congruent.
Multiplication and division
The multiplication of two complex numbers is defined by the following formula:
Addition of two complex numbers
can be done geometrically by
constructing a parallelogram.
In particular, the square of i is −1:
The preceding definition of multiplication of general complex numbers follows naturally from this fundamental property
of i. Indeed, if i is treated as a number so that di means d times i, the above multiplication rule is identical to the usual
rule for multiplying two sums of two terms.
(distributive property)
(commutative property of addition—the order of the
summands can be changed)
(commutative and distributive properties)
(fundamental property of i).
The division of two complex numbers is defined in terms of complex multiplication, which is described above, and real
division. When at least one of c and d is nonzero, we have
Division can be defined in this way because of the following observation:
As shown earlier, c − di is the complex conjugate of the denominator c + di. At least one of the real part c and the
imaginary part d of the denominator must be nonzero for division to be defined. This is called "rationalization" of the
denominator (although the denominator in the final expression might be an irrational real number).
Reciprocal
The reciprocal of a nonzero complex number z = x + yi is given by
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This formula can be used to compute the multiplicative inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular
coordinates. Inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying reflections more general than ones about a line, can also
be expressed in terms of complex numbers. In the network analysis of electrical circuits, the complex conjugate is used in
finding the equivalent impedance when the maximum power transfer theorem is used.
Square root
The square roots of a + bi (with b ≠ 0) are , where
and
Polar form
Absolute value and argument
An alternative way of defining a point P in the complex plane, other than using
the x and ycoordinates, is to use the distance of the point from O, the point
whose coordinates are (0, 0) (the origin), together with the angle subtended
between the positive real axis and the line segment OP in a counterclockwise
direction. This idea leads to the polar form of complex numbers.
The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex number
z = x + yi is[19]
Figure 2: The argument φ and
If z is a real number (that is, if y = 0), then r = | x |. That is, the absolute value modulus r locate a point on an
Argand diagram;
of a real number equals its absolute value as a complex number.
or are polar expressions of the
By Pythagoras' theorem, the absolute value of complex number is the distance point.
to the origin of the point representing the complex number in the complex
plane.
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The square of the absolute value is
where is the complex conjugate of .
The argument of z (in many applications referred to as the "phase") is the angle of the radius OP with the positive real
axis, and is written as . As with the modulus, the argument can be found from the rectangular form :[20]
Normally, as given above, the principal value in the interval (−π,π] is
chosen. Values in the range [0,2π) are obtained by adding 2π if the value
is negative. The value of φ is expressed in radians in this article. It can
increase by any integer multiple of 2π and still give the same angle.
Hence, the arg function is sometimes considered as multivalued. The
polar angle for the complex number 0 is indeterminate, but arbitrary
choice of the angle 0 is common.
The value of φ equals the result of atan2:
Together, r and φ give another way of representing complex numbers, the
polar form, as the combination of modulus and argument fully specify
the position of a point on the plane. Recovering the original rectangular
coordinates from the polar form is done by the formula called
trigonometric form
Visualisation of the square to sixth roots
of a complex number z, in polar form reiφ
where φ = arg z and r = |z | – if z is real,
Using Euler's formula this can be written as
φ = 0 or π. Principal roots are in black.
Using the cis function, this is sometimes abbreviated to
In angle notation, often used in electronics to represent a phasor with amplitude r and phase φ, it is written as[21]
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Multiplication and division in polar form
Formulas for multiplication, division and exponentiation are simpler in polar
form than the corresponding formulas in Cartesian coordinates. Given two
complex numbers z1 = r1(cos φ1 + i sin φ1) and z2 = r2(cos φ2 + i sin φ2),
because of the wellknown trigonometric identities
we may derive
Multiplication of 2 + i (blue triangle)
and 3 + i (red triangle). The red
In other words, the absolute values are multiplied and the arguments are triangle is rotated to match the
added to yield the polar form of the product. For example, multiplying by i vertex of the blue one and stretched
by √5, the length of the hypotenuse
corresponds to a quarterturn counterclockwise, which gives back i2 = −1.
of the blue triangle.
The picture at the right illustrates the multiplication of
Since the real and imaginary part of 5 + 5i are equal, the argument of that number is 45 degrees, or π/4 (in radian). On
the other hand, it is also the sum of the angles at the origin of the red and blue triangles are arctan(1/3) and arctan(1/2),
respectively. Thus, the formula
holds. As the arctan function can be approximated highly efficiently, formulas like this—known as Machinlike formulas—
are used for highprecision approximations of π.
Similarly, division is given by
Exponentiation
Euler's formula
Euler's formula states that, for any real number x,
where e is the base of the natural logarithm. This can be proved through induction by observing that
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and so on, and by considering the Taylor series expansions of eix , cos x and sin x:
The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent.
Natural logarithm
It follows from Euler's formula that, for any complex number z written in polar form,
where r is a nonnegative real number, one possible value for the complex logarithm of z is
Because cosine and sine are periodic functions, other possible values may be obtained. For example, , so
both and are two possible values for the natural logarithm of .
To deal with the existence of more the one possible value for a given input, the complex logarithm may be considered a
multivalued function, with
Alternatively, a branch cut can be used to define a singlevalued "branch" of the complex logarithm.
Integer and fractional exponents
We may use the identity
to define complex exponentiation, which is likewise multivalued:
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When n is an integer, this simplifies to de Moivre's formula:
The nth roots of z are given by
n
for any integer k satisfying 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. Here √r is the usual (positive) nth root of the positive real number r. While the
nth root of a positive real number r is chosen to be the positive real number c satisfying cn = r there is no natural way of
distinguishing one particular complex nth root of a complex number. Therefore, the nth root of z is considered as a
multivalued function (in z), as opposed to a usual function f, for which f(z) is a uniquely defined number. Formulas such
as
(which holds for positive real numbers), do in general not hold for complex numbers.
Properties
Field structure
The set C of complex numbers is a field. [22] Briefly, this means that the following facts hold: first, any two complex
numbers can be added and multiplied to yield another complex number. Second, for any complex number z, its additive
inverse −z is also a complex number; and third, every nonzero complex number has a reciprocal complex number.
Moreover, these operations satisfy a number of laws, for example the law of commutativity of addition and multiplication
for any two complex numbers z1 and z2:
These two laws and the other requirements on a field can be proven by the formulas given above, using the fact that the
real numbers themselves form a field.
Unlike the reals, C is not an ordered field, that is to say, it is not possible to define a relation z1 < z2 that is compatible
with the addition and multiplication. In fact, in any ordered field, the square of any element is necessarily positive, so
i2 = −1 precludes the existence of an ordering on C.[23]
When the underlying field for a mathematical topic or construct is the field of complex numbers, the topic's name is
usually modified to reflect that fact. For example: complex analysis, complex matrix, complex polynomial, and complex
Lie algebra.
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Solutions of polynomial equations
Given any complex numbers (called coefficients) a0, …, an, the equation
has at least one complex solution z, provided that at least one of the higher coefficients a1, …, an is nonzero. [24] This is the
statement of the fundamental theorem of algebra, of Carl Friedrich Gauss and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. Because of this
fact, C is called an algebraically closed field. This property does not hold for the field of rational numbers Q (the
polynomial x2 − 2 does not have a rational root, since √2 is not a rational number) nor the real numbers R (the
polynomial x2 + a does not have a real root for a > 0, since the square of x is positive for any real number x).
There are various proofs of this theorem, either by analytic methods such as Liouville's theorem, or topological ones such
as the winding number, or a proof combining Galois theory and the fact that any real polynomial of odd degree has at
least one real root.
Because of this fact, theorems that hold for any algebraically closed field, apply to C. For example, any nonempty
complex square matrix has at least one (complex) eigenvalue.
Algebraic characterization
The field C has the following three properties: first, it has characteristic 0. This means that 1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1 ≠ 0 for any
number of summands (all of which equal one). Second, its transcendence degree over Q, the prime field of C, is the
cardinality of the continuum. Third, it is algebraically closed (see above). It can be shown that any field having these
properties is isomorphic (as a field) to C. For example, the algebraic closure of Qp also satisfies these three properties, so
these two fields are isomorphic (as fields, but not as topological fields). [25] Also, C is isomorphic to the field of complex
Puiseux series. However, specifying an isomorphism requires the axiom of choice. Another consequence of this algebraic
characterization is that C contains many proper subfields that are isomorphic to C.
Characterization as a topological field
The preceding characterization of C describes only the algebraic aspects of C. That is to say, the properties of nearness and
continuity, which matter in areas such as analysis and topology, are not dealt with. The following description of C as a
topological field (that is, a field that is equipped with a topology, which allows the notion of convergence) does take into
account the topological properties. C contains a subset P (namely the set of positive real numbers) of nonzero elements
satisfying the following three conditions:
P is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses.
If x and y are distinct elements of P, then either x − y or y − x is in P.
If S is any nonempty subset of P, then S + P = x + P for some x in C.
Moreover, C has a nontrivial involutive automorphism x ↦ x* (namely the complex conjugation), such that x x* is in P
for any nonzero x in C.
Any field F with these properties can be endowed with a topology by taking the sets
B(x, p) = { y | p − (y − x)(y − x)* ∈ P } as a base, where x ranges over the field and p ranges over P. With this topology
F is isomorphic as a topological field to C.
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The only connected locally compact topological fields are R and C. This gives another characterization of C as a
topological field, since C can be distinguished from R because the nonzero complex numbers are connected, while the
nonzero real numbers are not. [26]
Formal construction
Construction as ordered pairs
The set C of complex numbers can be defined as the set R2 of ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers, in which the following
rules for addition and multiplication are imposed:[27]
It is then just a matter of notation to express (a, b) as a + bi.
Construction as a quotient field
Though this lowlevel construction does accurately describe the structure of the complex numbers, the following
equivalent definition reveals the algebraic nature of C more immediately. This characterization relies on the notion of
fields and polynomials. A field is a set endowed with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations that
behave as is familiar from, say, rational numbers. For example, the distributive law
must hold for any three elements x, y and z of a field. The set R of real numbers does form a field. A polynomial p(X) with
real coefficients is an expression of the form
The formulas for addition and multiplication in the ring R[X], modulo the relation (X2 = 1 correspond to the formulas for
addition and multiplication of complex numbers defined as ordered pairs. So the two definitions of the field C are
isomorphic (as fields).
Accepting that C is algebraically closed, since it is an algebraic extension of R in this approach, C is therefore the
algebraic closure of R.
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Matrix representation of complex numbers
Complex numbers a + bi can also be represented by 2 × 2 matrices that have the following form:
Here the entries a and b are real numbers. The sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form, and the sum
and product of complex numbers corresponds to the sum and product of such matrices, the product being:
The geometric description of the multiplication of complex numbers can also be expressed in terms of rotation matrices by
using this correspondence between complex numbers and such matrices. Moreover, the square of the absolute value of a
complex number expressed as a matrix is equal to the determinant of that matrix:
The conjugate corresponds to the transpose of the matrix.
Though this representation of complex numbers with matrices is the most common, many other representations arise
from matrices other than that square to the negative of the identity matrix. See the article on 2 × 2 real matrices for
other representations of complex numbers.
Complex analysis
The study of functions of a complex variable is known as complex
analysis and has enormous practical use in applied mathematics as
well as in other branches of mathematics. Often, the most natural
proofs for statements in real analysis or even number theory employ
techniques from complex analysis (see prime number theorem for an
example). Unlike real functions, which are commonly represented as
twodimensional graphs, complex functions have fourdimensional
graphs and may usefully be illustrated by colorcoding a three
dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the
complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane.
Complex exponential and related functions
The notions of convergent series and continuous functions in (real)
Color wheel graph of sin(1/z). Black parts
analysis have natural analogs in complex analysis. A sequence of
inside refer to numbers having large absolute
complex numbers is said to converge if and only if its real and
values.
imaginary parts do. This is equivalent to the (ε, δ)definition of limits,
where the absolute value of real numbers is replaced by the one of
complex numbers. From a more abstract point of view, C, endowed with the metric
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is a complete metric space, which notably includes the triangle inequality
for any two complex numbers z1 and z2.
Like in real analysis, this notion of convergence is used to construct a number of elementary functions: the exponential
function exp(z), also written ez, is defined as the infinite series
The series defining the real trigonometric functions sine and cosine, as well as the hyperbolic functions sinh and cosh, also
carry over to complex arguments without change. For the other trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, such as tangent,
things are slightly more complicated, as the defining series do not converge for all complex values. Therefore, one must
define them either in terms of sine, cosine and exponential, or, equivalently, by using the method of analytic continuation.
Euler's identity states:
for any real number φ, in particular
Unlike in the situation of real numbers, there is an infinitude of complex solutions z of the equation
for any complex number w ≠ 0. It can be shown that any such solution z—called complex logarithm of w—satisfies
Complex exponentiation zω is defined as
and is multivalued, except when is an integer. For ω = 1 / n, for some natural number n, this recovers the non
uniqueness of nth roots mentioned above.
Complex numbers, unlike real numbers, do not in general satisfy the unmodified power and logarithm identities,
particularly when naïvely treated as singlevalued functions; see failure of power and logarithm identities. For example,
they do not satisfy
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Both sides of the equation are multivalued by the definition of complex exponentiation given here, and the values on the
left are a subset of those on the right.
Holomorphic functions
A function f : C → C is called holomorphic if it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations. For example, any Rlinear map
C → C can be written in the form
with complex coefficients a and b. This map is holomorphic if and only if b = 0. The second summand is real
differentiable, but does not satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations.
Complex analysis shows some features not apparent in real analysis. For example, any two holomorphic functions f and g
that agree on an arbitrarily small open subset of C necessarily agree everywhere. Meromorphic functions, functions that
can locally be written as f(z)/(z − z0)n with a holomorphic function f, still share some of the features of holomorphic
functions. Other functions have essential singularities, such as sin(1/z) at z = 0.
Applications
Complex numbers have essential concrete applications in a variety of scientific and related areas such as signal
processing, control theory, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis.
Some applications of complex numbers are:
Control theory
In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain using the Laplace
transform. The system's zeros and poles are then analyzed in the complex plane. The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols
plot techniques all make use of the complex plane.
In the root locus method, it is important whether zeros and poles are in the left or right half planes, i.e. have real part
greater than or less than zero. If a linear, timeinvariant (LTI) system has poles that are
in the right half plane, it will be unstable,
all in the left half plane, it will be stable,
on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability.
If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a nonminimum phase system.
Improper integrals
In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain realvalued improper integrals, by means of
complexvalued functions. Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour integration.
Fluid dynamics
In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in two dimensions.
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Dynamic equations
In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots r of the characteristic equation of a linear differential
equation or equation system and then attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = ert.
Likewise, in difference equations, the complex roots r of the characteristic equation of the difference equation system are
used, to attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = rt.
Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying voltages and currents. The treatment of
resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequencydependent resistances for the
latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance. This approach is called phasor
calculus.
In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by j, to avoid confusion with I, which is generally in use to denote
electric current, or, more particularly, i, which is generally in use to denote instantaneous electric current.
Since the voltage in an AC circuit is oscillating, it can be represented as
To obtain the measurable quantity, the real part is taken:
Signal analysis
Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals.
For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding
complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities. For a sine wave of a given frequency,
the absolute value | z | of the corresponding z is the amplitude and the argument arg(z) is the phase.
If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given realvalued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions
are often written as complex valued functions of the form
and
where ω represents the angular frequency and the complex number A encodes the phase and amplitude as explained
above.
This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which utilize digital versions of
Fourier analysis (and wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still
images, and video signals.
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Another example, relevant to the two side bands of amplitude modulation of AM radio, is:
Quantum mechanics
The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert
spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is convenient and perhaps most standard. The original
foundation formulas of quantum mechanics—the Schrödinger equation and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics—make use of
complex numbers.
Relativity
In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time
component of the spacetime continuum to be imaginary. (This approach is no longer standard in classical relativity, but
is used in an essential way in quantum field theory.) Complex numbers are essential to spinors, which are a generalization
of the tensors used in relativity.
Geometry
Fractals
Certain fractals are plotted in the complex plane, e.g. the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets.
Triangles
Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse—an ellipse inside the triangle and tangent to the midpoints of the three sides
of the triangle. The foci of a triangle's Steiner inellipse can be found as follows, according to Marden's theorem:[30][31]
Denote the triangle's vertices in the complex plane as a = xA + yAi, b = xB + yBi, and c = xC + yCi. Write the cubic
equation , take its derivative, and equate the (quadratic) derivative to zero. Marden's Theorem says that
the solutions of this equation are the complex numbers denoting the locations of the two foci of the Steiner inellipse.
Algebraic number theory
As mentioned above, any nonconstant polynomial equation (in complex coefficients) has a solution in C. A fortiori, the
same is true if the equation has rational coefficients. The roots of such equations are called algebraic numbers – they are a
principal object of study in algebraic number theory. Compared to Q, the algebraic closure of Q, which also contains all
algebraic numbers, C has the advantage of being easily understandable in geometric terms. In this way, algebraic methods
can be used to study geometric questions and vice versa. With algebraic methods, more specifically applying the
machinery of field theory to the number field containing roots of unity, it can be shown that it is not possible to construct
a regular nonagon using only compass and straightedge – a purely geometric problem.
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Another example are Gaussian integers, that is, numbers of the form x + iy, where x
and y are integers, which can be used to classify sums of squares.
Analytic number theory
Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals, by taking
advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as complex numbers, in which
analytic methods can be used. This is done by encoding numbertheoretic
information in complexvalued functions. For example, the Riemann zeta function
ζ(s) is related to the distribution of prime numbers. Construction of a regular
pentagon using straightedge
History and compass.
The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers can perhaps be said
to occur in the work of the Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD, where in his Stereometrica he
considers, apparently in error, the volume of an impossible frustum of a pyramid to arrive at the term in his
calculations, although negative quantities were not conceived of in Hellenistic mathematics and Heron merely replaced it
by its positive ( ). [32]
The impetus to study complex numbers proper first arose in the 16th century when algebraic solutions for the roots of
cubic and quartic polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, Gerolamo
Cardano). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required
the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. As an example, Tartaglia's formula for a cubic equation of the form
[33] gives the solution to the equation x3 = x as
At first glance this looks like nonsense. However formal calculations with complex numbers show that the equation z3 = i
has solutions −i, and . Substituting these in turn for in Tartaglia's cubic formula and
simplifying, one gets 0, 1 and −1 as the solutions of x3 − x = 0. Of course this particular equation can be solved at sight
but it does illustrate that when general formulas are used to solve cubic equations with real roots then, as later
mathematicians showed rigorously, the use of complex numbers is unavoidable. Rafael Bombelli was the first to explicitly
address these seemingly paradoxical solutions of cubic equations and developed the rules for complex arithmetic trying to
resolve these issues.
The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by René Descartes in 1637, although he was at pains to stress their
imaginary nature[34]
[...] sometimes only imaginary, that is one can imagine as many as I said in each equation, but sometimes
there exists no quantity that matches that which we imagine.
([...] quelquefois seulement imaginaires c’estàdire que l’on peut toujours en imaginer autant que j'ai dit
en chaque équation, mais qu’il n’y a quelquefois aucune quantité qui corresponde à celle qu’on imagine.)
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A further source of confusion was that the equation seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the
algebraic identity , which is valid for nonnegative real numbers a and b, and which was also used in complex
number calculations with one of a, b positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity (and the related
identity ) in the case when both a and b are negative even bedeviled Euler. This difficulty eventually led to the
convention of using the special symbol i in place of √−1 to guard against this mistake. Even so, Euler considered it
natural to introduce students to complex numbers much earlier than we do today. In his elementary algebra text book,
Elements of Algebra, he introduces these numbers almost at once and then uses them in a natural way throughout.
In the 18th century complex numbers gained wider use, as it was noticed that formal manipulation of complex
expressions could be used to simplify calculations involving trigonometric functions. For instance, in 1730 Abraham de
Moivre noted that the complicated identities relating trigonometric functions of an integer multiple of an angle to powers
of trigonometric functions of that angle could be simply reexpressed by the following wellknown formula which bears his
name, de Moivre's formula:
In 1748 Leonhard Euler went further and obtained Euler's formula of complex analysis:
by formally manipulating complex power series and observed that this formula could be used to reduce any trigonometric
identity to much simpler exponential identities.
The idea of a complex number as a point in the complex plane (above) was first described by Caspar Wessel in 1799,
although it had been anticipated as early as 1685 in Wallis's De Algebra tractatus.
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed. In 1806 Jean
Robert Argand independently issued a pamphlet on complex numbers and provided a rigorous proof of the fundamental
theorem of algebra. Carl Friedrich Gauss had earlier published an essentially topological proof of the theorem in 1797 but
expressed his doubts at the time about "the true metaphysics of the square root of −1". It was not until 1831 that he
overcame these doubts and published his treatise on complex numbers as points in the plane, largely establishing modern
notation and terminology. In the beginning of the 19th century, other mathematicians discovered independently the
geometrical representation of the complex numbers: Buée, Mourey, Warren, Français and his brother, Bellavitis. [35]
The English mathematician G. H. Hardy remarked that Gauss was the first mathematician to use complex numbers in 'a
really confident and scientific way' although mathematicians such as Niels Henrik Abel and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
were necessarily using them routinely before Gauss published his 1831 treatise. [36] Augustin Louis Cauchy and Bernhard
Riemann together brought the fundamental ideas of complex analysis to a high state of completion, commencing around
1825 in Cauchy's case.
The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders. Argand called the direction factor, and
the modulus; Cauchy (1828) called the reduced form (l'expression réduite) and apparently
introduced the term argument; Gauss used i for , introduced the term complex number for a + bi, and called a2 + b2
the norm. The expression direction coefficient, often used for , is due to Hankel (1867), and absolute value,
for modulus, is due to Weierstrass.
Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann
Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.
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Generalizations and related notions
The process of extending the field R of reals to C is known as the Cayley–Dickson construction. It can be carried further to
higher dimensions, yielding the quaternions H and octonions O which (as a real vector space) are of dimension 4 and 8,
respectively. In this context the complex numbers have been called the binarions. [37]
However, just as applying the construction to reals loses the property of ordering, more properties familiar from real and
complex numbers vanish with increasing dimension. The quaternions are only a skew field, i.e. for some x, y: x·y ≠ y·x for
two quaternions, the multiplication of octonions fails (in addition to not being commutative) to be associative: for some
x, y, z: (x·y)·z ≠ x·(y·z).
Reals, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions are all normed division algebras over R. However, by Hurwitz's
theorem they are the only ones. The next step in the Cayley–Dickson construction, the sedenions, in fact fails to have this
structure.
The Cayley–Dickson construction is closely related to the regular representation of C, thought of as an Ralgebra (an R
vector space with a multiplication), with respect to the basis (1, i). This means the following: the Rlinear map
for some fixed complex number w can be represented by a 2 × 2 matrix (once a basis has been chosen). With respect to the
basis (1, i), this matrix is
i.e., the one mentioned in the section on matrix representation of complex numbers above. While this is a linear
representation of C in the 2 × 2 real matrices, it is not the only one. Any matrix
has the property that its square is the negative of the identity matrix: J2 = −I. Then
is also isomorphic to the field C, and gives an alternative complex structure on R2. This is generalized by the notion of a
linear complex structure.
Hypercomplex numbers also generalize R, C, H, and O. For example, this notion contains the splitcomplex numbers,
which are elements of the ring R[x]/(x2 − 1) (as opposed to R[x]/(x2 + 1)). In this ring, the equation a2 = 1 has four
solutions.
The field R is the completion of Q, the field of rational numbers, with respect to the usual absolute value metric. Other
choices of metrics on Q lead to the fields Qp of padic numbers (for any prime number p), which are thereby analogous to
R. There are no other nontrivial ways of completing Q than R and Qp, by Ostrowski's theorem. The algebraic closures
of Qp still carry a norm, but (unlike C) are not complete with respect to it. The completion of turns out to be
algebraically closed. This field is called padic complex numbers by analogy.
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The fields R and Qp and their finite field extensions, including C, are local fields.
See also
Algebraic surface
Circular motion using complex numbers
Complexbase system
Complex geometry
Complex square root
Eisenstein integer
Euler's identity
Gaussian integer
Riemann sphere (extended complex plane)
Root of unity
Unit complex number
Notes
1. An extensive account of the history, from initial skepticism to ultimate acceptance, can be found in Nicolas Bourbaki,
"1. Foundations of mathematics; logic; set theory", Elements of the history of mathematics, Springer, pp. 18–24.
2. Penrose, Roger (2016). The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=VWTNCwAAQBAJ) (reprinted ed.). Random House. pp. 72–73. ISBN 9781446418208. Extract of page
73 (https://books.google.com/books?id=VWTNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73): "complex numbers, as much as reals, and
perhaps even more, find a unity with nature that is truly remarkable. It is as though Nature herself is as impressed by
the scope and consistency of the complexnumber system as we are ourselves, and has entrusted to these numbers
the precise operations of her world at its minutest scales."
3. Nicolas Bourbaki. "VIII.1". General topology. SpringerVerlag.
4. Burton (1995, p. 294)
5. Sheldon Axler (2010). College algebra. Wiley. p. 262.
6. Nicolas Bourbaki. "VIII.1". General topology. SpringerVerlag.
7. Complex Variables (2nd Edition), M.R. Spiegel, S. Lipschutz, J.J. Schiller, D. Spellman, Schaum's Outline Series, Mc
Graw Hill (USA), ISBN 9780071615693
8. Aufmann, Richard N.; Barker, Vernon C.; Nation, Richard D. (2007), "Chapter P", College Algebra and Trigonometry (ht
tps://books.google.com/?id=g5jcTvg_wC&pg=PA66) (6 ed.), Cengage Learning, p. 66, ISBN 0618825150
9. Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. pp. 15–16.
10. Leo Corry (2015). A Brief History of Numbers. Oxford University Press. pp. 215–216.
11. Morris Kline. A history of mathematical thought, volume 1. p. 253.
12. Katz (2004, §9.1.4)
13. For example Ahlfors (1979).
14. Brown, James Ward; Churchill, Ruel V. (1996), Complex variables and applications (6th ed.), New York: McGrawHill,
p. 2, ISBN 0079121470, "In electrical engineering, the letter j is used instead of i."
15. For the former notation, see for instance Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. pp. 15–16..
16. Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A. (1964), Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and
mathematical tables (https://books.google.com/books?id=MtU8uP7XMvoC), Courier Dover Publications, p. 17,
ISBN 0486612724, Section 3.7.26, p. 17 (http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_17.htm)
17. Cooke, Roger (2008), Classical algebra: its nature, origins, and uses (https://books.google.com/books?id=lUcTsYopfhk
C), John Wiley and Sons, p. 59, ISBN 0470259523, Extract: page 59 (https://books.google.com/books?id=lUcTsYopf
hkC&pg=PA59)
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18. Ahlfors (1979, p. 3)
19. Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. p. 18..
20. Kasana, H.S. (2005), "Chapter 1", Complex Variables: Theory And Applications (https://books.google.com/?id=rFhiJqkr
ALIC&pg=PA14) (2nd ed.), PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, p. 14, ISBN 8120326415
21. Nilsson, James William; Riedel, Susan A. (2008), "Chapter 9", Electric circuits (https://books.google.com/?id=sxmM8
RFL99wC&pg=PA338) (8th ed.), Prentice Hall, p. 338, ISBN 0131989251
22. Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. pp. 15–16.
23. Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. p. 25.
24. Nicolas Bourbaki. "VIII.1". General topology. SpringerVerlag.
25. Marker, David (1996), "Introduction to the Model Theory of Fields" (https://projecteuclid.org/euclid.lnl/1235423155), in
Marker, D.; Messmer, M.; Pillay, A., Model theory of fields, Lecture Notes in Logic, 5, Berlin: SpringerVerlag, pp. 1–37,
ISBN 3540607412, MR 1477154 (https://www.ams.org/mathscinetgetitem?mr=1477154)
26. Nicolas Bourbaki. "VIII.4". General topology. SpringerVerlag.
27. Tom Apostol (1981). Mathematical analysis. AddisonWesley. pp. 15–16.
28. Nicolas Bourbaki. "VIII.1". General topology. SpringerVerlag.
29. Electromagnetism (2nd edition), I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics Series, 2008 ISBN 0471927120
30. Kalman, Dan (2008a), "An Elementary Proof of Marden's Theorem" (http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/22/?pa=content&sa
=viewDocument&nodeId=3338&pf=1), The American Mathematical Monthly, 115: 330–38, ISSN 00029890 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/00029890)
31. Kalman, Dan (2008b), "The Most Marvelous Theorem in Mathematics" (http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/4/?pa=content&s
a=viewDocument&nodeId=1663), Journal of Online Mathematics and its Applications (http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/
4/) External link in |journal= (help)
32. Nahin, Paul J. (2007), An Imaginary Tale: The Story of √−1 (http://mathforum.org/kb/thread.jspa?forumID=149&threadI
D=383188&messageID=1181284), Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691127989, retrieved 20 April 2011
33. In modern notation, Tartaglia's solution is based on expanding the cube of the sum of two cube roots:
With , , , u and v can be expressed in terms of p and q as
References
Mathematical references
Ahlfors, Lars (1979), Complex analysis (3rd ed.), McGrawHill, ISBN 9780070006577
Conway, John B. (1986), Functions of One Complex Variable I, Springer, ISBN 0387903283
Joshi, Kapil D. (1989), Foundations of Discrete Mathematics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 9780470211526
Pedoe, Dan (1988), Geometry: A comprehensive course, Dover, ISBN 0486658120
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Press, WH; Teukolsky, SA; Vetterling, WT; Flannery, BP (2007), "Section 5.5 Complex Arithmetic" (http://apps.nrbook.
com/empanel/index.html?pg=225), Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.), New York:
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521880688
Solomentsev, E.D. (2001) [1994], "Complex number" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=c/c024140),
in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic
Publishers, ISBN 9781556080104
Historical references
Burton, David M. (1995), The History of Mathematics (3rd ed.), New York: McGrawHill, ISBN 9780070094659
Katz, Victor J. (2004), A History of Mathematics, Brief Version, AddisonWesley, ISBN 9780321161932
Nahin, Paul J. (1998), An Imaginary Tale: The Story of , Princeton University Press, ISBN 0691027951
A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis.
H. D. Ebbinghaus; H. Hermes; F. Hirzebruch; M. Koecher; K. Mainzer; J. Neukirch; A. Prestel; R. Remmert (1991),
Numbers (hardcover ed.), Springer, ISBN 0387974970
An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number.
Further reading
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, by Roger Penrose; Alfred A. Knopf, 2005;
ISBN 0679454438. Chapters 4–7 in particular deal extensively (and enthusiastically) with complex numbers.
Unknown Quantity: A Real and Imaginary History of Algebra, by John Derbyshire; Joseph Henry Press; ISBN 0309
09657X (hardcover 2006). A very readable history with emphasis on solving polynomial equations and the structures of
modern algebra.
Visual Complex Analysis, by Tristan Needham; Clarendon Press; ISBN 0198534477 (hardcover, 1997). History of
complex numbers and complex analysis with compelling and useful visual interpretations.
Conway, John B., Functions of One Complex Variable I (Graduate Texts in Mathematics), Springer; 2 edition (12
September 2005). ISBN 0387903283.
External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Complex number" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/c02
4140), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers,
ISBN 9781556080104
Introduction to Complex Numbers from Khan Academy (https://www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/imaginaryand
complexnumbers/thecomplexnumbers/v/complexnumberintro)
Imaginary Numbers (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00tt6b2) on In Our Time at the BBC.
Euler's Investigations on the Roots of Equations (http://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/eulersinvestigatio
nsontherootsofequations) at Convergence. MAA Mathematical Sciences Digital Library.
John and Betty's Journey Through Complex Numbers (http://mathforum.org/johnandbetty/)
Dimensions: a math film. (http://www.dimensionsmath.org/Dim_regarder_E.htm) Chapter 5 presents an introduction to
complex arithmetic and stereographic projection. Chapter 6 discusses transformations of the complex plane, Julia sets,
and the Mandelbrot set.
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