Designation: D4879 – 08

Standard Guide for

Geotechnical Mapping of Large Underground Openings in
Rock1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D4879; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

INTRODUCTION

This guide is intended for use in both civil and mining underground excavations, whether new or
existing, which may be either regular or irregular in section, large enough to be accessible to a person,
and for which a record of encountered conditions and features is desired. The details of the
geotechnical mapping will be dependent upon the features being mapped, and the proposed use of the
information. The information covered in this guide will be based upon observations and measurements
at the surface of the excavation; geophysical measurements are not included. In general, sufficient
information should be collected about features of interest to define uncertainty and facilitate consistent
interpretation. Mapping in accordance with this guide is useful to provide a data base for design, for
stability analyses, for confirmation of geotechnical predictions, for maintenance and monitoring, and
as a permanent record of construction. This guide is not intended to provide, of itself, the methodology
for rigorous collection of sufficient local, detailed, data for model development or verification, for in
situ testing, or for ore search.

1. Scope* 1.7 The mapping does not replace the surveying of excava-
1.1 This guide recommends procedures for mapping large tion geometry.
subsurface openings made for either civil or mining purposes. 1.8 All observed and calculated values shall conform to the
1.2 The mapping provides characterization and documenta- guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in
tion of the condition of the rock mass at the excavation surface. Practice D6026
1.3 The mapping may be accomplished during or after 1.9 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded
excavation; however, if possible, the mapping should be as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical
completed before construction activity modifies or obscures the conversions to SI units that are provided for information only
surface condition and especially any critical geologic features. and are not considered standard.
1.4 The mapping level of detail shall be appropriate for its 1.10 This standard does not purport to address all of the
intended use. This mapping does not replace rigorous investi- safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
gations to develop physical or mathematical models of behav- responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
ior. priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
1.5 When soil or soil-like materials are encountered in the bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.
excavation, they should also be appropriately mapped and 1.11 This guide offers an organized collection of informa-
described in accordance with applicable ASTM standards. tion or a series of options and does not recommend a specific
1.6 Many of the procedures presented in this guide may be course of action. This document cannot replace education or
used, as well, to map surface excavations. experience and should be used in conjunction with professional
judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all
circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to repre-
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D18 on Soil and Rock sent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of
and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D18.12 on Rock Mechanics.
Current edition approved July 1, 2008. Published July 2008. Originally approved
a given professional service must be judged, nor should this
in 1989. Last previous edition approved in 2006 as D4879 – 02 (2006). DOI: document be applied without consideration of a project’s many
10.1520/D4879-08. unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 D4879 – 08
document means only that the document has been approved 3.2.8.1 Discussion—Discontinuities include joints, cleav-
through the ASTM consensus process. age, faults, induced fractures, and some bedding surfaces, some
foliation surfaces and some contacts.
2. Referenced Documents 3.2.9 drift—a horizontal passage underground.
2.1 ASTM Standards:2 3.2.10 face—the surface exposed by excavation, at the end
D420 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering De- of the tunnel heading, or at the end of the full-size excavation
sign and Construction Purposes (based on Ref (1)).
D653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained 3.2.11 fall of ground—a mass of roof or side material which
Fluids has fallen in any underground excavation resulting from any
D2488 Practice for Description and Identification of Soils cause, natural or man-induced (based on Ref (1)).
(Visual-Manual Procedure) 3.2.12 fault—a natural break in the physical continuity of
D5731 Test Method for Determination of the Point Load rock along which appreciable displacement has taken place
Strength Index of Rock and Application to Rock Strength parallel to the break’s surface (based on Ref (2)).
Classifications 3.2.12.1 Discussion—The term shear has been applied in
D5873 Test Method for Determination of Rock Hardness by geotechnical practice to small faults or faults with small
Rebound Hammer Method displacement.
D6026 Practice for Using Significant Digits in Geotechnical 3.2.13 floor—that part of any underground opening upon
Data which a person walks or upon which a roadway is laid (based
on Ref (3)).
3. Terminology 3.2.14 flowing ground—a mixture of earth materials and
3.1 For definitions of terms used in this guide to refer to water flowing into the excavation like a viscous fluid.
Terminology D653. 3.2.15 foliation—the parallel arrangement of platy or pris-
3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard: matic minerals; also the parallel arrangement of streaks or
3.2.1 adit—a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven irregular bands of minerals in metamorphic rocks; a generic
from the surface for the working or unwatering of an under- term including schistosity and some rock cleavage.
ground excavation (based on Ref (1)).3 3.2.16 fracture—as used in this guide, refers to an artificial
3.2.2 alteration of rock—any change in the mineralogic break and is preceded by a modifier, for example, blasting
composition of a rock brought about by physical or chemical fracture.
means, especially by the action of hydrothermal solutions; also, 3.2.16.1 Discussion—This is the generic term of a natural
a secondary, that is, supergene, change in a rock or mineral (2). break in the physical continuity of rock; includes joints and
3.2.2.1 Discussion—Alteration is sometimes considered as faults. D653
a phase of metamorphism, but is usually distinguished from it 3.2.17 infilling—material that separates the adjacent rock
because of being milder and more localized than metamor- walls of a discontinuity and that may be weaker than the parent
phism is generally thought to be (2). rock.
3.2.3 aperture—perpendicular distance between adjacent 3.2.17.1 Discussion—Typical filling materials are sand, silt,
rock walls of a discontinuity in which the intervening space clay, breccia, gouge, or mylonite. This term also includes thin
contains air, water, or uncemented infilling materials. mineral coatings and healed discontinuities, for example,
3.2.4 back—the roof or upper part in any underground quartz and calcite veins.
cavity (based on Ref (1)). 3.2.18 invert—the curved floor of a tunnel or other under-
3.2.5 bedding surface—the interface between two adjacent ground opening (based on Ref (1)).
beds of sedimentary rock; bedding is the arrangement of 3.2.19 joint—a natural break in the physical continuity of
sedimentary rock in layers of varying thickness, composition, rock with little or no displacement parallel to the break’s
texture, or color. The term may be applied to the layered surface.
arrangement and structure of igneous and metamorphic rock 3.2.20 overbreak—the rock which is broken by blasting
(based on Ref (2)). outside the intended excavation line (based on Ref (1)).
3.2.6 cleavage planes—parallel or subparallel surfaces 3.2.21 parting—a thin sedimentary layer within a bed, such
along which a rock or mineral separates. D653 as a shale parting in coal; also a surface along which a rock is
3.2.7 crown—the curved roof of a tunnel (1). readily separated, such as bedding surface parting (based on
3.2.8 discontinuity—as used in this guide, a surface of Ref (2)).
separation in the earth materials, which may be filled with 3.2.22 planarity—this refers to a wave length of asperities
other materials. greater than 50 mm. It is described by the same asperity
features as are used in roughness (see also roughness).
3.2.23 ravelling ground—chunks or flakes of material
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or which begin to drop out of the arch or walls some time after the
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM ground has been exposed.
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website.
3.2.23.1 Discussion—In fast ravelling ground the process
3
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to References at the end of this starts within a few minutes after exposure; otherwise the
standard. ground is slow ravelling.

2
 D4879 – 08
3.2.24 roof—the ceiling of any underground excavation (3). 3.3.1.10 jt—joint.
3.2.25 roughness—this describes the topography of a dis- 3.3.1.11 M—silt (after Swedish word mo).
continuity surface (see also planarity). 3.3.1.12 mas—massive.
3.2.25.1 Discussion—Degree of roughness refers to an as- 3.3.1.13 mh—moderately hard.
perity wave length of 50 mm or less (discernible in a 50-mm 3.3.1.14 ms—moderately soft.
nominal diameter core). Degree of roughness is described by 3.3.1.15 rs—rust stains on joints.
height and wave length of the asperities, as well as angularity 3.3.1.16 S—sand.
and their true and apparent orientations. 3.3.1.17 s—soft.
3.2.26 running ground—granular materials without cohe- 3.3.1.18 sw—slightly weathered.
sion which are unstable at slopes greater than their angles of 3.3.1.19 w—weathered or decomposed.
repose.
3.2.27 shaft—an excavation of small area compared with its 4. Significance and Use
depth made for exploration or raising rock, soil or water,
4.1 The geotechnical map resulting from application of the
hoisting and lowering personnel and material, or ventilating
procedures set forth in this guide is permanent documentation
underground excavations (based on Ref (1)).
which may be used in the following ways:
3.2.28 shear—see fault.
4.1.1 Compilation of basic geotechnical information.
3.2.29 spring line—the junction of the roof arch and the
4.1.2 Design verification.
sides of a tunnel, drift, or adit (based on Ref. (1)).
4.1.3 Evaluation of preconstruction assumptions.
3.2.30 squeezing ground—ground which extrudes plasti-
4.1.4 Instrumentation location and data analyses.
cally into the excavation without visible fracturing or loss of
continuity. 4.1.5 Identification and location of problems and potential
problems.
3.2.31 swelling ground—ground which absorbs water, in-
creases in volume, and expands slowly into the excavation. 4.1.6 Provision of records for cost and claims adjustments.
3.2.32 termination—the end, or the form of the end, of the 4.1.7 Provision of information useful in future similar or
trace of a planar feature such as a joint. nearby projects.
3.2.33 trace length—the length of the line formed by the 4.2 Construction or safety considerations may limit the
intersection between a planar feature such as a joint and an ability to map to the full extent of the procedures of this guide.
exposed surface of rock or soil in an excavation (based on Ref 4.3 There are significant benefits to mapping as close to the
(3)). advancing face of the opening as is feasible, depending upon
3.2.34 tunnel—a horizontal or nearly horizontal under- safety and logistical considerations.
ground passage that is open to the atmosphere at both ends; this 4.4 Mapping emphasis should be placed on those geotech-
term is often applied to an adit (based on Ref (1)). nical features which are anticipated or are found to affect
3.2.35 weathering—the destructive process or group of overall performance of the excavation.
processes constituting that part of erosion whereby earthy and 4.5 Dust, water, lack of light, limited exposures, or other
rocky materials on exposure to atmospheric agents at or near physical factors may affect the quality of the mapping.
the earth’s surface are changed in character (color, texture,
composition, firmness, or form), with little or no transport of 5. Apparatus
the loosened or altered material; specifically the physical 5.1 Engineering Tape, 25 m, or as appropriate.
disintegration and chemical decomposition of rock that pro- 5.2 Waterproof Paper, if tunnel wetness requires.
duce an in situ mantle of waste and prepare sediments for 5.3 Covered Clip Board.
transportation (2). 5.4 Required Safety Equipment, such as a hard hat.
3.2.35.1 Discussion—Most weathering occurs at the sur- 5.5 Protractor, with movable arm.
face, but it may take place at considerable depths, as in well 5.6 Engineer’s Scale.
jointed rocks that permit easy penetration of atmospheric 5.7 Pocket Transit (Note 1).
oxygen and circulating surface waters (2).
NOTE 1—Readings may be affected by excavation steel supports,
3.3 Abbreviations:
electrical and mechanical equipment, or natural sources.
3.3.1 Some useful rock condition abbreviations are as fol-
lows: 5.8 Supplemental Light Sources.
3.3.1.1 blky—blocky. 5.9 Pencils.
3.3.1.2 br—breccia. 5.10 Sample Containers.
3.3.1.3 C—clay. 5.11 Rock Hammer.
3.3.1.4 cr—crushed. 5.12 Optional Equipment:
3.3.1.5 d.g.—decomposed granite (popular term in con- 5.12.1 Camera, Flash, and High-Speed Film.
struction). 5.12.2 Containers, or apparatus, to measure water flow
3.3.1.6 fr—fractured. quantities.
3.3.1.7 G—gravel. 5.12.3 Schmidt Rebound Hammer Test Method D5873.
3.3.1.8 g—gouge. 5.12.4 Point Load Testing Device Test Method D5731.
3.3.1.9 h—hard. 5.12.5 Thermometer.

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 D4879 – 08
6. Procedure generally adequate for characterization and documentation.
6.1 The mapping shall be performed by persons with 7.6.2 Enter explanation or key of general rock types on each
training in geology and with experience in underground map- base sheet prior to mapping.
ping. These persons shall review the regional and local geology 7.6.3 Using mapping increments of approximately 10 ft (3
prior to mapping. A geologically qualified professional shall m) in length (Note 3), record and describe information item-
supervise and be responsible for the mapping. ized in Section 8. Use standard symbols in the mapping (see
6.2 Provision for mapping operations and a description of Fig. 1). Make appropriate notes about the geotechnical features
any required constructor assistance in the mapping effort shall which most strongly affect the performance of the opening.
be included in the construction plan or specification. NOTE 3—This is a convenient distance for a single view with minimal
6.3 The construction schedule shall provide adequate time visual distortion.
for geotechnical mapping.
7.6.4 Record location and features of areas of excessive
6.4 A pre-mapping meeting shall be held among involved
overbreak and potential instability.
parties to determine required details of the mapping. Very
7.6.5 Record the types of ground support, and map their
careful consideration shall be given to the selection of those
positions.
features to be mapped in detail and to the level of detail. The
7.6.6 Map traces of discontinuities in freehand, as they
tendency to record every attribute of the rock mass and
appear at the excavation surface. See Fig. 2 for an illustration.
associated features can lead to the accumulation of extraneous
7.6.7 Transfer data from field sheets to master sheets in the
details which could in some instances mask the relevant
office.
information.
7.6.8 Review previous mapping, if any, for consistency
7. Mapping Methods between the new and old documentation.
7.1 The objective of the mapping is to develop an appro- 8. Details of Mapping
priate visual and quantitative representation of the rock mass 8.1 Mapping—All mapping shall include:
and associated features, such as excavation supports, in situ 8.1.1 Dates of all observations,
testing locations, and groundwater inflows. The details of this 8.1.2 Sample locations,
representation will vary with the rock type, the size of the 8.1.3 Photo locations,
opening, and the intended use of the data, and the scope and 8.1.4 Locations of any special detailed mapping or sketch-
complexity of the project. ing.
7.2 Time of mapping, relative to time of excavation, may be 8.1.5 Graphic scale and explanatory verbal statement of
influenced by time-dependent rock behavior (for example, scale.
swelling, slaking, stress relaxation), but mapping is best 8.1.6 Key to symbols and north arrow.
performed as soon as exposures are made. 8.2 Discontinuity Mapping—Discontinuity (rock defect)
7.3 Map all excavated surfaces consistently. Also map the mapping shall include the following for each set or system:
floor of the opening, when important to analysis or perfor- 8.2.1 Type (joint, fault, bedding, cleavage, and the like),
mance. 8.2.2 Orientation (Note 4),
7.4 Of the currently available ways of displaying the results 8.2.2.1 Planar—Strike or dip azimuth and dip angle,
of such mapping, the full-periphery technique is generally 8.2.2.2 Linear—Bearing and plunge.
recommended and is both simple to execute and under-
NOTE 4—Variability of orientations requires multiple observations.
stand,(6), (7). See Appendix X1 for fuller explanation of the
technique. 8.2.3 Roughness (small scale),
7.5 Preparation: 8.2.4 Planarity (large scale),
7.5.1 Surfaces of the excavation may need to be cleaned by 8.2.5 Aperture width (mode and range of values),
water or compressed air immediately prior to mapping. Give 8.2.6 Spacing (minimum, mode, maximum),
consideration to the potentially detrimental effects of cleaning 8.2.7 Type of termination (see Fig. 3),
on the natural materials. 8.2.8 Trace length, and
7.5.2 Mark stationing or survey control points on the walls 8.2.9 Infilling (distribution, composition, texture (see Prac-
at appropriate intervals immediately prior to mapping. tice D2488) degree of wetness).
7.5.3 If primary supports are needed for safety, place them 8.3 Rock Mass Response Mapping—Rock mass response
prior to mapping. In addition, the area to be mapped must have mapping and description shall include:
adequate ventilation. 8.3.1 Overbreak or fall of ground (location, depth, quantity,
7.5.4 Those doing the underground geotechnical mapping cause; provide cross section(s) if significant to construction).
must be equipped to be operationally independent and self 8.3.2 Stress-release features, including audible rock noise,
sufficient during the mapping. slabbing, popping rock, and rock bursts (location, description,
7.6 Specific Mapping Procedures: and time of occurrence (Note 5).
7.6.1 Prepare base sheets which are numbered consecu- NOTE 5—For rock bursts, estimate the volume of rock detached.
tively to an appropriate scale (Note 2). Tie base sheets to
8.3.3 Running ground, squeezing ground and swelling
survey control.
ground (location, description, volume of material, and time of
NOTE 2—Experience has shown that a mapping scale of 1:100 is occurrence).

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 D4879 – 08

FIG. 1 Data Sheets of Mapping Symbols (9)

NOTE 6—The terms in Table 1 apply to tunnel rock regardless of actual 8.4.5.2 Faults—Type (dip-slip, normal, reverse, thrust,
rib spacings or amount of supports used by contractor. strike-slip), attitude, displacement, filling (mylonite, gouge,
8.3.4 Unstable blocks or ravelling (location, description, breccia), thickness of zone.
size, and time of occurrence). 8.4.5.3 Weathering and Decomposition—Degree of me-
8.4 Rock Descriptions—Rock descriptions shall include: chanical or chemical weathering, hydrothermal alteration,
8.4.1 Rock type; include definitive adjectives such as oxidation.
aplitic, porphyritic, cherty, silty; also formation name, if 8.4.6 Rock Structures:
known.
8.4.6.1 Sedimentary—Stratified, massive, lensed, attitudes,
8.4.2 Color and range.
degree of cementation, cross-bedding, inferred current direc-
8.4.3 Grain size and range.
tions, clast shapes. Describe fossils.
8.4.4 Prominent minerals or percent rock clasts; type of
cementation. 8.4.6.2 Metamorphic—Migmatitic, cataclastic, schistose,
8.4.5 Rock Defects: gneissic, foliated. Identify grade of metamorphism.
8.4.5.1 Joints—Open or closed, type of filling, cementation, 8.4.6.3 Igneous—Aphanitic, porphyritic, zoned, dike, intru-
attitudes, spacing, number, and orientation of prominent sets. sive extrusive, flow banding.

5
 D4879 – 08

FIG. 1 (continued)

8.4.7 Rock Condition—Soundness, consistency, behavior; 8.5.2.5 Rainy—Water falling as if raining.

soft or hard (see 8.4.7.1 and 8.4.7.2). Fresh cut stands well (no 8.5.3 Effluent or pumping rate from local construction
sloughing), stands moderately well, or stands poorly (consid- area(s) and final discharge point(s).
erable sloughing and raveling). See 3.3 for some useful rock 8.5.4 Temperature.
condition abbreviations. 8.5.5 Immediate source and probable origin, if known.
8.4.7.1 Rock Hardness Scale, see Table 1. 8.5.6 Odor, bubbles, color, clarity.
8.4.7.2 Terzaghi’s guide for distinguishing rock, weathered 8.5.7 Ice accumulations.
rock, and soil, see Table 2. 8.5.8 Efflorescence, stains, precipitates, and other deposits.
8.5 Fluid Descriptions—Mapping and description of fluids 8.6 Engineering and Construction Features—Requirements
(liquids and gases) shall include: for description of engineering and construction features shall
8.5.1 Nature and location of fluid; detectors for identifica- include the following:
tion and classification of gases in accordance with applicable 8.6.1 Type, location, and orientation of reinforcement and
regulations may be needed. supports.
8.5.2 Rate of inflow (as shown below). Estimate volumetric 8.6.2 Locations of excavation methods used.
rate of flow and variations, if any, of flow with time: 8.6.3 Features of rock surface resulting from excavation
8.5.2.1 Dry—No water visible on rock surface; dry to touch. method (remaining blast hole traces, blast-induced fracturing,
8.5.2.2 Damp—Water present on rock surface but not flow- and occurrence of unusual cutter marks from the mechanical
ing; moist to touch. excavator).
8.5.2.3 Wet—Rock surface coated with water. 8.6.4 Location and description of turnouts and niches as
8.5.2.4 Dripping—Water drips very common and continual. excavated.

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 D4879 – 08

NOTE 1—Method of projecting geological data from geological log of

tunnel to draw cross sections: (1) The strike in relation to the tunnel can
be found by three different methods—(a) revolved spring line in Fig. 1 to
tunnel diameter and measure strike a8b8; (b) measure tangent to curve at
the crown; (c) use measured strike in the field. (2) Project the intersection
of the strike at the crown s to sections desired. For example, joint is at
crown level at t and r respectively in sections A and B. (3) Project the
strike of the joint at spring line level to the sections desired; in the
example, joint is at spring line elevation at points n and a respectively in
sections A and B. (4) Line tn is the trace of the plane on section A. Line
rl is the trace of the plane on section B. (Points x and y show where the
joint plane intersects the tunnel boundary in section B. It does not intersect
the boundary in section A.) (5) Find dip d from distance sm.
d = tan−1(tunnel radius/sm), or use dip measured in the field.
FIG. 2 Method of Projecting Geological Data

8.6.5 Location and condition of exploratory bore holes and 9.2.3 Geologic Setting:
shafts. 9.2.3.1 Regional.
8.6.6 Geotechnical instrumentation type, location, and ori- 9.2.3.2 Site (local), including formation names.
entation. 9.2.4 Excavation geology.
9.2.5 Excavation methods and progress.
9. Report 9.2.6 Geologic material properties (including in situ and
9.1 The geotechnical mapping and summary may include laboratory test results).
letter of transmittal, executive summary, and supplementary 9.2.7 Technical discussion of geotechnical map.
appended materials. 9.2.8 Descriptions and discussion of problem areas and
9.2 Suggested report outline is as follows: potential problem areas relative to:
9.2.1 Introduction: 9.2.8.1 Design.
9.2.1.1 Purpose of mapping. 9.2.8.2 Construction.
9.2.1.2 Description of project. 9.2.8.3 Operation.
9.2.1.3 Name(s) of supervisor(s), mapper(s), and their af- 9.2.9 Terminology— Terminology in underground excava-
filiation(s). tions can be confusing and local. Terms used in the application
9.2.2 Mapping procedures and limitations. of this guide must be in accordance with generally accepted

7
 D4879 – 08

FIG. 3 Discontinuity Termination Types

TABLE 1 Rock Hardness Scale (See Table 2).

Rock Material Approximate Field
Hardness Uniaxial Identification
Category Compressive Test
Strength (MPa)

Very Soft or Hard, 0.6–1.25 Scratched with fingernail. Slight indentation produced by light blow of point of
Soil-like material geologic pick.
Requires power tools for excavation. Peels with pocket knife.

Soft Rock 1.25–5.0 Hand-held specimen crumbles under firm blows with point of geologic pick.

Moderately soft rock 5.0–12.5 Shallow indentation (1–3 mm) produced by light blows with point of geologic
pick.
Peels with pocket knife with difficulty.

Moderately hard rock 12.5–50.0 Cannot be scraped or peeled with pocket knife. Intact hand held specimen
breaks with single
blow of geologic hammer. Can be distinctly scratched with 20d common steel
nail.

Hard rock 50.0–100.0 Intact held specimen requires more than one hammer blow to break it.
Can be faintly scratched with 20d common steel nail.

Very hard rock 100.00–250.0 Intact specimen breaks only by repeated, heavy blows with geologic
hammer.
Cannot be scratched with 20d common steel nail.

Extremely hard rock >250.0 Intact specimen can only be chipped, not broken by repeated, heavy blows
of geologic hammer.

usage as defined in standard glossaries, and inclusion of 9.3.5 Other diagrams.

definitions of special terms used is required. 9.3.6 Photographic and/or video record.
9.2.10 References.
9.3 Suggested illustrations for report are as follows: 10. Keywords
9.3.1 Required full periphery or other map record. See
Appendix X1. 10.1 cavern design; civil underground excavations; cleav-
9.3.2 Cross sections. age planes; discontinuities; excavation site; face; fault zones;
9.3.3 Block diagrams. geotechnical mapping; mapping; mines; rock; rock mass re-
9.3.4 Discontinuity orientations plotted on hemispherical sponse mapping; subsurface openings; surface analysis; under-
projections or polar diagrams. ground environments; underground excavations (civil/mining)

8
 D4879 – 08
TABLE 2 Terzaghi’s Guide for Distinguishing Rock, Weathered Rock, and Soil (8)
Volume Change Produced
After Repeated Drying, Immersing, and Shaking, or
In Original State by Saturating Dried Group
upon Prolonged Exposure to the Atmosphere
Fragments with Water
unchanged (a) solid rock
breaks up into small hard pieces with clean surfaces (b) finely fissured or crushed unaltered rock
breaks up into small fragments with “greasy” surfaces (c) slightly decomposed fissured rock
owing to the presence of fine-grained weathering imperceptible
Solid with ringing sound products
when struck with a hammer breaks up into individual sand or silt particles (d) sandstone or mudstone with unstable cement
breaks up into small angular fragments without any (e) intermediate between rock and clay, rock
indication of chemical alteration characteristics dominant
gradually transformed into a suspension of soil (f) intermediate between rock and clay, clay
measurable
particles characteristics dominant
gradually transformed into a suspension of clay (g) thoroughly decomposed rock
particles and a sediment consisting of angular rock
Solid with dull sound when
fragments
struck with a hammer
completely transformed into a suspension and/or a imperceptible to (h) clay, silt, and very fine sand in dry or a very
loose sediment important compacted condition

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. FULL PERIPHERY GEOLOGIC MAPPING OF UNDERGROUND OPENINGS

X1.1 Introduction in. = 10 ft is most useful. In areas of complex geology with

X1.1.1 The peripheral method of logging all geologic fea- closely spaced discontinuities, larger scales, such as 1 in. = 5 ft,
tures exposed in an underground excavation was developed by may be more appropriate. Figs. X1.1-X1.3 and Fig. 2 are
geologists of the Omaha District of the United States Army examples of developed layouts prepared for base maps for use
Corps of Engineers. The method was first described by H. A. in peripheral mapping in a variety of underground structures
Jack (7) and was later presented in Engineering Technical with varying shapes. For example, in a circular tunnel, as
Letter No. 1110-1-37 (6). This appendix presents a synopsis of shown in Fig. X1.1, the crown of the tunnel is represented in
the method as described in these two earlier articles. the center of the developed layout and the invert is represented
X1.1.2 A base map for the full peripheral geologic mapping both on left and right edges of the plan. The right and left
method is constructed by “unrolling the circumference’’ of the spring line are midway between the crown line and the right
entire wall surface of the underground opening into a plan and left lines representing the invert. A grid system is laid out
view. Thus, the geologic features exposed on the surface of the perpendicular (for a straight tunnel) to the developed layout
underground opening can be mapped in their “real’’ positions. which corresponds to the tunnel stationing. In actual mapping
Using the peripheral mapping method minimizes possible exercises, intermediate control points can be added to further
errors and visual perspective problems that can be associated improve the accuracy of the mapping. These intermediate
with other methods of projecting the geologic data to plan control points might be individual steel sets or rock bolts that
views or cross sections representing planes through or tangent have been installed in the underground opening.
to the underground opening such as at the spring line, waste
level, or the crown of the opening. X1.2.2 The geology, including the rock type, any contacts
X1.1.3 The peripheral geologic mapping method is simple, between rock types and the rock mass discontinuities can be
easy to use, and is applicable to large- and small-diameter plotted on the developed layout at their respective locations as
tunnels, shafts, and adits with either circular, horseshoe, or seen on the perimeter of the underground opening. During
irregular shapes. mapping, the view on the map is usually from the inside out.
The alternative view, that is, looking at the rock mass surround-
X1.2 Procedure ing the opening from outside the opening, can be achieved by
transferring the mapped data to transparent map bases, and
X1.2.1 The first task in implementing the full-periphery
wrapping the map around a dimensionally correct model of the
geologic mapping techniques is to develop the base map. The
excavation line of the underground opening, as presented on underground opening.
the design and construction documents and plans, should be X1.2.3 The full peripheral method of mapping provides an
used to construct these base maps. Appropriate modifications advantage over planar or section maps in that the three-
can be made to accommodate as-built changes in the opening dimensional perspective allows assessments of strike and dips
shape. The scale of the base map should be consistent with the of rock mass features without the use of pocket transit
level of detail required by the purpose and use of the geologic compasses which are often affected by the metal and electrical
data collected during the mapping. Generally, a scale of 1 systems installed in the underground opening.

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 D4879 – 08

FIG. X1.1 Oahe Dam, Tunnel Number 2 (7)

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 D4879 – 08

FIG. X1.2 Log of a Circular Tunnel (7)

FIG. X1.3 Model of Tunnel Wall (7)

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 D4879 – 08

REFERENCES

(1) Thrush, Paul W., and Staff U.S. Bureau of Mines (Compilers and (5) International Society for Rock Mechanics, Commission on Testing
Editors), “A Dictionary of Mining, Minerals, and Related Terms,” U.S. Methods, “Suggested Method for Determining Point-Load Strength,”
Department of the Interior, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968, International Rock Mechanics and Mineral Sciences, Ab., Vol 22,
1269 pp. No. 2, 1985, pp. 51 to 60.
(2) Bates, Robert L., and Jackson, Julia (Editors), Glossary of Geology, (6) Department of the Army, “Geologic Mapping of Tunnels and Shafts by
American Geological Institute 1987, (788 pp).
the Full Periphery Method,” DOA Office of the Chief of Engineers,
(3) International Society for Rock Mechanics, Commission on Terminol-
Washington, DC, Engineering Technical Letter No. 1110-1-37, 1970.
ogy, Symbols, and Graphic Representation, “Final Document on
Terminology, English Version, 1972, and List of Symbols, 1970.” (7) Jack, H. A., “Discussion: Tunnel Mapping Methods,” Association of
(4) International Society for Rock Mechanics, Committee on Laboratory Engineering Geologists, Bulletin, Vol 7, No. 2, 1969.
Tests, “Suggested Method for Determination of Schmidt Rebound (8) Goodman, R. E., Methods of Geological Engineering, West Publish-
Hardness,” International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mineral ing Co., San Francisco, 1976.
Science, Ab., Vol 15, No. 3, 1978, pp. 89 to 97. (Also published later (9) Dietrich, R. V., Dutro, J. T., Jr., and Foose R. M. (Compilers), AGI
in Brown, E. T. (Ed.), 1981, Rock Characterization, Testing and Data Sheets For Geology in Field, Laboratory, and Offıce, Second
Monitoring, ISRM Suggested Methods: Pergamin, London, pp.
Edition, American Geological Institute, 1982.
101–102.)

SUMMARY OF CHANGES

Committee D18 has identified the location of selected changes to this standard since the last issue (D4879 – 02
(2006)) that may impact the use of this standard. (Approved July 1, 2008.)

(1) Inserted Section 1.9 on units. (3) Edit to Note 2.

(2) Changed mPa to MPa in Table 1.

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