INSTR F311: Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology

Analog meters

BITS Pilani Dr. Sujan Yenuganti (office no: 5699 - O)

[email protected]
Pilani Campus
 Rectifier meters

 As discussed earlier PMMC instrument is polarized, i.e., its terminals are identified as + and – and it
should be connected correctly to get a positive deflection.
 When an ac current of very low frequency is passed through a PMMC, the pointer tends to follow the
instantaneous level of the ac. This kind of pointer movement can occur only with ac having a frequency
less than 0.1 Hz or lower.
 The pointer settles at the average value of the current flowing through the moving coil.
 PMMC instrument connected directly to measure 60 Hz ac indicates zero.

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 Rectifier meters

 PMMC does not work for ac signal

 The PMMC is design for dc signal.
 The PMMC deflection converges to average value of the signal

 Rectifier type meters or instruments use a

PMMC meter along with a rectifier
arrangement.

 Silicon diodes are preferred because of their

low reverse current and high forward current Vrms= 0.707 Vpk
ratings.

Vrms= 1.1 Vavg

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 Contd..

RMS value of the wavform

Form Factor 
Average value of the wavform

For a sinusoidal waveform,

0.707 V p
Form Factor = = 1.11
(2 /  ) V p

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Contd..

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 Full wave rectifier voltmeter

 Rectifiers use silicon diodes to convert alternating current to a series of unidirectional current pulses,
which produces a positive deflection when passed through a PMMC meter.
 A full wave bridge rectifier circuit passes the positive half cycles of the sine input waveform and inverts
the negative half cycles.

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 Operation

 During the positive half cycle of the input, diodes D1 and D4 conduct causing the current flow through
the meter from top to bottom.
 During the negative half cycle of the input, diodes D2 and D3 conduct causing the current flow through
the meter from top to bottom once again.
 This full bridge circuit and a series connected multiplier resistor constitutes a full wave rectifier voltmeter
circuit.
 The meter deflection is proportional to the average current which is 0.637 times of peak current.

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 Half wave rectifier voltmeter

 Rsh is a shunt resistance included in this circuit to cause a relatively large current to flow through the
diode D1 when it is forward biased.
 This is to ensure that the diode is biased beyond its knee voltage and well into the linear range of its
characteristics.

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 Half wave rectifier voltmeter

 During the positive half cycle of the input, diode D1 conduct causing the current flow through the meter
from top to bottom.
 Diode D2 will conducts during the negative half cycle of the input.
 When conducting D2 causes a very small voltage drop across D1 and the meter, thus preventing the flow
of any reverse leakage current through the meter via D1.
 Diode D2 protects the meter against reverse voltages.
 In half wave rectification average current will be 0.5 times the average current (0.637 x peak current),
which should be considered into circuit design calculations.

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 Half bridge full wave rectifier

 The name half bridge is used because two diodes and two resistors are used instead of four diodes used as
in full wave bridge rectifier.

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 Operation

 When the input is positive, the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reversed biased. Current flows from
terminal A through D1, meter and then through R2 to terminal B.
 But R1 is in parallel with the meter and R2, which are in series connection. Therefore much of the current
flowing through D1 passes through R1, while only a part of it flows through the meter and R2.
 When the input is negative, the diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reversed biased. Current flows from
terminal B through R1, meter and then through D2 to terminal A.
 Once again much of the diode current bypass the meter by flowing through R2.
 This arrangement forces the diodes to operate beyond knee voltage of their characteristics and helps to
compensate for the differences that might occur in the characteristics of D1 and D2.

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 Rectifier ammeter

 Like a dc ammeter, an ac ammeter must have a very low resistance because it is always connected on
series with the circuit in which current is to be measured.
 The voltage drop across the ammeter must be very small, typically not greater than 100 mV.
 The voltage drop across the diode is 0.3 or 0.7 depending the material of the diode employed in the
rectifier circuit.
 A current transformer steps up the input voltage to provide sufficient voltage to operate the rectifiers and
at the same time it steps down the current level suitable for the measurement by a PMMC meter.
 A precise load resistor (RL) is connected across the secondary winding of the current transformer. This is
selected to take a portion of secondary current not required by the meter.

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 Rectifier ammeter

 Suppose the PMMC meter requires 100 μ A for its fsd and the secondary current is say 250 μ A
 The value of RL is calculated in such a way that 150 μA passes through it and the remaining through the
meter.

Ip Ns

Is N p

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 Galvanometer

 A galvanometer is a essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be

sensitive to extremely low current levels.

 The deflection system is arranged so that the pointer can be

deflected to either right or left of zero depending on the direction
of current through the moving coil.

 The torque equation for the galvanometer is exactly same as

PMMC.

 The deflecting torque is proportional to the no of coil turns, coil

dimensions and the current flowing in the coil.

 The most sensitive galvanometers use taut-band suspension system

d  BILND
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 Contd..

 Eddy current damping is provided as in PMMC instruments by winding

the coil on a non magnetic coil former.

 The moving coil weight is reduced to the lowest possible minimum for
greatest sensitivity, the weight of the pointer can create a problem.

 This problem is solved by mounting a small mirror on the moving coil

instead of a pointer.

 The mirror reflects a beam of light onto a scale. The light beam behaves
as a weightless pointer which can be deflected by a very small coil
current.

x θ=is the deflection angle of the coil or mirror

 x=on scale deflection
2r r=length of the light beam
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 Contd..
 Galvanometers are often employed to detect zero current or voltage in
the circuit rather than to measure the actual level of current or voltage.

 A galvanometer used as null meter must be protected from excessive

current flow that might occur when the voltage across the instrument
terminals is not close to zero.

 When the shunt resistance is zero, all the circuit current flows through
the shunt. As the shunt resistance is increased above zero, a small
amount of current flows through the galvanometer.

 Galvanometer instrument used to determine the presence, direction, and strength of an electric current in a
conductor.
 A major early use for galvanometers was for finding faults in telecommunications cables.
 Used in positioning and control systems.
 Mirror galvanometer systems are used as beam positioning elements in laser optical systems.
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 Moving iron instruments

 These instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents.
 A plate or vane of soft iron or high permeability steel forms the moving element of the system.

 This iron vane is arranged in a manner so that it moves in the magnetic field produced by the stationary
coil.

 The deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.

 The controlling torque is provided by a control spring or control weight.

 The damping is normally pneumatic, the damping device consists of an air chamber and a moving vane is
attached to the spindle.

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 Repulsion type

 Two soft iron vanes, one is fixed and the other one is free to
rotate carrying with it pointer shaft.

 These two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the current
in the stationary field coil.

 When no current flows the two irons almost touch each other
and the pointer rests in zero position.

 When the current to be measured is passed through the field

coil, the two irons get magnetized in the same direction.

 This sets up the repulsive force so that moving iron is repelled

by the fixed iron, thereby results in the motion of moving iron
carrying the pointer.

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 Attraction type

 This type of moving iron instrument consists of few soft iron

discs (B) that are fixed to a spindle (D) pivoted in jewel
bearings.
F
 The spindle (D) carries a pointer, a balance weight (W1), a E
controlling weight (W2) and a damping piston (E), which moves
in a curved fixed cylinder (F)
B
W1
 When the current to be measured is passed through the field coil
a magnetic flux is created, and the pivoted disc is pulled into the
coil. D
W2
 The disc deflection depends on the level of current and will be
indicated by the pointer attached to the moving disc spindle
arrangement.

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 Contd..

 The deflecting torque or force in a moving iron instrument is proportional to the magnetic flux in the fixed
and moving iron vanes.

 The flux in each vane is proportional to the coil current I and hence the deflecting torque is proportional to I2.

 The scale is non linear, cramped at the lower end and spaced out at higher end.

 The coil inductance can introduce errors as the frequency increases.

 A moving iron instrument requires high operating current than a PMMC meter, so it absorbs more power and
is less sensitive.

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 Torque equation

Let the initial current be I, inductance L and the deflection of the pointer as θ

If the current increases by dI, then the deflection changes by dθ and the inductance by dL. In order to get an
incremental change in the current dI there must be an increase in the applied voltage to the coil.

d ( LI ) dI dL
V L I
dt dt dt
Electrical input energy supplied to the coil in dt is given by VIdt  I 2 dL  ILdI

1 2
Energy stored in the magnetic field LI
2
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 Contd..

1 1 2
Change in the energy stored ( L  dL)( I  dI )   LI 
2

2 2 

1 2
ILdI  I dL
2
When there is a small increment in current dI, there will be a small deflection of the pointer dθ and some
work will be done. This work done is given by

work done  Td

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 Contd..

Total electrical input energy supplied = Change in stored energy + mechanical work done

1 2 1 2 dL
Td  I dL Td  I
2 2 d

Controlling torque Tc  K

1 I 2 dL
At steady state Td  Tc 
2 K d

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 Moving iron ammeter

One can alter the range of ammeters by providing shunt coil with the field coil.

Let Rm and Lm be the resistance and inductance of the coil and Rsh
and Lsh be the values of shunt.

The ratio of two currents in parallel branches is

Rm  (Lm )
2 2
I sh

Rsh  (Lsh ) 2
2
Im
I sh Rm Lm Lsh
The above ratio is independent of frequency, provided that  if 
the time constants of the two parallel branches are same. I m Rsh Rm Rsh
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 Moving iron voltmeter

 The voltmeter range can be altered connecting a resistance in series

with the coil.

Let us consider a high resistance Rs is connected in series with the

moving coil.

v  I m Rm  (Lm ) 2
2

V  I m ( Rm  Rs ) 2  (Lm ) 2

V ( Rm  Rs ) 2  (Lm ) 2
multiplier m  
v R  (L )
2 2
m m
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 Advantages/errors

Advantages:
 The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

Errors:
 Errors due to temperature variation.
 Errors due to friction is quite small as torque-weight ratio is high in moving-iron instruments.
 Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced by the coil. Efficient magnetic
screening is essential to reduce this effect.
 Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the coil and also changes the eddy
currents induced in neighboring metal.
 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current due to non-linear characteristics of
iron material.
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 Electro dynamic instrument

 Electrodynamic instrument when compared with PMMC instrument has two magnetic coils replaced in
place of permanent magnets.

 The magnetic field in which the moving coil is pivoted is generated by passing a current through the
stationary field coils (fixed coils).

 When a current flows through the stationary coils, the two fluxes interact with moving coil and causing
the pointer to move.

 The spiral springs provide controlling torque and zero adjustment is facilitated as in the PMMC
instrument.

 Electrodynamic instruments usually have air damping system instead of eddy current damping.

 Alternating current would induce unwanted eddy currents in the metallic former of the coil.
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Electro dynamic instrument

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 Contd..

 Normally there is no iron core in an electrodynamic instrument, so that flux path is entirely air path,
therefore the field flux is much weaker than a PMMC meter.

 In order to produce a strong enough deflecting torque, the moving coil should have a large number of
turns and large current than used in a PMMC meter.

 Both the coils have self inductance L1 and L2 and there is a mutual inductance M between them.

 The mutual inductance changes as the moving coil rotates by the current flow, but the self inductances do
not change.

 The scale of the instrument is non linear, cramped at the lower end and spread out at higher end.

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 AC operation

 The fixed (field) and moving coils are connected in

series. The current direction is such a way that the
flux of the field coils set up South (S) poles to the
left side and North (N) poles to the right of each
field coil.

 The moving coil produces N pole at the top of the

coil and S pole at the bottom.

 Because like poles repel, the moving coil rotates in

clockwise direction causing the pointer to move to
the right from zero position on the scale.

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 Contd..

 Let us consider the current flows in reverse

direction.

 The reverse current causes the field coils set up N

poles to the left side and S poles to the right of each
field coil.

 The moving coil flux also reversed producing S pole

at the top of the coil and N pole at the bottom.

 Once again similar poles are adjacent and the

repulsion produces clockwise rotation of the coil
and the pointer.

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 Contd..

 Electrodynamic instrument has a positive deflection regardless of the direction of the current through the
instrument. Hence the instrument is not polarized as its terminals are not marked as + or -.

 The same amount of current flows through the field and moving coils, the instrument deflection is
proportional to I2 (mean squared value of current).

 Because the scale of the meter is calibrated to indicate I, rather than I2 The meter indicates the root mean
squared current or rms value.

 The resistance of the coil increases with higher frequency so there will be an increase in the error as the
frequency of the measured quantity goes higher.

 Consequently, electrodynamic instruments are normally used for low frequency measurements.

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 Torque equation

Circuit representation of electrodynamic instrument

i1 is instantaneous current in fixed coil (A)

i2 is instantaneous current in moving coil (A)
L1 is self inductance of fixed coil (H)
L2 is self inductance of moving coil (H)
M is the mutual inductance between fixed coil and moving coil (H)

Flux linkages of coil 1 and 2 are  1  L1i1  Mi2  2  L2i2  Mii

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 Contd..

Electrical input energy is given by

e1ii dt  e2i2 dt  ii d 1  i2 d 2

ii d ( L1i1  Mi2 )  i2 d ( L2i2  Mi1 )

Energy stored in the magnetic field is given by

1 1
L1i1  L2i2  Mi1i2
2 2

2 2

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 Contd..

1 1 
d  L1i1  L2i2  Mi1i2 
2 2
Change in the energy stored
2 2 
Total Electrical input energy = Change in energy + mechanical energy

Mechanical energy will be

1 2 1 2 
 i1 dL1  i2 dL2  dMi1i2 
2 2 
Since the self inductances are constants the dL1 and dL2 both are equal to zero

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 Contd..

Hence the mechanical energy is given by

mechanical energy  i1i2 dM

Suppose the Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and dθ is the change in the deflection then,

mechanical energy  work done  Ti d

dM
Ti  i1i2
d

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 Contd..

Operation with DC:

dM
Deflecting torque Td  I1 I 2 I1 is current in fixed coil (A)
d I2 is current in moving coil (A)

Controlling torque Tc  K

I1 I 2 dM
Td  Tc 
K d
At steady state

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 Contd..
Operation with AC:
dM
Ti  i1i2
d
Instantaneous deflecting torque

T T
1 dM 1
Td   Ti dt   i1i2 dt
The average deflecting torque over a complete cycle
T 0 d T 0
If the currents are sinusoidal and are displaced by a phase angle ϕ

i1  I m1 sin(t ) & i2  I m 2 sin(t   )

2
dM 1
The average deflecting torque
Td 
d 2 I
0
m1 sin(t )  I m 2 sin(t   )d (t )
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 Contd..

dM
Td  I1 I 2 cos 
d
I1 and I2 represent the rms values of the currents flowing in the coils.

Controlling torque Tc  K

I1 I 2 dM
Td  Tc  cos 
At steady state
K d

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 Advantages/Disadvantages

Advantages:
 The terminals are non polarized, can be used on ac or dc.
 Measures ac rms value regardless of waveform.
 It can be calibrated on dc and used on ac.
 Can be used as ammeter, voltmeter and as a wattmeter.

Disadvantages:
 The scale is non linear and large operating current
 Limited ac frequency of operation.
 Heavier moving coil-high frictional errors
 Relatively expensive to manufacture.
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 Voltmeter & ammeter
 Since a voltmeter should have a high resistance, all the three coils are connected in series, and a multiplier
resistor is included.
 When the coil resistances and the required current for FSD are known, the multiplier resistors are calculated
exactly same as for dc voltmeters.
 In electrodynamic ammeter, the moving coil and its series connected swamping resistor are connected in
parallel with the ammeter shunt.
 The two field coils are connected in series with the parallel arrangement of shunt and moving coil.

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 Wattmeter

 An electrodynamometer is used extremely in

measuring power. It is used to indicate both dc
and ac power for any waveform of voltage and
current and it is not restricted to sine waveforms

 The field coils are connected in series and carry

the total line current (ic).

 The moving coil located in the magnetic field of

field coils, is connected in series with a current
limiting resistor and carries a small current (ip).

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 Contd..

e
The instantaneous current in the moving coil ip 
Rp
e is the instantaneous voltage across the load
Rp is the total resistance of the moving coil and the series limiting resistor.

The average deflection over one period is given by

T
1
 avg  K   i p ic dt
T 0

Let us assume the line current ic is equal to load current i and using the value of ip

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 Contd..
T T
1 e 1
 avg  K  i dt  K1   eidt
T 0 Rp T 0
The average power in the circuit is given by
T
1
Pavg   eidt
T 0
The average deflection is proportional to average power. If both e and i are sinusoidal quantities of the form

e  Em sin(t ) & i  I m sin(t   )

 avg  K 3 EI cos  E and I represent the rms values of

voltage and current.
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