What is Proper Wheel Alignment?

A properly aligned vehicle is one in which all wheels are aimed in the same direction. Some ver y low
tolerance or acceptable error is designed into each vehicle by the manufacturer (see the vehicle
manufacturer specifications).

How Can Wheel Alignment Benefit Your Operation?

The number one and number two operating expenses in over -the-road transportation are fuel and
tires respectively. Both are typically perceived as hard to control. Routine wheel alignment is the
most effective way to control tire costs and can impact fuel costs as well.

Problems created by misalignment:

• Excessive tire wear
• Increased fuel consumption caused by increased rolling resistance
• Unsafe vehicle handling characteristics
• Driver fatigue and driver retention
• Premature suspension component wear

Between 70 and 80 percent of heavy duty vehicles

on the road today are misaligned!
The transportation industry, as a whole, finds that outsourcing timely, accurate alignment service
performed by qualified technicians is dif ficult to manage. As a result alignment is mostly addressed
after the damage has been done. Simply making alignment par t of a vehicle or fleet pr eventive
maintenance program allows operators to easily get a handle on this per ceived uncontrollable
expense.
Hunter recommends a minimum of two to three alignments per year or ever y 50,000
to 60,000 miles as part of the average vehicle’ s preventive maintenance program.
Alignment service is a natural fit for ser vice facilities currently repairing suspensions. Technicians
performing repairs on heavy duty suspensions are in ef fect alignment technicians. The only required
equipment is the precision measuring system.

–1–
Alignment Angles and Effects
Tire Wear Due to Improper Toe Settings
Toe is the most critical alignment setting for steer axle tire wear . It is measured in inches, millimeters or degrees.

Results of excessive toe is wear on the

leading edge of the tire.
+ –

Toe-in Toe-out

Total Toe is the angle formed by two horizontal

lines through the planes of two wheels. T oe-in is Toe-in
when the horizontal lines intersect in front of the
vehicle; Toe-out is when the horizontal lines Excessive toe-in wears the outside of the tir e.
intersect behind the wheels.

+ –

Toe-in Toe-out
Toe-out

Individual Toe is the angle drawn by a line Excessive toe-out wears the inside of the tire.
drawn through a plane of one wheel r eferenced
to the thrust line of the vehicle. T oe-in is when
the horizontal lines intersect in fr ont of the
wheel. Toe-out is when the lines intersect
behind the wheel.

–2–
Tire Wear Due to Improper Caster: A Factor in
Camber Settings Vehicle Handling
+ –

Positive Negative
Positive Negative

Camber is the angle formed by the inward or Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the
outward tilt of the wheel referenced to a ver tical steering axis in reference to a vertical line. The
line. This angle is measured in degrees. angle is measured in degrees. Caster is positive
Camber is positive when the wheel is tilted when the top of the steering axis is tilted rear ward
outward at the top and is negative when the and is negative when the tilt is for ward. Caster is
wheel is tilted inward at the top. usually a factor in vehicle handling, but can affect
tire wear. Proper caster is impor tant for directional
stability and returnability. Improper caster can
+ –
cause shimmy, excessive steering effort, pulling
and shoulder wear on the steer tires.

Turning Angle
Turning angle is the difference in the angles of
the front wheels in a turn. This measurement is an
aid in diagnosing steering problems and irregular
tire wear. Improper turning angle may cause
scuffing, leading to excessive tire wear.
Tire wear from excessive camber: Wear
from positive camber is on the outside shoulder
of the tire; with negative camber, wear is on the
inside shoulder.
18°

20°

–3–
 Tandem Axle Angles
Tandem scrub angle is the angle formed by the
two thrust lines of a tandem axle vehicle.

Geometric In the diagram below, misalignment causes the

Centerline tandem axles to work against each other.
The steer axle must be turned to offset the “push” of
the axles and keep the vehicle moving straight ahead.
This causes every tire on the vehicle to scrub.

Geometric centerline of a vehicle is a line

drawn through the midpoints of the front axle and
the rear reference axle.

Thrust
Line
Geometric
Centerline
Tandem
Scrub
Angle

Thrust line is the bisector of the total toe angle

of an axle. It represents the direction the axle
“points” compared to the centerline of the vehicle.

Geometric Tire wear from tandem scrub occurs at the

Centerline
leading edge of the steer tir es, in a pattern called
“inside/outside” wear. For example, on the front
axle of this vehicle, wear would occur on the
outside of the left steer tire and on the inside of
Thrust
Angle the right steer tire. Tire wear would occur on all
drive axle tires.

Thrust angle is the angle formed by the

geometric centerline and the thrust line of an axle.

–4–
Trailer Alignment Alignment Angles Affect
and Tire Wear Rolling Resistance and
The same conditions that cause tandem scrub on
Fuel Consumption
tractors also apply to tractor-trailer combinations.
While the effects of misalignment show clearly in
tire wear, the effects on fuel consumption ar e less
easy to quantify. Fuel consumption is affected by
many factors.
However, it is obvious that misalignment must
increase rolling resistance – and rolling resistance
is a major cause of fuel consumption.

Geometric Centerline
Alignment
Geometric
Centerline

Scrub
Angle

Geometric Centerline Alignment can be used as a

reference from which to compute individual toe
angles. The Geometric Centerline of a vehicle is
established by placing a line from the midpoint of
the front axle and the midpoint of the rear -most axle.
The Geometric Centerline is not based on frame
rails or cross member reference points.

Misaligned trailer axles cause tandem scrub, The alignment system will establish the
resulting in rapid wear on all tires. Geometric Centerline.

If the trailer doesn’t track correctly, it exposes

more area to wind resistance. This can af fect
handling and fuel economy.

–5–
 Frame Centerline Alignment

Sensor
Centerline

Frame
Centerline

Frame offset angle is the angle of the frame referenced to the sensor
centerline. This angle is calculated by the aligner when frame offset
measurements are entered into the aligner.

Separation

Separation is the distance between the reference

axle adjustment points. This distance may be
measured and entered into the aligner before
adjusting thrust angle to allow the aligner to
calculate how much the axle must be moved at
the adjustment point.

–6–
Advantages of Computerized Alignment

WinAlign ® HD Software

WinAlign®HD software supports more than 60 A customized HD specification data base

customized truck, trailer and bus alignment procedures supports most vehicle manufacturers by simply
as well as passenger car and light truck alignment. scrolling to the specific model being aligned.

–7–
Vehicle Specifications Compensation Control Screen

The “Vehicle Specifications” primary screen Pro-Comp® allows the technician to mount and
displays the identification and alignment compensate one sensor at a time or four
specifications for the vehicle chosen. technicians to mount and compensate at one time.
The technician may be asked to enter a reference Pro-Comp tracks the amount of runout at each
diameter. He can measure the front tire diameter wheel position once compensation is complete
and enter that value in “Refer ence Diameter.” and flags the technician when excessive runout
exists.
When activated, ExpressAlign® tool bar (visible in
top, right hand corner of aligner screen) Pro-Comp continuously tracks runout at each
automatically shows the customized alignment wheel so the need to keep the wheel adapters
path for the vehicle selected. straight up and down is no longer necessar y.
ExpressAlign allows movement in procedure by A self centering wheel adaptor centers itself and
using the mouse and selecting the respective icon remains centered as the technician clamps the
relative to sensor location. adapter to the rim (18" - 24" diameter capacity).

–8–
Precise Measurement Display Automatic Calculation

WinAlign®HD provides precise measurements and WinAlignHD automatically calculates the

display. DSP500T Sensors with optional wireless correction required. As the adjustment is made,
high frequency spread spectrum transmitters allow the arrow moves across the bar graph target
quick set up. Measurements are compared with guiding the technician. When the adjustment
the manufacturers specification and results are comes within specification the bar graph
shown on the vehicle measurement display screen. changes from red to green.
Easy-to-read color coding identifies in- and out-
of-specification measurements.
Print Any Screen

Frame Offset

WinAlignHD allows the user to print any screen

for records or to show the vehicle owner the
need for service. Before and after alignment
WinAlignHD allows frame offset measurements measurement screens can be printed to show
to be input and displays frame of fset angle, any out-of-spec. condition. Screens can be
recalculating thrust angle from the geometric printed anytime as a guide for the technician.
centerline of the frame.

–9–
Total Alignment
In the total alignment procedure, ever y axle on
the vehicle is measured and the axles are set
parallel – so all the wheels roll in the same
direction, minimizing rolling resistance.

3. The steer axle is aligned to the rear

reference axle.

1. Electronic sensors are mounted on the steer

axle and on one of the tandem drive axles
(the reference axle). The sensors are
compensated for runout.

4. Sensors are moved from the front axle to the

second rear axle. This axle is aligned to the
reference axle.

2. The rear reference axle is measured to

determine the thrust angle. If adjustable, it is
aligned to point down the frame centerline.

For other vehicle configurations, similar

procedures are followed, aligning all axles to a
reference axle. 37 pre-programmed procedur es
are built into this system’s software.

– 10 –
 Recognizing Factors That Wheel Balance and Its
Can “Fool” the Alignment Effect on Tire Wear
Technician When aligning the wheels don’t forget
about the importance of proper balance.
A computerized alignment system should have Maximizing tire wear requires proper
the capacity to recognize several factors that balance in addition to alignment.
can affect alignment.

When a wheel and tire assembly is in balance,

Compensation for Runout
gravity will not allow it to rotate from a stopped
Runout, due to bent or distor ted rims, is
position. If the assembly is out of balance,
common on heavy duty trucks and trailers. The
gravity will force it to rotate when the heavy
aligner electronically compensates each sensor
portion is in any position but straight down.
and correctly measures where the axle points.
When the wheel is put in motion, centrifugal
force acts on the heavy spot, causing the
rotating assembly to pull away fr om its axis.
The resulting force causes the wheel to “hop.”
This causes vibration and increased tread wear
Sensor * in the form of “cupping.”
Centerline

Frame
Centerline

*offset exaggerated for example purposes

Identifies and Corrects for Offset

Axle offset on heavy duty trucks and trailers is due,
for example, to mismatched rims. The aligner
allows the technician to measure the distances and
input those measurements, automatically
correcting for offset.

– 11 –
– 12 –
Irregular Tire Wear Guide (Steer Tires)
Description Appearance Possible Cause Solution

Even wear across the Typical of a radial Rotation.

center with worn strips ply rib type.
around the shoulder.

Shoulder step wear

Excessive wear Scrubbing due to a rear Measure and align

extended across the axle misalignment. all wheels. If wear is
entire shoulder rib to severe, rotate tires.
a major tread groove.

Full shoulder wear

Tread ribs worn so that Scrubbing due to Replace worn parts,

one side is higher, incorrect alignment, align vehicle, and if
resulting in step-offs front and/or rear wear patterns are
across the tread. defective suspension or severe, rotate tires.
steering components.
Feathered or
sawtoothed wear

Circumferential Characteristic of slow This wear should not be

wear along the rib wear rate of radial tires a concern unless the
edges next to major on free rolling axles. wear becomes too deep.
tread grooves. Tires can be rotated to
drive axles at this point.
Erosion/river
channel/wear

Excessive wear in the Over-inflation Keep tires properly

center of the tread – expands the tire inflated.
when properly inflated, forcing more wear in
the tire appears to cup the center of the tread.
when viewed across
the tread face.
Over-inflation wear

– 13 –
 Description Appearance Possible Cause Solution

Tread is worn unevenly Under-inflation causes Keep tires properly

toward the edges of the the tire to collapse, inflated.
tire – when properly forcing more wear on
inflated the tire appears the edges of the tread.
round when viewed
across the tread face.
Under-inflation wear

Localized patches of A result of moderate to Diagnose imbalance

fast wear creating a severe assembly out of condition. Tires
scalloped appearance. balance condition. should be rotated to
drive axle.

Cupping/scallop wear/
dished out areas

Diagonal wear - flat Runout and/or out of Mount as outside drive

spots worn diagonally. balance in conjunction dual with change in
Localized flat spots with a slow rate of rotation of tire.
across the tread, often wear. Can also be
repeating around the caused by a loose
Diagonal wear - flat tread circumference. wheel bearing.
spots worn diagonally

Tread depth varies Usually a result of Replace or correct

around tire with excessive radial runout as necessary. Rotate
maximum difference or non-uniformity in tire to trailer dual.
approximately 180 the rotating assembly.
degrees apart.

Out of round tire

Even wear across Heavy axle loads; Carefully match

tread face and such wear often equipment with service
around tire occurs on short requirements. Consult
circumference. wheelbase tractors and vehicle and tire
on long wheelbase manufacturers when
straight trucks. specifying equipment
Overall fast wear -
good wear pattern, but or replacing tires.
fast rate of wear

– 14 –
Troubleshooting Guide
Symptom Possible Cause
Pull Left/Right Uneven tire pressure
Uneven tread wear
Mismatched tires
Uneven camber
Uneven caster
Brake drag
Suspension/frame sag
Unbalanced power assist
Bent spindle
Worn suspension components (front/rear)
Excessive tandem scrub

Centerline Steering Error Incorrect front toe

Rear wheel misalignment
Excessive steering and suspension play
Excessive gearbox play
Gearbox loose at the frame

Shimmy Excessive positive caster

Wheel imbalance
Defective suspension and steering components
Excessive wheel and tire runout (lateral)
Worn tires
Under inflation
Steering gear loose
Excessively loose wheel bearings
Ply separation or blister
Improperly torqued lug nuts

Vibration Wheel imbalance

Excessive wheel and tire runout (axial)
Drum imbalance
Drive shaft imbalance
Defective u-joints
Defective wheel bearings
Improper tire inflation
Drivetrain misalignment
Defective shock or shock mounting
Defective tire

– 15 –
Troubleshooting Guide (cont.)
Symptom Possible Cause
Noise (abnormal) Defective wheel bearing
Overinflation
Coarse tread pattern
Incorrect alignment (all wheels)
Incorrect turning angle
Loose or rubbing suspension or steering component
Driveline misalignment

Hard Steering Low air pressure

Steering gear binding
Steering lubricant low
Excessive positive caster
Defective power steering belt
Power steering fluid level low
Power steering pressure low
Steering and suspension component dr y or binding

Loose Steering Excessively loose wheel bearings

Worn steering and suspension components
Steering gear assembly loose on mounting
Excessive internal wear in steering gear
Loose or worn steering shaft coupling
Steering gear misadjusted

Excessive Road Shock Excessive positive caster

Low air pressure
Worn tires
Wrong type tire
Wrong shocks
Worn shocks
Springs worn or sagged

Braking Instability Brakes incorrectly adjusted

Contaminated brake linings
Defective suspension components
Incorrect alignment
Excessive negative caster
Uneven or low tire pressure

– 16 –
Troubleshooting Guide (cont.)
Symptom Possible Cause
Poor Returnability Incorrect caster
Low air pressure
Binding suspension and steering components
Binding steering gear

Wander/Instability Incorrect alignment

Worn tires
Low air pressure
Mismatched tires
Worn suspension and steering components
Worn or loose steering gear
Misadjusted steering gear
Excessively loose wheel bearings

Squeal/Scuff on Turns Worn tires

Low tire pressure
Incorrect turning angle
Poor driving habits
Worn suspension or steering components

Excessive Body Sway Worn shocks or mountings

Broken or sagging springs
Uneven vehicle load
Uneven tire pressure

– 17 –
Power Steering Troubleshooting Guide
Symptom Possible Cause
Insufficient Assist Low fluid
Incorrect fluid
Loose/worn belt
Defective pump
Restricted fluid passages
Mechanical bind

Vehicle Pulls Inoperative control valve

Misadjusted control valve

Fluid Leaks Loose hose connection

Defective hose
Damaged seals
Fluid level too high

Excessive Noise Low fluid level

Loose/worn belt
Defective pump
Restricted fluid passages
Defective relief valve

Poor Returnability Steering column misalignment

Yoke plug too tight
Valve assembly binding
Contaminated fluid
Defective u-joints

– 18 –
Facility Factors
How Much Space Is a Pit Rack Needed?
is Required? A pit rack has definite advantages in providing
room underneath a vehicle for inspection,
Wheel alignment for heavy duty vehicles is not alignment and suspension repairs.
space intensive.
However the only equipment needed for toe,
The alignment console is usually mounted on a scrub and thrust angle (the most important
mobile cabinet that can be rolled to the vehicle. adjustments to be made) are the alignment
Overall dimensions of a console with a 19" system, turning angle gauges (standard
monitor and truck & bus sensors mounted are 65" equipment with the Hunter system) and a jack
high by 33" deep by 72" wide. for lifting the vehicle during the procedure.
Space for the console and the vehicle, and working
room for the technician is all that is required.

Technicians and Training

Finding an Alignment Training in Merchandising
Technician of Alignment
Most experienced heavy duty technicians can Surprisingly, many experienced people in the
learn alignment quickly, especially with the help trucking industry have only a minimal
of a computerized system and on-site training. understanding of wheel alignment and its effects
on tire wear, fuel consumption and vehicle
handling. Because of this, the technician or
Alignment Training service manager may need help in merchandising
Hunter Engineering Company routinely offers alignment service.
heavy-duty truck alignment courses. These
Hands-on training in alignment merchandising
courses provide extensive hands-on experience
should be as much a part of the equipment
with equipment and vehicles.
”package” as operations training. See your local
On-site training is offered at the time of Hunter representative for details.
equipment installation, with retraining available
Pamphlets and brochures can be used at the shop
when new technicians are hired.
location and in working with fleet management.

– 19 –
Truck/Bus/Trailer
Alignment Procedures
To properly align heavy-duty trucks, buses and trailers, The other axles are then aligned to the non-adjustable
it is necessary to first determine the axle configuration. reference axle of an all wheel alignment. If all axles are
On vehicles with more than two axles it is also adjustable, the rearmost drive axle is generally used as
necessary to determine which axle should be used as a the reference axle.
reference axle. Some axles are not adjustable,
Use the following diagrams to determine which alignment
therefore that axle must be used as the refer ence axle.
procedure should be used for the vehicle being aligned.
Truck/Bus/Trailer Axle Configurations
Trucks Busses

– 20 –
Truck/Bus/Trailer Axle Configurations (cont.)

Semi-Trailers

Full Trailers

Dollies
Cars/Light Trucks

– 21 –
Glossary
Ackerman Principle: An alignment principle based on Chassis: All major assemblies on a vehicle including
vehicle tread width and wheelbase upon which turning suspension, steering, drivetrain, and frame. Ever ything,
angle is computed. except the body.
Ackerman Arm: A steering component, which provides Circumference: The total distance around a circle.
interconnection between the outer tie rod and spindle.
Concentric: Two or more components sharing a
Alignment: The process of measuring and adjusting the common center.
position of all wheels attached to a common chassis.
Conicity: A tire irregularity, which causes the tire to take
Angle: Two intersecting lines that are not parallel. the shape of a cone when inflated and loaded. This may
generate a lateral force.
Arc: Any part of a circle or a cur ved line.
Contact Area: The total amount of tread surface that
Axial Play: Vertical movement of the wheel and tir e
contacts the road.
assembly when inspecting a kingpin.
Cornering: The ease at which a vehicle travels a
Balance: This term is used to describe having equal
curved path.
weight distribution about the circumference of a wheel
and tire assembly. Cross Tube Assembly: Two tie rods and a tube, which
transfers the turning effort to the opposite side of the vehicle.
Bead: A wire steel coil forming an anchor for individual
plies and rim attachment of a tire. Curb Weight: The overall weight of a vehicle, less
passengers, luggage, or load.
Bellows: A rubber type seal, which is folded to allow
for a telescopic action. Normally referred to as a Degree: A unit of measurement to describe an angle.
bellows boot.
Dial Indicator: An instrument used to measure and display
Bias Belted: A bias ply tire that has reinforcing strips linear displacement. Measurement is displayed on a dial face
or belts under the tread section. and the scale is commonly graduated in thousandths.
Bias Ply: A tire constructed of alternate plies, which Directional Stability: The tendency for a vehicle to
intersect the tire centerline at approximately 35 degrees. maintain a directed path.
Body Roll: The leaning of the vehicle body Drag Link: A tube or rod used for interconnection between
while cornering. Pitman Arm and tie-rod assemblies.
Braking Control: Vehicle stability related to the Dynamic Balance: This normally refers to the balance
reaction under all stopping conditions. condition of a wheel and tire assembly in motion.
Bushing: A component made of metal or rubber-type Foot Pound: A unit of measurement used to describe
material, used to isolate interconnected moving parts. torque force.
Cam Bolt: A bolt and eccentric assembly which, when Frame Angle: The angle formed by a horizontal line and a
rotated, will force components to change position. line drawn parallel to the frame.
Camber: The inward or outward tilt of the wheel. Geometric Centerline: A line drawn between the
midpoint of the front axle and the midpoint of the rear axle.
Camber Roll: A change in camber brought about by
suspension changes while cornering. Horizontal: Parallel or level with the plane of the horizon.
Caster: The forward or rearward tilt of the steering axis. Hub: The assembly that houses the bearings about which
the wheel and tire assembly rotates.
Center Bolt: A bolt that provides centering and
attachment of an axle and spring assembly. Hydraulic Pump: A power driven device generating
constant volume and pressure.
Centerline Steering: A centered steering wheel while
the vehicle is traveling a straight ahead course. Included Angle: The sum of the angles, camber and SAI.

– 22 –
Independent Suspension: A suspension system that Pitman Arm: A steering component that provides
provides an isolated mounting for each wheel to the chassis. interconnection between the steering gear sector shaft and
the steering linkage.
Individual Toe: The angle formed by a horizontal line
drawn through the plane of one wheel versus a centerline. Ply Rating: A method of rating tire strength. Not
necessarily indicative of the actual number of plies used.
Intersect: The crossing point of two lines.
Power Steering: A steering system that incorporates
Jounce Travel: A suspension moving up through its travel.
hydraulics to assist in the steering of the wheels.
Kinetic Balance: The balance condition of a rotating
Pre-load: A predetermined amount of load or force
wheel related to force generated in a vertical plane.
applied during assembly to prevent unwanted play
King Pin: A pin used to attach a spindle to an axle. during actual operation.
Lateral Run-out: Side-to-side movement with a rotating Pull: The tendency for a vehicle to steer away fr om its
wheel or tire. directed course.
Lead: A slight tendency for a vehicle to move away from Radial Play: Any lateral movement of the wheel and tire
its directed course. assembly when inspecting a ball-joint or kingpin.
Linkage: A series of rods or levers used to transmit Radial Ply Tire: A tire construction type with alternating
motion or force. plies 90 degrees to the tire bead.
Load Range: A system used to describe the ser vice or Radius: The distance from the center to the outer edge
weight limitations of a tire. of a circle.
Memory Steer: A condition where the wheels, rather than Rear Axle Departure Offset: The amount in inches from
returning to straight ahead, tend to remember and seek a the midpoint of the steer axle (or kingpin on a trailer), where
previous position. the projected thrustline intersects.
Millimeter: A unit of linear measurement. One millimeter is Rebound: A suspension moving down through its travel.
equivalent to 0.039 inches.
Recirculating Ball Steering Gear: A steering gear
Minute: A unit of measurement used to describe an angle. design that is made up of a worm shaft, ball nut, and two
One minute is equivalent to 1/60 of one degree. recirculating ball circuits.
Offset: The lateral displacement of a wheel or axle in Returnability: The tendency of the front wheels to return
respect to a centerline. to a straight ahead position.
Oscillate: A back and forth motion at a specific frequency . Road Crown: The slope of a road from its center.
Out-of-Round: A wheel and tire irregularity in which one Road Feel: Necessary feedback transmitted from the road
or both are not concentric with its axis of rotation. surface up to the steering wheel.
Overinflation: Inflation pressure beyond that which Road Isolation: The ability of a vehicle to better separate
is recommended. road irregularities from the driver and passengers.
Oversteer: A characteristic in which a vehicle has a Road Shock: An excessive amount of force transmitted
tendency to turn sharper than the driver intends. from the road surface up to the steering wheel.
Parallelogram Steering Linkage: A steering linkage Scrub Radius: The radius formed at the road surface
design where if all pivot points were connected by lines, between the wheel centerline and steering axis.
these lines would be parallel.
Semi-Integral Power Assist: A power assist system
Perpendicular: Being at right angles. using a hydraulic pump and a power cylinder in conjunction
with the steering gear.

– 23 –
Setback: The angle formed between a centerline and a Thrustline: A bisector of rear total toe.
line perpendicular to the front axle.
Tie Rod Assembly: The outer most assemblies on a
Shim: Thin material of fiber or metallic makeup used to parallelogram steering linkage. These assemblies are
take up clearance between two parts. attached to the drag link and Ackerman Arms.
Shimmy: A violent shake or oscillation of the front Tie Rod End: The ball and socket assembly of a tie rod.
wheels transmitted up to the steering wheel.
Tie Rod Sleeve: A threaded tube that provides connection
Shock Absorber: A suspension component used to and adjustment of a tie rod assembly.
dampen spring oscillation.
Tire Force Variation: A tire irregularity, in which there
Solid Axle Suspension: A suspension system is a difference in radial stiffness about the circumfer ence
consisting of one steel or aluminum I-beam extended the of the tire.
width of the vehicle.
Toe: The comparison of a horizontal line drawn through
Short Long Arm (SLA): An independent suspension both wheels of the same axle.
design incorporating unequal length control arms.
Turning Angle: The difference in the turning angle of the
Spindle: A component on which a wheel and tir e front wheels in a turn.
assembly rotates.
Torsion Bar: A spring steel bar used in place of a
Stability: The tendency of a vehicle to maintain a coil spring.
directed course.
Tracking: The interrelated paths taken by the fr ont and
Stabilizer: A steel bar used to minimize body r oll. rear wheels.
Steering Axis Inclination: The angle formed by Treadwidth: The dimension as measured between the
an imaginary line drawn through the steering axis centerlines of the wheels on the same axle.
versus vertical.
Treadwear Indicators: Ridges molded between the ribs
Steering Gear: A mechanical device used to convert the of the tread that visibly indicate a worn tire.
rotary motion at the steering wheel to a lateral motion.
Under Inflation: Air pressure below that which
Steering Shaft: A tube or rod, which interconnects the is specified.
steering wheel to a lateral motion.
Understeer: A characteristic in which a vehicle has a
Strut: Any support used between two parts. tendency to turn less than the driver intends.
Suspension: An assembly used to support weight, Vertical: Being exactly upright or plumb.
absorb and dampen shock, help maintain tire contact and
Vibration: To constantly oscillate at a specific frequency.
proper wheel to chassis relationship.
Waddle: The lateral movement of a vehicle, usually caused
Suspension Height: The specified distance between
by some type of tire or wheel imperfection.
one or more points on a vehicle to the road surface.
Wander: The tendency of a vehicle to drift to either side of
Tandem Lateral Offset: When the geometric centerline
its directed course.
does not cross the midpoint of all axles.
Wheelbase: The dimension as measured between the
Tandem Scrub Angle: The angle formed by the
center of the front and rear axles.
intersection of horizontal lines drawn thr ough each rear
axle when total toe and the offset is zero.
Thrust Angle: The angle formed by thrustline and
geometric centerline.

– 24 –