International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education

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The effect of environmental science


projects on students’ environmental
knowledge and science attitudes
a b
Sulaiman M. Al-Balushi & Shamsa S. Al-Aamri
a
Curriculum and Instruction Department, College of Education,
Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
b
Directorate General of Education in Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate,
Ministry of Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
Published online: 30 Jun 2014.

To cite this article: Sulaiman M. Al-Balushi & Shamsa S. Al-Aamri (2014) The effect of
environmental science projects on students’ environmental knowledge and science attitudes,
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 23:3, 213-227, DOI:
10.1080/10382046.2014.927167

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International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 2014
Vol. 23, No. 3, 213 227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2014.927167

The effect of environmental science projects on students’


environmental knowledge and science attitudes
Sulaiman M. Al-Balushia* and Shamsa S. Al-Aamrib
a
Curriculum and Instruction Department, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat,
Sultanate of Oman; bDirectorate General of Education in Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate, Ministry of
Education, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
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The current study explores the effectiveness of involving students in environmental


science projects for their environmental knowledge and attitudes towards science. The
study design is a quasi-experimental pre-post control group design. The sample was 62
11th-grade female students studying at a public school in Oman. The sample was
divided into two groups: an experimental group (N D 34) which conducted five
different environmental-based projects for two months and a control group (N D 28)
which studied using the traditional methods. For the purpose of study, two instruments
were designed: the Environmental Knowledge Test (EKT) and the Science Attitudes
Survey (SAS). The results indicated that students’ involvement in environmental
projects had a statistically significant positive impact on their environmental knowledge
and science attitudes. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control
group in both instruments. The results also indicated that the projects that made the
most impact were those that required students to produce enjoyable and unusual final
products such as a documentary movie, a school-wide campaign, and school-wide
environmental exhibit. This promising result is what distinguishes the current study: that
PBL could be implemented with few resources, inside the school building and within
the assigned time by the official teacher guide for the undertaken topics.
Keywords: environmental knowledge; project-based learning (PBL); science attitudes

Introduction
Humans are the key players with regard to the conservation and sustainability of the envi-
ronment and natural resources. Their awareness of different environmental issues is an
influential factor that directs their responses to and interactions with their environment.
Individuals’ awareness of their environment is shaped by their knowledge of their envi-
ronment and the interrelationships among its elements and their attitudes towards it.
Accurate knowledge and positive attitudes lead to positive environmental behaviors (Esa,
2010; Pooly & O’Connor, 2000; Zecha, 2010), mediated by behavioral intentions and
environmental affects (Alp, Ertepinar, Tekkaya, & Yilmaz, 2006). There is a link between
students’ environmental beliefs and their willingness to act to save the environment
(Ambusaidi, Boyes, Stanisstreet, & Taylor, 2012).
Science education is believed to have an important role in equipping individuals with
the required environmental knowledge which leads to a positive environmental behavior
(Alp et al., 2006; Littledyke, 2008). However, traditional pedagogical practices might
hinder environmental learning (Ruiz-Mallen, Barraza, Bodenhorn, & Reyes-Garcıa,
2009). Thus, non-traditional strategies should be encouraged. Different pedagogical
approaches might be used to achieve this goal. Literatures show that instructional

*Corresponding author. Email: sbalushi@squ.edu.om

Ó 2014 Taylor & Francis


214 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

strategies such as mental-model building strategy (Reinfried, 2006), online debate forum,
field trips (Tal, 2010), field-based instruction (Kastens & Liben, 2010; Sheppard, Donald-
son, & Huckleberry, 2010), theory-based learning (Reinfried, Aeschbacher, & Rotter-
mann, 2012), and problem-based strategy (Kwan & So, 2008) have a positive impact on
students’ knowledge related to environmental issues. Another strategy is project-based
learning (PBL), which transforms learning activities into student-centered learning activi-
ties in which learners interact with authentic issues and real-world practices. This learning
endeavor allows learners to implement different academic and innovative skills in order
to come up with and implement different alternative solutions to real-world problems.
Students conclude their PBL activities by presenting their findings in a way that reflects
their epistemological accomplishments and positive attitudes towards the undertaken
issues and problems. They might accompany their presentations with videos, photo-
graphs, sketches, reports, models, and collected artifacts (Holubova, 2008).
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PBL is a constructivism-based method (Allan, 2007; Chen, 2006). Its conceptual frame-
work is rooted in three constructivist principles: learning occurs within the context, learners
should be actively involved in the learning process, and learners’ goals are accomplished
through social interactions that allow for sharing of knowledge and understanding (Cocco,
2006). In PBL, students are involved in social negotiations by which they rearrange their
knowledge through discussions, generation of ideas and rediscovery of knowledge (Sidman
& Milner, 2001). Students during PBL interact with different people inside and outside the
school who become a source for alternative viewpoints which might contradict with what
they believe. This unbalanced epistemological status promotes new learning which supports
individual enjoyment and social interests (Kurzel & Rath, 2007).
Based on the teaching methodologies literature, PBL could be considered as a specific
type of inquiry-based learning (IBL). In both PBL and IBL, questions and problems are the
context for learning, and students design and implement their methods to solve the problem
or answer the question. In the PBL, however, major products provide additional fundamen-
tal context for learning (Prince & Felder, 2006). In PBL, there is production of an end prod-
uct (Barak & Dori, 2005) around which learning is modeled (G€ulbahar & Tinmaz, 2006).
This is not necessarily the case in IBL which, at its highest level, signifies students’ formu-
lation of their own investigating questions; they also design their own methods and experi-
ments to answer these questions (Cuevas, Lee, Hart, & Deaktor, 2005).
Literature indicates that PBL is an effective method to enrich students’ environmental
knowledge (Dori & Tal, 2000; Kwan & Chan, 2004; Tal & Alkaher, 2009; Utarasakul,
2008). It has been observed that the knowledge and skills which students get out of their par-
ticipation in different science projects prepare them to take their appropriate position in sci-
ence-related social discussions and negotiations in and out of the classroom (Turgut, 2008).
Steinberg, Cushman, and Riordan (1999) specify six features of PBL (the six As): authentic-
ity, academic rigor, applied learning, active exploration, adult connections, and assessment
practices, using known criteria and continuous self-assessment. Students in PBL learn how
to wonder, question, plan, search, make decisions, and apply previously attained knowledge.
Science learning faces different challenges that threaten students’ interest in it. Previ-
ous research which documents students’ attitudes towards science shows that these atti-
tudes are quite negative (Nair & Fisher, 1999; Reiss, 2004). In addition, science is
considered by students to be less popular than some other subject matters (Hendley, Par-
kinson, Stables, & Tunner, 1995; Hendley, Stables, & Stables, 1996). Their interest in sci-
ence drops in grade three and the number of students who look for science-related
professions declines (Craker, 2006). In addition, it has been shown that science attitudes
drop when students transfer from low- to high-grade levels and that the attitudes of
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 215

final-grade students towards their science courses are quite negative (Nair & Fisher,
1999). PBL is a promising approach to advance the science curriculum because it is an
authentic exploratory activity backed by technology to support inquiry (Barak & Dori,
2005). Both technology and inquiry have the potential to respond to young students’ inter-
ests. Technology-based projects respond to new generations of students’ interests created
by new technologies. Additionally, inquiry-based projects respond to students’ interest in
hands-on work which allows them to get away from the traditional lecturing teaching
method. PBL permits students to investigate what fills them with wonder, make decisions
regarding the sources of their learning, and engage in minds-on learning (Jacklin, 2008).
Collectively, these features of PBL stir students’ interests and enhance their internal moti-
vation and enthusiasm for learning. Hence, PBL helps enhance students’ attitudes towards
science (Morgil, Seyhan, Alsan, & Temel, 2008; Yalcin, Turgut, & B€uy€ukkasap, 2009).
Additionally, studies done on environmental issues using PBL show that PBL not only
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enriches students’ environmental knowledge, but also nurtures their interests in global
environmental issues and prepares them to instigate environmentally accepted initiations
(Utarasakul, 2008). It also trains them to become young environmental specialists who
conduct their own inquiries based on their needs and interests, involves them in authentic
activities such as organizing environmental exhibits (Kwan & Chan, 2004) and directs
their attentions toward environmental problems around them (Dori & Tal, 2000).
Students in PBL have the opportunity to express their different talents which are not
discovered by traditional instruction. What helps in this regard is the type of assessment
used in PBL. The traditional paper-and-pencil tests assess very few cognitive abilities
such as reading, writing, and arithmetic ability. Therefore, many students are classified as
low achievers as a result of this type of assessment. Their other talents, such as their artis-
tic ability, their technological capability, their hands-on skills, and their social skills, are
uncovered and not fully supported in science lessons. The commonly used assessment
practices do not capture success in creating, learning, and using knowledge (Mintzes,
Wandersee, & Novak, 2000). However, PBL allows this wide spectrum of skills to be
integrated into science learning endeavors. Previous studies indicate that using alternative
assessments during PBL experiences to assess students’ performance has a positive
impact on helping students to comprehend scientific concepts, enhance their motivation,
foster their social skills, nurture their critical-thinking skills, and boost their enjoyment
with the learning process (ChanLin, 2008; G€ulbahar & Tinmaz, 2006; Tal & Alkaher,
2009). Examples of these alternative assessments are portfolios, artistic work samples,
and designing electronic applications. In addition, PBL helps low achievers to attain a
high level of formulating scientific explanations which they do not attain in the traditional
teaching environments (Doppelt, Mehalik, Schunn, Silk, & Krysinski, 2008). Addition-
ally, students in PBL behave like young scientists. They conduct studies which involve
asking questions, designing experiments, collecting data, drawing conclusions, and think-
ing of explanations (Colley, 2005; Holubova, 2008; Krajcik et al., 1998).
Some teachers do not view PBL as a feasible strategy that could be implemented in
their classrooms. Some of them think that PBL works only for higher achievers, requires
a level of metacognition that some students might not have and relies on group work,
which might allow some students to depend on their group members. Moreover, they
think that PBL does not permit a large amount of the curriculum to be covered, requires
expensive resources and technologies, takes much time to conduct and puts a heavy work-
load on students and teachers (Do gan, Batdi, & Yildirim, 2012; Fallik, Eylon, & Rose-
nfeld, 2008; G€ ulbahar & Tinmaz, 2006; Rogers, Cross, Gresalfi, Trauth-Nare, & Buck,
2011). These findings are supported by studies which show that not all students excel in
216 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

all the promises that PBL makes. For instance, they face difficulties in asking precise sci-
entific questions that lead to authentic projects (Krajcik et al., 1998). The current study is
an attempt to provide science teachers with examples of school-wide projects that might
be implemented in their classrooms with few resources and no extra lesson time. In addi-
tion, these projects are designed to suit the limited school resources in developing coun-
tries where highly sophisticated equipments, large computer and science laboratories, and
advanced computer software programs are not available, at least not in all schools.
Instead, most of the time science teachers need to rely on everyday items and whatever is
available in their surroundings so their students are able to conduct scientific investiga-
tions. Nevertheless, the projects in the current study have the academic rigor and focus on
enhancing students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Additionally, there is a gap in the lit-
erature of environmental education: that environmental knowledge and attitudes toward
science have not been explored together as dependent variables for PBL. The current
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study is an attempt to address this gap in the literature of environmental education.

Purpose of study
The current study explores the effectiveness of involving students in environmental sci-
ence projects for their environmental knowledge and attitudes towards science. The study
focuses on two research questions:

(1) What is the effect of involving students in environmental science projects on their
environmental knowledge?
(2) What is the effect of involving students in environmental science projects on their
attitudes towards science?

Methodology
Participants
The participants were 62 11th-grade female students who were studying a unit called
“The Impact of Humans on the Environment” within a subject called science and technol-
ogy in a public school in Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate in the Sultanate of Oman. In this
school, there were three classes taking the science and technology subject. Two classes
were randomly chosen to participate in the study. They were then randomly assigned into
an experimental group (n D 34) and a control group (n D 28). The environmental science
projects were conducted by the experimental group. The control group was taught by the
traditional method.
The school system in Oman is composed of two major stages: the basic education and
the post-basic education. The basic education stage is composed of two cycles: Cycle one
for grades 1 4 and Cycle two for grades 5 10. The post-basic education stage is for
grades 11 and 12. Cycle one schools are mixed gender where male and female students
study together in the same classrooms. However, there are different schools for male and
female students in Cycle two and post-basic education.

Design of study
This study is a quasi-experimental pretest post-test control group design. Two instruments
were administered pre and post the study which lasted for two months (30 lessons). The
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 217

instruments were the Environmental Knowledge Test (EKT) and the Science Attitudes
Survey (SAS). The independent samples t-test was run for the data taken from the pre-
administration of the instruments to test whether there were statistically significant differ-
ences between the two groups before the start of the study. Results show that there were
no statistically significant differences with regard to the two variables: the environmental
knowledge and the science attitudes. Both groups were taught by the same science teacher
who had four years’ experience of teaching science. The second researcher conducted a
four-day workshop for the teacher to train her on PBL, go through the teacher manual for
the experimental group, and explain the projects involved in the experiment. The total
number of training hours was 6.5.

Teaching in the experimental group


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The experimental group conducted six environmental science projects. These projects are
illustrated in Table 1. These projects are listed in their chronological order as they were

Table 1. A description of the environmental projects conducted by the experimental group.

Project Guiding question Duration Final product

(1) Nature reserves What is the importance of 4 lessons Produce a documentary


nature reserves to movie about nature
environmental balance and reserves and their role in
conservation? environmental
conservation.
(2) Recycling What is the importance of 4 lessons Produce recycled products
recycling? and conduct an in-school
campaign to increase
awareness about recycling
by distributing leaflets,
posters and recycled
products and delivering
lectures to the school.
(3) Global warming What effect does CO2 have 5 lessons Submit and deliver a
on global warming? comprehensive report that
answers the research
question.
(4) Food security How do people reach food 4 lessons Organize an exhibit for the
insecurity status? whole school which
encompasses self-designed
comics, posters, poems,
paintings and short
movies.
(5) Red tide What is the red tide 4 lessons Write, design and conduct an
phenomenon, its causes in-class play which reflects
and consequences? a comprehensive
understanding of the
phenomenon, its causes
and consequences.
(6) Alternative What are the alternative 3 lessons Design an energy chart that
energy sources energy sources that might compares different types
replace oil in the future? of alternative energy
sources in terms of
different criteria.
218 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

conducted during the course of the study. All the students in the experimental group were
involved in all the projects. The class was divided into five groups, each of which con-
sisted of six to seven students. These groups were heterogeneous and each of them had a
balanced number of low, average, and high achievers. A leader was appointed for each
group. Each group received an instructions sheet explaining each project. In addition, a
computer connected to the Internet was assigned for each group. Each group conducted a
series of steps during the period of implementation. These steps were summarized as
follows:

(1) Design a plan for collecting more information about the project.
(2) Collect the information from different resources.
(3) Pose researchable questions.
(4) Design a plan to answer the questions.
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(5) Divide the plan into tasks.


(6) Distribute the tasks among the group members.
(7) Conduct all the tasks.
(8) Prepare the final product of the project which differs from one project to another.
(9) Prepare the final presentation.
(10) Conduct the final presentation.

Appendix 1 illustrates an example that provides more details of the information and
instructions given to students in order for them to conduct their project. The example
details the steps taken by students until they eventually presented their project.

Teaching in the control group


The control group was taught using traditional methods which relied on classroom discus-
sions, whiteboard, cooperative teaching, discovery activities (as designed in the text-
book), and lab work. For instance, while the experimental group did the recycling project
when studying the topic of environmental balance, the control group spent much time dis-
cussing different cycles in detail (i.e., water cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, and CO2
cycle). Students presented their expectation of the negative human effects on the balance
of each cycle and discussed possible solutions. Classroom discussions, teacher’s presenta-
tions, and short reports were the means for students in the control group to gain the
knowledge regarding the topic of environmental balance, human impacts on it, and possi-
ble solutions. On the other hand, project activities explained in Appendix 1 were the main
vehicle for the experimental group to study the same topic.

Instructional materials
A teacher manual was designed for the experimental group. This manual consisted of a
theoretical and research base for PBL, a unit plan for the “Impact of Humans on the Envi-
ronment” unit in the Science and Technology textbook, a list of the learning outcomes,
lesson plans, individual project description sheets, plan-your-project working sheets,
assessment rubrics, peer assessment forms, and self-assessment forms. Each lesson plan
included the following elements: a guiding question, a brief description of the project,
project objectives, and a project-phases table. The project-phase table illustrates the title
of each phase, mechanisms to complete each phase, and completion period. These phases
are as follows: introducing the project idea, planning, implementation, and assessment.
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 219

Each phase in the project-phase table poses a set of tasks that the teacher conducts to
facilitate students’ completion of each phase. The teacher is instructed not to give stu-
dents ready answers or procedures to conduct the project. Instead, she is encouraged to
support their creativity and independent decision-making.
The teacher manual was reviewed by four faculty members teaching at a public uni-
versity, five science supervisors working at the Ministry of Education and one senior sci-
ence teacher working at a public school. Different modifications were made to the guide
such as redesigning some of the projects’ phases, redesigning the worksheets, and
rephrasing the items in the assessment tools.

Environmental Knowledge Test (EKT)


This knowledge test was used to answer the first research question regarding the impact of
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environmental science projects on participants’ environmental knowledge. It is designed


to assess students’ environmental knowledge in the topics addressed in the “Impact of
Humans on the Environment” unit in the science and technology textbook: nature
reserves, recycling, global warming, food security, red tide, and alternative energy sour-
ces. The first version of the test consisted of 45 multiple-choice questions. This version
was judged by three faculty members teaching at a public university and two senior sci-
ence teachers working at a public school. Some modifications were made to the first ver-
sion such as rephrasing some questions and eliminating some questions.
The revised version of the test consisted of 35 questions. A test retest method was
used to measure the reliability of this new version. It was first administered to a pilot sam-
ple of 27 11th-grade female students. Then it was repeated for the same sample after two
weeks. Participants were asked to mark any difficult-to-read items or any unfamiliar sci-
entific terminology. This process ensured that EKT items were readable for all
participants.
The Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.89. The item difficulty coefficients for the
items of the test ranged from 22% to 85%. The discrimination coefficients for the items
of the test ranged from 0.43 to 0.86. The pilot administration of the test was also used to
determine the administration time for the test, which was 40 minutes. This was the aver-
age time that the participants in the pilot study needed to complete the test.

Science Attitudes Survey (SAS)


This instrument was used to answer the second research question in the current study
regarding the impact of environmental science projects on participants’ attitudes towards
science. The first version of SAS included 40 items which were divided into two domains:
the importance of science and enjoyment of science. A 3-point Likert scale was used:
agree (3 points), not sure (2 points), and disagree (1 point). This version was reviewed by
seven faculty members teaching at a public university, four science supervisors, and one
senior science teacher. As a result of this process, new items under a new domain called
“appreciation of scientists” were added. In addition, some items were rephrased, elimi-
nated or merged.
The new version of SAS, which consisted of 35 items, was piloted on 35 female stu-
dents. Students were asked to mark any unfamiliar scientific terminology or items that
were difficult to comprehend. Thus, this process ensured that SAS was at participants’ lit-
eracy level. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was calculated and found to be
220 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

0.85. This piloting process also helped to estimate the administration time for SAS, which
was 20 minutes.

Data collection
Both instruments, EKT and SAS, were administered as pre and post to both groups of the
study. The following sequence was used for data collection:

(1) EKT was administered to both groups.


(2) SAS was administered two days later to both groups.
(3) The study was conducted for two months.
(4) EKT was re-administered to both groups after the conclusion of the study.
(5) SAS was re-administered two days later to both groups.
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Data analysis
Means and standard deviations were calculated for both instruments’ scores. An indepen-
dent samples t-test was used to compare the experimental and the control groups in terms
of the environmental knowledge and science attitudes. A dependent samples t-test was
used to compare the pre and post mean scores for each group regarding each of the depen-
dent variables. For statistically significant comparisons, effect size r values were
calculated.

Results and discussions


The results of the study are illustrated in terms of the research questions. First, the results
of the environmental knowledge measured by EKT are presented. Then the results of the
science attitudes measured by SAS are presented.

The environmental knowledge


Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations, and t-test comparisons between the experi-
mental and the control group in terms of participants’ scores in each environmental topic
covered in EKT and their total scores. The experimental group outperforms the control
group in three topics: nature reserves, recycling, and food security. The effect size r val-
ues are 0.49, 0.43, and 0.37, respectively. These values are classified as moderate effect
size (Cohen, 1988). There are no statistically significant differences in terms of the rest of
the topics. The experimental group also outperforms the control group in the total test
score. The effect size r value is 0.43, which is classified as moderate effect size.
Students in the experimental group were actively involved in the learning process. For
instance, they searched for information from different resources, designed a plan for con-
ducting the project, brainstormed ideas, negotiated different alternatives, made decisions,
integrated different talents, interacted with different individuals, and designed creative
final products. This active engagement must have contributed to the significant gain of
knowledge compared to their counterparts in the control group. Literatures assert that
active learning enhances students’ mental involvement in the learning process and conse-
quently improves their performance (Akinoglu & Tandogan, 2007; Desta, Chalchisa,
Mulat, Berihun, & Tesera, 2009; Dori & Belcher, 2005).
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 221

Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and independent samples t-test results for post-EKT.

Topic Total score Group M SD df t p

(1) Nature reserves 5 Control 1.96 0.92 60 4.38 0.001


Experiment 3.15 1.16
(2) Recycling 7 Control 3.03 1.35 60 3.59 0.001
Experiment 5.12 2.81
(3) Global warming 7 Control 4.89 1.07 60 0.32 0.752
Experiment 5.00 1.50
(4) Food security 5 Control 2.5 1.23 60 3.13 0.003
Experiment 3.41 1.05
(5) Red tides 5 Control 2.78 1.20 60 1.39 0.171
Experiment 3.23 1.33
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(6) Alternative energy sources 6 Control 3.82 1.30 60 1.83 0.72


Experiment 4.76 2.45
Total 35 Control 19.00 3.40 60 3.49 0.001
Experiment 24.68 7.80

Additionally, it should be noticed from Table 1 that the topics in which the experi-
mental group excelled are those for which participants in that group produced non-tradi-
tional final products: a documentary movie, recycled products, and an exhibit with
leaflets, posters, and comics. They also conducted a school-wide project for the recycling
project in which they conducted knowledge competitions and delivered a morning broad-
cast. These unusual activities and products must have a positive impact on participants’
search for related environmental information to be included in their final products. On the
other hand, the final products of the other two products were ordinary products that stu-
dents were used to in their school study. These were a report and a comparison chart. The
project which involved writing and designing a play did not make a significant difference.
This might signify that the final product should not only be unusual and enjoyable, but it
should also adhere to the academic rigor condition stated in the literature for successful
PBL (Steinberg et al., 1999).
Table 3 illustrates the pre-post comparisons with regard to participants’ score in EKT
for both groups. Both groups significantly gained environmental knowledge after they
completed the “Impact of Humans on the Environment” unit. Moreover, it is noticed that
the pre-post mean difference for the experimental group (8.03) was higher than for the
control group (2.82). This result gives the experimental group more advantage over the
control group and supports its significant outperformance illustrated in Table 2. This posi-
tive impact of PBL on students’ environmental knowledge has also been supported by the

Table 3. Means, standard deviations, and paired samples t-test results for pre6 post-EKT.

Group Pre6 post M SD df t p

Control Pre 16.18 4.17 27 3.72 0.001


Post 19.00 3.99
Experiment Pre 16.65 4.23 33 6.88 0.001
Post 24.68 7.80
222 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

Table 4. Means, standard deviations, and independent samples t-test results for post-SAS.

Domain Group M SD df t p

(1) Importance of science Control 2.57 0.19 60 1.64 0.107


Experiment 2.65 0.91
(2) Enjoyment of science Control 2.40 0.31 60 3.95 0.001
Experiment 2.65 0.21
(3) Respect of scientists Control 2.45 0.31 60 0.61 0.543
Experiment 2.49 0.30
Total Control 2.47 0.21 60 2.77 0.007
Experiment 2.61 0.20
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results of previous studies (Dori & Tal, 2000; Kwan & Chan, 2004; Tal & Alkaher, 2009;
Utarasakul, 2008).

Science attitudes
Table 4 shows the means, standard deviations, and t-test comparisons between the experi-
mental and the control group in terms of participants’ scores in each science attitudes
domain included in SAS and their total scores. The experimental group significantly out-
performs the control group in terms of their overall science attitudes and in terms of the
“Enjoyment of Science” domain. The effect size r values are 0.32 and 0.42, which are
classified as moderate effect size. There are no statistically significant differences in terms
of the other two domains: the “Importance of Science” and the “Respect of Scientists”
domains.
The significant positive impact of PBL on the “Enjoyment of Science” domain of sci-
ence attitudes supports the results obtained by EKT regarding participants’ environmental
knowledge. The experimental group, as stated above, outperformed the control group in
the environmental topics which were addressed by projects that had enjoyable and
unusual activities and final products during the experimental phase of the current study.
These enjoyable activities must have contributed to enhancing participants’ attitudes in
the “Enjoyment of Science” domain.
Table 5 demonstrates the pre-post comparisons for both groups in terms of their sci-
ence attitudes. There is a statistically significant improvement in the experimental group’s
attitudes towards science. This is not the case for the control group. Their improvement in
science attitudes is not statistically significant. These findings, which reflect a positive
impact of PBL on science attitudes, were also corroborated by previous studies (Morgil
et al., 2008; Yalcin et al., 2009).

Table 5. Means, standard deviations, and paired samples t-test results for pre6 post-SAS.

Group Pre6 post M SD df t p

Control Pre 2.42 0.26 27 1.52 0.141


Post 2.47 0.21
Experiment Pre 2.50 0.15 33 3.91 0.001
Post 2.61 0.20
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 223

Conclusions and recommendations


The current study explores the effectiveness of involving students in environmental sci-
ence projects for their environmental knowledge and attitudes towards science. The main
conclusion of this study is that school-wide projects which are implemented within the
assigned time for the undertaken textbook unit and with limited recourses have a statisti-
cally significant positive impact on both knowledge and attitudes. These findings signify
the importance of the current study. Most of the work that students in the experimental
group did was carried out inside the classroom. Some of the tasks and activities were held
outside the classroom inside the school building. This is an encouraging finding for teach-
ers who are worried about time, resources and academic rigor as issues associated with
PBL (Do gan et al., 2012; Fallik et al., 2008; G€ulbahar & Tinmaz, 2006; Rogers et al.,
2011). These types of projects should be encouraged and implemented more frequently in
the science curriculum. In that way science teachers might become more enthusiastic
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about involving their students in larger-scale projects.


In the current study, the attitudes domain which made the most significant difference
between the experimental and the control group was the enjoyment of science domain. At
the same time, the projects that made a substantial difference were those whose final
products were unusual and enjoyable, such as movies, campaigns, exhibits, posters, leaf-
lets, comics, and knowledge competitions. Therefore, these types of products should be
taken into consideration when designing PBL. However, these enjoyable products should
be carefully selected. They should adhere to the academic rigor condition of PBL
(Steinberg et al., 1999). Thus, PBL should be geared towards creating opportunities for
students to search for answers, navigate across a wide range of recourses, read related
information, connect different pieces of information, and generate reliable and authentic
knowledge constructions (e.g., explanations, generalizations, conclusions, and evidence-
based argumentations).
A limitation to the current study was the decline in some participants’ enthusiasm to
carry on with their projects. This phenomenon appeared during the last two projects.
Although the projects differed substantially in their content and outcomes, some students
expressed their boredom with repeating the same steps again and again and started to lose
their enthusiasm. This problem was overcome when the teacher encouraged them and
explained to them the importance of conducting these projects for the improvement of
their knowledge and skills. Thus, it is recommended that the general steps of conducting
PBL should be altered from one project to another in order not to lose students’ enthusi-
asm. In addition, the projects should be designed in a way that provides students with
opportunities to demonstrate their achievements and final products school wide. In the
current study, the recycling and food security projects, which involved a school-wide
campaign and an exhibit for the whole school, got students’ full attention and you could
see how enthusiastic they were. It could be concluded that if students know that their final
product will be publicized, they will work hard and their excitement level will rise. Out-
side-the-classroom activities should be given substantial weight when designing school-
wide projects. Additionally, integrating the new technologies appeared to have a positive
impact on students’ enthusiasm. This was the case when students used the movie-maker
software to design a short documentary movie in the nature reserves project. It was
observed during the course of the current study that students were curious about how to
make use of this new-to-them piece of technology in the science classroom. As some of
them commented, they never thought that they would be able to produce a movie by
themselves.
224 S.M. Al-Balushi and S.S. Al-Aamri

Another limitation in the current study is that the SAS results might reveal a novelty
effect. Students’ enthusiasm in the experimental group when working on designing their
final products in each project and the excitement they felt when experiencing new tech-
nology contributed to the improvement in the results of post-tests. Students in the control
group did not have the opportunity to experience some of these excitements. This is sup-
ported by the out-performance of the experimental group in terms of enjoyment of science
in SAS. To control for this novelty effect, a follow-up study might be to have more infu-
sion of technology and designing experiences in a second experimental group. In this sug-
gested research design, there will be a control group taught by the traditional method, a
PBL experimental group, and a second experimental group taught in the same way as the
control group except that it has more technology and designing experiences. To differen-
tiate this second experimental group from the PBL group, students will not follow the
PBL phases and there will be no final product required. Their technology and designing
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experiences will be small tasks based on the nature of the topics under study.
The above conclusions and observations lead to thoughts of a follow-up research that
compares the effectiveness of different projects that differ in terms of the type of final prod-
ucts required by students: technology-based, school-wide, and outside school. One study
might study the impact of type of audience on students’ achievement and attitudes. Four
experimental groups might be involved in this experimental study. All groups do the same
projects with the same final products. They only differ in the type of audience they interact
with. One of them demonstrates their final product inside their classroom and interacts with
their classmates. A second group displays its final product for the school-wide audience. A
third group goes outside school and displays their product outside the school and interacts
with a wider range of audience with different backgrounds. A fourth group might dissemi-
nate its final project on one of the social networks and interact with a global audience.

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Appendix 1: The recycling project


Description: The teacher introduces the topic of environmental balance and explains briefly the dif-
ferent types of environmental cycles such as water cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle, and carbon
dioxide cycle. Subsequently, the teacher asks a question: “What if this balance is interrupted and
much waste is produced? What will happen to the environmental balance? What are the solutions?”
The teacher then provides a worksheet that explains the project and its phases.
The guiding question: What is the importance of recycling?
Project objectives

(1) Demonstrate an adequate understanding of the benefits of recycling to the environmental


and ecological balance.
(2) Produce recycled products from everyday scrap material.
(3) Design and conduct an in-school campaign to increase awareness about recycling.
International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 227

(4) Design and distribute leaflets, posters, and recycled products and deliver lectures to the
school.
(5) Develop positive attitudes toward the environment, environmental balance, and environ-
mental preservation (this objective is similar for all projects).

Project phases
Phase I: introducing the project idea: Students are divided into groups of four and five. The teacher
discusses with students the role of humans in disturbing the environmental and ecological balance
and producing waste. Students, in their groups, read and discuss statistical reports illustrating the
amount of garbage in some Omani cities. The teacher uses this discussion to help students compre-
hend the importance of recycling, its history, its international movements, and its types, as well as
provide examples of recycling efforts in Oman and the region. Then, students receive a worksheet
that explains the project idea and introduces its objectives.
Phase II: planning and designing: During this phase, each group designs a plan to achieve the
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project objectives and answer the guiding question. The members also list the necessary materials
needed and the timeline for achieving their goals. They need to detail all steps related to the produc-
tion of recycled products, advertising, and conducting an in-school campaign, delivery of lectures,
and the production of leaflets and posters. Each group needs to distribute the work among its mem-
bers. Students during this phase make their own decisions regarding different project requirements
and issues. They need also to show academic rigor and incorporate information regarding the topic
of recycling and its different aspects from trusted resources. Then, the teacher reviews the plans and
gives feedback.
Phase III: implementation: Each group starts to produce the recycled products. Students need to
rely on themselves to collect the needed materials. They experiment with different ways of recy-
cling until they arrive at the best method for certain types of materials such as newspapers, empty
cans, plastic bottles, palm tree leaves and used compact discs. Then, they produce leaflets and post-
ers for their in-school campaign. Next, they start advertising for their campaign and its related lec-
tures. Afterwards, they conduct the campaign and the lectures. At the end of this phase, students
deliver the final presentation of their project, illustrate their final recycled products, reflect on how
the school audience received their campaign, present how they benefited from the project, and dis-
cuss the difficulties they faced. Also, they submit their final project report. During this stage, stu-
dents need to adhere to their plans from the previous phase. However, they might decide to change
their plan as the project develops.
Phase IV: project evaluation: A rubric is used by the teacher to evaluate each group during each
phase. The rubric criteria are based on project objectives and the outcomes related to each phase. In
addition, a peer assessment form and a self-assessment form are used. Students get regular feedback
at the end of each phase.

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