SANS 10100-3 Design of Concrete Water Retaining Structures PDF

SANS 10100 Part 3 — Design of

concrete water retaining structures
Table of Contents
Section 1 General ....................................................................................................................... 3
Section 2 Basis of design ............................................................................................................ 5
Section 3 Materials ................................................................................................................... 10
Section 4 Durability and cover to reinforcement ..................................................................... 10
Section 5 Structural analysis .................................................................................................... 11
Section 6 Ultimate limit states ................................................................................................. 11
Section 7 Serviceability limit states .......................................................................................... 11
Section 8 Detailing provisions .................................................................................................. 15
Section 9 Detailing of members and particular rules ............................................................... 15
Annex A ................................................................................................................................ 18
(Informative) ........................................................................................................................ 18
Basis of design ‐ supplementary paragraphs to SANS 10160 for tanks : ............................. 18
Annex B ................................................................................................................................. 19
(Informative) ........................................................................................................................ 19
Actions, partial factors and combinations of actions on tanks ............................................ 19
Annex C ................................................................................................................................. 23
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 23
Surface zones in concrete members .................................................................................... 23
Annex K ................................................................................................................................. 24
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 24
Effect of temperature on the properties of concrete .......................................................... 24
Annex L ................................................................................................................................. 27
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 27
Calculation of strains and stresses in concrete sections subjected to restrained imposed
deformations ........................................................................................................................ 27
Annex M ............................................................................................................................... 29
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 29
Calculation of crack widths due to restraint of imposed deformations .............................. 29
Annex N ................................................................................................................................ 31
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 31
Provision of movement joints .............................................................................................. 31
Annex P ................................................................................................................................. 33
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 33
Cylindrical prestressed concrete structures ......................................................................... 33
Annex QQ ............................................................................................................................. 34
(informative) ......................................................................................................................... 34
Control of shear cracks within webs .................................................................................... 34
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SANS 10100 Part 3 — Design of concrete water retaining structures : DRAFT Code

Additional information specific to EN 1992-3 and link to EN 1992-1-1
The scope of SANS 10100 is defined in 1.1.1 of SANS 10100 and the scope of this
Part of SANS 10100 (Part 3) is defined in 1.1.2.
It should be noted that any product, such as concrete pipes, which are manufactured
and used in accordance with a product standard for a watertight product, will be
deemed to satisfy the requirements, including detailing, of this code without further
calculation.
There are specific regulations for the surfaces of storage structures which are
designed to contain foodstuffs or potable water. These should be referred to as
necessary and their provisions are not covered in this code.
In using this document in practice, particular regard should be paid to the underlying
assumptions and conditions given in 1.3 of SANS 10100.
The nine chapters of this document are complemented by eight Informative Annexes.
These Annexes have been introduced to provide general information on material and
structural behaviour which may be used in the absence of information specifically
related to the actual materials used or actual conditions of service.
As indicated above, reference should be made to SANS 10100 which will give details
of compatible supporting standards to be used. For this Standard particular attention
is drawn to EN 206-1(Concrete - performance, production, placing and compliance
criteria).
For SANS 10100 Part 3, the following additional sub-clauses apply.
This Part 3 of SANS 10100 complements SANS 10100-1 for the particular aspects of
liquid retaining structures.
The framework and structure of this Part 3 correspond to SANS 10100-1, Part 3
contains rules Principles and Application Rules which are specific to liquid retaining
structures.
Where a particular sub-clause of SANS 10100-1 is not mentioned in this SANS

10100-3, that sub-clause of SANS 10100-1 applies as far as deemed appropriate in
each case.
Some Principles and Application Rules of SANS 10100-1 are modified or replaced in
this Part, in which case the modified versions supersede those in SANS 10100-1 for
the design of liquid retaining structures.
Where a Principle or Application Rule in SANS 10100-1 is modified or replaced, the

new number is identified by the addition of 100 to the original number. Where a new
Principle or Application Rule is added, it is identified by a number which follows the
last number in the appropriate clause in SANS 10100-1 with 100 added to it.
A subject not covered by SANS 10100-1 is introduced in this Part by a new sub-
clause. The sub-clause number for this follows the most appropriate clause number
in SANS 10100-1.
2

The numbering of equations, figures, footnotes and tables in this Part follow the
same principles as the clause numbering as described above.
Section 1 General
Scope
Replacement of clause 1.1.2 in SANS 10100 by:
1.1.2 Scope of Part 3 of SANS 10100
(101)P Part 3 of EN 1992 covers additional rules to those in Part 1 for the design of
structures constructed from plain or lightly reinforced concrete, reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete for the containment of liquids.
(102) Rules are given in this Part for the design of those elements of structure which
directly support the stored liquids (i.e. the directly loaded walls of tanks or reservoirs).
Other elements which support these primary elements (for example, the tower
structure which supports the tank in a water tower) should be designed according to
the provisions of SANS 10100-1.
(103)P This part does not cover:
Structures for the storage of hazardous materials the leakage of which could
constitute a major health or safety risk.
The selection and design of liners or coatings and the consequences of the choice
of these on the design of the structure.
Pressurised vessels.
Floating structures
Large dams
Gas tightness
(104) This code is valid for contained non flammable liquids which are at ambient
temperatures or at temperatures up to approximately 35 °C such as are found in
swimming pools and industrial structures.
.
(105) For the selection and design of liners or coatings, reference should be made to
appropriate documents.
(106) It is recognised that, while this code is specifically concerned with structures for
the containment of liquids, the clauses covering design for liquid tightness may also
be relevant to other types of structure where liquid tightness is required.
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(107) In clauses relating to leakage and durability, this code mainly covers aqueous
liquids. Where other liquids are stored in direct contact with structural concrete,
reference should be made to specialist literature.
1.1 Normative references
The following normative documents contain provisions that, though referenced in this
text, constitute provisions of this European Standard. For dated references,
subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of these publications do not apply.
However, parties to agreements based on this European Standard are encouraged to
investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions of the normative
documents indicated below. For undated references, the latest edition of the
normative document referred to applies.
SANS 10160-1, Basis of structural design

SANS 10160-7– Thermal actions
SANS 10100-1, Eurocode 2, Design of concrete structures – Part 1.1: General rules
and rules for buildings
SANS 10160-5 :Geotechnical design
1.6 Symbols
Addition after 1.6
1.7 Special symbols used in Part 3 of SANS 10100
Latin upper case symbols
Rax factor defining the degree of external axial restraint provided by elements attached
to the element
Considered
Rm factor defining the degree of moment restraint provided by elements attached to

the element considered.
Latin lower case symbols
fctx tensile strength, however defined
fckT characteristic compressive strength of the concrete modified to take account of

temperature.
Greek symbols
av average strain in the element
az actual strain at level z
iz imposed intrinsic strain at level z

Tr transitional thermal strain
Th free thermal strain in the concrete
4

Section 2 Basis of design
2.1 Requirements
2.1.1 Basic requirements
Addition following (3):
(104) The design situations to be considered should comply with SANS 10160 Parts
1, 3 and 7. In addition, for liquid retaining and containment structures made with
concrete, the following special design situations may be relevant:
— Operating conditions implying patterns of discharge and filling;

— Thermal effects caused, for example, by stored materials or environmental
temperature;
— Requirements for testing of reservoirs for watertightness.
(105) Floatation.
A structure subject to groundwater pressure should be designed to resist flotation.

The structure should be verified for the condition of static equilibrium in accordance
with SANS 10160-1.
The uplift may be reduced by:
(a) providing effective drainage to prevent a build-up of external water as far as local
conditions permit;
(b) providing pressure relief devices discharging into the vessel (where the entry of
external groundwater is acceptable).
2.1.3 Design working life, durability and quality management

Addition after (1)
(102) The life of a completed structure depends on the durability of its components. A
water retaining structure should be designed and constructed using good quality
materials and workmanship to provide a design life of the structure of between 40
years and 60 years unless specified otherwise by the User. Some components of the
structure (such as jointing materials) have a shorter life than the structural concrete
and may require renewal during the life of the structure.
2.3 Basic variables
2.3.1 Actions and environmental influences
5

2.3.1.1 General
Addition after (1):
(102)P The partial safety factors for the actions for liquid retaining and containment
structures are set out in Normative Annex B of this standard.
(103) Actions resulting from soil or water within the ground should be obtained in
accordance with SANS 10160-5.
2.3.2 Material and product properties
2.3.2.3 Properties of concrete with respect to watertightness
(101) If the minimum thicknesses of the member given in 9.11 (102) are used then a
lower water-cement ratio may be required and, consideration should be given to a
limitation to the maximum aggregate size.
Addition after 2.7
2.8 Design Situations
All structures required to retain liquids should be designed for both the full and empty
conditions, and the assumption regarding the arrangement of loading should be such
as to cause the most critical effects.
Particular attention should be paid to possible sliding and overturning. Liquid loads
should allow for the actual density of the contained liquid and possible transient
conditions, e.g. suspended or deposited silt or grit where appropriate.
For ultimate limit state conditions, liquid levels should be taken to the tops of walls
assuming that the liquid outlets are blocked.
For serviceability limit state conditions the liquid level should be taken to the working
top liquid level or the overflow level as appropriate to working conditions. Allowance
should be made for the effects of any adverse soil pressures on walls, according to
the compaction and/or surcharge of the soil and the condition of the structure during
construction and in service.
No relief should be given for beneficial soil pressure effects on the walls of
containment structures in the full condition. Thermal expansion of a roof should be
minimized by reflective gravel or other protection against solar radiation. An example
of a critical adverse loading effect occurs when thermal expansion of a roof forces
the walls of an empty structure into the surrounding backfill. In this case the passive
soil pressure on the walls may be limited by insertion of a thickness of compressible
and durable material and/or by providing a sliding joint between the top of the wall
and the underside of the roof. This can be either a temporary free sliding joint that is
not cast into a fixed or pinned connection until reflective gravel or other solar
6

protective material is placed on the roof, or a permanently sliding joint of assessed
limiting friction.
Movement of a roof may occur also where there are substantial variations in the
temperature of the contained liquid. Where a roof is rigidly connected to a wall, this
may lead to additional loading in the wall that should be considered in the design.
Earth covering on reservoir roofs may be taken as permanent load, but due account
should be taken of construction loads from plant and heaped earth, which may
exceed the intended design load.
Addition after 2.8
2.9 Operational safety considerations
2.9.1 Statutory safety requirements
The designer should take account of the safety requirements appropriate to the
construction and operation of the structure issued by the Health and Safety Act.
2.9.2 Provision for access
In enclosed structures the provision of access for personnel is required for

inspection, cleaning and testing. At least two access hatches should be provided at
opposite ends of the structure and at least one in each compartment. The hatches
should be of sufficient size to enable personnel wearing breathing apparatus to enter
(e.g. 600 mm x 900 mm), and it should be possible to lock the hatches in both the
open and closed positions. The designer should also consider providing concrete
stairs where access is required into large liquid compartments that are deeper than
2.5 m. It is preferable to provide a platform under an access hatch. Access ladders
and walkways, where provided, should be in accordance with Occupational Health &
Safety Act, National Building Regulations and SANS.
2.9.3 Ventilation
Harmful and/or explosive gases may collect in enclosed structures, and provision
should be made for adequate ventilation to limit any possible dangerous
accumulations to acceptable levels.
2.9.4 Toxic materials
Toxic materials should not be used, except where their toxicity exists only for a short
period prior to commissioning.
Addition after 2.9
7

2.10 Maintenance and operation

The completed structure should be inspected regularly. The designer should provide
the user with a statement listing the items requiring examination during such
maintenance inspections, and stating the recommended frequency of such
inspections. The inspection should include examination of the concrete for cracking,
leakage, surface deterioration and settlement. Particular attention should be paid to
any rust stains that might indicate corrosion of the reinforcement. Any defects should
then be corrected. Movement joints should be cleaned and the joint materials
replaced if necessary. The designer should also prepare a schedule of precautions to
be taken by the user in order to prevent the structure being damaged or the design
life shortened during use. The schedule should be included in the commissioning
documentation.

Addition after 2.10
2.11 lnspection and testing of the structure
(101) General
Testing for liquid tightness should be in accordance with (102) and (103)
(102) Testing of structures
For a test of liquid retention, the structure should be cleaned and initially filled to the
normal maximum level with the specified liquid (usually water) at a uniform rate of not
greater than 2 m in 24 h. When first filled, the liquid level should be maintained by the
addition of further liquid for a stabilizing period while absorption and autogenous
healing take place. The stabilizing period may be 7 days for a maximum design crack
width of 0.1 mm or 21 days for 0.2 mm or greater.
After the stabilizing period the level of the liquid surface should be recorded at 24 h
intervals for a test period of 7 days. During this 7-day test period the total permissible
drop in level, after allowing for evaporation and rainfall, should not exceed 1/500th of
the average water depth of the full tank, 10 mm or another specified amount.
Notwithstanding : the satisfactory completion of the test, any evidence of seepage of

the liquid to the outside faces of the liquid-retaining walls should be assessed against
the requirements of the specification. Any necessary remedial treatment of the
concrete, cracks, or joints should, where practicable, be carried out from the liquid
face. When a remedial lining is applied to inhibit leakage at a crack it should have
adequate flexibility and have no reaction with the stored liquid.
Should the structure not satisfy the 7-day test, then after the completion of the
remedial work it should be refilled and if necessary left for a further stabilizing period;
a further test of 7 days' duration should then be undertaken in accordance with this
clause.
8

(103) Testing of roofs
The roofs of liquid-retaining structures should be watertight and should, where

practicable, be tested on completion by flooding the roof with water to a minimum
depth of 25 mm for 24 h or longer if so specified. Where it is impracticable, because
of roof falls or otherwise, to contain a 25 mm depth of water, the roof should have
water applied by a continuous hose or sprinkler system to provide a sheet flow of
water over the entire area of the roof for not less than 6 h. In either case the roof
should be considered satisfactory if no leaks or damp patches show on the soffit.
Should the structure not satisfy either of these tests, then after the completion of the
remedial work it should be retested in accordance with this clause. The roof
insulation and covering should be completed as soon as possible after satisfactory
testing.
Addition after 2.11
2.12 Deflections.
The recommendations for span/effective depth ratios given in SANS 10160-1 apply
to horizontal members carrying uniformly distributed loads. For a cantilever wall
which tapers uniformly away from the support and which is loaded with a triangular
pressure, a net reduction factor should be applied to the above ratios if the thickness
at the top is less than 0.6 times the thickness at the base. This reduction factor can
be assumed to vary linearly between 1.0 and 0.78 where the thickness at the top
varies between 0.6 and 0.3 times the thickness a t the bottom.
In addition, allowance should be made for the significant additional deflection which
occurs at the top of the wall due to rotation, if the pressure distribution under the
base is triangular or very asymmetrically trapezoidal. Limits for deflections will
normally be those for non-liquid-retaining structures since only in exceptional
circumstances will deflections be more critical with regard to freeboard, drainage or
redistribution of load. Retaining walls should be back filled in even layers around the
structure, the thickness of the layers being specified by the designer. Over
compaction adjacent to the wall should be avoided otherwise large differential
deflections (and sliding) of the wall may occur.
At least 75 % of the liquid load should be considered as permanent when calculating

deflections.
9

Section 3 Materials
3.1 Concrete
3.1.1 General
(103) The effect of temperature on the properties of concrete should be taken into
consideration in design.
NOTE Further information may be found in informative Annex K.
3.1.3 Elastic deformation
Replace (5) by:
(105) Unless more accurate information is available, the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion may be taken as equal to 10 x 10-6 K-1. It should be noted, however, that
coefficients of thermal expansion of concrete vary considerably depending on the
aggregate type and the moisture conditions within the concrete.
3.1.11 Heat evolution and temperature development due to hydration
(101) Where conditions during the construction phase are considered to be

significant, the heat evolution characteristics for a particular cement should generally
be obtained from tests. The actual heat evolution should be determined taking
account of the expected conditions during the early life of the member (e.g. curing,
ambient conditions). The maximum temperature rise and the time of occurrence after
casting should be established from the mix design, the nature of the formwork, the
ambient conditions and the boundary conditions.
3.2 Reinforcing steel
3.2.2 Properties
(107) For relaxation at temperatures above 20 °C, see 10.3.2.2 in EN 1992-1-2.
Section 4 Durability and cover to reinforcement
4.2 Environmental conditions
Addition after 4.2 (3)
(104) The minimum exposure class for water retaining structures shall be XD2 / XS2.
4.4.1.2 (105) The minimum cover values for reinforcement and prestressing tendons
in normal weight concrete taking account of the exposure classes and the structural
classes is given by cmin,dur. The Structural Class for concrete water retaining
structures is S4 for the indicative concrete strengths given in Annex E of SANS
10

10100-1 and the recommended modifications to the structural class is given in Table
4.3N of SANS 10100-1. The values of c,dur are given in Table 4.4N (reinforcing
steel) and Table 4.5N (prestressing steel).
Section 5 Structural analysis
Addition after 5.11
5.12 Determination of the effects of temperature
5.12.1 General
(101) Rigorous analyses may be carried out using the provisions of 3.1.4 and Annex
B of SANS 10100 for creep and shrinkage.
5.13 Calculation of the effects of internal pressure
(101) In the absence of a more rigorous analysis, internal pressure from liquids may
be assumed to act at the centre of the retaining members.
Section 6 Ultimate limit states
Addition after 6.2.3 (8)
(109) The choice of strut angle in 6.2.3(2) for shear resistance should take into
account the influence of any significant applied tension. Conservatively, cotmay be
taken as 1,0. The procedure in Annex QQ of EN1992-2 may also be used (enclosed
in this Standard).
Addition after 6.8
Section 7 Serviceability limit states
7.3 Cracking
7.3.1 General considerations
Addition after (9) :
(110) It is convenient to classify liquid retaining structures in relation to the degree of

protection against leakage required. Table 7.105 gives the classification. It should be
noted that all concrete will permit the passage of small quantities of liquids and
gasses by diffusion.
11

Table 7.105 — Classification of tightness
Addition after (110)
(111) Cracking. For the purpose of defining the serviceability crack width limit state,
the maximum design surface crack widths for the exposure conditions defined in 4.2
(104) should be taken to be the following.
(a) Reinforced concrete. The maximum design surface crack widths for direct
tension and flexure or restrained temperature and moisture effects are:
(1) Expose class exposure class XD2, XS2 or more severe: 0.2 mm;
(2) Critical aesthetic appearance: 0.1 mm.
(b) Prestressed concrete. Refer to Annex P for special recommendations for the
design of cylindrical prestressed structures.
A statically determinate member nominally subjected to axial prestressing should be

assumed to have a minimum eccentricity of prestressing of 20 mm or 0.05 times the
overall thickness in the plane of bending, whichever is less. For statically
indeterminate structures, including cylindrical prestressed structures, this minimum
eccentricity recommendation can be ignored.
7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation
Replace note in Application Rule (2):
NOTE Where the minimum reinforcement given by 7.3.2 is provided, Figures 7.103N and 7.104N give values of
maximum bar diameters and bar spacings for various design crack widths for sections totally in tension.
The maximum bar diameter given by Figure 7.103N should be modified using
Expression 7.122 below rather than Expression 7.7 which applies where s has been
calculated for pure flexure:
[7.122]
where:
s is the adjusted maximum bar diameter
s is the maximum bar diameter obtained from Figure 7.103N
12

h is the overall thickness of the member
d is the depth to the centroid of the outer layer of reinforcement from the opposite
face of the concrete (see Figure 7.1(c) in SANS 10100 Part 1).
fct,eff is the effective mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete as defined in
SANS 10100 Part 1 where fct,eff is in MPa.
For cracking caused dominantly by restraint, the bar sizes given in Figure 7.103N
should not be exceeded where the steel stress is the value obtained immediately
after cracking (i.e. s in Expression 7.1)
For cracks caused dominantly by loading, either the maximum bar sizes from Figure
7.103N or the maximum bar spacings from Figure 7.104N may be complied with. The
steel stress should be calculated on the basis of a cracked section under the relevant
combination of actions.
For intermediate values of design crack width, values may be interpolated.
7.3.4 Calculation of crack width
Addition after Application Rule (5)
(106) Information on the calculation of crack widths in members subjected to

restrained thermal or shrinkage strains is given in Informative Annexes L and M.
Key
X reinforcement stress,  (N/mm²)

s
Y maximum bar diameter (mm)
Figure 7.103N — Maximum bar diameters for crack control in members

subjected to axial tension
13

Key
X reinforcement stress,  (N/mm²)

s
Y maximum bar spacing (mm)
Figure 7.104N — maximum bar spacings for crack control in members

subjected to axial tension
Addition after 7.3.4
7.3.5 Minimising cracking due to restrained imposed deformations
(101) Where it is desirable to minimise the formation of cracks due to restrained

imposed deformations resulting from temperature change or shrinkage, this may be
achieved for Class 1 structures (see Table 7.105) by ensuring that the resulting
tensile stresses do not exceed the available tensile strength f , of the concrete,
ctk 0.05
adjusted, if appropriate, for the two-dimensional state of stress (see enclosed Annex
QQ of EN 1992-2) and, for Class 2 or Class 3 structures where a liner is not used, by
ensuring that the whole section remains in compression. This may be achieved by:
limiting the temperature rise due to hydration of the cement.

removing or reducing restraints.
reducing the shrinkage of the concrete
using concrete with a low coefficient of thermal expansion
using concrete with a high tensile strain capacity (Class 1 structures only)
application of prestressing
(102) It will generally be sufficiently accurate to calculate the stresses assuming the
concrete to be elastic and to allow for the effects of creep by use of an effective
modulus of elasticity for the concrete. Informative Annex L provides a simplified
method of assessing stresses and strains in restrained concrete members which may
be used in the absence of more rigorous calculation.
14

Section 8 Detailing provisions
8.10.1 Arrangement of prestressing tendons and ducts
8.10.1.3 Post-tension ducts
(102) In the case of circular tanks with internal prestressing, care needs to be taken
to avoid the possibility of local failures due to the tendons breaking out through the
inside cover. In general, this will be avoided if the theoretical centroid of the
horizontal cables lies in the outer third of the wall. Where the cover provisions make
this impossible, this requirement may be relaxed provided the tendon duct remains
within the outer half of the wall.
(103) The diameter of a duct within a wall should generally not exceed times the
wall thickness.
(104) The prestressing force on a wall should be distributed as evenly as possible.

Anchorages or buttresses should be so arranged as to reduce the possibilities of
uneven force distribution unless specific measures are taken to take the effects into
account.
(105) Where structures subjected to elevated temperatures containing vertical

unbonded tendons are used, it has been found that the protective grease is liable to
run out. To avoid this, it is better to avoid the use of unbonded prestressing tendons
as vertical prestress. If they are used, means should be provided to enable the
presence of protective grease to be checked and renewed if necessary.
8.10.4 Anchorages and couplers for prestressing tendons
(106) If anchorages are located on the inside of tanks, particular care should be
taken to protect them against possible corrosion.
8.10.6 Cylindrical prestressed concrete structures
Refer to Annex P for information on the design of cylindrical prestressed concrete

structures
Section 9 Detailing of members and particular rules
9.1 General
Addition after (3)
15

(104) Reinforcement to control restrained shrinkage and thermal movement
cracking. Reinforcement referred to in Section 2.3.3 of SANS 10100 to control
cracking arising from restrained shrinkage and thermal movement should be placed
in all slabs (floors, walls, roofs) as near to the surface of the concrete as is consistent
with the requirement for cover.
Prestressed slabs should be provided with reinforcement in any lateral direction in

which there is no significant prestress.
The reinforcement should be calculated in accordance with 9.6 of SANS 10100 and
Annex N of this standard (SANS 10100 Part 3). Except as provided for in option (b)
in table N.1 the amount of reinforcement in each of two directions at right angles
within each surface zone should be not less than 0.35 % of the surface zone cross
section, as defined in figures A.1 and A.2 of Annex C for deformed grade 450
reinforcement and not less than 0.64 % for plain grade 250 reinforcement. In wall
slabs less than 200 mm in thickness the calculated amount of reinforcement may all
be placed in one face. For ground slabs less than 300 mm thick (see A.2 of Annex
C), the calculated reinforcement should be placed as near to the upper surface as
possible consistent with the nominal cover.
9.6 Reinforced concrete walls
9.6.5 Corner connections between walls
(101) Where walls are connected monolithically at a corner and are subjected to
moments and shears which tend to open the corner (i.e. the inner faces of the walls
are in tension), care is required in detailing the reinforcement to ensure that the
diagonal tension forces are adequately catered for. A strut and tie system as covered
in 5.6.4 of SANS 10100-1 is an appropriate design approach.
9.6.6 Provision of movement joints
(101) If effective and economic means cannot otherwise be taken to limit cracking,
liquid retaining structures should be provided with movement joints. The strategy to
be adopted will depend on the conditions of the structure in service and the degree of
risk of leakage which is acceptable. Different procedures for the satisfactory design
and construction of joints have been developed in different countries. It should be
noted that the satisfactory performance of joints requires that they are formed
correctly. Furthermore, the sealants to joints frequently have a life considerably
shorter than the design working life of the structure and therefore in such cases joints
should be constructed so that they are inspectable and repairable or renewable.
Further information on the provision of movement joints is given in Informative Annex
N. It is also necessary to ensure that the sealant material is appropriate for the
material or liquid to be retained.
16

9.11 Prestressed walls
9.11.1 Minimum area of passive reinforcement and cross-sectional dimensions
(101) Where there is no vertical prestressing (or no inclined prestressing in inclined

walls), vertical (or inclined) reinforcement should be provided on the basis of
reinforced concrete design.
(102) The thickness of walls forming the sides of reservoirs or tanks should generally
not be less than 120 mm for class 0 or t2 mm for classes 1 or 2. Slip formed walls
should not be thinner than 150 mm whatever the class and the holes left by the lifting
rods should be filled with a suitable grout.
17

Annex A
(Informative)
Basis of design - supplementary paragraphs to SANS 10160 for tanks :
Loads on tanks from liquids
A.1 General
(1)P The following rules shall be used to determine the characteristic values of
pressure loads from the liquid stored in tanks.
NOTE 1: These rules are valid for static conditions in all types of tanks, but tanks in which dynamic phenomena
may occur are not included.
NOTE 2: A list of relevant actions, partial factors and combinations of actions on tanks may be found in Annex B.
A.2 Loads due to stored liquids
(1) Loads due to liquids should be calculated after considering:
a defined range of liquids to be stored in the tank;

the geometry of the tank;
the maximum possible depth of liquid in the tank.
(2) The characteristic value of pressure p should be determined as:
p(z) = z (A.1)
where:
z is the depth below the liquid surface;

is the unit weight of the liquid.
A.3 Liquid properties
(1) The densities given in SANS 10160-2 should be used.
A.4 Suction due to inadequate venting
(1)P Where the venting system to a tank may be susceptible to blockage or

impediment, a rational analysis shall be used to determine the suction pressures
arising during tank discharge at the peak rate. This analysis shall consider the
possible adiabatic nature of the process.
18

Annex B
(Informative)
Actions, partial factors and combinations of actions on tanks
B.1 General
(1)P The design shall take account of the characteristic values of the actions listed in
B.2.1 to B.2.14.
(2) The partial factors on actions according to B.3 and the action combination rules
according to B.4 should be applied to these characteristic values.
B.2 Actions
B.2.1 Liquid induced loads
(1)P During operation, the load due to the contents shall be the weight of the product
to be stored from
maximum design liquid level to empty.
(2)P During test, the load due to the contents shall be the weight of the test medium
from maximum test liquid level to empty.
B.2.2 Internal pressure loads
(1)P During operation, the internal pressure load shall be the load due to the
specified minimum and maximum values of the internal pressure.
(2)P During test, the internal pressure load shall be the load due to the specified
minimum and maximum values of the test internal pressure.
B.2.3 Thermally induced loads
(1) Stresses resulting from restraint of thermal expansion may be ignored if the
number of load cycles due to thermal expansion is such that there is no risk of fatigue
failure or cyclic plastic failure.
B.2.4 Self-weight loads
(1)P The self-weight loads on the tank shall be considered as those resulting from
the weight of all component parts of the tank and all components permanently
attached to the tank.
(2) Numerical values should be taken from SANS 10160-2 Annex A
19

B.2.5 Insulation
(1)P The insulation loads shall be those resulting from the self-weight of the
insulation.
(1) Numerical values should be taken from SANS 10160-2 Annex A.
B.2.6 Distributed imposed load
(1) The distributed imposed load should be taken from SANS 10160-2 unless
specified by the client.
B.2.7 Concentrated imposed load
(1) The concentrated imposed load should be taken from SANS 10160-2 unless
specified by the client.
B.2.9 Wind
(1) The loads should be taken from SANS 10160 Part 3
(2) In addition, the following pressure coefficients may be used for circular cylindrical
tanks, see figure B.1:
a) internal pressure of open top tanks and open top catch basin: cp = -0,6.
b) internal pressure of vented tanks with small openings: cp = -0,4.
c) where there is a catch basin, the external pressure on the tank shell may be
assumed to reduce linearly with height.
(3) Due to their temporary character, reduced wind loads may be used for erection
situations according to SANS 10160 Parts 3 and 8.
20

Key
1. Cp according to SANS 10160 Part 3

2. Cp = 0,4 vented tank only
Figure B.1: Pressure coefficients for wind loading on a circular cylindrical tank
B.2.10 Suction due to inadequate venting
(2) The loads should be taken from Annex A of this standard.
B.2.11 Seismic loadings
(1)P Refer to SANS 10160-5 and EN 1998-4 which also sets out the requirements for
seismic design.
B.2.12 Loads resulting from connections
(1)P Loads resulting from pipes, valves and other items connected to the tank and
loads resulting from
settlement of independent item supports relative to the tank foundation shall be taken
into account. Pipework shall be designed to minimize loadings applied to the tank.
B.2.13 Loads resulting from uneven settlement
(1)P Settlement loads shall be taken into account where uneven settlement can be
expected during the lifetime of the tank.
B.2.14 Accidental actions
(1) The loads should include the consequences of events such as external blast,
impact, adjacent external fire, explosion, leakage from the inner tank, and overfilling
of the inner tank.
NOTE: These loads may be specified by the client for the individual project.
21

B.3 Partial factors for actions
(1)P The partial factors according to SANS 10160 shall be applied to the actions
B.2.2 to B.2.14.
(2) The recommended value of the partial factor for the liquid induced loads during
operation (see B.2.1(1)) is gF = 1,20.
(3) The recommended value of the partial factor for the liquid induced loads during
test (see B.2.1(2)) is gF = 1,00.
(4) For accidental design situations, the recommended value of the partial factor for
the variable actions is gF = 1,00.
B.4 Combination of actions
(1)P The general requirements of SANS 10160-1 shall be followed.
(3) It is recommended that seismic actions need not be considered to act during test
conditions.
(4) It is recommended that accidental actions need not be considered to act during
test conditions, but that the combination rules for accidental actions given in SANS
10160-1 are applied.
22

Annex C
(informative)
Surface zones in concrete members
23

Annex K
(informative)
Effect of temperature on the properties of concrete
K.1 General
(101) This Annex covers the effects on the material properties of concrete of
temperatures in the range -25 °C to +200 °C. Properties covered are: strength and
stiffness, creep and transitional thermal strain.
(102) In all cases the changes in properties are strongly dependant on the particular
type of concrete used and the Annex should not be considered to provide more than
general guidance.
K.2 Material properties at sub-zero temperatures
(101) When concrete is cooled to below zero, its strength and stiffness increase. This
increase depends mainly on the moisture content of the concrete: the higher the
moisture content, the greater is the increase in strength and stiffness. It should be
noted that the enhancement in properties would apply only to structures, which would
be permanently below - 25C.
(102) Cooling concrete to –25 °C leads to increases in the compressive strength of:
around 5 MPa for partially dry concrete
around 30 MPa for saturated concrete.
(103) The expressions given in Table 3.1 for tensile strength may be modified to give
the effect of temperature as follows:
fctx = fckT2/3 [K.1]
where:
fctx = tensile strength, however defined (see Table K.1).

= a coefficient taking account of the moisture content of the concrete. Values of
are given in Table K.1.
fckT = the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete modified to take account
of temperature according to (102) above.
24

Table K.1 — Values of for saturated and dry concrete
(104) Cooling concrete to –25 °C leads to increases in the modulus of elasticity of:
around 2 000 MPa for partially dry concrete
around 8 000 MPa for saturated concrete.
(105) Creep at sub-zero temperatures may be taken to be 60 % to 80 % of the creep

at normal temperatures. Below –20 °C creep may be assumed to be negligible.
K.3 Material properties at elevated temperatures
(101) Information on the compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete at

temperatures above normal may be obtained from 3.2.2 of EN 1992-1-2.
(102) The modulus of elasticity of concrete may be assumed to be unaffected by

temperature up to 50 °C. For higher temperatures, a linear reduction in modulus of
elasticity may be assumed up to a reduction of 20 % at a temperature of 200 °C.
(103) For concrete heated prior to loading, the creep coefficient may be assumed to
increase with increase in temperature above normal (assumed as 20 °C) by the
appropriate factor from Table K.2
Table K.2 — Creep coefficient multipliers to take account of temperature where

the concrete is heated prior to loading
(104) In cases where the load is present during the heating of the concrete,
deformations will occur in excess of those calculated using the creep coefficient
multipliers given in (103) above. This excess deformation, the transitional thermal
strain, is an irrecoverable, time-independent strain which occurs in concrete heated
while in a stressed condition. The maximum transitional thermal strain may be
calculated approximately from the expression:
Tr = cTh/fcm [K.2]

where:
25

= a constant obtained from tests. The value of will be within the range 1,8
2,35
fcm = the mean compressive strength of the concrete
Tr = the transitional thermal strain
Th = the free thermal strain in the concrete (= temperature change the coefficient of
expansion)
c = the applied compressive stress
26

Annex L
(informative)
Calculation of strains and stresses in concrete sections subjected to restrained

imposed deformations
L.1 Expressions for the calculation of stress and strain in an uncracked section
(101) The strain at any level in a section is given by:


az = (1 – Rax) i + (1 – Rm)(1/r)(z – z)
av [L.1]
and the stress in the concrete may be calculated from:

z = Ec,eff( iz – az) [L.2]
where
Rax = factor defining the degree of external axial restraint provided by elements
attached to the element considered
Rm = factor defining the degree of moment restraint provided by elements attached to

the element
considered. In most common cases Rm may be taken as 1,0
Ec,eff = effective modulus of elasticity of the concrete allowing for creep as appropriate.
I av = average imposed strain in the element (i.e. the average strain which would
occur if the member
was completely unrestrained)
iz = imposed strain at level z
az = actual strain at level z
z = height to section
z = height to section centroid
1/r = curvature
L.2 Assessment of restraint
(101) The restraint factors may be calculated from a knowledge of the stiffnesses of
the element considered and the members attached to it. Alternatively, practical axial
restraint factors for common situations may be taken from Figure L.1 and Table L.1.
In many cases (e.g. a wall cast onto a heavy preexisting base) it will be clear that no
27

significant curvature could occur and a moment restraint factor of 1,0 will be
appropriate.

Key
1 Vertical restraint factors

2 Horizontal restraint factor (obtain from table L.1 for this central zone)
3 Expansion or free contraction joints
4 (whichever is the greater)
5 Potential primary cracks
Figure L.1 — Restraint factors for typical situations
Table L.1 — Restraint factors for central zone of walls shown in Figure L.1
28

Annex M
(informative)
Calculation of crack widths due to restraint of imposed deformations
M.1 General
(101) The forms of imposed deformation covered in this Annex are shrinkage and
early thermal movements due to cooling of members during the days immediately
after casting.
There are two basic practical problems which need to be addressed. These relate to
different forms of restraint and are as sketched below.
(a) restraint of a member at its ends (b) restraint along one edge
Figure M.1 — Types of restraint to walls
The factors controlling the cracking in these two cases are rather different; and both
are of real practical significance. (a) occurs when a new section of concrete is cast
between two pre-existing sections. (b) is particularly common and arises where a wall
is cast onto a pre-existing stiff base. (a) has been researched extensively over the
past few years and is reasonably well understood. (b) has not been studied so
systematically and there appears to be little published guidance.
M.2 Restraint of a member
(a) Restraint of member at its end
The maximum crack width may be calculated using Expression 7.8 in SANS 10100
where ( -  ) is calculated from expression M.1
sm cm
(sm – cm) = 0,5e kckfct,eff (1 + 1/(e))/Es [M.1]
For checking cracking without direct calculation, s may be calculated from

Expression M.2 which may then be used with Figures 7.103N and 7.104N to obtain a
suitable arrangement of reinforcement.
s = kckfct,eff/          [M.2]
where is As/Act and Act is the area of concrete in tension as defined in 7.3.2.
29

(b) A long wall restrained along one edge
Unlike the end restrained situation, the formation of a crack in this case only
influences the distribution of stresses locally and the crack width is a function of the
restrained strain rather than the tensile strain capacity of the concrete. A reasonable
estimate of the crack width can be made by taking the value of (sm – cm) given by
expression M.3 in expression 7.8 in EN 1992-1-1.
(sm – cm) = R free

ax [M.3]
where
R = the restraint factor. This is considered in Informative Annex L.

ax
free = the strain which would occur if the member was completely unrestrained.
Figure M.2 illustrates the difference between the cracking in the two restraint
situations.
Key
X Imposed deformation
Y Crack width
1 Expression M.1
2 Cracking due to end restraint
3 Cracking due to edge restraint (expression [M.3])
Figure M.2 — Relation between crack width and imposed strain for edge and
end restrained walls
30

Annex N
(informative)
Provision of movement joints
(101) There are two main options available:
a) design for full restraint. In this case, no movement joints are provided and the
crack widths and spacings are controlled by the provision of appropriate
reinforcement according to the provisions of 7.3.
b) design for free movement. Cracking is controlled by the proximity of joints. A

moderate amount of reinforcement is provided sufficient to transmit any movements
to the adjacent joint. Significant cracking between the joints should not occur. Where
restraint is provided by concrete below the member considered, a sliding joint may be
used to remove or reduce the restraint. Table N.1 indicates the recommendations for
the options.
Table N.1 — Design of joints for the control of cracking
31

32

Annex P
(informative)
Cylindrical prestressed concrete structures

The special recommendations for the design of cylindrical concrete structures
prestressed vertically and circumferentially are as follows.
(a) The jacking force in the circumferential tendons should not exceed 75 % of the
characteristic strength.
(b) The principal compressive stress in the concrete should not-exceed 0.33fck, cube.
(c) The temporary vertical moment induced by the circumferential prestressing

operation in the partially stressed condition should also be considered. The maximum
value of the flexural stress in the vertical direction from this cause may be assumed
to be numerically equal to 0.3 times the circumferential compressive stress. Where
the tensile stress would exceed 1,0 N/mm2, either the vertical prestress should be
increased or the circumferential prestress should be built up in stages, with each
stage involving a progressive application of prestress from one end of the cylinder.
(d) When the structure is full there should be no resultant tension in the concrete in
the circumferential direction ,after allowance for all losses of prestress and on the
assumption that the top and bottom edges of the wall are free of all restraint.
(e) The bending moments in the vertical direction should be assessed on the basis of
a restraint equal to one-half of that provided by a pinned foot, where the foot of the
wall is free to slide. In other cases where sliding a t the foot of the wall is prevented,
the moments in the vertical direction should be assessed for the actual degree of
restraint a t the wall foot. The tensile stress arising from vertical moments should not
exceed 1.0 N/mm2.
.
(f) Where the structure is to be emptied and filled at frequent intervals, or perhaps left
empty for a prolonged period, the structure should be designed so that there is ; no
residual tension in the concrete at any point when the structure is full or empty.
Prestressing wire may be placed outside the walls, provided that it is protected with
pneumatic mortar. However in industrial areas or near the sea, where there is a
possibility of corrosive penetration of the covering concrete, the cables should
preferably be placed within the walls and grouted. Non-bonded tendons may be used
provided that they and their anchorages are adequately protected against corrosion.
Cylindrical concrete structures which are prestressed circumferentially and reinforced

vertically should comply generally with the recommendations of this clause, except
that N(f) may be relaxed to allow tensile stress not exceeding 1 N/mm2. The design
for the vertical reinforcement should be in accordance with Section three
33

FROM EN 1992-2:2005
Annex QQ
(informative)
Control of shear cracks within webs
34

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SANS 10100 Part 3 — Design of

For SANS 10100 Part 3, the following additional sub-clauses apply.

Where a particular sub-clause of SANS 10100-1 is not mentioned in this SANS

Where a Principle or Application Rule in SANS 10100-1 is modified or replaced, the

Replacement of clause 1.1.2 in SANS 10100 by:

1.1.2 Scope of Part 3 of SANS 10100

(103)P This part does not cover:

1.1 Normative references

SANS 10160-1, Basis of structural design

Addition after 1.6

1.7 Special symbols used in Part 3 of SANS 10100

Latin upper case symbols

Rm factor defining the degree of moment restraint provided by elements attached to

Latin lower case symbols

fctx tensile strength, however defined

fckT characteristic compressive strength of the concrete modified to take account of

av average strain in the element

az actual strain at level z

iz imposed intrinsic strain at level z

2.1.1 Basic requirements

Addition following (3):

— Operating conditions implying patterns of discharge and filling;

A structure subject to groundwater pressure should be designed to resist flotation.

The uplift may be reduced by:

2.3 Basic variables

2.3.1 Actions and environmental influences

Addition after (1):

2.3.2 Material and product properties

2.3.2.3 Properties of concrete with respect to watertightness

Addition after 2.7

2.8 Design Situations

Addition after 2.8

2.9.1 Statutory safety requirements

2.9.2 Provision for access

In enclosed structures the provision of access for personnel is required for

2.9.4 Toxic materials

Addition after 2.9

2.11 lnspection and testing of the structure

(102) Testing of structures

Notwithstanding : the satisfactory completion of the test, any evidence of seepage of

The roofs of liquid-retaining structures should be watertight and should, where

Addition after 2.11

At least 75 % of the liquid load should be considered as permanent when calculating

NOTE Further information may be found in informative Annex K.

3.1.3 Elastic deformation

Replace (5) by:

3.1.11 Heat evolution and temperature development due to hydration

(101) Where conditions during the construction phase are considered to be

3.2 Reinforcing steel

(107) For relaxation at temperatures above 20 °C, see 10.3.2.2 in EN 1992-1-2.

Section 4 Durability and cover to reinforcement

Addition after 4.2 (3)

Section 5 Structural analysis

Addition after 5.11

5.12 Determination of the effects of temperature

5.13 Calculation of the effects of internal pressure

Section 6 Ultimate limit states

Addition after 6.2.3 (8)

Addition after 6.8