SOCRATES

Socrates, an influential philosopher of ancient Greece, never took notes on his own teachings; rather the
notes of his pupils, including Plato, are the only record of his work. Socrates championed the ideal of
reason and required that people act in accordance with their reasoned values. His criticism of injustice in
Athenian society led to his prosecution for corrupting the youth of Athens. True to his principles,
Socrates refused the opportunity to recant his criticisms and accepted the death sentence passed at his
trial. Despite his followers’ plans for his escape, he died in confinement, calmly drinking a lethal dose of
hemlock, in 399 BC.

THE SOCRATIC METHOD SOCRATIC METHOD

The most important contribution of Socrates to the Western philosophy • A method of inquiry by
answering a question with a question

ELENCHOS • Another term referring to the Socratic method which he largely applied to the examination
of key moral concepts like the God and Justice, for which he was regarded as the “Father of political
Philosophy and Ethics” NEGATIVE METHOD OF HYPOTHESIS ELIMINATION A series of questions are
posed to help a person or group of persons determine their underlying beliefs as well as the extent of
their knowledge

Arriving at the truth by continually questioning, obtaining answers, and criticizing the answers

A better hypothesis could steadily identify and eliminate those which lead to contradiction

HYPOTHESIS

A statement that is assumed to be true for the sake of argument

CONTRADICTION A statement, or the making of a statement, that opposes or disagrees with somebody
or something

SOCRATES PHILOSOPHY OF MAN

1. Good education does not create good citizens such that some good fathers who are successful in life
do not produce sons of their own quality

2. Moral excellence is more of a matter of divine bequest than potential nurture

3. Virtue cannot be taught

4. Knowledge is not gained from instruction and study, but from divine dispensation

5. Authoritarianism is better than democracy. A wise and noble tyrant ruler is the ideal alternative to the
random decision made by a democratic ruler

6. Wrongdoing is a consequence of ignorance, that those who did wrong knew no better

7. The art of love is the love of wisdom and man could actually become wise who takes in pursuing the
art of love
8. Midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never give birth are unable to become
midwives

9. The best way for people to live is to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material
wealth

10. Friendship and a sense of true community is the best way for people to grow together as a populace

11. Humans possessed certain virtues. Virtue is the most valuable of all human possessions. The most
important virtues for a person to have is intellectual virtues

12. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and that it is the philosopher’s job to show the rest
how little they really know

13. For a man to be truly good and not just act with right opinion, he must come to know the
unchanging good in itself

14. Ideals belong in a world that only the wise man can understand 15. A wise ruler cannot tell people
how to live when he does not yet understand himself

PYTHAGORAS
Considered the first true mathematician, Pythagoras in the 6th century by emphasized the study of
mathematics as a means to understanding all relationships in the natural world. His followers, known as
Pythagoreans, were the first to teach that the Earth is a sphere revolving around the Sun. This detail
showing Pythagoras surrounded by his disciples comes from a fresco known as the School of Athens
(1510-1511), by Italian Renaissance painter Raphael.

THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF PYTHAGORAS 582-507 BC

An Ionian, Greek, born on the island of Samos, a Mathematician and philosopher, founder of the
Mathematical, mystic, religions, and scientific society called Pythagorean

FATHER OF NUMBERS A title given to him because of the “Pythagorean Theorem” which bears his name

PYTHAGORAS PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON

1. Learn to be silent. Let your quite mind listen and absorb

2. Help a man in raising a burden, but do not assist him in laying it down for it is a sin to encourage
indolence

3. It is better to learn none of the truth about Mathematics, God, and the Universe at all than to learn a
little without learning all

4. Women should function on equal terms with man in society

5. Do not vex with sharp words a man swollen with anger, do not vex yourself with anger

6. Numbers constitute the true nature of things

7. DOCTRINE OF REBIRTH OR TRANSMIGRATION • Since there is a transmigration of souls, man should

follow various rules of living which would enable the soul to achieve a higher rank among the gods
8. Men are classified into three: lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and lovers of gain 9. DOCTRINE OF
VEGETARIANISM • Man should abstain from eating meat and any sort of beans in order to attain inner
health

HEDONISM
1. Pleasure is the sole or chief good in life and the pursuit of it is the ideal aim of conduct

2. All actions can be measured n the basis of how much pleasure and how little pain they produce

3. Action is good if it gives worldly pleasure or temporal happiness to men, action is bad if it’s not

4. The good action is the pleasant action, the bad action is that which produces pain

EGOISTIC OR CYRENAIC HEDONISM • It stresses the gratification of one’s immediate personal desires
without regard for other people is the supreme end of human existence RATIONAL HEDONISM • It
points out that true pleasures is attainable only by reason, and they stressed the virtues of self-control
and prudence PLEASURE OVER PAIN TYPES OF HEDONISM IN ANCIENT GREECE BASIC CONCEPTS
Hedonistic philosophy of men has sexual or libidinal connotation It is an ethical theory that expounds on
the pursuit and enjoyment of pleasure as the man’s goal in life It also stressed that knowledge is rooted
in the fleeting sensations of the moment and is futile to attempt the formulation of a system of moral
values in which the desirability of present pleasure is weighed against the pain they caused in the future

TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS IN HEDONISM Grouped under Jeremy Bentham It holds that the value of
pleasure could be quantitatively understood This means that it’s not just the number of pleasures, but
their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account Grouped under John Stuart
Mill It holds that pleasure has different levels :

A. Higher Quality Level Higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasures More elaborate
beings, like men, tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lesser time for simple
pleasure

B. Lower Quality Level Lower quality pleasures are simple beings Pigs, have easier access to simple
pleasures since they do not see other aspects of life QUANTITATIVE APPROACH QUALITATIVE
APPROACH

EPICURUS Greek philosopher Epicurus was a prolific author and creator of an ethical philosophy
based upon the achievement of pleasure and happiness. However, he viewed pleasure as the absence of
pain and removal of the fear of death. This bust of Epicurus, a Roman copy of a Greek original, is in the
Palazzo Nuovo in Rome, Italy.

EPICUREANISM

A system of philosophy based on the teachings of Epicurus, founded in 307 BC A form of Hedonism
because it also declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good.

DIFFERENCE TO HEDONISM I. Its conception of absence of bodily pain as the greatest pleasure II. Its
advocacy of a simple and moderate life
THE GARDEN Is an Epicurean school that has been a moderate ascetic community which rejected the
political doctrine of Athenian philosophy, and it includes women, and slaves as members, and were
probably vegetarian

EPICURUS (340-270 BC) The proponent of Epicureanism, who was an atomic materialist following the
steps of Democritus. His concept on materialism led him to attack superstition and divine intervention

1. The pleasure of the individual is the sole or chief goal in life: • To arrive to this goal, man must live in
such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one’s lifetime, yet doing so
moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by over-indulgence in such pleasures.

This emphasizes the pleasure of the mind than a physical pleasure

2. A Moderate Pleasure Can Result To: • ATARAXIA • a state of tranquility and freedom from fear •
APONIA • Freedom from fear and absence of bodily pain constitute happiness in the highest form

3. Peace of mind and Freedom from bodily pain • The highest pleasure can be obtained through
knowledge, friendship, and using virtuous and temperate or modest life PEACE OF MIND AND ABSENCE
OF BODILY PAIN BASIC CONCEPTS

Man can enjoy simple pleasure by abstaining from bodily desire such as sex and appetite. Appetite can
lead to dissatisfaction if taken too richly Sex can increase lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual
partner

5. God is neutral to men. They do not interfere in the world we live in

6. Gods are mere physical being like men. They are up in the distant place of the cosmos without
thought for what happens to mankind

7. Humans and gods souls are made from atoms. God souls adheres to the body without escape. Human
souls leave the body because the forces surrounding the atoms do not possess the fortitude to hold it

8. Man has a free will

9. Human thoughts are merely atoms that serve randomly due to the fact that ever-curious minds of
people wonder anxiously about their role in the universe

10. Death is a threat to one’s peace of mind

11. Marriage is a threat to one’s peace of mind

12 Artificially-produced desire must be suppressed. • Learning, culture, civilization, socio-political

involvement are artificially produced desires that should be discouraged because they give rise to desire
that are difficult to satisfy thus resulting in disturbing one’s peace of mind

13. While very pleasure is in itself good, not all pleasures are to be chosen • Since certain pleasures are
produced by means which entail annoyances many times greater than the pleasure themselves

14. There can be no life to come • Since the soul is of such a nature as to be dissolved immediately on
leaving the body into the primordial tombs to which it was compounded
15. Virtue in itself had no value • If it does not serve as a means to gain happiness 16. Feelings (PATHE)
can tell the individual what brings about pleasure and what brings about pain

MISCONCEPTIONS TOWARD EPICUREANISM • It posits pleasures as the ultimate good or TELOS • It

advocates the partaking of pleasures such as constant partying, orgasmic, sexual excess, and expensive
food Misunderstanding of the Epicurean Doctrine: • ATARAXIA • Tranquility or peace of mind • APONIA
• Absence of bodily pain The truth is It regarded the combined aspects to be the height of happiness: •
Excess drinking is contrary to the attainment of Ataraxia and Aponia, prudence, therefore, is an
important virtue in seeking pleasure Example:

UTILITARIANISM It is an ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by
its contribution to overall utility The ethical doctrine that the greatest happiness of the greatest number
should be the criterion of the virtue of action The doctrine that the value of an action or an object lies in
usefulness • An 18th century British philosopher founded the ethical, legal, and political doctrine of
utilitarianism, which states that correct actions are those that result in the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people. JEREMY BENTHAM • Bentham’s foremost proponent, a significant
philosopher in his day JAMES MILL • Son of James Mill who was educated according to Bentham’s
principles and much of his father’s work was summarized by him while he was still in his teens JOHN
STUART MILL

BASIC CONCEPTS OF UTILITARIANISM The doctrine of utility is, that the good is whatever brings the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of people The only purpose for which political power can be
rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to
others The moral thing to do is the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain It is immoral
to harvest healthy people’s organs to be given to sick people The well-being of all sentient things,
including animals, deserve equal consideration with that given to human beings, thus it is often immoral
to harm an animal even if the animal itself not given a moral status All societies are equally important.
Viewing oneself as equal to others in one’s society and at the same time viewing one’s society as
fundamentally superior to other societies may cause an uncomfortable dissonance The tenet by which
an action is considered right or wrong depending on whether its outcome is good or bad Developed by
the followers of classic utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill CONSEQUENTIALISM

CONFUCIUS • Translated as Kong Fu Zi or K’ung-Fu-Tzu and frequently referred to as Kongz • A

Chinese born BC in the City of Qufu, in the Chinese State of Lu, now part of present-day Shandong
Province • Believed to have been conceived out of wedlock • His father was 70 and his mother only 15
when he was born, and his father died when he was 3, and brought up in poverty by his mother • He
died at the age of 72 in 479 BC HIS LIFE • He travelled from state to state getting government jobs and
teaching his disciple for most of his life • Became a justice minister in the State of Lu but resigned after
several years because he disapproved of the politics of his king • His life history is regarded as legendary
but with credibility • His teaching has been developed into a system of philosophy and embodied in the
following • Analecto of Confucius • Classic Rites • Spring and Autumn Animals

HIS TEACHINGS The family is the basis for an ideal government Being an ideal government, there should
be a strong solidarity among the family members Children should respect their elders, living or dead
Husbands should respect their wives Politicians and rulers should be good models of the citizens, they
should lead an exemplary lives and be guided with moral principles •“if right principle prevails through
the empire, there would be no need for me to change the state” (Analecto XVIII,6) Human nature is
essentially good The Golden Rule •“Do not do unto other what you do not want others done to
yourself” All men should observe carefully their duties toward State Every man must possessed five
virtues •Kindness •Uprightness •Decorum •Wisdom •faithfulness •Confucius teaching about the
philosophies of man was more practical and ethical rather than religious •He has little belief in the
supernatural

LAO-TZU HIS LIFE HIS TEACHINGS • Not his real name but an honorific name given to him
which mean “Old Venerable Master” • The promoter of the school of Tao and considered as the father
of Taoism together with his follower Chuong-Tzu • Spelled as Lao-Tsu, Laotze, according to legend, was
born between 600 and 300 BC in China • He was a scholar who dedicated his life in balancing his inner
spirit, searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts that
disrupted society during his lifetime • Held number of public offices such as curator of the royal library
in Loyang, China • He told Confucius: •“Remember, just like the wind blows whenever and wherever it
wants to, good times will come and sometime, and somewhere. Be neutral. Go with the wind”

(Dao-De-Jing) referred to as “Maps of the Way” or “Book of Virtues” “Tao” means the way of all life “Te”
means the fit use of life by men “Ching” means text or classics Traditionally believed written by Lao-Tzu,
it’s an ancient Chinese text and the world’s most translated classic next to the Bible It consist of 81 short
chapters 37 chapters form the first part: BOOK OF THE WAY-TAO 44 chapters form the second part:
BOOK OF TE YIN XI The Guardian of the Mountain Pass The person to whom this text was dictated in the
6th century BC, and who was also responsible for writing or carving it down on bamboo slips and
handed it down to future generations

The Philosophy of this Book Focused on the Following Concepts: WU emptiness WEI non-doing FU
return of all things to their origin WU-WEI Translated to mean non- interference or non-doing, action
without deeds or action less activity “live a simple life, be free, be yourself, and close to nature. Do these
things and you will be wise and happy” Meaning: one should be fluid and changing, not to never act, so
as to always adjust oneself to any circumstances “what is of all things most yielding (water) can
overwhelm that which is of all things most hard (rock) being substance less it can enter even where
there is no space that is how I know the value of action that is action less but there can be teaching
without words value in action that is action less few indeed can understand

Tao (path of the way) is the first-cause of the universe. It is a force that flows through all life

2. The Tao is a power that envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living

3. Each human being’s goal is to harmonize themselves with the Tao because the Tao regulates natural
processes and nourishes balance in the universes. It embodies the harmony of approaches, such as that
there would be no love without hate; no light without darkness; no male without female

4. There is no God to hear man’s prayer or to act upon them. Man should seek answers to life’s problem
through inner meditation and outer observation

5. Time is cyclical, not linear

6. Men should promote their health and vitality

7. The five main organs of the body correspond to the five parts of the sky: Water, Fire, Wood, Metal,
Earth

8. Each person must nurture the “CHI” (air) that has been given to them

9. Man should follow the art of “WU-WEI” which is to let nature take its course Example: Allow river to
flow towards the sea unimpeded, therefore no one should erect a dam that will interfere with its
flowing

10. A person should plan in advance and consider carefully each action before making it

11. Be kind to other individuals because such action tends to be reciprocated

12. People are compassionate and good by nature and if left to their own nature, they will show
compassion without expecting a reward

SPIRITUAL WAY OF DISCIPLINE No seminary, curriculum, examinations, and systematize

doctrines because it only put people under a lot of stress The masters spoke using metaphors and
comparisons, just like Jesus in the New Testament who used parables and sayings They learned by
following and emulating the teaching, behaviors, and attitude of their masters YIN YANG The most
common graphic representation of Taoist theology which represents the balance of opposites in the
universe They believe that humans often intervene in nature and upset the balance of Yin and Yang, but
when both opposites are equally balance, all is calm, but when it’s imbalance, there is confusion disarray
It serves as an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of his lives It was developed as
theology only in the 2nd century AD Appropriating a variety of spiritual techniques associated with the
objective of immortality When one is in harmony with the Tao through spiritual techniques, one is
believed to achieved physical immortality and admission to heavenly realms inaccessible to the spirits of
mere mortals

Focused on nourishment, that is abstaining from foods that will only benefit the three worms in the
body (Disease, Old Age, Death) DIETARY REGIMENS •It can be finally achieved by nourishment of the
“embryonic body” which become immortal self after death BREATH CONTROL •The Tao must visualize
the thousands of gods that inhabited the human body (MICROCOSM) as they inhabited the universe
(MACROCOSM) MEDITATION •The person must avoid ejaculation of semen during the secular act, it was
believed that semen (seminal fluid) could be mixed with breath to further nourish the “embryonic body”
or be forced back through the spinal passage to repair the brain SEXUAL DISCIPLINE •In Taoist, this can
be obtained by both chemical experimentation (Wai-Tan) and a theoretical internal alchemy (Nei-Tan).
•Old age can be energized by marriage of the cosmic Yin and Yang forces within the body ALCHEMY
•Also known as “FU” could be used for healing, protection from demons, and communication with the
immortal beings USE OF MAGICAL TALISMAN SEARCH FOR THE FABLED ISLE OF BLISS

Taoism evolved into a religious faith in 440 BC when it was adopted as a state religion, and become
one of the three great religions in China, together with Confucianism and Buddhism Taoism’s support
stopped when the Ching Dynasty ended in 1911, and all of its heritage was lost and destroyed during the
next period of warlordism •When it came to power in 1949, religious freedom was strictly prohibited •It
put the monks to manual labor, confiscated the temples, and plundered treasures •Several million
monks were reduced to a number to about 50,000 in 1960, and some even fled to other places THE
BUDDHISM A major world religion found in Northeastern India It is based on the teaching of
Gautama Buddha SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA Also known as Buddha BUDDHA Means the “Enlightened
One” Doctrines Of Buddhism In General DOCTRINE OF ANATMAN SAMSARA • Holds that human beings
has stream of renewed existence or a repeated rebirth in the cycle of phenomenal existence SKANDHAS
• 5 aggregates or bundles which made up human existence • Material body • Feelings • Perception •
Predisposition • Karmic Tendencies Believes in rebirth without transmigration TRANSMIGRATION • The
supposed passage of the dead person's soul into another body at or after death

1. Rejected some aspects of Hindu philosophy

2. Challenge the authority of priesthood

3. Denies that an individual’s spiritual worth is a matter of birth

4. Opened the movement to all members of all castes.

It has been very significant in 1. India 2. Sri Lanka 3. Cambodia 4. Myanmar 5. China 6. Japan 7. Taiwan 8.
Tibet 9. Nepal 10. Mongolia 11. Korea 12. Vietnam

DOCTRINE OF KARMA
Consist of individual’s acts and their ethical consequences

UNIVERSAL JUSTICE Human actions lead to rebirth. That is good deeds are rewarded and bad deeds are
punished. It operates as a natural law rather than divine judgment, and determines a person’s species
(a rebirth as a human, animal, ghost, a god, etc)

ENLIGHTENMENT only for human beings not to gods GOD ARE ACCORDING TO BUDDHISM

1. not creators of universe

2. not in control of human destinies

3. engrossed in their own pleasures in heaven

4. they are in the same predicament as men and other creatures

5. they are subject to death and further rebirth in lower states of existence

6. Prayer and sacrifice to them by man is of no value

DOCTRINE OF NIRVANA An individual is released from the cycle of continued existence with its inherent
sufferings by attaining NIRVANA: An enlightened state of consciousness in which greed, hatred,
ignorance, etc that makes a person suffers may be eliminated

PARINIRVANA The final nirvana that can be attained at the moment of death after the enlightened
individual continue to live, burning off any remaining karma

BETTER REBIRTH The proximate goal of nirvana which serves as an option for those who cannot pursue
the ultimate goal or final nirvana
 TO ATTAIN IT: Individual should fulfill his duties in society, observe acts of charity, and comply with the
5 precepts or the basic moral code of Buddhism: prohibition of killings, stealing, harmful language,
sexual misbehavior, and the use of intoxicants

4 VIRTUES TO ATTAIN FINAL NIRVANA or THE PALACES OF BRAHMA Loving-Kindness Compassion

Sympathetic Joy Equanimity

SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA’S LIFE AND TEACHINGS

THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS Core Of Buddha’s Enlightenment

An oral teacher, who left no written ideas of his works and teachings His teachings were later codified
by his followers. Western scholars agreed that he was born in the year 563 BC at Lumbini near the
present Indian-Nepal border He belonged to a wealthy family being a son of a ruler of a petty kingdom
At the age of 29 he renounced earthly pleasures and embarked on a quest for peace and enlightenment,
seeking release from the cycle of rebirths

YOGA A Hindu discipline that promotes spiritual unity with a supreme being through a system of
postures and rituals, which he practiced

SANGKA A monastic community of his disciples whom he organized and spent the rest of his life after his
preaching and wondering from place to place

1. LIFE IS SUFFERING Human existence is essentially painful from the moment of birth to the moment
of death. Death does not bring relief to a person since life is cyclical, with death leading to further
rebirth

2. SUFFERING IS CAUSED BY IGNORANCE Man’s ignorance to the nature of reality including his craving,
attachment and grasping of worldly pleasures can cause his suffering

3. SUFFERING CAN BE ENDED By overcoming ignorance and attachment to worldly pleasures, man’s
suffering can be ended

4. FULFILLMENT OF THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLF PATH The path to the suppressing or ending suffering is to
observe the Noble Eightfold Path NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATHS 1. Right Views 2. Right Intention 3. Right
Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Livelihood 6. Right Effort 7. Right-Mindedness 8. Right Contemplation

Until the 20th century the term Empiricism was applied to the view held chiefly by the English
philosophers of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.

JOHN LOCKE • English philosopher who was the first to give it systematic expression
FRANCIS BACON • A philosopher, Locke’s compatriot, had anticipated some of its characteristic
conclusions

RATIONALISM • The philosophy opposed to Empiricism Represented By Such Thinkers As: • Rene
Descartes • French philosopher René Descartes; the Dutch philosopher • Baruch Spinoza • Dutch
philosopher • Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz • 17th- and 18th-century German philosophers
An English philosopher and founder of empiricism, a school of philosophy based on the belief that
knowledge comes from everyday experience, scientific observation, and common sense, rather than
from the application of reason alone His “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” on 1690 portrays
each individual as a blank slate The person’s experiences become notations on the slate and make each
individual distinct from other people TABULA RASA The mind at birth, regarded as having no innate
conceptions or blank mental cabinet

The philosophical belief that all knowledge is derived from the experience of the senses

2. In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge that asserts that knowledge arises from evidence
gathered via sense experience.

3. It is one of several competing views that predominate in the study of human knowledge, known as
EPESTIMOLOGY

4. In philosophy, it is a doctrine that affirms that all knowledge is based on experience, and denies the
possibility of spontaneous ideas or a PRIORI thought The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of
knowledge, in particular its foundations, scope, and validity working from something that is already
known or self-evident to arrive at a conclusion

WILLIAM JAMES JOHN DEWEY Called his own philosophy as RADICAL EMPIRICISM Called his
own philosophy as IMMEDIATE EMPIRICISM Radical empiricism is a postulate, a statement of fact and a
conclusion The postulate is that "the only things that shall be debatable among philosophers shall be
things definable in terms drawn from experience" These principles emphasized learning through varied
activities rather than formal curricula and opposed authoritarian methods, which, he believed, offered
contemporary people no realistic preparation for life in a democratic society

GEORGE BERKELEY • Also known as Bishop Berkeley was an Anglo-Irish philosopher whose primary
achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism“ • Subjective Idealism • Latter
title of “immaterialism” by others, a theory contends that individuals can only know sensations and
ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas depend on perceiving minds for their
very existence • This belief later became immortalized in the dictum, "esse est percipi" or "to be is to be
perceived" • He stressed that things only exists either as a result of their being perceived DAVID HUME •
Scottish philosopher considered as one of the greatest skeptics in the history of philosophy • He thought
that one can know nothing outside of experience, and experience—based on one’s subjective
perceptions—never provides true knowledge of reality • He maintained that man’s beliefs are more a
result of accumulated habits, develop in response to accumulated sense experiences