Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security

KEY
PRACTICES
for DRR Implementers
Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security: Key Practices for DRR Implementers

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Authors Tamara van 't Wout, Stephan Baas, Mario Samaja and Javier Sanz Alvarez
Series coordinators Javier Sanz Alvarez and Erin O´Brien
Photographs © FAO/Javier Sanz Alvarez
Design and layout Handmade Communications, [email protected]
Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security

KEY
PRACTICES
for DRR Implementers
This brief is part of the series, A Field Guide for Disaster Risk Reduction in Southern Africa: Key Practices for DRR Implementers,
coordinated by the FAO Subregional Office for Disaster Risk Reduction/Management for Southern Africa. This series has been produced
with contributions from COOPI, FAO, OCHA and UN-Habitat, and comprises the following technical briefs:

◼ Information and Knowledge Management (COOPI)

◼ Mobile Health Technology (COOPI)
◼ Safe Hospitals (COOPI)
◼ Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security (FAO)
◼ Appropriate Seed Varieties for Small-scale Farmers (FAO)
◼ Appropriate Seed and Grain Storage Systems for Small-scale Farmers (FAO)
◼ Farmer Field Schools (FAO)
◼ Irrigation Techniques for Small-scale Farmers (FAO)
◼ Management of Crop Diversity (FAO)
◼ Community-based Early Warning Systems (OCHA and FAO)
◼ Disaster Risk Reduction Architecture (UN-Habitat)

This document covers humanitarian aid activities implemented with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed
herein should not be taken, in any way, to reflect the official opinion of the European Union, and the European Commission is not
responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains.

The European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid department funds relief operations for victims of natural disasters and
conflicts outside the European Union. Aid is channelled impartially, straight to people in need, regardless of their race,
ethnic group, religion, gender, age, nationality or political affiliation.
Foreword by ECHO

T
he southern Africa and Indian Ocean region is extremely ◼ Empowering communities through multi-sectorial and multi-
vulnerable to cyclones, floods, droughts and tropical storms. level approaches with DRR mainstreamed as a central compo-
These recurrent climate-related shocks negatively affect the nent and improved food and nutrition security as an outcome.
highly sensitive livelihoods and economies in the region, and erode
communities’ ability to fully recover, leading to increased fragility This is done in alignment with national and regional strategies and
and vulnerability to subsequent disasters. The nature and pattern of frameworks.
weather-related disasters is shifting, becoming unpredictable, and For DIPECHO, one of the main measures of success is replicability.
increasing in frequency, intensity and magnitude as a result of climate To this end, technical support through guidelines established for
change. Vulnerability in the region is further compounded by prevail- DRR implementers is a welcome output of the DIPECHO interven- 01
ing negative socio-economic factors, such as high HIV rates, extreme tions in the region. ECHO has supported regional partners, namely
poverty, growing insecurity and demographic growth and trends COOPI, FAO, UN-Habitat and UN-OCHA, to enhance the resilience of
(including intra-regional migration and increasing urbanization). vulnerable populations in southern Africa by providing the funding
The European Commission’s Office for Humanitarian Affairs to field-test and establish good practices, and to develop a toolkit
(ECHO) has actively engaged in the region through the Disaster for their replication in southern Africa. It is the aim of the European
Preparedness ECHO (DIPECHO) programme since 2009, supporting Commission Office for Humanitarian Affairs and its partners to fulfil
multi-sectorial disaster risk reduction interventions in food security the two objectives sustainably and efficiently through the practices
and agriculture, infrastructure and adapted architecture, informa- contained in this toolkit to ensure the increased resilience of the most
tion and knowledge management, water, sanitation and hygiene, vulnerable populations in the region.
and health. This programme operates with two objectives, notably:
◼ Emergency preparedness by building local capacities for sustain- Cees Wittebrood
able weather-hazard preparedness and management, including Head of Unit, East, West and Southern Africa
seasonal preparedness plans, training, emergency stocks and Directorate-General for ECHO
rescue equipment, as well as Early Warning Systems. European Commission
02
Foreword by FAO

T
he southern Africa region is vulnerable to a diverse array Together with partners, FAO is undertaking intensive work in
of hazards, largely linked to environmental causes (such as southern Africa to consolidate the resilience of hazard-prone com-
drought, cyclones and floods); human, animal and plant dis- munities; this is leading to an improved knowledge base and to
eases and pests; economic shocks; and in some areas socio-political documentation of good practices. This toolkit purports to dissemi-
unrest and insecurity, among others. The region’s risk profile is nate improved methods and technologies on key aspects of agricul-
evolving, with new factors becoming gradually more prominent, ture, such as appropriate seed varieties, irrigation, storage systems,
including a trend towards increased urbanization, migration and land and water use and Farmer Field Schools, in the hope that they
mobility, among others. Natural hazards will be progressively more may serve different stakeholders to improve their resilience-building 03
influenced by trends in climate change. Disasters in the region are efforts. A multi-sectoral approach and solid partnerships are seen
often composite and recurrent, and have a dramatic impact on liveli- as key to the success of resilience-building work. For this reason,
hoods and on southern African countries’ economy and environ- this toolkit also includes non-agricultural aspects of good resilience
ment, often undermining growth and hard-won development gains. practices, contributed by FAO partners: the UN-OCHA, UN-HABITAT
Increasing the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises con- and COOPI, which certainly strengthen this collection.
stitutes one of the Strategic Objectives of FAO’s Strategic Framework
(Strategic Objective 5, or SO5). FAO specifically aims at building resil-
ience as it relates to agriculture and food and nutrition security, which
are among the sectors most severely affected by natural hazards. The David Phiri Mario Samaja
impact of shocks and disasters can be mitigated and recovery can be Sub-Regional Coordinator Senior Coordinator
greatly facilitated if appropriate agricultural practices are put in place; FAO Sub-regional Office for FAO Sub-regional Office for DRR
improving the capacity of communities, local authorities and other Southern Africa Southern Africa
stakeholders is therefore central to resilience building. Harare Johannesburg
 Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations.......................................................................... 05

1. Introduction.............................................................................................. 06

2. Key Concepts............................................................................................. 08

3. FAO’s DRR for Food and Nutrition Security Framework Programme.................. 10

04
4. FAO’s Framework Programme in Southern Africa........................................... 14

5. Conclusion................................................................................................ 39

6. Bibliography and References for Further Reading................................................ 40

Acronyms and Abbreviations
DRR.......................... disaster risk reduction
FNS.......................... food and nutrition security
GLEWS..................... Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases
GIEWS...................... Global Information and Early Warning System on food and agriculture
HFA.......................... Hyogo Framework for Action
HIV/AIDS................. human immuno-deficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome 05
IPCC......................... Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPM.......................... integrated pest management
OIE........................... World Organization for Animal Health
SADC........................ South African Development Community
SARCOF.................... Southern Africa Regional Climate Outlook Forum
SREX........................ Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation
WHO......................... World Health Organization
 1. Introduction

S
outhern Africa1 is a highly diverse region, from both a geo- as well as food price volatility. Biological factors, such as the spread
graphic and a climatic point of view, spanning the ample de- of animal and plant pests and diseases (brown streak and mosaic
serts in Namibia to the Equatorial rainforests in the Democratic diseases of cassava, or foot-and-mouth disease that affects cattle)
Republic of the Congo (DRC). This diversity is also reflected in the have also impacted the food, nutrition and livelihood security in the
variety of hazards that recurrently affect an important part of the region. The impacts of such disasters include reduction of agricul-
surface and the population. ture production, destruction of productive assets, like agricultural
Hazards in southern Africa are often due to disruptive climatic equipment and facilities, as well as disrupting trade and market
events, particularly severe droughts, floods and/or cyclones. The access. All these factors negatively impacted the farmers’ income
06 1992 drought that affected most of southern Africa, and cyclones and their ability to adequately and safely feed their families.
Eline in 2000 and Favio in 2007, which heavily impacted Mozam-
bique and Madagascar, are among the most destructive events
of the last two decades in this region. Each of these events led to
substantial devastation with regard to lives and livelihoods, and
both also had significant impacts on the region’s economic develop-
ment. Climate change is a major concern in this regard, as extreme
weather events are expected to increase and become more severe.
During the last decades other crises have occurred, including
man-made hazards, such as armed conflicts (i.e. DRC), political
conflicts (i.e. Madagascar) in socio violence/conflicts (i.e. Zimbabwe)

© Mario Samaja
1 For the purpose of this document, the following countries of the southern Africa
sub-region are included Angola, Botswana, Comoros, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
 The people of southern Africa’s rural communities are highly agriculture-dependent communities. It outlines an overall context
dependent on agriculture (including forestry, livestock production for the other documents produced in this series, A Field Guide for
and fisheries) for a living; and for them the impact of disasters Disaster Risk Reduction in Southern Africa: Key Practices for DRR
may lead to a progressive impoverishment. Moreover, underlying Implementers. Moreover, it describes FAO’s Framework Programme
structural and vulnerability factors, including extreme poverty and within this context provides overall information and technical
levels, HIV/AIDS, water scarcity and environmental degradation, recommendations, which can help field practitioners, government
will further increase the impact of disasters throughout the region. officers and non-governmental organizations, involved in the
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations formulation or implementation of DRR projects and programmes
(FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger, supporting in southern Africa. In particular, it may serve as a reference guide
countries to improve sustainable agriculture, livestock, forestry and during the identification, formulation and planning of activities
fishery practices to ensure food and nutrition security for all. FAO’s that aim to build resilient livelihoods in the agriculture, livestock,
Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security Framework fisheries/aquaculture, forestry and natural resource management 07
Programme, aims at building hazard-prone communities’ resilience sectors in hazard-prone areas.
through strengthening agricultural livelihoods, in order to be pre-
pared for possible hazards, reduce their impact, and facilitate an
early recovery. It aims to guide the implementation, scaling up
and acceleration of its disaster risk reduction (DRR) work at local,
national, regional and global levels and consolidate its technical
cross-sectoral expertise on DRR.

Objective and intended application

This brief provides general understanding of what DRR and resilience

is, what it means for the agricultural sectors in the southern African
context, and what may help to build resilient livelihoods to threats
and emergencies and ensure the food and nutrition security of the
 2. Key Concepts

Disaster risk reduction countries, provides a 10 year action-plan for DRR; it has been adopted
by all southern African countries.2 The HFA provides a coordination

P
eople’s livelihoods are impacted by various types of shocks mechanism, and has created regional and national platforms guiding
and crises, which can lead to the damage or destruction of the implementation of DRR activities across sectors.
human lives, crops, animals, fishing boats and gear, infra- DRR interventions aim to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitiga-
structure, etc. The extent of the impact depends on the intensity tion and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, thereby
08 of the hazard, the level of people’s vulnerability and their capacity minimizing vulnerabilities and disaster risks as well as facilitating
to cope with these shocks and stresses. an early recovery after the shock. Within the field of DRR, a further
distinction can be made between ‘structural’ measures (physical
Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability and technical), which refer to engineering techniques that focus on
Capacity hazard-resistance, and those that are ‘non-structural’ (diagnostic,
policy and institutional), such as advocacy, knowledge and practices
According to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster or agreements to reduce risks and impacts. In addition to being
Reduction (UNISDR), disaster risk reduction is: “the concept and effective in terms of saving lives and livelihoods, DRR is also efficient
practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to ana- and cost effective: it is calculated that for every dollar spent on DRR,
lyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through
reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and
2 The five priority areas of the HFA are: (1) Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a
property, wise management of land and the environment, and national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation.
improved preparedness for adverse events.” The concept of DRR (2) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning. (3) Use
knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience
as promoted by UNISDR was initiated to address natural hazards. at all levels. (4) Reduce the underlying risk factors. (5) Strengthen disaster
The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 (HFA), adopted by 168 preparedness for effective response at all levels.
between US$2 and US$4 are saved that would otherwise be spent ◼ stresses the link between underlying risk factors that create
on disaster relief and rehabilitation.3 overall vulnerability, and the acute threats people face through
DRR is a key concept for agriculture since the majority of the their exposure to extreme events;
people vulnerable to natural hazards and disasters are the food ◼ emphasizes the need for stronger synergies between develop-
insecure and the poor who derive their livelihoods from agriculture ment and humanitarian perspectives and actions to promote
and its subsectors. short- and long-term resilience; and
◼ reinforces that, ultimately, resilience must be embedded into
Resilience the institutional, social, economic, environmental dimensions of
sustainable development, in efforts at all levels to fight hunger
Disasters and crises that affect food and nutrition security go and malnutrition.
beyond natural disasters; therefore, FAO promotes a multi-hazard
approach to strengthen the resilience of livelihoods against disasters The promotion of resilience of livelihoods calls for synergies 09
and ensure food and nutrition security. The concept of resilience between technical good practices for disaster risk reduction and
establishes the wider frame, which includes DRR but goes beyond it. climate change adaptation, food chain crises prevention, social
The resilience concept as promoted by FAO in the context of shocks protection, financial risk transfer and tenure of natural resources
and crises applies multi-sectoral and multi-hazard perspectives; the for the most vulnerable.
shocks and crises addressed in integrated ways in FAOs approach
include natural disasters, food chain emergencies/transboundary

F
threats; socio-economic crises; violent conflicts; and protracted AO’s definition of resilience is
crises.
“the ability to prevent disasters and crises as well as
The FAO resilience concept applied to the context of shocks
to anticipate, absorb, accommodate or recover from
and crises:
them in a timely, efficient and sustainable manner. This
includes protecting, restoring and improving livelihoods
systems in the face of threats that impact agriculture,
nutrition, food security and food safety.”
3 DFID, 2006
 3. FAO’s DRR for Food and Nutrition Security
Framework Programme

I
n its commitment to support livelihood protection and to
strengthen capacities to absorb the impact of and recover
from disasters through risk reduction, FAO has developed a
Disaster Risk Reduction for Food and Nutrition Security Framework
Programme. It aims to guide the implementation, scaling up and
acceleration of FAO’s DRR work at local, national, regional and
10 global levels and consolidate its technical cross-sectorial expertise
on DRR in the wider context of resilience building.
“The goal of the FAO’s DRR for Food and Nutrition Security
Framework Programme is to enhance the resilience of livelihoods
against threats and emergencies to ensure the FNS of vulnerable
farmers, fishers, herders, foresters and other at risk groups.”
(FAO, 2013: viii)
The Framework Programme consists of four pillars, which
integrate all agricultural sectors and promote cross-sectoral col-
laboration. These four pillars are closely linked to the priority areas
of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 (HFA).
Pillar 1 – ‘Enable the environment’: good governance and local level. DRR interventions should be integrated into poverty
institutional strengthening reduction and development programming and policies, and close
coordination amongst institutions at different levels are key to avoid
The objective of pillar 1: is “to support the enabling environment overlaps and promote synergies and complementarities, including
of FAO’s member states, with appropriate legislation, policies and between humanitarian and development actors to ensure sustain-
institutional frameworks for DRR for FNS in agriculture, livestock, ability of actions.
fisheries/aquaculture, forestry and natural resource management
and to strengthen the institutional capacities to implement these Pillar 2 – ‘Watch to safe guard’: information and early
initiatives.” (FAO, 2013: iv) warning systems

National DRR laws, policies and institutional mechanisms are re- The objective of pillar 2 is to “strengthen and harmonize food
quired to support the implementation of appropriate actions at and nutrition security information and early warning systems to 11
better monitor the multiple threats and inform decision-making
in preparedness, response, policy, advocacy and programming.”
(FAO, 2013: 32)

Monitoring emerging and existing threats, such as natural hazards,

transboundary plant and animal pests and diseases, food safety
hazards and economic crises (such as price volatility) is crucial to
build resilient livelihoods. Improved monitoring, data collection and
analysis will help small-scale farmers and other relevant stakeholders
to take rapid decisions after an early warning. Capacity building is
important to assure that the data is accurately collected and reliable,
for early warning and forecasting, but also to monitor and analyze
the various hazards that impact livelihoods.
 Pillar 3 – ‘Apply prevention and mitigation’: agricultural Appropriate agricultural prevention and mitigation measures include
practices and technologies that prevent and reduce the a range of technologies, practices and approaches that help to
adverse impact of hazards increase the resilience of rural communities and to prevent and
mitigate the impact of future disasters. In this regard, it is important
The objective of pillar 3: is “to reduce the underlying risks to food to support capacity development, strategic partnerships and policy
and nutrition security through the application of technologies, development, taking into account that technologies and practices
good practices and approaches in farming, fisheries/aquaculture, for DRR are always location and context-specific, and are dependent
forestry and natural resource management for prevention, mitiga- on local factors.
tion and livelihood diversification.” (FAO, 2013: 50)

12
Pillar 4 – ‘Prepare to respond’: improve preparedness for
disaster response and recovery

The objective of pillar 4 is to “strengthen capacities at all levels

– in preparedness – to improve response to, and recovery from,
future threats to food and nutrition security, and to reduce their
potential negative impacts on livelihoods.” (FAO, 2013: 60)

When people and communities are well-prepared to respond to

and recover from emerging threats or crises, the adverse impact
on their lives and livelihoods can be reduced. At the community
level, preparedness can be improved through the implementation of 13
appropriate technologies and practices, as well as well-functioning
early warning systems. Timely and effective disaster response re-
quires leadership, coordination and awareness-raising at all levels,
among both humanitarian and development actors. It also requires
operational capacities and technical know-how on DRR and man-
agement for agriculture and food and nutrition security.
Besides the four pillars, the Framework Programme includes four
cross-cutting issues: Capacity Building, Knowledge Management
and Communication, Strategic Partnerships and Gender Equity.
 #1 Enable the
environment:
Institutional
strengthening and good
governance for DRR in
agricultural sectors
Prepare to respond: Watch to safeguard:
#2 Preparedness for #3 Information and early
effective response and warning systems on
FOUR INTEGRATED food and nutrition
recovery in agriculture,
THEMATIC PILLARS security and trans-
14 livestock, fisheries and
forestry boundary threats
Apply prevention and
#4 mitigation measures:
Prevention, mitigation and
building resiliance with
technologies, approaches
and practices across all
agricultural sectors

capacity development; knowledge management and communication;

Cross-cutting priorities
strategic partnerships; gender equity.

Figure 1: DRR for FNS Framework Programme

Source: FAO, 2013a
4. FAO’s Framework Programme in Southern Africa
Main disasters and threats in southern Africa As a result of climate change the region is likely to experience
more severe weather patterns, including more drought episodes,

V
arious disasters impact the lives and livelihoods of small-scale which will have a great impact on rural communities that are largely
farmers, herders, fishers and foresters throughout southern dependent on rain-fed agriculture. The following section outines
Africa: the hazards to which southern Africa is exposed.
Natural disasters, such as droughts, floods and cyclones are the
main natural disasters in southern Africa, and have an enormous
potential to inflict severe damage to agriculture production, destroy 15
production assets like equipment or infrastructures, disrupt market
access and highly affect food and nutrition security, food safety
and farmers´ income. In the last 20 years, these weather-related
events have resulted in substantial numbers of affected people and
economic losses. The 1992 drought, for example, affected over 86
million people throughout 10 countries. Around 5 million people
were affected by cyclones Eline and Hudah in 2000 in Madagascar
and Mozambique. Four years later cyclone Favio and extensive
flooding severely affected 200 000 people and agricultural produc-
tion in Madagascar where in some locations 80 percent of crops
were lost.4

4 http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2007/1000518/index.html; http://www.
fao.org/docrep/004/x7009e/pays/soaf0004.htm
 Food chain emergencies of transboundary threats, such and Rift Valley fever or Peste des Petits Ruminants, which affect
as transboundary plant, animal, aquatic and zoonotic pests and small ruminants.
diseases. Transboundary plant pests and animal diseases can easily Food chain emergencies resulting from transboundary threats
spread between countries and reach epidemic proportions; where reduce the productivity of crops and animals and may have severe
control/management, including exclusion, are needed, addressing consequences for food safety and public health in the case of food
these threats requires cooperation between several countries. Trans- contamination or zoonosis (animal diseases that can also affect
boundary plant pests and diseases include locusts or armyworms humans, such as Brucellosis or Rift Valley fever). Food-borne ill-
and cassava brown streak and mosaic diseases. Transboundary nesses are also a cause of malnutrition, due to the consumption
animal diseases include foot-and-mouth disease that affects cattle of unsafe food.

16
 Environmental degradation: The degradation of land, natural
water catchments, forests and coastal marine and inland aquatic
systems, undermine nature’s defense capacity against natural haz-
ards, aggravating the impact of disasters and further contributing
to ecosystem degradation, erosion, desertification and biodiversity
loss. Environmental degradation may negatively affect agricultural
productivity, food security, food safety and civil protection, as
people often settle in areas highly exposed to flood risk or land
and water degradation.

17
 Socio-economic crises, such as volatility in agricultural com- Other main social threats that have a macroeconomic impact on
modity markets and soaring food prices. On several occasions over some countries in southern Africa are the high levels of chronic
the past decade, food prices rapidly increased as a result of poor malnutrition and HIV/AIDS infection.
harvests and other factors such as food commodity speculation and Protracted crises are prolonged emergencies that are charac-
the expansion of bio-fuel crops. The global food crisis of 2007–2008 terized by high levels of food insecurity. Throughout the region,
had a significant impact on the prices of the main staple cereals, armed, political and social conflicts and violence have occurred
which further aggravated malnutrition in the region and impov- (political crisis in Madagascar and Zimbabwe) or are still active (e.g.
erished vulnerable communities. In 2010, the soaring food prices the Kivu conflict in the DRC).
triggered riots in food importing countries, such as in Mozambique.

18
Linking FAO's Framework Programme to southern Africa's threats

Pillar 1 – Enable the environment: good

governance and institutional strengthening
At regional level, southern Africa has made progress over the last
years in terms of developing regional structures and establishing
DRR policies and plans. For instance, the Southern Africa DRR
Plan 2012–2014 was developed to allow comprehensive disaster
programming, and the Southern African Development Commu-
nity (SADC) has increased its involvement in DRR to ensure the
coordination of regional preparedness and response programmes 19
for transboundary hazards and disasters, by setting up a Regional
Platform for DRR as well as provide food security, meteorologi-
cal information and alerts on political instabilities and conflicts.
Challenges remain including limited funding and coordination of
regional institutional frameworks for DRR.5
At national level, efforts in DRR are uneven, although institu-
tional structures, such as national disaster management authorities
and DRR national platforms are established in most of the southern
African countries.6 National platforms are country-owned fora

5 http://www.sadc.int/themes/disaster-risk-management/
6 According to UNISDR, the following countries have officially declared national
platforms for DRR: Botswana, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho,
Madagascar, Malawi, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Zambia. http://www.
preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/national/list/?pid:23&pih:2
 where DRR stakeholders (public and private, national and inter- However, efforts need to be enhanced to link these existing strate-
national) meet to exchange information, knowledge, experience, gies with DRR plans and strategies.
analyses and coordinate DRR activities. The Southern African Regional Interagency Standing Committee
Most of the countries also have legal frameworks, policies and (RIASCO) identified the following main challenges to humanitarian
national plans and strategies for DRR, although efforts should be and DRR interventions in the region:
done to assure the full implementation of these policies. National ◼ Uneven human resource capacities in national disaster manage-
strategies and plans have also been developed and established in ment authorities;
important sectors that are concerned by DRR, such as food security, ◼ High dependence on external funding; and
nutrition, social safety-net programmes, poverty reduction, sustain- ◼ Limited institutional and operational capacity for urban risk
able natural resource management and sustainable development. management in rapidly expanding cities, which among others
constraints risk management planning.7
20
Recommendations

The following section outlines recommendations to build capacity

in countries at various levels related to three areas, namely legal and
policy frameworks on DRR, institutional structures and coordination
and institutional capacity development of risk reduction in and
across agriculture-related sectors.

Legal and policy frameworks on DRR

Both legislation and policies for DRR are essential, as they provide
the formal basis for implementing as well as enforcing DRR strate-
gies, plans and activities by any institutions.

7 Holloway et al., 2013

 Agriculture and food and nutrition security sectors (agricul- ◼ Promote resource mobilization and investment programming
ture, livestock, fisheries and aquaculture, forestry, natural resource for DRR. Preventive DRR interventions are often under-funded,
management, food safety and consumer protection) should be and there is a strong need to advocate the inclusion of DRR
included in the national DRR laws, policies and strategies, likewise within the national government budgets and international fund-
DRR considerations should be taken into account in agricultural ing agendas to ensure proper funding; this advocacy should be
and rural policies. supported by evidence that funds invested in preventive DRR
will reduce the needs of a response after a disaster.
Institutional structures and coordination ◼ Ensure that institutional structures own and support DRR’s
DRR institutions and structures are needed to support and imple- implementation. National institutions should lead the imple-
ment DRR laws, regulations and activities. The involvement of all mentation of DRR.
relevant stakeholders, as well as adequate cooperation and coordi-
nation among agencies at different levels, are needed to effectively 21
implement all efforts to reduce the impact of disaster to food and
agricultural sectors. Some recommendations are:
◼ Ensure relevant representation of line ministries in the
national and local DRR structures. It is very important that
agriculture-related line ministries, e.g. agriculture, livestock,
fisheries/aquaculture, forestry and natural resource manage-
ment, are involved in national and local DRR structures, due
the substantial impact of disasters on the food and nutrition
security of agriculture-dependent communities.
◼ Facilitate strategic coordination and partnerships among
humanitarian and development actors. Strategic coordina-
tion and partnerships help to ensure effective DRR and reduce
any potential overlap in the work of both humanitarian and
development actors.
 ◼ P r o m o t e p a r t n e r s h i p s a m o n g c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d ◼ Strengthen traditional institutions and knowledge, and
organizations, universities/research centers and extension promote the exchange of knowledge, information and
services for DRR. Partnerships and involvement of key stake- experience between communities. To build upon traditional
holders are important for the identification, selection, testing knowledge of rural communities, promote the exchange of
and validation of agriculture good practice options for DRR, information, knowledge and experiences, will help communi-
which are location and context-specific. ties to improve DRR strategies. Fostering partnerships between
government and communities helps to strengthen institutional
collaboration to ensure that DRR is effectively implemented and
supported at the local level.

Institutional capacity development for risk reduction within

22 and across agriculture-related sectors
Institutions require adequate human resources, with the technical
capacities to implement DRR activities. Capacity building is often
required to improve the implementation of DRR actions. To achieve
this, some recommendations are:
◼ Strengthen the capacity of line ministries to deliver national
legislation, policies and strategies on DRR through the
provision of technical advice, human resources and expertise,
training, practical tools and services.
◼ Support decentralized DRR actions and strengthen the
capacities at sub-national level through involvement of local
authorities, extension services and community-based organiza-
tions to deliver DRR activities and interventions.
◼ Promote and support community-based DRR approaches and
local planning. Communities are first responders during an
 emergency and, therefore, need to be fully involved in design-
ing, planning, implementing and monitoring DRR actions for
these actions to be effective.
◼ P romote investment in knowledge management and
dissemination of gender-sensitive DRR at the global,
regional, national and sub-national levels. DRR interven-
tions should include gender sensitive approaches that take into
account women’s and men’s specific vulnerabilities, needs and
capacities.
◼ P romote a nd suppor t su s t a i na ble nat u ral resou rce
management practices, such as wetland management, sustain-
able fisheries, land and soil management, efficient energy use, 23
and natural resources tenure rights security.
◼ Promote and support sustainable land use planning to reduce
risks, including urban/territorial development. Inappropriate
land use planning can exacerbate risks; therefore, sustainable
land use planning needs to be promoted.

The case study below provides an overview of institutional frame-

works and structures in South Africa. It outlines the progress that
has been made to promote an enabling environment, specifically
with the inclusion of DRR into its agricultural plan and policies,
although challenges and constraints remain.
 Box 1: Legislative frameworks and institutional structures for disaster risk
management in South Africa

S
outh Africa, prone to natural hazards including droughts, floods, cyclones and fires, has been at the forefront of
establishing disaster risk management legislation and institutional structures at all levels. In 2002, it established the
Disaster Management Act (DMA) along with the 2005 National Disaster Management Framework, which provides the legal
framework that promotes prevention, mitigation and preparedness for disaster response and recovery as well as outlines the
institutional structure for disaster risk management at national, provincial and municipal levels.
At the core of this institutional structure is the National Disaster Management Center (NDMC), which is the main body that
develops, coordinates, implements and monitors legislation, policies and cross-sectorial activities at all levels. Disaster man-
agement centers also exist in each province and municipality and their exact roles and responsibilities regarding planning,
implementation, monitoring, communication and coordination of activities with other key actors are described in the DMA.
South Africa included risk management activities into its 1998 agricultural policy, such as the promotion of technologies
24 and practices to reduce risk and the collection of climate trends and market information. It started to systematically
integrate disaster risk management as a strategic goal in its agricultural plans from 2008 onwards;* similarly agricultural
sectors featured strongly in the 2005 drought plan. This mainstreaming is highly important as disasters severely affect
small-scale farmers whose livelihoods are largely dependent upon agriculture.
Despite the establishment of legislation, the advancement compared to other countries in the region of the inclusion of
DRR into agricultural sectorial plans and policies as well as the establishment of institutions at all levels, constraints exist
in the effective functioning of the system. Limited financial resources, which in turn restrict the implementation capacity
of institutions, in particular at the local level as well as the lack of communication and coordination between the disaster
management centers at different levels, are among the challenges. However, DRR is fully driven and owned by the South
African government, which should be applauded and further stimulated, because having these legislative frameworks and
institutional structures in place is a prerequisite for implementing proactive measures that help to prevent and mitigate
the impact of disasters.
Source: Van Niekerk and Visser, 2010; SALGA, 2011

* See South Africa’s Strategic Plan for the Department of Agriculture, 2008/09 – 2010/11; the Sectorial Disaster Risk Management Plan, 2012; and the Strategic Plan
for the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2012/3 – 2016/7.
Pillar 2 – Watch to safe guard: information and
early warning systems
There have been improvements in the collection of information on
disasters and emergencies at national and regional level, although
the efforts are uneven throughout the region: only Mozambique,
Malawi and Madagascar systematically collect information.8
There remain many challenges at regional and country level
regarding the monitoring of natural hazards, climate conditions,
economic crises and political conflicts and their effects on food and
nutrition security. These limitations refer to the scope, data collec-
tion methodologies and user applications, institutional structures, 25
capacity, coordination and communication.
Regional and national food security information systems mainly
focus on natural events affecting food security and less on the
impacts of long-term trends like climate change and economic crises
and their effects on food and nutrition security. Besides limitations
in terms of scope, additional challenges of these systems include
inaccuracy of food security data caused by the use of official and
unofficial data sources; the lack of consensus between countries on
the use of indicators and the inconsistent measurement of different
food security dimensions due to use of different methodologies
by countries.

8 UNECA, 2011; Holloway et al., 2013

 In terms of the use of information, it seems that there is a
gap between the information collected and the data users’ needs.
Moreover, information is not timely provided in order to facilitate
decision-making, it is poorly disseminated and does not reach vul-
nerable communities due to the lack of communication strategies.
In general, it is observed that institutions have limited capacity
at the national and decentralized levels to collect, analyze, report
and communicate food security and hazard information. In many
countries in the region it is unclear which institutions are responsible
for food security issues.
The 2013 Southern African Regional Interagency Standing Com-
26 mittee (RIASCO) study identified challenges related information and
early warning systems including:
◼ The lack of comprehensive and constantly updated risk assess-
ment and analysis, which limits planning and effective DRR
actions to address priority needs;
◼ Weak information and knowledge management systems,
especially in high risk areas; and
◼ Uneven and often limited bilateral communication between
neighbouring countries on transboundary threats, including
cholera outbreaks and floods.9

9 Holloway et al., 2013 and SADC, http://www.sadc.int/themes/

disaster-risk-management/
Global initiatives on early warning systems (EWS) can be useful ◼ The Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) consists
tools to provide standard and periodic information to assess and of a set of standardized tools and procedures, which aim to
monitor threats and provide timely alerts. Some of these global establish the severity and magnitude of food insecurity situa-
early warning systems, in which FAO participates, are active in tions within and among countries and over time. Accurate and
southern Africa, and have been very useful for countries to report timely food security information and monitoring may help to
on threats based on internationally recognized methodologies and reduce, predict and prepare for food insecurity situations as
indicators that can be compared amongst countries in the region, well as help decision-makers to take informed actions. The IPC
as well as improve the collection and verification of information implementation is undertaken in two stages: so far IPC stage 1
and facilitate the decision making process at national and regional awareness raising and consultations have been held in Angola,
levels. Some of these global EWS include: Botswana, Madagascar, Namibia and Zambia and in-country
◼ The Global Early Warning System for Major Animal Diseases training and analysis workshops (stage 2) have been realized,
(GLEWS), a joint collaboration between FAO, World Organiza- in addition to stage 1, in Madagsacar, Malawi, Mozambique, 27
tion for Animal Health (OIE) and the World Health Organization South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Lesotho.
(WHO), disseminates coordinated alerts on transboundary
animal diseases. GLEWS has been a very useful tool to moni-
tor the spread of animal diseases and help governments take
emergency measures to control outbreaks, e.g. foot-and-mouth
disease, Rift Valley fever or Peste de Petits Ruminants.
◼ The Global Information and Early Warning System on food and
agriculture (GIEWS) is another useful tool, which has signifi-
cantly helped to mitigate the impact of plant or insect plagues,
as well as monitor macro-economic trends on cereal flows.
GIEWS’ contributions to monitoring the soaring food price cri-
sis, or the outbreaks of locust or armyworm in Southern Africa,
have been very helpful to governments in taking decisions.
 Important efforts have also been dedicated to the implementation and appropriate decisions, which can potentially help them to
of community-based EWS, such as the monitoring of river levels prevent and/or mitigate a hazard from turning into a disaster.
with gauges or the transmission of information through mobile
phones (see Community-based Early Warning Systems in the Improved monitoring of traditional and emerging threats
present series). ◼ Statistical baselines; multi-hazard risk mapping and analysis
of agriculture-related livelihoods; vulnerability and risk
Recommendations assessment and analysis. Statistical baselines are essential to
monitor the level of food and nutrition insecurity, both acute
Accurate and timely information and early warning messages can and chronic, based on accurate and reliable data. Multi-hazard
support hazard-prone and vulnerable communities to take informed risk analysis and mapping are also important to understand
which areas are vulnerable to specific types of hazards and risks,
28 including gender disaggregated data and analysis, to evaluate
and monitor people’s coping capacity to design future interven-
tions and inform policy.
◼ Weather monitoring and seasonal forecasting (rainfall,
vegetation index, yield forecast, etc.). Timely and accurate
meteorological data can mitigate the impact of disasters, allow-
ing farmers to take decisions in terms of early or late planting,
type of crops or varieties to cultivate, among others. Capacity
building is needed to facilitate data collection, monitoring
and analysis, as well as to disseminate this information for
decision-making.
◼ Monitoring of transboundary animal diseases, plant pests
and diseases, and threats to food safety. Animal diseases
and plant pests and diseases can have a devastating effect on
the livelihood of small-scale farmers and herders. Prevention
 measures should be mainstreamed in all the productive activities coping capacity to recover from a shock through the use of
for the most common diseases and pests, but when an outbreak savings, sale of assets or coping mechanisms (providing labour
occurs, timely information is fundamental for decision-making to work on other people´s land, consumption of less preferred
both at institutional level (quarantine, restrictions on move- food, reduction of number of meals). Under extreme stress,
ment of livestock, animal and vegetal products) as well as at these coping mechanisms can lead to social and environmental
famers’/herders´ level (protection measures on-farm, avoidance problems (poaching, over-exploitation of natural resources,
of buying and moving animals, early harvest, harvest of green migration). Simulating and modelling the impact of shocks on
products). the household´s food and nutrition security helps to assess on
◼ Food price monitoring. Monitoring and dissemination of food the foreseeable extent of the shock and to design appropriate
prices and trends is very important for small farmers to take interventions and facilitate decision-making.
appropriate decisions on the sale or storage of their harvest.
The prices of main commodities (usually cereals and cassava for Harmonized monitoring, analysis and communication of the 29
southern Africa) may double between the harvest period (when multiple threats to FNS
there is a surplus in the market) and the lean period (when Harmonized monitoring and analysis is desirable and necessary in
farmers have often depleted their stocks and are obliged to order to compare data among different countries. Effective com-
buy food). In southern Africa the price of main commodities is munication through various means is essential, as different disasters
influenced by the international prices, as well as the speculation affect various sectors, for example outbreaks of cholera occur after
on agricultural products made by middlemen or intermediaries floods or cyclones due to contamination of food and water.
at different levels; however, governments can mobilize national ◼ Integrated monitoring and early warning, across: sub-
grain reserves and restrict the exports of main commodities sectors, different levels and multiple threats. At present
to counteract or minimize the soaring of food prices. The monitoring and early warning primarily focus on agriculture
monitoring of food prices is closely linked to the monitoring of production, but since disasters and new threats like rising food
animal and vegetable production, and the impact of hazards prices also affect agricultural sub-sectors a comprehensive
or weather conditions on the expected harvest. multi-hazard analysis and monitoring are needed to enable
◼ Simulation and modelling the impact of shocks on household appropriate action for food and nutrition security.
food and nutrition security. Each household has a different
 ◼ Improved communication products to help inform actions.
Improved communication products, which promote multi-
hazard risk analyses, help to support the monitoring of location-
specific risks. Through the development of targeted policy
briefs, early warning updates and alerts, targeted users and
decision-makers can be informed of the multiple threats that
affect food and nutrition security in their area, country, region
or the world.

In 2013, Mozambique experienced devastating floods, which dis-

placed and affected many people. The case study below describes
30 the issuing of alerts by government to reduce the impact of the
disaster by improving preparedness for response.

© Erin O'Brien
Box 2: The issuing of alerts to improve preparedness for response to the 2013 floods
in Mozambique

M
ozambique experienced extensive flooding in early January 2013, which killed over 110 people, temporarily displaced
over 185 000 and destroyed and damaged crops and infrastructure including houses, roads and bridges. The disaster
had extensive impacts, even though this country is frequently affected by natural hazards.
By mid-January, the authorities issued an orange alert due to heavy rainfall, which resulted in nine deaths and affected
over 18 000 people, to increase monitoring and strengthen preparedness; the following week an institutional red alert was
issued and response actions were initiated, which were coordinated and led by the National Disaster Management Institute
(INGC). The government mobilized approximately US$10 million through the Contingency Plan Funds for response activities,
however, it was anticipated that this would not be sufficient and requested at the end of January US$30.6 million from the 31
international community to support 150 000 people in the southern province of Gaza for a period of six months.
By early March, the number of people affected increased to over 475 000, with over 1 300 reported cholera cases. UN
organizations, national and international non-government organizations provided relief and recovery assistance. By the
end of April almost all humanitarian relief needs were financially covered, but only very limited funds were received and
available to support early recovery activities, which are crucial to help these people recover and rebuild their lives and
livelihoods.
This case study has shown that the government of Mozambique is aiming to increase the issuing of timely alerts so
that people can improve their preparedness and to make funds available through established contingency plans and
mechanisms to initiate response activities. As a result of a good early warning system and the activation of contingency
and response plans, the impact of these floods, even if devastating for material goods, was relatively small in terms of the
number of people who died.
Sources: OCHA, 2013; United Nations Resident Coordinator’s Office, 2013
 Pillar 3 – Apply prevention and mitigation:
agriculture practices and technologies for
disaster prevention and mitigation

One of the strategies to build the resilience of farming communities

is the promotion of improved agricultural practices and technologies
to reduce risks to disasters as well as to adapt to climate change.
After some of the catastrophic natural hazards in southern
Africa – floods in Mozambique, cyclones in Madagascar – signifi-
cant efforts have been dedicated to adapting the agricultural and
32 food and nutrition security sectors and increasing the resilience of
small-scale farmers. As a result, extensive knowledge has been ac-
cumulated, and fruitful cooperation with governments has allowed
the testing and dissemination of good DRR practices at field level.
FAO has contributed to this process, working closely with agricul-
tural line agencies as well as universities, research institutes, NGOs,
extension workers and farmers to identify, select, test and validate
these agricultural good practices and technologies. Although these
are locally specific, some general concepts and recommendations
can be advanced, such as the use of drought-resistant, flood-tolerant
or short-cycle crop varieties, cyclone or flood-resistant agricultural
infrastructures, integrated farming systems, irrigation techniques,
soil protection, water use or livelihood diversification.
Specific challenges related to the implementation of good
practices and technologies for DRR in agriculture in the southern
Africa region include those related to limited adequate information the impact of natural hazards. Some crops are more resistant
and knowledge of practices and technologies that mitigate the to dry spells or drought (cassava, millet, sorghum), while others
impact of disasters; limited institutional capacity and coordination are more resistant to floods (rice) or other hazards. Regard-
among different key stakeholders; and limited financial resources. ing the selection of appropriate varieties, local varieties and
ecotypes are better adapted to local conditions, and will be
Recommendations naturally more resistant to the common hazards in a certain
area. Extensive research has been undertaken on improved
The following section outlines some of the most important seed varieties, short cycle varieties, drought resistant varieties,
agriculture-related DRR practices and technologies, which can be disease and pest resistant varieties, and flood or saline tolerant
considered by DRR field practitioners in the formulation of DRR varieties, which have been released by research institutions
programmes: and private seed companies. There are important differences
in the availability of these improved varieties depending on the 33
Agriculture country and its legislation and regulations. In general, improved
◼ Adjustment of cropping calendars involves analyzing the varieties of the main cultivated cereals (maize and rice) exist,
impact of various hazards during crop cultivation periods and but sorghum and millet are more difficult to find, as are pulses
adapting the timing of cultivation to prevent and reduce losses. (for more information see the Appropriate Seed Varieties for
In southern Africa, the peak risk period for cyclones and floods Small-scale Farmers and Management of Crop Diversity briefs
is between early January and early March, and drought and dry in the present series).
spell periods may happen throughout the year. Early planting
may reduce the impact of hazards, as crops will be sufficiently
developed to better cope with stressed conditions. Late plant-
ing, just after the period of risk, may give good results under
irrigation, preservation of residual moisture and use of short
cycle varieties.
◼ Appropriate crop and variety selection. The selection of a
crop (or a mix of crops within a farming activity) can reduce
 ◼ Conservation agriculture. Some of the principals of conserva- Pests and diseases are often specific for a certain crop or animal
tion agriculture, based on reduced soil disturbance (minimum species (e.g. mosaic disease affects cassava, African swine fever
tilling), soil protection (crop rotation or intercropping) and only affects pigs), although sometimes they can affect different
preservation of residual moisture (use of organic mulch, such species (e.g. Brucellosis or Peste de Petits Ruminants can affect
as straw and leaves to cover the soil), can have a significant several species of animals, some storage pests affect different
positive effect in case of natural hazards. A better soil structure cereals). Some crops or animals are more resistant to certain dis-
and sufficient soil moisture will reduce the impact of droughts ruptive events, for example cassava is less affected by drought,
and dry spells, soil erosion and risk of downstream flooding will rice is less affected by flooding and goats are more resistant
also be reduced; and pest and disease outbreaks will be less to drought. Crop and livestock diversification will reduce the
harmful when crop rotation is implemented. risk of total failure in the case of a disruptive event. This is
◼ Crop and livestock diversification. Different crops or animal intimately linked to livelihoods diversification, which may also
34 species have different susceptibilities to be affected by hazards. include other, non-farming activities.
◼ Climate proofing agricultural infrastructures. In hazard prone losses throughout the value chain (e.g. crop production, har-
areas, the planning and construction of agricultural infrastruc- vest, drying, processing and storage).
tures (e.g. warehouses, seed and grain storages, animal shelters, ◼ Strengthening seed systems and seed saving mechanisms.
genebanks, irrigation schemes, pumping stations, markets, Improving farmers’ access to quality seeds is fundamental to
slaughterhouses) need to take into account good construction maintain a balanced on-farm agricultural production, which also
practices in order to reduce the risk of severe damage done includes the production of local crops and varieties. Strengthen-
by climate-related hazards, such as cyclones, heavy rainfall or ing seed systems, both informal (for local seed) and formal (for
floods. Some of the main considerations are structural (e.g. commercial seed), through the implementation of appropriate
elevated platforms, cyclone-proof architecture, reinforced ir- activities of seed multiplication at community level, seed sav-
rigation channels and wells), but associated also risks need to ing systems such as seed pass-on programmes, proper storage
be taken into account during the identification of the location of seeds and the conservation of genetic resources in local
for the installation or construction of the facilities (for more genebanks, will be crucial to reduce the impact of hazards. An 35
information see the Appropriate Seed and Grain Storage increased availability to different and better seeds and planting
Systems for Small-scale Farmers brief in the present series). materials will facilitate a more balanced agricultural production,
◼ Integrated pest management (IPM), aims to reduce the impact as well as providing more means for an early recovery after a
of pests throughout the agricultural cycle (from pre-harvest shock.
to storage of processed agricultural products). IPM means the ◼ Land use and soil management. The implementation of pre-
careful consideration of all available pest control techniques and ventive measures to protect agricultural land, which can be
subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage highly exposed to hazards, such as steep slopes exposed to
the development of pest populations and keep pesticides and erosion or lowlands subject to flooding, will reduce the impact
other interventions to levels that are economically justified and of these hazards. Some traditional activities, include terracing
reduce or minimize risks to human health and the environment. to reduce soil erosion on steep slopes, or the maintenance of
IPM emphasizes the growth of a healthy crop with the least pos- irrigation and drainage channels in flood-prone areas, can be
sible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest highly effective.
control mechanisms. The implementation of appropriate IPM
measures will significantly reduce pre-harvest and post-harvest
 Livestock: ◼ Fodder conservation provides a supply of fodder for on-farm
◼ Agro-silvopastoral systems combine the growing of crops, use when there is a shortage of feed. The use of dry or wet
trees and the grazing of animals on the same land. These sys- fodder for animal consumption is very important to increase the
tems have several benefits including the provision of feed for resilience of small-scale herders under stress situations, mainly
livestock, the increase in soil fertility due to increase of organic droughts, but also floods. Fodder conservation is useful when
matter from the use of animal manure and trees reduce the free ranging in commonly used pastures is restricted due to
impact of natural hazards, like high winds and rainfall. It also animal disease outbreaks.
helps to diversify farmers’ livelihoods through the cultivation of ◼ Grazing and pasture resource management aims to increase
crops and raising of animals, reduce the risk of total production the nutritious quality of pastures through the improvement of
failure and may generate additional income from the sale of the species that form the pasture, and to improve the manage-
trees, crops and animals. ment of pastures in order to increase the carrying capacity
36 (with improvements, such as soil amendments of fertilizers)
 and reduce the impact of hazards. Some of the good practices
in pasture management include the limitation of the grazing
animals depending on the capacity of the pasture throughout
the year or the reserve of certain pastures to the dry periods
and as an eventual insurance in case of major shocks.
◼ Vaccination of animals helps to control and prevent the out-
break and spread of animal diseases. Animal vaccinations need
to be conducted strictly in accordance with national policies
and regulations, and should be led by the national veterinary
authorities and strategies on animal health, as the wrong use of
vaccines may lead to serious consequences, like the introduction
of foreign virus strains into a region. 37
 Water:
◼ Use of residual moisture after floods. Depending on the nature
of the soil, appropriate soil moisture conservation activities can
be implemented to restart agronomic activities after floods using
the residual moisture in the ground as the main water to be used
by the replanted crop. This can be further promoted through
the use of short cycle varieties, mulching, and supplementary
irrigation or other practices that improve the soil structure or
reduce water evaporation.
◼ Agronomic and irrigation techniques. The use of water can be
maximized by the use of good agronomic techniques, such as
38 planting on furrows or ridges, planting pits or box ridges, as well
as irrigation techniques, such as the use of shallow wells, treadle
pumps, river diversions, irrigation channels or drip irrigation
installations (for more information see the Irrigation Techniques
for Small-scale Farmers brief in the present series).
◼ Rainwater harvesting and storage techniques reduce the
impact of dry spells and drought through the capturing and
utilization of rainwater. An example of a rainwater harvesting
practice is rooftop rainwater collection, often used for house-
hold consumption and for the cultivation of vegetables at the
homestead.
© Erin O'Brien
Land: Forestry:
◼ Land use and territorial planning involves appropriate use ◼ Afforestation/reforestation focuses on the (re)establishment
and planning of land, such as restrictions for the cultivation of of a forest cover, which helps to reduce the impact of natural
crops or grazing of animals on fragile lands that are prone to hazards, such as landslides and soil erosion, mitigate global
degradation, such as landslides and land sinking. An important warming through the uptake of carbon by the trees and contrib-
issue to take into account in southern Africa is land tenure rights, ute to the improvement of biodiversity. A practice with particular
which protect and ensure people’s access to, use of and control interest for DRR is the afforestation of river banks to prevent
over land. Community participation in territorial planning is a erosion caused by flash floods.
key aspect to reduce the losses of natural hazards, mainly due ◼ Agro-forestry combines trees and shrubs with crops and/or
to floods and dry spells. livestock. The impacts of extreme weather events, like cyclones

39
 and heavy rains can be reduced through the use of trees and ◼ Integrated fire management is a holistic approach, where
shrubs as shelterbelts, windbreaks and live fences. An additional prevention, preparedness, suppression and restoration meas-
benefit is that agro-forestry also stabilizes soils, prevents ero- ures are undertaken to manage fire on all vegetation types.
sion and slows land degradation. This practice can generate Prescribed burning is a DRR technique through which controlled
additional income and diversify production, thus reducing the burning is undertaken during the cooler months to reduce fuel
risk of total production losses. buildup and thereby reducing the risks of fires.
◼ Improved cook stoves and alternatives to wood energy sup-
port the preservation of biodiversity, the reduction of deforesta-
tion and in turn the reduction of the impact of natural hazards
that a deforested area is more prone to, such as heavy winds
and landslides.
40
Fisheries and aquaculture:
◼ Implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries, including the application of the ecosystem approach
to fisheries and aquaculture and of the voluntary guidelines for
securing small-scale fisheries.
◼ Development and implementation of good aquaculture
practices to reduce the exposure of aquaculture against natural
hazards as well as minimize environmental damage.

The southern-most districts of Malawi are particularly affected by

droughts and floods each year. FAO has developed a programme
to identify, select, test and validate good agricultural practices and
technologies to increase the resilience of rural communities, which
is described in the following case study.
Box 3: Increasing resilience of small-scale farmers in flood and drought prone
areas in Malawi

M
alawi is prone to natural hazards, such as floods and droughts, which usually happen in late January to early March
in the southern districts of the country (Nsanje and Chikwawa). The country is also one of the poorest in Africa and
the world, where the majority of the small-scale farmers are dependent on rain-fed agriculture, high malnutrition
levels are prevalent, and approximately 7 percent of the population is affected by HIV, which has socio-economic effects on
people’s food and nutrition security (UN Aids, 2012).
Farmers generally do not perceive floods as a major problem, because once the water has receded, the residual moisture al-
lows them to replant, with high chances of obtaining a harvest. Dry spells, on the other hand, have a more severe negative
impact on crop production and food and nutrition security, as they can occur throughout the country, at any time in the
growing cycle. Dry spells are expected to increase due to climate change.
FAO, in collaboration with the agricultural line ministries at various levels, universities and research institutes, non-
governmental organizations, extension officers and farmers associations, is implementing an ambitious programme to
identify, select, test and validate good agricultural practices and technologies that can be very helpful to increase the 41
resilience of rural communities to floods and cyclones, therefore reducing the losses linked to the impact of disasters on
people’s livelihoods and contribute to their food and nutrition security.
FAO works through existing community structures, such as the Village Civil Protection Committee (VCPC), and with the
support of the extension services to ensure local ownership of the interventions and long-term sustainability. Community
demonstration plots are used to train farmers and increase their knowledge of these agricultural practices.
The DRR programme implemented in Malawi, for instance, has proved that when early planting (late October-early
November) is combined with short cycle varieties, losses can be reduced and production increased. This is because short
cycle varieties mature more quickly and therefore become stronger and are better able to resist the impact of erratic rains,
floods and dry spells; furthermore, plants spend less time in the field, shortening the hazard-exposure period. The use of
an improved short cycle varieties, such as the variety of millet ‘Nyankhombo’, showed to be more resistant to drought than
the local varieties and doubled the yield in all study areas compared to local varieties.
Other good agricultural practices, like mulching, conservation agriculture, small irrigation through shallow wells and treadle
pumps, planting pits, furrows and box ridges, can further help to mitigate the impact of dry spells and support hazard-
exposed small-scale farmers. The strengthening of community based organizations and initiatives, such as farmer´s associa-
tions, clusters of farmers, seed pass-on programmes or community managed agricultural infrastructures and equipment
(irrigation schemes, storage facilities), has proven to significantly help to increase the resilience of these communities.
 Pillar 4 – Prepare to respond: preparedness to
improve disaster response and recovery
Contingency plans outline the roles and responsibilities of key
stakeholders at all levels as well as procedures to follow when a
disaster happens. The implementation of preparedness measures
to improve disaster response and recovery involves developing
interdisciplinary preparedness and contingency plans. These plans
should include the food and agriculture sectors and identify specific
and related measures to reduce the impact of natural hazards such
as floods and droughts.
42 Governments across the region are taking the lead to coordinate
the contingency planning process at national level with support
from other international partners. National contingency plans
generally exist and few countries, such as Mozambique and South
Africa, have sub-national contingency plans. Some countries de-
veloped contingency plans that address multi-hazards, for instance
Malawi, whereas others like Madagascar developed contingency
plans specifically for floods and drought.
Agriculture-related emergency response and recovery measures
aim to rapidly rebuild agricultural capacities. These interventions
include relief operations mainly focused on distributions of agricul-
tural tools and equipment, such as seeds, fertilizer, fishing nets or
vaccines and veterinary supplies. However, some considerations on
prevention need to be also included in this response and recovery
phase, and efforts should be channeled to assure the principle of
‘Building Back Better’, assuming that natural hazards in prone areas disaster response and recovery. There is also a need to include the
will happen again. Recovery interventions should aim to increase local levels in consultations and in participatory planning so that
local capacities and disseminate practices that will minimize the the measures and actions are well-known and understood by those
need for external support in the future. who are required to implement life-saving actions.
In recent years, there has been growing interest and practice in The RIASCO study identified challenges regarding regional
the use of vouchers and cash transfers in crisis risk management, preparedness in southern Africa. The Southern Africa Regional Cli-
humanitarian and transition programming, as well as in develop- mate Outlook Forum (SARCOF) process to undertake preparedness
ment and social protection programmes, and there are experiences planning is seasonally focused, instead of planning for less expected,
in several countries in southern Africa.10 smaller and/or more recurrent and widely impacting emergencies,
This series elaborates guidelines on how to integrate emer- including those with longer duration periods of over three months,
gency responses with prevention mechanisms in several aspects of or emerging hazards, such as severe economic shocks that affect
agriculture geared towards DRR and increasing resilience. Topics food, which should also be considered and included.11 43
addressed include strengthening the informal seed sector in hazard
prone areas; improved hazard-proof construction of agricultural Recommendations
infrastructures, such as irrigation schemes or storage systems; the
strengthening of farmers´ technical and organizational capacities The impacts of hazards can be reduced through improved prepared-
through Farmer Field Schools; the promotion of local seed multipli- ness for response. This goes hand in hand and mutually reinforces an
cation; and improving local-level capacities to cope with recurrent enabling institutional environment, information and early warning
natural hazards. systems, which contribute to the effectiveness of implemented
Challenges that remain encompass the limited and regular up- prevention, mitigation and preparedness measures.
dating of contingency plans, limited inclusion of specific agricultural
preparedness measures, and often resource constraints (human,
technical and financial) to effectively improve preparedness for

10 Further reference can be found on the FAO Policy on Cash Based Transfers ( Nov
2012) and Guidelines for Input Trade Fairs and Voucher Schemes ( April 2013) 11 Holloway, et al., 2013
 Agricultural practices to strengthen preparedness for response
and recovery at national and local level
◼ Establish seed and grazing fodder reserves. Sufficient seed
and fodder reserves are particularly important during short-
ages, to facilitate replanting after a shock as an early recovery
measure for the former and to prevent de-stocking of animals
in the case of the latter. A well-functioning community seed
or grain bank can increase and ensure farmers’ access to seeds
and food in times of need.
◼ Establish safe storage, animal shelters and food processing
facilities. The protection of seeds, harvests and agricultural
44 inputs and equipment in hazard-resistant safe storages, are
highly important preparedness measures in a hazard-prone
area. Livestock shelters to protect animals in time of shocks and
the protection of food processing facilities are also important
aspects to take into account as preparedness measures against
possible hazards.
◼ Establish vaccine banks to ensure the rapid supply of
emergency stock of vaccines. In areas that are endemic to
animal diseases that cause significant losses, national and
regional authorities may consider establishing vaccine banks
and vaccination campaigns as a preventive measure, but also
as a way to control a declared outbreak.
◼ Stockpile agricultural inputs. Ensuring farmers’ access to
agricultural inputs (tools, fertiliser, fishing gear, etc.) helps to
increase their coping capacity to quickly recover from a disaster.
◼ Promote community based preparedness and response ◼ Support multi-hazard risk analysis and its integration into
planning to include location specific early warning mechanisms preparedness planning and development programming.
or demarcation of evacuation routes and emergency grazing Multi-hazard risk analysis helps to understand the interaction
reserves. of various risks at different spatial scales and levels. The integra-
tion into preparedness planning and development planning is
National and local preparedness planning highly beneficial as adequate and effective interventions can be
◼ Support the link between early warning and early action: designed that address and reduce all identified risks.
The capacities of national institutions need to be reinforced to
trigger a timely action after an alert has been released by an
EWS. This involves the coordination between different institu-
tions (civil protection, extension services, research centers,
meteorological information, etc.) as well as between institutions 45
and stakeholders at national and local levels.
◼ Support local and national preparedness/contingency plans.
Effective preparedness and contingency plans outline key stake-
holders’ roles and responsibilities, coordination mechanisms and
procedures to follow during an emergency event. Agriculture and
food and nutrition security sectors need to be integrated in these
multi-sectorial plans; for example, a preparedness/contingency
plan for floods should include specific agriculture actions, such
as moving livestock to safe locations to reduce losses.
◼ Provide guidance on viable operational and f inancial
components of national contingency plans. Sufficient op-
erational and financial capacity to respond and recover from a
disaster is essential to respond to a crisis.
 Box 4: Controlling the spread of the locust plague in Madagascar in 2013

M
adagascar is recurrently affected by locust plagues, but the infestation of locust in 2012–2013 has been one of the worst
in the past 60 years. By mid-2013 locusts had already infested over half of the island’s cultivated land and pastures,
especially affecting the southwestern region. This locust infestation led to huge losses that exceeded a quarter of
Madagascar’s food crop production. This is disastrous for a country where more than three-quarters of the population depend
on agriculture for their livelihoods, and where the food security was already precarious as it has been severely affected by a
long period of political instability and economic crisis that started in 2009.
• By the end of 2012, the Ministry of Agriculture of Madagascar requested technical and financial support from FAO to help
control the spread of locusts as well as to assist with the coordination and implementation of the response to the locust
plague. Timely response is essential in such a rapid onset crisis, in order to minimize the losses and save the livelihoods
46 of millions of small-scale farmers dedicated mainly to rice production and cattle rearing – both activities severely touched
by the locust plague that creates significant losses in crops and pastures.
• Together with the government, FAO is currently implementing a three-year locust programme (2013–2016) totaling US$41.5
million, which involves large-scale aerial campaigns to treat and protect a total of 2.14 million hectares as well as
strengthening national capacities to survey, analyze and control locust outbreaks and monitor the impact of treatments
on crops, pastures, human health and the environment.
• A national locust emergency plan developed in 2012 established a national coordination unit within the Ministry of
Agriculture in Antananarivo and a regional coordination unit in Tuléar to help with the management of the crisis.
• A locust risk management plan and a locust risk prevention plan are also being prepared.
• Until the end of January 2014, extensive aerial surveys have been undertaken in the invasion and outbreak areas: ap-
proximately 270 000 hectares have been identified as heavily infested and a total of 79 584 hectares have been treated
and protected.
• The rapid response to control this locust infestation has been crucial to mitigate the impact of the crisis and reduce the
effect on the food security situation of an important fraction of the Malagasy population.
Source: FAO, 2013c
5. Conclusion

S
outhern Africa is prone to various hazards, including floods, strengthening; information and early warning systems; agricultural
cyclones, droughts, plant and animal pests and diseases and practices and technologies for disaster prevention and mitigation,
economic and political shocks, which significantly affect the as well as preparedness measures to improve disaster response
livelihoods of millions of small-scale farmers, herders, fishers and and recovery.
foresters. More than this, these crises may undermine the improve- The objective of FAO DRR programme in Southern Africa is to
ments made in the development of many countries in southern build the resilience of rural communities involved in the agriculture,
Africa, as they often have macroeconomic repercussions. livestock, fisheries, forestry and natural resource management
With climate outlooks indicating an increase in the frequency sectors in hazard-prone areas, and help them to better adapt to
and intensity of natural events, it is likely that agriculturally de- adverse situations. 47
pendent households in hazard-prone areas will be even more
severely affected in the future. The impact of natural hazards in
the agriculture and food and nutrition security sectors affect mainly
the crop production, but also the agricultural infrastructure and
access to markets, increasing the vulnerability of rural communities,
exacerbating the persistent high poverty levels, constraining the
development of an important part of the population and leading
to inequalities and social and economic tensions.
Disaster risk reduction can provide viable options to increase
the resilience of these rural communities to prevent and mitigate
the effects of hazards, be better prepared and facilitate an early
recovery after the shock.
This brief has identified key DRR areas and outlined recom-
mendations in the areas of good governance and institutional
 6. Bibliography and References for Further Reading
Climate and Development Knowledge Network. 2012. Managing FAO.2013b. Forests, Rangelands and Climate Change in Southern
Climate Extremes and Disasters in Africa: Lessons from the IPCC Africa. Forests and Climate Change Working Paper 12. Rome,
SREX report. CDKN, available at: http://www.ifrc.org/docs/ available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i2970e/i2970e.pdf
IDRL/-%20To%20add/ManagingClimateExtremesAfrica.pdf
FAO. 2013c. Response to the locust plague. Three-year Programme
DFID. 2006. Reducing the Risk of Disasters – Helping to Achieve 2013-2016, available at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Sustainable Poverty Reduction in a Vulnerable World: A DFID Policy emergencies/docs/Locust-crisis-madagascar-FAO_en.pdf
Paper.
48 Holloway A., Cha si V., de Wa al J., Dr i m ie S., For t u ne
FAO. 2001. The State of the Food and Agriculture 2001. Rome, G., M a f ul e k a G., Morojel e M ., P e n i c el a N h a m b iu B.,
available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/003/x9800e/x9800e.pdf Randrianalijaona M., Vogel C. and Zweig P.2013. Humanitarian
Trends in Southern Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.
FAO.2 007. Subregional report on animal genetic resources: Regional Interagency Standing Committee, Southern Africa.
Southern Africa. Annex to The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Rome, FAO, available at: http://reliefweb.int /report /malawi/
Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rome, available at: ftp://ftp. humanitarian-trends-southern-africa-challenges-and-opportunities
fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1250e/annexes/Subregional%20Reports/
Africa/SouthernAfrica.pdf SALGA. 2011. Disaster Risk Management Status Assessment at
Municipalities in South Africa. Available at: http://www.salga.
FAO. 2013a. Resilient livelihoods: DRR for Food and Nutrition org.za/app/webroot/assets/files/Research_Results/Salga_Draft_
Security. 2013 edition. Rome, available at: http://www.fao.org/ ReportFINAL_V1_3%20(2).pdf
docrep/015/i2540e/i2540e00.pdf
49
 UNAids. 2012. Malawi Country Profile, available at: http://www. Nairobi, 14-16 May 2010, available at: http://acds.co.za/uploads/
unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/malawi/ Conf_Papers/DRR_local_gov_Dewald_van_Niekerk.pdf

U NESCA. 2011. Enhancing the effectiveness of food system Ziervogel, G., Taylor, A., Hachigonta, S. and Hoffmaister, J.
information systems in SADC, available at: http://www.uneca.org/ 2008. Climate adaptation in Southern Africa: Addressing the needs
sites/default/files/publications/enhancing-the-effectivenessof-food- of vulnerable communities. Stockholm Environmental Institute,
security-information-systems-in-sadc_issues-paper.pdf available at: http://www.education.gov.za/LinkClick.aspx?filetick
et=ofuBOWIEHtI%3D&tabid=675&mid=2926
UNOCHA. 2013. Southern Africa: Weekly Report (5 to 11 March
2013), available at: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/
resources/Weekly_Report_Map_5_11_March_2013.pdf

50 United Nations Resident Coordinator’s Office.2013. Humanitarian

Country Team. Mozambique Floods 2013. Response and Recovery
Proposal, available at: http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/
resources/Mozambique%20Floods%202013%20Response%20
and%20Recovery%20Proposal.pdf

UNISDR. 2009. UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction.

Geneva, available at: ht tp: // w w w.unisdr.org / files / 7817_
UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf

Van Niekerk, D. And Visser, R. 2

 010. Theme 2: Towards a Funding
Mechanisms for Disaster Risk Reduction in Africa: Experience on
decentralized mechanism and funding for DRR in South Africa.
Second Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Africa,
 Funded by:

Coordinator:

ISBN 978-92-5-108346-8

9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 8 3 4 6 8
I3775E/1/04.14