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Chapter 2

Theoretical Dimensions of Psycholinguistics

To continue this research, one needs to understand and go through the understanding

of the term ‘Psycholinguistics’. A journey to the history, theories and applications of this

term will certainly enlighten the readers to understand its relevance. So, this chapter will deal

with the same to make it more clear that how the use of this kind of study will be helpful in

making a better understanding of our dear author Jhumpa Lahiri. It begins with the history of

linguistics or the mother of psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics is a division of Linguistics.

Victoria A. Fromkin defines Linguistics as the scientific study of human language.

The study of language includes its three aspects: form, meaning and context. Many

definitions explain the term linguistics. (Fromkin,et.al 2)

Some are given below:

“Linguistics observes language in action as a means for determining how language

has developed, how it functions, today, and how it is currently evolving.” (Duffy 1)

“Linguistics is concerned with the nature of human language, how it is learned and

what part it plays in the life of the individual and the community.” (Corder 2)

“Linguistics tries to answer two basic questions: What is language? And how does

language work.”(Aitchison 3)

Linguistics has also been defined by scholars as a cultural phenomenon. As a

phenomenon, it also consists of its own history, origin and background. Scholars believe that

linguistics, which is seen purely scientific in nature, has developed from ethno-linguistics or
 Sarabhai 15

from certain cultural traditions. A synchrony of various traditions related to Linguistics, has

been given below.

1st millennium B.C. is the time of Hindu tradition, this period is also regarded as the

time for the origin of linguistics. Babylonian tradition came after it, providing a List of nouns.

After that the chronology moves to Greek, Roman, Arabic, Hebrew, Middle ages,

Colonization period and at last Modern Linguistics.

Scholars believe that the most ancient work on Linguistics was done in India by a

Sanskrit grammarian Panini. The work on linguistics in India can be traced back to Ist

millennium B.C. Panini’s work basically focused on phonetics and morphology. One

significant fact which can be quoted from the online article An Outline of the History of

Linguistics is that “The Hindu Tradition of Linguistics far surpassed anything done in Europe

for a very long time.” In Europe this study can be traced back to 2nd millennium B.C. as part

of Babylonian tradition. (McGregor 2)

The earliest found linguistics texts in this tradition were written in Cuneiform

language and on clay tablets. Linguistics texts found after it, were a list of Nouns, written in

Sumerian Language. Gradually Sumerian language too was replaced by Acadian language

and Acadian became a prestigious language for religious and legal purposes. To provide

information Sumerian language was recorded in writing. Later it was facilitated through

Acadian translations. After the Hindu tradition, the next linguistic tradition which developed

gradually after the Hindu tradition was the Greek tradition. In this tradition, work Techne

Grammatik by Dionysius Thorax made a study of phonetics, morphology and parts of speech.

This work also influenced Descriptive Grammar in later period. Apollonius Dyscolus was the

man who introduced Greek syntax for the first time after a few centuries. Later Roman

tradition developed to study the interesting Greek themes. There was a notable roman linguist
 Sarabhai 16

Varro who contributed multi volume of grammar of Latin. Later middle ages were influenced

by the Grammar of Donates and Priscian. Along with Roman tradition, the Greek tradition

also influenced Arabic tradition. This tradition also worked on morphology and accurate

phonetic description. Following the same way, The Arabic tradition influenced Hebrew

tradition. (McGregor 3)

The Hebrew grammatical tradition touched its height in 13th century. The first Hebrew

grammar and dictionary was introduced by Saadya Ben Joseph al-Fayummi. During Middle

Ages Latin language was holding an esteem place in society but gradually vernacular

languages also started withdrawing scholar’s attention from Latin to them. So, the scholars

started documenting the grammar of these vernacular languages. In 12th century grammarians

perceived the new notion that grammar is universal in nature. Roger Bacon concluded that

grammar is basically same in all languages.

From 15th century onwards, colonization brought the Europeans in contact with a

great variety of languages, and they started collecting their documentation works. Colonizers

started making a comparison among the vocabularies, grammar and texts of all these

languages. In this process of comparison the Method of Comparison emerged out. Thus, the

method of comparison in Linguistic analysis proved to be more result oriented. By the 16th

century, a notion was formulated that all the languages are related to each-other

fundamentally. William Jones was the man who discovered the relatedness between Indo-

European languages. Rasmus Rask, Danish linguist worked and proposed Historical

Linguistics. The late 19th century saw the emergence of Neo-grammarian tradition.

The late 19th and 20th century saw the emergence of Modern Linguistics. The

emergence of Modern Linguistics also brought the phenomena of structuralize linguistics. It

developed after the First World War. Ferdinand de Saussure is known as the founding figure
 Sarabhai 17

of Modern linguistics. He specialized in Indo-European historical-Comparative genre. It was

he, who stated that language is a system of arbitrary signs. Early modern Linguistics worked

largely on Phonetics and Phonology. In 1886, the International Phonetic Association (IPA)

established. Noam Chomsky is another big name in the field of 20th century linguistics.

(McGregor 2)

The following graph represents the development of linguistics as a study and a

significant height in this area post 1960’s.

Figure 1: Uses of Word Linguistics in Written Work

Source: Google Ngram Viewer (https://books.google.com/ngrams)

As the linguistics developed as a study with the span of time, it also brought alone

many other diversifications as well. Linguistics has been regarded by the scholars as a part of

variety of studies, for e.g. Empirical science, social science, discipline of humanity etc.

because all the branches of study use language and so, Linguistics becomes a part of them all.

Linguistic study is made on various levels, as Language has hierarchy. Such levels are

phoneme, morpheme, words, sentence, speech, text or discourse. All the levels are connected
 Sarabhai 18

and at the same time, can be studied separately. The levels of analysis are phonetics,

morphology, syntax, semantics, discourse, lexicology and graphology.

It would be easy to analyze and apply the use/ uses of these terms if a brief definition

or clarification of the terms are clear. Applied linguistics, as the term denotes can be applied

in various spheres like reading, translations, teaching a language, finding errors, speaking etc.

Dialect refers to regional variations of the language which is used in various areas/ regions.

The language of people also indirectly/ directly reflects their culture. The relationship

between people and their culture is analyzed in Ethno linguistics.

Words/ language take birth, evolve and die. They keep changing from place to place,

time to time, such changes full under the rubric, Diachronic or Historical linguistics. Para

linguistics focuses on the non-verbal (body language, gestures, and facial expressions)

aspects of linguistic behavior and communication. Philology studies the use of language in

various literary/ non-literary genres, more particularly in ancient manuscripts. In Socio-

linguistics, more focus is put on the social usage of language and issues involving language/

dialect in a particular social structure.

Psycholinguistics is one of the significant branches of Linguistics. It is also a branch

of Cognitive science. It initially works on three stages: - language acquisition, language

production and comprehension. The process of Psycholinguistic emphasizes upon the effect

of prior knowledge on comprehension. It focuses on lexis and syntax of the work. It counts

the Noun phrases, types of sentences etc.

The branch of Psycholinguistics studies and the neurobiological factors help people to

understand and use the language by acquiring the subtle nuances of that language. In modern

time various sciences like cognitive science, linguistics, neuroscience etc. contribute in

understanding the process of language in human brain. It is the cognitive process that helps in
 Sarabhai 19

generating meaningful sentences. Psycholinguistic also works on understanding how the

children learn language.

Jacob Robert Kantor was the first person who coined the term “Psycholinguistics” in

his book An Objective Psychology of Grammar(1936) but the acknowledgements goes to his

own student Nicholas Pronko whose article “Language and psycholinguistics: a review”, that

made the term popular.(Pronko 6)

Both, the article by Nicholas Pronko and the book titled Psycholinguistics: A Survey

of Theory and Research Problem published in 1954 by Charles E. Osgood and Thomas A.

Sebeok discussed the psycholinguistics as an interdisciplinary science. (Burkhardt, Steger and

Wiegand 7)

Figure 2: Interdisciplinary Aspects of Psycholinguistics

It is an interdisciplinary science is studied throughout the globe by researchers from

variety of fields like psychology, linguistics and cognitive sciences etc. It throws light on how

the language is acquired by the human mind for the first time.

As a researcher, I would like to explore, analyze and comprehend the words.

The major theories in Psycholinguistics are under Language Acquisition, Language

Comprehension and Language Production.

1. Language Acquisition

There are two main schools of thought which delineate the mechanisms and patterns

of how children learn or acquire language. The theory propounded by Jean Piaget and

Rudolf Carnap states that all languages must be learned by the child. Second school believes

that there is no need to learn a language since the human beings possess innate language

faculty. Behaviorists state that a language is learnt by a human being, and that is a behavior

which is shaped by the various conditions and responses or reactions to such conditions.

(McLeod 16)

With Chomsky’s review of Skinner’s book started the ‘Cognitive Revolution’.

Chomsky states that humans possess an innate faculty for language and it is very complex to

identify or grasp this ability in the nervous system by non-humans, however, intelligent they

may be. He emphasizes the fact that distinguishes humans’ communication qualitatively from

the animal’s ability to communicate. On the other hand the ‘emergentism’ school of thought

consider the Innatist School of Chomsky as scientifically ‘falsifiable’ i.e. it cannot be verified

or tested.

With the upsurge in e-technology, neural network models have been Researched and

they investigate the working of neurons or brain power or nerves in language acquisitions

Researches have shown positive signs that these modals may reveal evidence about sufficient

information from the input to learn language and even syntax.

Human beings have been blessed by the capacity to utter and use words, signs (verbal

& nonverbal) to communicate meaningfully with others. This includes varied capacities like
 Sarabhai 21

vocabulary, phonetic symbols and sounds, syntax etc. According to Crain & Lillo Martin,

language development is a complex and unique human quality’. Most children acquire and

develop the quality very rapidly in their first language. Linguistic Society of America has

observed that a child already spends many months playing with sound patterns and intonation

of the language before using/ speaking the first word. The point at which a child leaves to

utter the words may vary in respect of point of time but almost all children, who learn the

same language, follow almost the same patterns and stages. These stages may be broadly

listed as cooing, babbling, one word utterances, telegraphic speech and normal speech. (Crain

and Lillo-Martin 11)

Language acquisition in human beings is a complex process and this ability makes

humans unique. Various theories have tried to address the issue of language acquisition

through varied perspectives. I shall just refer some of these theories very briefly to show in

the following chapters how Jhumpa Lahiri has delineated them in her works.

Behaviorist Theory in terms of subject choice, word choices can be applied. (Theory

of Operational Conditioning): The Behaviorist Theory was propounded by B. F. Skinner in

1957. His ‘Verbal Behavior’ is an approach that uses functional analysis to language learning

behavior patterns. It is a method of learning that occurs through carrots & sticks (rewards &

punishments) for a certain type of behavior. It states that a child’s behavioral attitude can be

reinforced by rewarding him whenever the desired behavior is displayed by the child and the

same can be restrained by punishing the child when he shows undesired behavior patterns.

For example when an infant’s babbling match the desired utterances of parents, they reward

the child by positive reinforcement of parents, they reward the child by positive

reinforcements like a pat, hug, smile. Such motivating positive gestures motivate the child to

utter more such articulations which he may copy or imitate when he listens to the other sound

patterns used by family members, adults, friends, awkward repetitions are corrected by the
 Sarabhai 22

adults hence, the child gradually starts connecting certain sound patterns with certain

positive/ negative signs and situations. He repeats the utterances/ words for which there is a

positive reinforcement and forgets the utterances for which there is a negative

reinforcements. (McLaughlin 12)

Innateness Theory (Nativist Theory) believes that humans have an innate biological

capacity to acquire language by default. Good Luck opines that language as a fundamental

part of the human genome, as a trait that makes humans human and its acquisition is a natural

part of maturation. According to this theory the child’s brain is able to understand and

interpret whatever it hears because of certain circuits in the brain which contain linguistic

information, Chomsky calls this faculty as LAD (Language Acquisition Device), a

mechanism, for determining the rules of language. Through this mechanism a child hears the

word forms (verbs, tenses, nouns) then forms a hypothesis of using them in his own context.

Yang also believed that children initially possess, then subsequently develop, an innate

understanding or hypothesis about grammar regardless of where they are raised. (Good luck

7)

The Nativists argue that the innate faculty has to be stimulated during a certain critical

period (around age of 12 years) in order to acquire a language. The researches show that

children whose language acquisition faculties are not stimulated through proper environment

and motivation, will not be able to acquire language skills normally Genie who was imposed

to abusive environment and Mogli, who was brought up in jungle among animals are a case

to prove that they could not acquire & develop their language skills naturally later.(Chomsky

11)

Cognitive Theory believes that before acquiring a particular language or linguistic

pattern a child has to comprehend the idea or concepts like the size, shape or colour in order
 Sarabhai 23

to relate it linguistically. Therefore, if the concepts are not clear, it would be impossible for

the child to utter it. Cognitivist like Piaget believe that language is acquired and developed in

context of other general cognitive abilities like problem solving, memory etc. because it is a

part of a wide intellectual evolution of the individual. (Yang 6)

According to Gooduck once language does emerge it is usually within certain stages

and children go through these stages in a fixed order that is universal in all children. Piaget

states that the language of a child corresponds with a specific name. These stages are:

1. Sensory-Motor period: from birth to 2 years of age

2. Pre- Operational period: From 2 to 7 years of age

3. Ego-centralism: refers to the child’s tendency to consider every object as alive.

4. Operational Period: 7 to 11 years of age & 11 years to adulthood. (McLeod 11)

Social Interactionist Theory of Vygotsky suggests that the language, culture and

environment can have a deep influence on the child’s development. Since the language is the

medium of communication, it can be acquired and developed through dialogical interactions

with others. Jerome Bruner introduced the term LASS (Language Acquisition Support

System), which refers to the child’s journey towards adulthood and the culture in which they

are born. However, it should be kept in mind that through the social interaction or context

provide support in acquiring a language; it does not provide necessary knowledge which is

required to acquire a language. (Buitrago 13)

Usage-based Theory posits that initially children acquire language from their

language experiences; they build their language structures on the basis of sound patterns they

receive and register. Tomsello, the developer of Usage- based theory, emphasizes the effects

of frequency of using language, as sound structures and patterns that are frequently used and

repeated become automated and conventionalized.(Tomasello 16)

Saxton’s researches also indicate that when a linguistic form or pattern occur

frequently is the input, the child’s output representation of it becomes stronger and

comprehensive. Doughty & Long states that language use shapes Entrenchments theory,

frequency repetitions of usage, but there are separable effects of token frequency and type

frequency. Token frequency is how often particular words or phrases appear in linguistic

patterns and strongly influences the child’s learning process, while Type frequency counts

how many different lexical items a certain pattern or structure is applicable to, and

determines productivity. (Saxton 8)

Optimality Theory proposed by Prince and Smolensk, posits that observed forms of

language arise from the interaction between conflicting constraints and that these constraints

are violable. Ranking of constraints enable the difference in language by prioritizing certain

constraints over the others. Another family of constraints, faithfulness constraints, states that

faithfulness is the general requirement for any lexical forms to be as close to their basic forms

and that violation of faithfulness leads to difference between input and output. (Prince and

Smolensky 13)

Native Language Magnet Model (NLM) proposes that a child acquire another tongue

rapidly, regardless of culture. The NLM proposed by Kuhl specified these phrases to explain

the developmental change in infant’s speech structure perceptions:

Phase 1- infant have the ability to differentiate all sounds of human speech, from their

general auditory processing mechanisms.

Phase 2- Infant’s sensitivity and experience develop and more frequently experienced

phonetic representations start functioning as perpetual magnets for other members.

Phase 3- The perpetual magnet effect activate native language abilities and reduces

foreign language phonetic abilities. (Kuhl et al. 16)

2. Language Comprehension:

One of the major concerns of comprehending language (sentence processing) has

been the issue of how people comprehend and link the sentences with meaning while

reading? There are various theories about the architecture/ structure and dynamics of sentence

comprehension/ processing; also about how and when the information contained with

sentences help in creating a chain of meaning.

Among these are theoretical perceptions the ‘modular’ and ‘interactive’ processing of

sentence. The modular view suggests that stages of sentence processing are independent and

they function in separate modules that have limited interaction with one another. (For

example) The Garden- Path theory states that while reading and processing a sentence the

reader creates simplest syntactic structure without any semantic analysis or any other

contextual information. Semantic information is processed at a later stage. On the other hand,

an interactive theory (Constraint based lexical approach) posits that any or all information

available in a sentence can be processed at any time. However, which of the two theories

modular or interactive is correct, is still debatable.

The modular view suggests that stages of sentence processing are independent and

they function in separate modules that have limited interaction with one another. (For

example) The Garden- Path theory states that while reading and processing a sentence the

reader creates simplest syntactic structure without any semantic analysis or any other

contextual information. Semantic is processed at a later stage. On the other hand, an

interactive theory (Constraint based lexical approach) posits that any or all information
 Sarabhai 26

available in a sentence can be processed at any time. However, which of the two theory

modular or interactive is correct, is still debatable. (Clifton Jr. 7)

There is a big question in language comprehension practice which is how people

recognize sentences as they read. There are many theories in Experimental research which

explain the working of sentence comprehension mechanisms. These theories are concentrated

on the information given in the sentence which the reader uses to build meaning.

The garden-path theory suggests that a person tries his best first to simplify the

structure of a sentence so that he can easily meet with the right semantics of it. Simple

structure provides easiness in cognition. Thus, the first thing in the whole proves start with

the structure of sentences and then goes to semantics and other details. (Pritchett 15)

Constraint-based lexical, another approach in this area suggests that lexis are more

important in revealing the semantics of the sentence, rather than the whole sentence structure.

Scholars are still in debate to decide which approach is preferable. (Trueswell and Tanenhaus

9)

After Acquisition and Comprehension, comes the last theory or stage in

psycholinguistics, Language production.

3. Language Production

This is the final stage of psycholinguistics. After acquisition and comprehension, next

comes production of same. It determines how the person has acquires the language and to

what level he has comprehended it. The person’s choice of words speaks deeply about his

psychology and mental language procession mechanism. An overview of all these theories

suggests more about the practical, observational approach of Psycholinguistic theory in

comparison to its theoretical analysis. Yet, the scholars have shown their interest in using it in

theoretical matters as well, by applying it in written works of writers.

The researcher’s own understanding of this theory and a few researches done with the

application of this theory by scholars provides a strong ground and support for the further

processing of the theory into this research work. Language acquisition of Lahiri and her final

reproduction in form of her characters and their language will help us peep into her psyche.

Her inbetweenness while growing up, her swings between Bengali, her first language, and

English, second language, chiselled her language behaviour in terms of Piaget and Skinner.

Both talk about children’s language acquisition. As a child, Lahiri acquired words and

sentences from both the languages and mastered them with the passage of time.

The research locates what she showed in her works initially, later decreased gradually.

Her maturity and English environment made her American which is invisible in her later

works. On one hand her first work reflects abundance of words from her first language , on

the contrary, her recent work is loaded with those from her existing culture, thus she swings

and moves between her two cultures and identities, without realizing that her words are

openly exposing her inbetweenness. She keeps on denying being an Indian, yet all her works,

their themes are focused on India only. The gradual change in her writing communicates the

change in her observation and reaction on the same land. Her early works portray her image

as a daughter of an Indian mother, because of profusion of Indianness there. Her later work

reveals her Americanised self where she presents everything about India as a third person and

citizen of America. The research will explore her transition from one culture to another

psychologically, through the psycholinguistic study of her works. The upcoming chapters

will analyse all her respective works in the light of these theories of language acquisition and

production.