Krzysztof Wilczyński

Warsaw University of Technology

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES
POLYMER PROCESSING

Table of Contents

Lecture 1 – Polymeric Materials

1. Why Polymers?
2. Structure and Classification of Polymers
3. Polymer Applications and Processing
4. Polymer Flow Properties

Lecture 2 – Polymer Processing Fundamentals

5. Fundamentals of Extrusion
6. Fundamentals of Injection Molding
7. Extrusion Dies and Injection Molds
8. Complements of Polymer Processing

Lecture 3 – Recent Developments in Polymer Processing

9. Future Trends and Recycling

10. CAD/CAE for Polymer Processing
11. CFD General Purpose Oriented Software
12. Process Specific Oriented Software

Tutorials 1 – Polymer Processing Laboratory

Tutorials 2 – Process Design

Tutorials 3 – CAD/CAE for Process Design

Literature
 -2-

Lecture 1 – Polymeric Materials

1. Why Polymers?

1. Introduction
- Worldwide growth of the plastics industry,
- Definition of polymeric materials: macromolecular compounds, polymers or plastics,
- Unusual behaviour of polymers,
- Historical background: natural polymeric materials, polymer processing machines,
synthetic polymers,
- Polymer synthesis: polymerization, polycondensation, polyaddition.
2. Properties of polymers
- Polymers are light, lighter than metals and ceramics,
- Polymers exibit a wide, variable spectrum of mechanical properties,
- Polymers can be processed simply and economically at low temperatures into complex
parts that often require no secondary finishing,
- Polymer production and processing require relatively little energy input,
- Polymers are good thermal and electrical insulators, although in a few applications
the opposite is required and can also be achieved within limits,
- Polymers are often transparent and can be coloured as desired,
- Polymers have high chemical resistance,
- Polymers can be reused and recycled by means of a number of different methods.
 -3-

Lecture 1 – Polymeric Materials

2. Structure and Classification of Polymers

1. Structure of Polymers
- Molecular weight: definition, molecular weight distribution, average molecular
weight, polydispersity,
- Bonding forces in polymers: molecular forces (chemical forces between atoms) and
intermolecular forces (physical van der Waal’s forces between macromolecules), or
chemical reaction forces (cross-linking forces),
- Arrangements of polymer molecules: linear, branched, cross-linked, entangled
macromolecular chains.
2. Material states and transition regions
- Material states: solid state (glassy state), rubbery state, liquid state (melt state),
- Transition regions: glass transition region, melting range (for semicrystalline
thermoplastics),
- Shear modulus, tensile strength and elongation versus temperature.
3. Classification of polymers
- Thermoplastics: not cross-linked (amorphous, semi-crystalline, liquid crystalline
polymers), meltable (can be processed several times), swellable, soluble, at room
temperature brittle (amorphous) or tough (semi-crystalline),
- Elastomers: weakly cross-linked, not meltable (can not be processed several times),
swellable, not soluble, at room temperature elastic and soft,
- Thermosets: highly cross-linked, not meltable (can not be processed several times),
not swellable, not soluble, at room temperature hard and brittle.
 -4-

Lecture 1 – Polymeric Materials

3. Polymer Applications and Processing

1. Polymer applications
- Range of using:
- Amorphous thermoplastics: below the glass temperature,
- Semicrystalline thermoplastics: between the glass transition and crystallite melting
temperatures,
- Elastomers: between the glass transition and decomposition temperatures,
- Thermosets: below the decomposition temperature.
- Commercial classification:
- Commodity polymers: LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, PVC,
- Intermediate: ABS, PMMA, PET,
- Engineering: PA, POM, PC,
- Advanced: LCP, PTFE, PEEK, PES.
2. Classification of polymer processing
- Processing of different materials: thermoplastics, elastomers, thermosets,
- Polymer processing methods: compounding of polymers, primary processing methods,
secondary processing methods, recycling.
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Lecture 1 – Polymeric Materials

4. Polymer Flow Properties

1. Viscosity of polymers
- Definition of viscosity: shear stress and shear rate relation, Newton’s law, Newtonian
viscosity, viscosity of some familiar materials,
- Viscous fluids: flow curves, Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids (shear thinning
pseudoplastic fluids, shear thicking dilatant fluids, Bingham fluids with yield stress),
- Effect of temperature on flow behaviour: for semicrystalline polymers (Arrhenius
law) and amorphous polymers (WLF law), empirical rules,
- Effect of pressure, molecular weight, curing and time of deformation on flow
behaviour,
2. Viscoelasticity of polymers
- Definition of viscoelasticity: viscous and elastic behaviour of polymers, viscoelastic
dimensionless numbers (Weissenberg number, Deborah number),
- Viscoelastic phenomena: Weissenberg effect, Barus effect (extrudate swell), static
time effects (stress relaxation, strain retardation), dynamic time effects (oscillating stress
and strain relations).
3. Measurements of flow properties
- Melt Flow Index measurements: MFI definition, construction and measurement
principles,
- Capillary flow rheometry: construction of rheometers and measurement principles,
rheometers based on the principle of constant shear rate and the principle of constant shear
stress, applications,
- Cone and plate rheometry: construction of rheometers and measurement principles,
applications,
- Melt viscosity data: polymer processing shear rate ranges, rheometer shear rate
ranges, curve fitting of viscosity data.
 -6-

Lecture 2 – Polymer Processing Fundamentals

5. Fundamentals of Extrusion
1. Introduction
- Principles of extrusion molding process: continuous production of semi-finished
profile articles, e.g. pipes, films, sheets,
- The objective: to convey the material from the hopper to the die, to melt, to mix and
to pressurize, and to push through the die,
- Components of extrusion molding process:
- Extrusion molding machine (extruder): plasticating unit, drive unit,
- Extrusion die,
- Calibration and cooling device,
- Take-off and cutoff device,
- Machine control system.
2. Plasticating extruders
- Single screw extruders: extruders with a smooth feed zone, extruders with a grooved
feed zone (better conveying, output independent on the die pressure),
- Twin screw extruders: co-rotating extruders (intermeshing), counter-rotating
extruders (intermeshing and non-intermeshing),
3. Process analysis
- Plasticating unit: solid conveying, melting, melt conveying; drag flow and pressure
flow, basic relations,
- Extrusion die: forming; pressure flow, basic relations,
- Extrusion operation point: screw and die characteristics, flow rate/ pressure relation.
4. Twin screw extrusion
- Co-rotating twin screw extrusion:
- Application: specialty polymer processing operations (compounding, chemical
reactions, devolatilization),
- Flow analysis: the polymer melt is transferred from one screw to another, follow a
longer path and is subjected to higher shear,
- Counter-rotating twin screw extrusion:
- Application: profile extrusion of thermally sensitive materials (RPVC),
- Flow analysis: the polymer melt is not transferred from one screw to another, the
material is conveyed within the closed C-chamber.
 -7-

Lecture 2 – Polymer Processing Fundamentals

6. Fundamentals of Injection Molding

1. Introduction
- Principles of injection molding process: cyclic mass production of finished
complicated parts,
- The objective: to convey the material from the hopper to the die, to melt, to mix and
to pressurize, and to fill the mold,
- Components of injection molding process:
- Injection molding machine: plasticating unit, drive unit, clamping unit,
- Injection mold: runner system, cavity, ejector system, tempering system,
- Machine control system.
2. Process analysis
- Course of the process: mold closing, injection unit forward, injection (mold filling),
cooling, holding pressure, injection unit backward, plasticating (recovery), mold opening/
molding ejection,
- Injection molding versus extrusion: cyclic process / continuos process, reciprocating
screw / only rotating screw, filling the mold / pushing through the die, mold / die.
- Phases of the molding cycle: injection phase, holding pressure phase, cooling phase,
- Injection molding window: injection temperature / holding pressure relation; short
shots, thermal degradation, shrinkage, flash.
- Process and machine data: injection time, injection velocity, holding pressure;
clamping force, maximum injection pressure, maximum shot volume.
3. Special processes
- Injection/Compression Molding,
- Multi-components Injection Molding,
- Gas-Assisted Injection Molding,
- Overmolding,
- In-Mold Decoration and In-Mold Lamination,
- Insert/Outsert Process,
- Reaction Injection Molding (RIM),
- Resin Transfer Molding (RTM).
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Lecture 2 – Polymer Processing Fundamentals

7. Extrusion Dies and Injection Molds

1. Extrusion dies
- The objective: to distribute the melt that the material exits from the die with a uniform
velocity, to give the shape of the extrudate,
- Classification of dies:
- Rectangular cross-section dies: film and sheet dies,
- Circular cross-section dies: strand and filament dies,
- Annular cross-section dies: pipe and tubing dies, blown film dies, coating dies,
- Others: profile extrusion dies (hollow and open profiles).
2. Injection molds
- The objective: to distribute the melt, to give the final shape of the molding, to cool the
molten material (thermolastics) or to heat (elastomers and thermosets), and to eject the
final part,
- Mold construction (components of injection mold):
- Stationary mold half: base plate, mold plate (with cooling channels), sprue
brushing, locating ring, guide pins,
- Movable mold half: base plate, support rail, bolster plate (to reduce deflection),
backup plate (with cooling channels), mold plate (cavity), ejector housing (ejector plate,
return pins, ejector road with return spring),
- Functional units: runner system (conventional, hot runner system), cavity (cavities
number, layout), heat transfer system, ejector system.
 -9-

Lecture 2 – Polymer Processing Fundamentals

8. Complements of Polymer Processing

1. Polymer processing methods

- Extrusion: single and twin screw extrusion (co-rotating and counter-rotating),
- Injection Molding: conventional and special processes, e.g. multi-components
injection molding (multi-colour, co-injection, gas assisted),
- Blow Molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, stretch blow
molding
- Thermoforming,
- Film Blowing,
- Compression Molding,
- Calendering,
- Casting,
- Rotational Molding,
- Foaming,
- Pultrusion, Filament Winding,
- Welding: heated tool welding, hot gas welding, friction welding (mechanical,
ultrasonic, high-frequency dielectric), radiation-based welding, electromagnetic welding,
- Adhesive bonding: adhesive properties of polymers (wettability, polarity, solubility),
- Machining: sawing, drilling, milling, turning.
 - 10 -

Lecture 3 – Recent Developments in Polymer Processing

9. Future Trends and Recycling

1. Future trends
- Challenges:
- Changing from mass-production to extremely diversified production in shorter
development and production preparation periods,
- Products having smaller size, thinner wall and lighter weight,
- Lower energy consumption for processing,
- Toward complete material chemical recycling and zero-emission production,
- Counter-measures:
- Development of various kinds of hybridized processing technologies: multi-layer
and multi-material molding processes, chemical reaction and modification combined with
twin screw extrusion, gas assisted injection molding with super-critical fluid (carbon
dioxide), traveling or rotation of mold parts in the mold during multi-stage molding;
combination with in-mold coating, printing or lamination techniques,
- Reduction of the number of base raw materials and modification depending on
customers and products at each processing site,
- Utilize abundant, non-petroleum, natural resources such as agricultural wastes to
produce biodegradable plastics with excellent properties (polylactic acid),
- Development of on-line sensing, monitoring and controlling technology; machines
electric drive,
- Development and utilization of CAE and AI technology.
2. Recycling
- Recycling into similar or less-demanding new products,
- Depolymerizing by pyrolysis into basic monomers or fuels,
- Incineration, with or without recovery of energy of combustion,
- Greater use of biodegradable plastics where appropriate.
 - 11 -

Lecture 3 – Recent Developments in Polymer Processing

10. CAD/CAE for Polymer Processing

1. Principles of modeling
- Modeling steps: define the problem, formulate the mathematical model, solve the
equations, evaluate the model, revise the model,
- Fundamentals for continuum mechanics: conservative equations (mass, motion and
energy) and constitutive equations,
- Computation: analytical and numerical methods (Finite Difference, Finite Element,
Boundary Element).
2. Review of commercially available software
- CFD General Purpose Oriented Software (solvers of conservation equations for
various combinations of flow conditions and geometries) versus Process Specific Oriented
Software,
- CFD General Purpose Oriented Software: POLYFLOW-FLUENT, POLYCAD,
FIDAP-FLUENT,
- Process Specific Oriented Software
- Injection Molding: MOLDFLOW, CADMOULD, MOLDEX,
- Single Screw Extrusion: REX, NEXTRUCAD, CEMEXTRUD, SSEM,
- Twin Screw Extrusion: AKRO-CO-TWIN, SIGMA, LUDOVIC,
- Extrusion Dies: PROFILECAD, FLATCAD, SPIRALCAD, LAYERCAD,
- Blow Molding and Thermoforming: B-SIM, T-SIM, TFORM3, SIMBLOW,
- Film Blowing: B-FILMCAD,
- Calendering: CALENDERCAD.
 - 12 -

Lecture 3 – Recent Developments in Polymer Processing

11. CFD General Purpose Oriented Software

1. Capabilities of POLYFLOW-FLUENT
- Geometry: 2D and 3D problems,
- Flows: isothermal and non-isothermal, steady-state and time-dependant,
- Multi-domain calculations,
- Rheological models: generalized Newtonian fluids, differential and integral
viscoelastic models.
2. General organization of POLYFLOW-FLUENT
- Geometry and finite element mesh generation: GAMBIT,
- Problem definition: POLYDATA,
- Central solver: POLYFLOW,
- Postprocessing: FLPOST.
3. Problem definition
- General definition of the problem: geometry of the flow, temperature dependence,
time dependence, type of the rheological equation,
- Boundary conditions: specification of boundary surfaces, and definition of the flow
boundary conditions and thermal boundary conditions,
- Material data selection.
4. Examples of modeling
- Pressure flows,
- Extrudate swell problem and inverse problem,
- Coextrusion,
- Blow molding,
- Film casting.
 - 13 -

Lecture 3 – Recent Developments in Polymer Processing

12. Process Specific Oriented Software

1. Injection Molding - MOLDFLOW

- Capabilities:
- simulations of the injection molding process for thermoplastics and rubbers; for
conventional injection molding, and for alternative processes (co-injection molding, gas
assisted injection molding, reactive molding, compression molding); for filling phase,
holding pressure phase, cooling phase, shrinkage and warpage,
- predictions: flow pattern, pressure and temperature field, stress and velocity field,
part defects (air traps, sink marks, weld lines and meld lines), gate location,
- Examples of simulation.
2. Single Screw Extrusion - SSEM
- Capabilities:
- simulations of the single screw plasticating extrusion process for thermoplastics; for
conventional and non-conventional screws equipped with fluted mixing sections, torpedo
sections, mixing ring sections; for dies of various cross-sections,
- predictions: mass flow rate, pressure and temperature profiles, solid bed profile,
power consumption,
- Examples of simulation.
3. Twin Screw Extrusion - TSEM
- Capabilities:
- simulations of the closely intermeshing counter-rotating twin screw extrusion
process for thermoplastics; for thick flighted elements, thin flighted elements and shearing
elements,
- predictions: fill factor, pressure and temperature profiles, solid bed profile,
- Examples of simulation.
 - 14 -

Tutorials 1 – Polymer Processing Laboratory

Study for Extrusion Molding Process

1. Components of extrusion molding process:

- Extrusion molding machine (extruder): plasticating unit, drive unit,
- Extrusion die,
- Calibration and cooling device,
- Take-off and cutoff device,
- Machine control system.
2. Screws:
- Screw geometry: conventional and non-conventional screws (with mixing and
shearing elements), basic geometry of the three-sectional conventional screw,
- Functional analysis: feeding, compression, metering; compression ratio.
3. Extrusion dies:
- Rectangular cross-section dies: film and sheet dies,
- Circular cross-section dies: strand and filament dies,
- Annular cross-section dies: pipe and tubing dies, blown film dies, coating dies,
- Others: profile extrusion dies (hollow and open profiles).
4. Process analysis
- Extrusion operation point: screw and die characteristics, flow rate/ pressure relation.
- Process and machine data: screw speed, output, barrel temperature, die temperature,
take-off speed.
 - 15 -

Study for Injection Molding Process

1. Components of injection molding process:

- Injection molding machine: plasticating unit, drive unit, clamping unit,
- Injection mold: runner system, cavity, ejector system, tempering system,
- Machine control system.
2. Components of injection molds:
- Stationary mold half: base plate, mold plate (with cooling channels), sprue brushing,
locating ring, guide pins,
- Movable mold half: base plate, support rail, bolster plate (to reduce deflection),
backup plate (with cooling channels), mold plate (cavity), ejector housing (ejector plate,
return pins, ejector road with return spring),
- Functional units: runner system (conventional, hot runner system), cavity (cavities
number, layout), heat transfer system, ejector system.
3. Process analysis
- Course of the process: mold closing, injection unit forward, injection (mold filling),
cooling, holding pressure, injection unit backward, plasticating (recovery), mold opening/
molding ejection,
- Injection molding versus extrusion: cyclic process / continuos process, reciprocating
screw / only rotating screw, filling the mold / pushing through the die, mold / die.
- Phases of the molding cycle:
- Injection phase: performed under velocity control, pressure course in the cavity,
- Holding pressure phase: performed under pressure control, switching to holding
pressure, course state in the PVT diagram,
- Cooling phase: cooling time, residual stresses,
- Injection molding window: injection temperature / holding pressure relation; short
shots, thermal degradation, shrinkage, flash.
- Process and machine data: mold temperature, barrel temperature, injection time,
injection speed, holding pressure; clamping force, maximum injection pressure, maximum
shot volume.
 - 16 -

Tutorials 2 – Process Design

Case Study
Design a layout of cavities of the injection mold for an assumed part and resin, basing on
the machine data (clamping force, shot size, pressure required). Evaluate the cycle time
and productivity. The following calculations are necessary:
1. Clamping Force:
Fc >
(n ⋅ A + A0 ) ⋅ p ⇒ n
Fc – clamping force, 0,8
n – number of cavities,
0,8 – safety factor,
A – projected area of cavity, cm2,
A0 – projected area of runner system, cm2,
p – pressure (20-50 MPa).
2. Shot Size: n ⋅ V + V0
Sv > ⇒n
Sv – shot size, cm3, 0,8

n – number of cavities,
0,8 – safety factor,
V – volume of part, cm3,
V0 – volume of runner system, cm3.
3. Pressure Drop:
∆p – pressure drop
for Runners: 8L ⋅ 4Q
∆p = ⋅η ⋅ Q γ=
L – runner length, πR 4 πR 3
R – runner radius,
for Cavities: ⋅ 6Q
12 L
∆p = ⋅η ⋅ Q γ =
L – flow length, WH 3 WH 2
W – flow width,
H – part thickness
Vtotal
Q – flow rate, cm3/s, Q=
tinj
Vtotal – total volume of part and runners,
tinj – injection time.
 - 17 -

⋅ ⋅ n −1
η – viscosity, Pa·s, η = f  γ  η = k ⋅γ
k – consistency, Pa·sn,  
⋅
γ – shear rate, s-1,
n – flow index.
4. Cooling Time:
tcool – cooling time,
for Runners: D2  T −T 
tcool = ⋅ ln 0,692 ⋅ m M 
D – runner diameter, 23,14α  Te − TM 
for Part:
H – part thickness, H2  8 Tm − TM 
t cool = ln  ⋅ 
Tm – melt temperature, π 2α  π 2 Te − TM 
TM – mold temperature,
Te – ejection temperature,
α – thermal diffusivity (10-3 cm2/s).
5. Cycle Time:
t cool
tc – cycle time, tc = t f + t h + t cool + textra ⇒ tc =
0,7
tf – filling time,
th – holding time,
tcool – cooling time,
textra – operation time,
0,7 – estimated factor.
6. Productivity: n ⋅tp
Z= ⇒n
Z – production size, tc
tp – production time,
tc – cycle time,
n – number of cavities.
 - 18 -

Tutorials 3 – CAD/CAE for Process Design

Case Study
Design an injection molding process for an assumed part and mold, selecting resin and
machine, and optimizing operating conditions (injection, cooling, holding). Use Dr.C-Mold
program to solve the problem, and obtain the Machine Set-Up Sheet. The following steps
are required:
1. Enter Design Parameters:
- Geometry Data:
- Flow Length FL:distance from a gate to the last point on the part filled by polymer,
- Projected Area: total area projected by all cavities,
- Part Volume: total part volume of all cavities,
- Gate Size D3: size of the gate that lies at the beginning of the Flow Length,
- Nominal Thickness t1: thickness of the part along the majority of the Flow Length,
- Max. Thickness t2: thickness at the thickest portion of the part,
- Runner Lengths and Diameters, eg. S1, D1: length and diameter of each section,
- Resin and Machine.
2. Compare Resins:
Select one that can reach a max. flow length greater than the target flow length, under
suggested processing conditions.
3. Compare Machines:
Select one that has enough clamp force under suggested process conditions, or
determine the number of cavities that can be accommodated by the selected machine.
4. Minimize Nominal Thickness:
Determine how thin the nominal part thickness can be, while still achieving a feasible
process window (melt temperature, injection pressure) of reasonable size.
5. Optimize Injection Conditions:
Determine injection conditions (melt temperature, injection pressure, filling time) based
on an optimal process window (melt temperature, injection pressure) of adequate size.
6. Optimize Cooling Conditions:
Determine cooling conditions (mold temperature, ejection temperature, cooling time)
that will achieve the shortest possible cooling time.
7. Optimize Holding Conditions:
Determine holding conditions (gate size, holding pressure, holding time) that will
minimize part shrinkage without overpacking.
 - 19 -

Literature

1. Ehrenstein G.W.: Polymeric Materials, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2001.

2. Osswald T.A., Menges G.: Material Science of Polymers for Engineers, Hanser
Publishers, Munich 2003.
3. Macosko Ch.W.: Rheology, VCH Publishers Inc., New York 1994.
4. Osswald T.A., Menges G.: Polymer Processing Fundamentals, Hanser Publishers,
Munich 1998.
5. Michaeli W.: Plastics Processing, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2006.
6. Tadmor Z., Gogos C.G.: Principles of Polymer Processing, John Wiley & Sons,
Hoboken, New Jersey 2006.
7. Potsch G., Michaeli W.: Injection Molding, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2007.
8. Johannaber F.: Injection Molding Machines, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2007.
9. Menges G., Mohren P.: How to Make Injection Molds, Hanser Publishers, Munchen
2001.
10. Gastrow H.: Injection Molds, Hanser Publishers 2006.
11. Rauwendaal Ch.: Polymer Extrusion, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2004.
12. Michaeli W.: Extrusion Dies, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2003.
13. Rauwendaal Ch.: Statistical Process Control in Injection Molding and Extrusion,
Hanser Publishers, Munich 2008.
14. Lee N.C.: Blow Molding Design Guide, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2008.
15.. Throne J.L.: Thermoforming, Hanser Publishers, Munich 2008.