Guide for Metric Practice

Internationally recognized conventions have been established for standard usage of SI units.

Robert A. Nelson

he modernized metric system is known as the Système

T International d’Unités (International System of Units),
with the international abbreviation SI. It is founded on
Table 1. SI base units
Quantity Unit
seven base units, listed in table 1, that by convention are Name Symbol
length meter m
regarded as dimensionally independent. All other units
mass kilogram kg
are derived units, formed coherently by multiplying and time second s
dividing units within the system without numerical fac- electric current ampere A
tors. Examples of derived units, including some with spe- thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
cial names, are listed in table 2. The expression of multi- amount of substance mole mol
ples and submultiples of SI units is facilitated through the luminous intensity candela cd
use of the prefixes listed in table 3.
SI obtains its international authority from the Meter
Convention, signed in Paris by the delegates of 17 coun- Table 2. Examples of SI derived units
Quantity Unit
tries, including the United States, on 20 May 1875, and Special name Symbol Equivalent
amended in 1921. The treaty established the Conférence plane angle radian rad m/m=1
Générale des Poids et Mesures (General Conference on solid angle steradian sr m2/m2=1
speed, velocity m/s
Weights and Measures) as the formal diplomatic body acceleration m/s2
responsible for ratification of new proposals related to angular velocity rad/s
metric units. The scientific decisions are made by the angular acceleration rad/s2
frequency hertz Hz s–1
Comité International des Poids et Mesures (International force newton N kg·m/s2
Committee for Weights and Measures). It is assisted by pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2
the advice of 10 Consultative Committees specializing in work, energy, heat joule J N·m, kg·m2/s2
impulse, momentum N·s, kg·m/s
particular areas of metrology. The activities of the nation- power watt W J/s
al standards laboratories are coordinated by the Bureau electric charge coulomb C A·s
International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau electric potential, emf volt V J/C, W/A
resistance ohm W V/A
of Weights and Measures), which has its headquarters in conductance siemens S A/V, W–1
Sèvres, France, and operates under the supervision of the magnetic flux weber Wb V·s
CIPM. The SI was established by the 11th CGPM in 1960, inductance henry H Wb/A
capacitance farad F C/V
when the metric unit definitions, symbols, and terminolo- electric field strength V/m, N/C
gy were extensively revised and simplified.1 Today there magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m , N/(A·m)
2

are 51 member states of the Meter Convention and 16 electric displacement C/m2
magnetic field strength A/m
associates of the General Conference. Celsius temperature degree Celsius °C K
The BIPM, with the guidance of the Consultative luminous flux lumen lm cd·sr
Committee for Units and approval of the CIPM, periodi- illuminance lux lx lm/m2
radioactivity becquerel Bq s–1
cally publishes a document2 that summarizes the histori- catalytic activity katal kat mol/s
cal decisions of the CGPM and the CIPM and gives some
conventions for metric practice. In addition, Technical Style conventions
Committee 12 of the International Organization for Stan- Letter symbols include quantity symbols and unit sym-
dardization has prepared recommendations concerning bols. Symbols for physical quantities are set in italic (slop-
the practical use of the SI.3 Some other recommendations ing) type, while symbols for units are set in roman
have been given by the Commission for Symbols, Units,
(upright) type (for example, F = 15 N).
Nomenclature, Atomic Masses and Fundamental Con-
A unit symbol is a universal mathematical entity. It is
stants of the International Union of Pure and Applied
not an abbreviation and is not followed by a period (for
Physics.4 The National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology (NIST) has published a practical guide for the use example, the symbol for second is s, not sec or s.). Symbols
of the SI.5 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi- for units with proper names have the first letter capital-
neers (IEEE) and the American Society for Testing and ized—otherwise unit symbols are lower case—but the unit
Materials (ASTM) have jointly prepared a metric practice names themselves are not capitalized (for example, tesla,
manual6 that has been recognized by the American Nation- T; meter, m). In contrast to unit symbols, the spelling and
al Standards Institute (ANSI). The Secretary of Commerce, grammar for unit names are specific to a given language
through NIST, has also issued recommendations for US and are not part of the SI (for example, the spellings kilo-
metric practice,7 as provided under the Metric Conversion gram and ampere are used in English, while kilogramme
Act of 1975 and the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness and ampère are used in French, but kg and A are the uni-
Act of 1988. Additional information is available on the versal SI symbols). Plurals of unit names are formed
Internet at the BIPM8 and NIST9 Web sites. according to the usual rules of grammar (for example,
kilopascals, henries) with the exceptions lux, hertz, and
Robert Nelson is president of Satellite Engineering Research siemens, which are irregular.5 Unit symbols are not plu-
Corporation, a consulting firm in Bethesda, Maryland. ralized (for example, 3 kg, not 3 kgs).

© 2004 American Institute of Physics, S-0031-9228-0482-020-9 http://physicstoday.org/guide/metric.pdf 1

 Table 3. SI prefixes Table 5. Non-SI units accepted for use with
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol the SI whose values in SI units are obtained
1024 yotta Y 10–1 deci d experimentally
1021 zetta Z 10–2 centi c
1018 exa E 10–3 milli m Quantity Unit
1015 peta P 10–6 micro m Name Symbol Value
1012 tera T 10–9 nano n energy electron volt* eV 1.602 176 462(63)×10–19 J
109 giga G 10–12 pico p mass unified atomic u 1.660 538 73(13)×10–27 kg
mass unit*
106 mega M 10–15 femto f
103 kilo k 10–18 atto a distance astronomical unit** ua 1.495 978 706 91(6)×1011 m
102 hecto h 10–21 zepto z * P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 28, 1713 (1999); Rev. Mod. Phys. 72,
351 (2000).
101 deka da 10–24 yocto y ** D. D. McCarthy, G. Petit, eds., IERS Conventions (2003), IERS Technical Note 32,
International Earth Rotation Service (November 2003), available at http://www.iers.org.

Table 4. Units accepted for use with the SI

Quantity Unit spacing convention is also used to the right of the decimal
Name Symbol Definition marker. The numerical value and unit symbol must be
time minute min 1 min=60 s separated by a space, even when used as an adjective (for
hour h 1 h=60 min=3600 s
day d 1 d=24 h=86 400 s example, 35 mm, not 35mm or 35-mm). A zero should be
plane angle degree ° 1°=(p/180) rad placed in front of the decimal marker in decimal fractions
minute 9 1⬘=(1/60)°=(p/10 800) rad (for example, 0.3 J, not .3 J).
second 0 1⬙=(1/60)9=(p/648 000) rad
volume liter L 1 L=1 dm3=10–3 m3 Non-SI units
mass metric ton t 1 t=1000 kg An important function of the SI is to discourage the pro-
attenuation, level neper Np 1 Np=1
liferation of unnecessary units. However, there are three
bel B 1 B=1/2 ln 10 Np
categories of units outside the SI that are recognized.
“Units accepted for use with the SI” are listed in Table 4.
The word “degree” and its symbol, °, are omitted from As exceptions to the rules, the symbols °, ⬘ and ⬙ for plane
the unit of thermodynamic temperature T (that is, one angle are not preceded by a space, and the symbol for liter,
uses kelvin or K, not degree Kelvin or °K). However, they L, is capitalized to avoid confusion with the number 1.
are retained in the unit of Celsius temperature t, defined “Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI whose values
as t
T–T0, where T0 = 273.15 K exactly (that is, one uses in SI units are obtained experimentally” are given in
degree Celsius or °C). Table 5. The third category, “other non-SI units currently
Symbols for prefixes representing 106 or greater are accepted for use with the SI,” consists of the nautical mile,
capitalized; all others are lower case. There is no space knot, are, hectare, bar, angstrom, and barn.
between the prefix and the unit. Compound prefixes are to
be avoided (for example, pF, not mmF). An exponent References
applies to the whole unit including its prefix (for example, 1. For a history of the metric system and SI units, see R. A. Nel-
cm3 = 10–6 m3). When a unit multiple or submultiple is son, Phys. Teach. 19, 596 (1981); R. A. Nelson, Via Satellite
written out in full, the prefix should be written in full, 15(2), 90 (2000).
beginning with a lowercase letter (for example, mega- 2. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Le Système Inter-
hertz, not Megahertz or Mhertz). The kilogram is the only national d'Unités (SI), 7th ed., BIPM, Sèvres, France (1998);
base unit whose name, for historical reasons, contains a US ed.: The International System of Units (SI), B. N. Taylor,
prefix; names of multiples and submultiples of the kilo- ed., Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Pub. 330, US Govt. Print-
gram and their symbols are formed by attaching prefixes ing Office, Washington, DC (2001).
to the word “gram” and the symbol “g.” 3. International Organization for Standardization, Quantities
Multiplication of units is indicated by inserting a and Units, ISO Standards Handbook, 3rd ed., ISO, Geneva
(1993). This is a compilation of individual standards ISO 31-0
raised dot or by leaving a space between the units (for
to 31-13 and ISO 1000, available from Am. Natl. Stand. Inst.,
example, N·m or N m). Division may be indicated by the New York.
use of the solidus, a horizontal fraction bar, or a negative 4. E.R. Cohen, P. Giacomo, eds., Physica 146A, 1 (1987). Reprint-
exponent (for example, m/s, or m·s–1), but repeated use of ed as Symbols, Units, Nomenclature and Fundamental Con-
the solidus is not permitted (for example, m/s2, not m/s/s). stants in Physics (1987 revision), document IUPAP-25 (SUNAM-
To avoid possible misinterpretation when more than one CO 87-1).
unit appears in the denominator, the preferred practice is 5. B. N. Taylor, Guide for the Use of the International System of
to use parentheses or negative exponents (for example, Units, Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Pub. 811, US Govt.
W/(m2·K4) or W·m–2·K–4). The unit expression may include Printing Office, Washington, DC (1995).
a prefixed unit in the numerator or denominator (for 6. IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 14 on Quantities,
example, mN/m, W/cm2). Units, and Letter Symbols and ASTM Committee E-43 on SI
Unit names should not be mixed with symbols for Practice, American National Standard for Use of the Interna-
mathematical operations. (For example, one should write tional System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System,
“meter per second” but not “meter/second” or “meter sec- IEEE/ASTM SI 10-2002, Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, New York, and American Society for Testing and
ond–1.”) When spelling out the product of two units, a space
Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (2002).
is recommended (although a hyphen is permissible), but one 7. B. N. Taylor, ed., Interpretation of the SI for the United States
should never use a centered dot. (Write, for example, “new- and Federal Government Metric Conversion Policy, Natl. Inst.
ton meter” or “newton-meter,” but not “newton·meter.”) Stand. Technol. Spec. Pub. 814, US Govt. Printing Office,
Three-digit groups in numbers with more than four Washington, DC (1998); Federal Register 63(144), 40334 (28
digits are separated by thin spaces instead of commas (for July 1998).
example, 299 792 458, not 299,792,458) to avoid confusion 8. http://www.bipm.org
with the decimal marker in European literature. This 9. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu 䊏

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