7 Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations

Summarizing the properties of electrostatic fields we have learned so far, they

satisfy the laws of electrostatics shown in the margin and, in addition, Laws of
electrostatics:
E = −∇V as a consequence of ∇ × E = 0.
∇ · E = ρ/"o
• Using these relations, we can re-write Gauss’s law as
∇×E=0
ρ
∇ · E = −∇ · (∇V ) = ,
"o
from which it follows that
ρ
∇2V = − , (Poisson’s eqn)
"o
where
2 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇V ≡ + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
is known as Laplacian of V . Poisson’s eqn:
ρ
– A special case of Poisson’s equation corresponding to having ∇2 V = −
"o
ρ(x, y, z) = 0

everywhere in the region of interest is Laplace’s eqn:

∇2V = 0. (Laplace’s eqn)
∇2 V = 0

1
Focusing our attention first on Laplace’s equation, we note that the equation z V (d) = −3 V

can be used in charge free-regions to determine the electrostatic potential

V (x, y, z) by matching it to specified potentials at boundaries as illustrated y
in the following examples: V (z) =?
V (0) = 0
z=0
x

Example 1: Consider a pair of parallel conducting metallic plates of infinite extents z

in x and y directions but separated in z direction by a finite distance of d = 2
m (as shown in the margin). The conducting plates have non-zero surface charge z=d=2m

densities (to be determined in Example 2), which are known to be responsible for
an electrostatic field E = ẑEz measured in between the plates. Each plate has V (z) = Az + B
some unique and constant electrostatic potential V since neither E(r) nor V (r)
can dependent the coordinates x or y given the geometry of the problem. V (z)

Using Laplace’s equation determine V (z) and E(z) between the plates if the potential
of the plate at z = 0 is 0 (the ground), while the potential of the plate at z = d
is −3 V.

Solution: Since the potential function V = V (z) between the plates is only dependent
on z, it follows that Laplace’s equation simplifies as

2 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
∇V = + + = = 0.
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂z 2
This equation can be satisfied by
V (z) = Az + B
where A and B are constants to be determined. Now applying the given boundary
conditions, we first notice that (at the lower plate)
V (0) = (Az + B)|z=0 = B = 0.

2
 z V (d) = −3 V
Applying the second boundary condition (at the top plate) we find
3V y
V (2) = (Az + 0)|z=2 = 2A = −3 V ⇒ A = − . V (0) = 0
2m V (z) =?
z=0
x
The upshot is, potential function
3
V (z) = − z, for 0 < z < 2 m.
2 z
Finally, we determine the electric field between the plates as z=d=2m
−3 3
3 ∂ 3 3V V (z) = − z
2
E = −∇V = −∇(− z) = ẑ ( z) = ẑ .
2 ∂z 2 2m 3 3
E = −∇(− z) = ẑ
2 2
0
V (z)

Example 2: In Example 1 what are the surface charge densities of the metallic plates
located at z = 0 and z = 2 m surfaces?

Solution: Since the electric field

3V
E = ẑ
2m
in between the plates, comparing this field with the field
ρs
E = ẑ
"o
of a pair of parallel surfaces carrying surface charge densities ρs and −ρs (at
z = 0 and z = 2 m), we find that
3
ρs = "o
2
on the surface at z = 0. The surface at z = 2 m has ρs = − 32 "o .

3
 Notice that our solution with equal and opposite charge densities on the parallel
surfaces implies that electrostatic fields are zero within the conducting plates
where the fields due to two charged surfaces are canceling out. This conclusion is
consistent with having constant electrostatic potentials within conducting regions
as will be discussed in the next lecture.

Example 3: A pair of copper blocks separated by a distance d = 3 m in x direction z

hold surface charge densities of ρs = ±2 C/m2 on surfaces facing one another as Vo = 0 + -
+
shown in the margin. The blocks are assigned constant potentials Vo = 0 and Vp +
-
-
(see figure). What is the potential difference Vp ? +
+
-
Vp =?
-
− + +
E =0 + E -
Solution: Let D+ = x̂"o Ex denote the displacement vector in between the blocks, and +
-
-
let D− = 0 denote the displacement vector within the block with a surface at +
+
-
- x
x = 0. Then the boundary condition equation used at x = 0 implies that + -
3 m
C 2
x̂ · (D+ − D− ) = "o Ex = 2 2 ⇒ Ex = .
m "o
In that case, potential difference between the blocks is
2 6
V = Ex d = 3= .
"o "o
Since the block on the left is at a higher potential (electric field vectors point
from high to low potential) assigned as Vo = 0, we must have
6
Vp = − .
"o

4
 z
Poisson’s equation −ρ1 < 0 ρ2 > 0
ρ
∇2 V = −
"o
E
is used in regions where the charge density ρ(r) is non-zero. The following - +

x
example illustrates a possible use of Poisson’s equation.
−W1 W2
E1x(x)
Example 4: An infinite charged slab of width W1, located over −W1 < x < 0, has a ρ1W1
negative volumetric charge density of −ρ1 C/m3 , ρ1 > 0. A second slab of width 2"o
W2 and positive charge density ρ2 is located over 0 < x < W2 as shown in the
−W1 x
margin. The electric field of this static charge configuration under the constraint
W1ρ1 = W2ρ2 was computed in an earlier section as
!
−x̂ ρ1 (x+W"o
1)
, for − W1 < x < 0 E2x(x)
E=
x̂ ρ2 (x−W
"o
2)
, for 0 < x < W2 ρ2W2
2"o

and is depicted in the margin. Determine the electrostatic potential in the re- W2 x
gion and the potential difference V21 ≡ V (W2) − V (−W1) satisfying Poisson’s
equation.

Solution: This is a one dimensional geometry where E and potential V depend only on Ex(x)
−W1 W2
coordinate x. Therefore, Poisson’s equation ∇2V = −ρ/"o takes the simplified
form x
d2 V ρ(x)
= − .
dx2 "o
ρ1W1
−
Integral of this equation over x yields in the left dV
dx = −Ex , which implies, given "o
the electric field result from above,
!
ρ1 (x+W1 )
dV "o , for − W1 < x < 0
= ρ2 (x−W2 )
dx − "o , for 0 < x < W2

5
 Integrating dV
dx
once more (i.e., finding suitable anti-derivatives with integration
constants), we find
!
ρ1 (x+W1 )2
2"o + V1 , for − W1 < x < 0
V (x) = 2
− ρ2 (x−W2"o
2)
+ V2 , for 0 < x < W2
z
where the integration constants included on each line have been selected so that −ρ1 < 0 ρ2 > 0
V2 = V (W2), V1 = V (−W1).
E
Requiring a unique potential value at x = 0 (we can only associate a single potential - +

energy level with each position in space) compatible with this expression for V (x), x
we obtain
ρ1 (0 + W1)2 ρ2 (0 − W2)2
+ V1 = − + V2 , −W1 W2
2"o 2"o Ex(x)
−W1 W2
from which x
ρ2 W22 + ρ1 W12 ρ2 W2 (W1 + W2 ) ρ1 W1(W1 + W2)
V21 = V2 − V1 = = = .
2"o 2"o 2"o
ρ1W1
−
"o
Note that the equation above can be solved for W1, W2, and W2 + W1 in terms of
V12 , ρ2 , and ρ1 , providing useful formulas for diode design (see ECE 440). We
V (x)
can also get useful specific formulae for V1 and V2 by imposing V (0) = 0, i.e., V2

choosing x = 0 to be the reference point.

−W1
W2 x
V1

• The solution of Poisson’s equation

ρ
∇2 V = −
"o
6
with an arbitrary ρ existing over a finite region in space can be obtained z ρ(r# )
#
as " r−r
ρ(r&)
V (r) = &
d3 r& r r#
4π"o|r − r |
where d3r& ≡ dx& dy & dz & and the 3D integral on the right over the primed
coordinates is performed over the entire region where the charge density y
is non-zero. O
x
– Verification: The solution above can be verified by combining a
number of results we have seen earlier on:
1. In Lecture 5 we learned that the electric potential V (r) of a
point charge e at the origin is
e
V (r) = .
4π"o|r|
Clearly, this singular result is a solution of Poisson’s equa-
tion above (and the stated boundary condition) for a charge
density input of
ρ(r) = eδ(r).
2. Using ECE 210-like terminology and notation, the above re-
sult can be represented as
1
δ(r) → Poisson’s Eqn →
4π"o|r|

7
 identifying the output on the right as 3D “impulse response”
of the linear and shift-invariant (LSI) system represented
by Poisson’s equation.
3. Because of shift-invariance, we have
1
δ(r − r&) → Poisson’s Eqn → ,
4π"o|r − r&|
meaning that a shifted impulse causes a shifted impulse re-
sponse.
The shifted impulse response is usually called “Green’s
function” G(r, r&) in EM theory.
4. Because of linearity, we are allowed to use superpositioning
arguments like
" "
1
ρ(r& )δ(r−r&)d3r& = ρ(r) → Poisson’s Eqn → ρ(r& ) &
d3r& = V (r),
4π"o|r − r |
which concludes our verification of the electrostatic1 potential
solution. Note how we made use of the sifting property of the
impulse (from ECE 210) in above calculation.

• As an application of the general solution of Poisson’s equation, namely

"
2 ρ ρ(r& ) 3 &
∇ V =− ⇒ V (r) = d r,
"o 4π"o|r − r& |
1
Also, in quasi-statics we use ρ(r! , t) to obtain V (r, t) over regions small compared to λ = c/f , with f
the highest frequency in ρ(r! , t).

8
 we next provide an outline of the proof of Helmholtz theorem (see
Lecture 4) which
# states that any vector field F(x, y, z) that vanishes in
the limit r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 → ∞ can be reconstructed uniquely from
its divergence and curl:

First, with no loss of generality, we write

F = −∇V + ∇ × A
in terms of scalar and vector fields V (x, y, z) and A(x, y, z) to be de-
termined. Taking next the divergence of F (and using ∇ · ∇ × A = 0),
we find that
"
(∇ · F)r=r& 3 &
∇ · F = −∇2V ⇒ V (r) = dr
4π|r − r& |
in analogy with Poisson’s equation (with ∇ · F replacing ρ/"o). Also,
taking the curl of F (and using ∇ × ∇V = 0) and assuming2 ∇ · A = 0
we find (similarly)
"
(∇ × F)r=r& 3 &
∇×F = ∇×∇×A = ∇(∇·A)−∇2A ⇒ A(r) = d r.
4π|r − r& |
These results validate Helmholtz theorem for fields F vanishing at infinity,
since, evidently, V and A required to reconstruct F can be uniquely specified
in terms of ∇ · F and ∇ × F, respectively.
2
We are justified to assume ∇ · A as we please in specifying A by virtue of Helmholtz theorem we
are proving (if you are concerned about circular reasoning, go ahead and evaluate the divergence of the
specified A to confirm that it vanishes everywhere as long as F vanishes in infinity).