LET Reviewer-ENGLISH

LECTURE NOTES
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other, yet defining the
process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical periods, in their dire attempts to
bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to explain the process of communication, Since the
linear representation of Aristotle to the complex depiction of modern linguist, we can say that this endeavor has
come a long way.
Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this diversity proves to
be the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the better understanding of this
process.
Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary schools of thought
as regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely cited and extensively use model, will
be discussed to explain in the basic components of the communication cycle, while the Dance Helix model will
be clarified to give a fresh and novel perspective on the practice of other long-standing theories.

Berios’Model

David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most recognizable
representations. It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the channel. That is why at times
this model is also called SMRC.

SOURCE MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CONTENT
ATTITUDES
TREATMENT
KNOWLEDGE
CODE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
CULTURE

RECEIVER
CHANNEL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
SEEING ATTITUDES
HEARING KNOWLEDGE
TOUCHING SOCIAL SYSTEM
SMELLING CULTURE
TASTING

SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of each component
redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and attitude are
communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for successful
communication to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher level of language proficiency
compared to the receiver, or vice versa, then problems are expected. Refer to the sample conversation below
and then try, to figure out what caused the lapse in communication.
Conversation Sample
Setting: Jakarta International Airport Immigration Counter
Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts.
Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning of English
language.
Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary?
Tourist: Uhh….sory. What is that again?
Immigration Officer: oh, I mean… where do you plan to go?
Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of Modern Art, and
maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida.
Immigration officer: Okay. Welcome to America. Enjoy your vacation!
In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors led to lapses in
communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely on the one who has higher
proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a beginner), the immigration officer paraphrased the
statement to fit the level of the tourist.
Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample conversation
below and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown.
Conversation Sample
Setting: Computer repair shop
Situation: One client wants to have her laptop fixed.
Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency.
Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after turning it on?
Technician: Okay, let me see it.
Client: So what do you think?
Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms…
Client: Huh? Trojans? Worms?
Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so greatly helps the
performance of your computer.
Client: Huh? What is that again? Defragment…what?
Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat everything, is that ok with
you?
Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok?
In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the computers and
information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of computer software and hardware
nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying poses great difficulty that can later on lead to
communication breakdown.
English Language Learning
Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that summarizes these
sets.

MACRO SKILLS CUEING SYSTEM S COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCIES

L e a r n i n g P h o n o l o g y G r a m m a t i c a l
S p e a k i n g M o r p h o l o g y D i s c o u r s e
R e a d i n g S e m a n t i c s S o c i o l i n g u i s t i c
W r i t i n g S y n t a x S t r a t e g i c

THE FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS

CUEING SYSTEM D e f i n i t i o n
P h o n o l o g y P e r t a i n s t o t h e s o u n d s o f l a n g u a g e
M o r p h o l o g y P e r t a i n s t o f o r m a t i o n o f w o r d s
T y p e s o f m o r p h e m e s
 B o u n d m o r p h e m e ( d e p e n d e n t )
 F r e e m o r p h e m e ( i n d e p e n d e n t )

S e m a n t i c s P e r t a i n s t o m e a n i n g d e r i v a t i o n
S y n t a x Grammar, structure, and form of the language

LISTENING
 Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think about it, this
claim may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we learned our first utterances.
Parents keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and repeat the utterances successfully (
behaviorist). But is listening as easy as it may sound?

The Listening Process

Receiving Decoding Selecting

Retaining Comprehending Interpreting

Reacting Responding
The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The listener, then, will
decode the message and select important parts of the message that will help the listener in interpreting it.
Based on the interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the message and retains information needed for
him to react and respond.
Kinds of Listening
Interactional/ Emphatic Listening
 This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This happens when
persons listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and empathizing. At times, the aim of
this type of listening is to accomplish tasks or to come up with something.
 In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to accomplish given
tasks and activities.

Transactional/Critical Listening
 In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for the purpose of
improving his skill in generalizing and decision making.
 In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more knowledge

THREE MODELS OF LISTENING

Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made mention of the
three modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional.
Undirectional If the listener cannot respond to the things he/she heard
Bidirectional If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by prefix “bi”)
Autodirectional If the listening process is reflexive-meaning, the speaker this is
intrapersonal listening
SPEAKING

Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used language
merely for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and innovation.

But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the expression and
communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is
systematized and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time. If we are to look a Webster’s
definition can infer that there are only two functions of language.

The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how one thinks (ideas).
He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and listening (hearing). The two word
systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to grammar-meaning it follows certain rules and
systems, and lastly, he also mentioned”period of time”, which can be interpreted as the changes language goes
through with me.
Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-meaning, one cannot
just mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a meaningful word-well, at least in
English. In the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if one will change “is” to “are”. These instances are the
bases of the structurist in saying that language is a system. They also believes that language is primary vocal, is
another claim of the structurists. For them, and other Webster, speaking and listening are important language
skills. They also adhere to the concept that language is arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes through
series of innovations developments, and changes. The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”, and hath” are no longer
used today. This is one proof that language, just as other things, constantly changes.

The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language learning is innate
in the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD (language acquisition device) that
is responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze their definition, we can infer that language (for
them) is not learned but acquired. The difference of learning from acquiring is that learning is voluntary while
acquiring is involuntary. We choose to learn, but we no choice what to acquire. We acquire traits from our
parents, but we learn how to solve math problems.

The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs specific
functions, such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make someone to do something.
Most people will agree with this definition, because practically these functions are what language is really for.

The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned through imitation,
repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask her students to say word the she
does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the same pupils to repeat saying the world over and
over again, then the pupil will be punished. On the other hand, if the pupil were able to say it correctly, then
he/she will receive a prize. Given the two instances above, then the pupils learned ( reinforcement)

THE SEGMENTALS
According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak properly? Is it merely
opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides speech production? In this action,
you will know how the speech mechanism works.

The Family of Consonant Sounds

Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation (where the
sounds is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing (voiceless or voiced).
Manner of Articulation

Stops/Plosives
These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small creating friction. The
sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of this group.

Affricates
These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are the members of this
group.

Nasals
Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the nose. N, M, and
Ng are nasal sounds.

Liquid/Lateral
Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner. Sounds like L and
R are examples.

Glides
Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y.
Point of Articulation

B i l a b i a l Two lips touching each othe r

L a b i o D e n t a l Lower lips touches upper teeth
D e n t a l Tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth
A l v e o l a r Tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridg e
P a l a t a l T h e t o n g u e a n d h a r d p a l a t e
V e l a r Dorsal tongue and soft palat e
G l o t t a l T h r o a t p a s s a g e

Voiced or Voiceless
A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are not vibrating
upon the production of sounds.

Consonant Chart
Place of Articulation
Manner
Bilabial Labio Dental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar G l o t t a l
S t o p T D K G
Fricative F V T h S Z SH ZH H
(voiced and voiceless
Affricate TS DZ
N a s a l M N N G
L o u d L R
G l i d e W Y

VOWELS

Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are voiced sounds
can be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the mouth opens.

Vowel sounds can be classified as SPREAD, ROUND,OR NEUTRAL.

SPREAD
/ i / Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat ”
/ l / Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and “maariage”
/ e / Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate”
/ E / Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy”
/ a e ) Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”, and “hamburger”

NEUTRAL

/ Y / Unaccented schwa sound as in “towel”, and “America”

/ ^ / Accented schwa as in “judge”, and “cup”

ROUND

/ u / Long /u/ sound as in “balloon”, “soon”, and “pool”

/ U / Short /U/ sound as in ”pull”, “would”, “push”, and”cook”
/ o / Complete/o/ sound as in “boat”, “phone”, and”own”
/ a / The /a/ sound as in” dark”, sergeant”, and “psalm”

THE SUPRA SEGEMENTALS

Juncture
Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly represented by a single
slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three slashes(///) for rests at the end of the
paragraph

Pitch
This is the highness or lowness of sound
Volume
This is the loudness or softness of sound
Intonation
This is the rising and falling sound
Stress
This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables
READING

Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there are five skills that a
student must have like.
1. Phonemic Awareness- being familiar with the sounds of the language
2. Phonics – drawing out the relationship between the symbol and the sound ( graphonemic relationship)
3. Fluency – the ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance
4. Vocabulary- the ability to attach meaning to words
5. Comprehension- the ability to create and decode meaning from a group of words.

Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six stages namely:
Stage 0 Pre-Reading Stage
In this stage, the students are being exposed to the different sounds of the language. This is the reason why
songs, nursery rhymes, and poetry are being read to the students of reading. Automatically in recognizing a
particular language is the key in the next stages. The teacher can determine if the students have phonemic
awareness if they can name from language the words they hear are from.
Stage 1 Initial Reading Stage
In this stage, the students will start to realize the correspondence between the symbol and the sound. For
example, upon seeing the symbol M, the students will know that the sound is /m/ as in “mother”
Stage 2 Confirmation Stage
This stage is deemed to be very crucial in reading development and according to Chall, most will mistake
fluency for comprehension. She reiterates that mere verbalization of written text cannot be considered complete
reading.
Stage 3 Reading to Learn (Academic Reading)
The first three stages are considered”learning to read stages” while stage 3 up until stage 5 are “reading to
learn stages”. In this particular stage, students must be beyond fluency. They must be able to comprehend what
they read because if not, they will have difficulty in learning
Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage
After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage. On the other
hand, if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to write their own, they belong to
fifth stage

Purpose of Reading

Skimming- reading to get the main idea

Scanning – reading to get specific information
Other Purposes of Reading
1. Information searching
2. General comprehending
3. New information learning
4. Information evaluating and synthesizing
WRITING

The Paragraph
The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are properly and
logically organized to support one specific idea or topic.

Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity, Coherence, logical
Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing and limiting topic sentence-
“UCODE TS”

The paragraph Paradigm

Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are about the topic
sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other properly and logical and coherent
order.

S2

S1 Topic Sentence
S3

S4
GRAMMAR

Part of Speech
NOUNS

A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc.

Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places
2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things
3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers
4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using measurements
- Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon count nouns.
5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things
6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit.
- Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined words

PRONOUNS

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns

Kinds of Pronouns
1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken about.

S I N G U L A R P L U R A L
F I R S T P E R S O N I ( S u b j e c t i v e ) WE ( Subjective )
M E ( O b j e c t i v e ) U S ( O b j e c t i v e )
 S E C O N D P E R S O N Y O U Y O U

T H I R D P E R S O N SHE, HE, HER,HIM, IT THEY ( Subjective)

THEM ( Objective)

2. Possessive pronouns- these are pronouns that show possession

P O S S E S S I V E A D J E C T I V E S P O S S E S S I V E P R O N O U N S
M Y M I N E
O U R O U R S
Y O U R Y O U R S
T H E I R T H E I R S
H I S H I S
H E R H E R S
I T S

Examples:
Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book)
Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)
3. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

S I N G U L A R P L U R A L
FIRST PERSON M Y S E L F O U R S E L V E S
SECOND PERSON Y O U R S E L F Y O U R S E L V E S
THIRD PERSON H I M S E L F T H E M S E L V E S
I T S E L F
O N S L E L F

Example:

R E F L E X I V E I N T E N S I V E
The pronoun refers to the subject The pronoun shows emphasis
a. I s e e m y s e l f i n h i s a c t i o n sa. I , m y s e l f i s t h e c u l p r i t
b. D i d y o u t e a c h y o u r s e l f ?b. Y o u , y o u r s e l f t e a c h
c. H e cu t th e pap er h i m s e l fc. H e , h i m s e l f c u t t h e p a p e r
d. T h e y w e r e s h o c k e d a b o u t t h e m s e l v e sd. T h e y t h e m s e l v e s w e r e s h o c k e d

4. Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to a specific noun.

S I N G U L A R P L U R A L BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL

ANY ,EVERYONE BOTH, SEVERAL N O N E
A N Y BO D Y, NO O N E F E W A L L
E V E R Y B O D Y M A N Y S O M E
A N Y O N E
5. Interrogative pronouns- used in asking questions

I N T E R R O G A T I V E P R O N O U N S
WHO HOW TO WHOM
WHAT WHOM TO WHAT
WHICH WHOSE TO WHICHWHER E
W H Y W H E N

6. Demonstrative pronouns- used in pointing nouns

S I N G U L A R T H I S T H A T
P L U R A L T H E S E T H O S E

ADJECTIVES

An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions.

It answers the questions:

What kind?
Which one?
How many?
How much?
Comparison of Adjectives

P O S I T I V E C O M P A R A T I V E S U P E R L A T I V E
B I G B I G G E R B I G G E S T
U S E F U L M O R E U S E F U L M O S T U S E F U L
A C T I V E L E S S A C T I V E L E A S T A C T I V E
B A D W O R S E W O R S T

Order of Adjectives
Descriptive Adjectives
determiner observation origin material qualifier n o u n
s i z e shape a g e color sports C a r
A n Expensive R e d European Necklace
A n Extrai-ordinary D a i s i e s
S i x Long stemmed White american H a i r
H e r shiny Short Black D o g
M y B i g O l d German B o x e s
Those Long Ceramic jewelry L o c k e t
That Smooth B i g I n s e c t s
F e w T i n y African gold F i l m s
Some Erotic I ndian

VERBS

Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs also link ideas in a
sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into (1) verbs actions, (2) linking/be verbs,
(3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5) modals.
Action Verbs
These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most of the time,
learners tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing, dance, etc. are common examples
of action verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into two more sub classifications-Regular and Irregular
verbs
Regular verbs
Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the word walk for an
example; the past form of walk is walked.

B A S E F O R M P A S T F O R M
W a t c h W a t c h e d
B a k e B a k e d
P i c k P i c k e d
S a v e S a v e d

Irregular verbs
Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a change or
through retention in spelling.
B A S E F O R M P A S T F O R M
P a y P a i d
P u t P u t
S a y S a i d
w r i t e W r o t e

Linking verbs

Linking Verbs as Copula

The copula is defined by Celce-Muricia as the link between the subject and non verbal predicates ( nouns,
adjectives, and some adverbials). The copula also carries the tense and would determines subject-verb
agreement.
Examples:
She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective.
She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is”

Linking Verbs as Perception Corpulas

These are verbs that expresses no action, but at the same time, are not conventional ( is, are, was, were) linking
verbs. They are called Perception copulas because they are perceived through the senses ( mental or sensory)
Examples:
Appear Seem Feel Look
Smell Sound Taste
Linking Verb as State Copulas
State copulas are verbs that are not locomotive. They are more of a condition than an action.
Examples:
Lie Remain
Rest Stand

Linking Verbs as Change of State Copulas

These linking verbs do not express instant locomotion or movement. Mostly, these verbs express changes from
one state to another.
Examples:
Become Come Fall
Get Go Grow
Turn
These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a sentence ( main verb).
Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if they appear together with a for a s verb in
progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have, and had.

The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for plural subjects in the
present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the past tense. Has, have and had, are
also considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb( main verb) in the past participal
form.

Example:
She has taken a bath already the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary
Emphatic Verbs
Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is used for plural
subjects in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present tense, and DID for both plural
and singular in the past tense.

The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em phatic verbs if they
appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form.
Example:
She did not drink her milk ----- DID is used as an emphatic verb
Modals
According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A degree of
probability, to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as expressing politeness or
indirectness when making request, giving advice, or grabting permission. It is always couples with a verb on its
base form.

a. Stating Ability
I can do anything
b. Expressing Regret
 I should have loved you
c. Giving warning
You may be in danger
d. Expressing Admission with Reservation
I might be wrong, but I know what I did
e. Expressing observation
You must do this
ADVERBS

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverb.

Adverb of Manner
This answers the question how a thing is done
Example:
He did the job poorly
Question: How did he do the job?
Answer: Poorly
Adverb of Time
This answers the question when the action happened
Example:
He will go there tomorrow
Question: When will he go there?
Answer: Tomorrow
Adverb of Frequency
This answers the question how often
Example:
She is there every week
Question: how frequent is she there?
Answer: every week
PREPOSITION

A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A preposition may
indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause.
Common Prepositions

In front of A b o u t I n B e n e a t h
In regard to A b o v e N e a r D u r i n g
I n s i d e A c r o s s D o w n B y
In spite of A g a i n s t D e s p i t e B y m e a n s
I n t o A m o n g F r o m A m i d

CONJUNCTION

If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit.
Coordinating Conjunctions- connect words or group of words
Examples: but, and, for, nor, or, so, yet
TIP: Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same grammatical structures.
Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they always appear in pairs.
Examples: either….or, neither… nor
Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other.
Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless
INTERJECTION

These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an independent sentence with
the speaker as the subject.
Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray
Subject and Verb Agreement

Collective Nouns
These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a sentence. On the
other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a singular verb. On the other hand,
if a collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will take a plural verb.
Examples: Our debate team has won the competition
Our debate team have won all their battles

Noun ending in –s-and –ics

Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form
Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject
Measles is a dangerous disease
Nouns in sets of twos.
Nouns of this nature take a singular verb if the word” pair” is present. If not. They take a plural verb.
Examples: A pair of scissors in on the table
The scissors are on the table
“A number” and “The number”
Sentence beginning with the phrase “ a number” always take a plural verb, while sentences that begin with “
the number” take a singular verb”
Examples: A number of students have been expelled
The number of students being expelled is rising.
Fraction and Percent
Nouns in percent and in fraction take a singular verb if paired with a non-count noun, and vice versa.
Examples: 50% of the Earth’s water is still safe for drinking
One-third of the students were expelled
Compound Nouns
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs.
Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers
Neither…nor and Either…or
The verb must agree with closet noun.
Example: Neither John nor his brothers are going to America
As well and Together with
The verb must agree with the first noun (subject).
Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow
 Tenses
Simple Present Tense
Verbs in the present tense express habitual or factual actions.
Examples: She sings
The sun shines
Simple Past Tense
Verbs in the past tense express actions that happened in the past.
Example: She sang yesterday

Simple Future Tense

Verbs in the future tense express actions that will happen in the future.
Example: She will sing.

Present Progressive Tense

Verbs in the present progressive tense, express actions that are happening at the moment.
Example: She is singing.

Past Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that started and ended in the past.
Example: She was singing all afternoon yesterday.

Future Progressive Tense

This expresses a continuing action that will happen in the future.
Example: She will be singing in the competition.

Present Perfect Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past, but is still happening at present
Example: I have sung a song.

Past Perfect Tense

This expresses two past actions, in which one happened before the other.
Example: she had sung before she danced
Future Perfect Tense
This expresses two future actions, in which one will happen before the other.
Example: She will have sung before she dances.

Present Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses an action that started in the past and still happening at present and will most likely continue to
happen in the future.
Example: She has been singing since this morning.

Past Perfect Progressive Tense

This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one transpired.
Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded.
Future Perfect Progressive Tense
This expresses two future actions, where the first action is still happening when the second one is transpires.
Example: She will have been singing before the bomb explodes.

S U M M A R Y S U M M A R Y
P r e s e n t I d a n c e
P a s t I d a n c e d
F u t u r e I w i l l d a n c e
P r e s e n t P r o g r e s s i v e I a m d a n c i n g
P a s t P r o g r e s s i v e I was dan cin g all aftern oon yest erda y
F u t u r e P r o g r e s s i v e I w i l l b e d a n c i n g
P r e s e n t P e r f e c t I h a v e d a n c e d
P a s t P e r f e c t I had danced before I sang
F u t u r e P e r f e c t I will have danced before I sing
Present Perfect Progressive I have been dancing since then
P as t p er fe ct P r o g r e s s i v e I had been dancing when the bomb exploded
Future Perfect Progressive I will have been when the party end s

Faulty Modifiers

Dangling Modifier- absence of the word being modified

Example: Inside the store, shoes must be worn
Who must wear the shoes?
Customers must wear shoes inside the store.

Misplaced Modifier- the modifier modifies the wrong word.

Example: Turning green, I watched the lights turning green.
Fragment- group of words masquerading as a sentence
Example: The justice system in the olden times
Sentence
Four Kinds of Sentences according to Function

Declarative- states an idea and express facts and opinion

Example:
She is a pretty girl
We must learn how to swim
The earth is round
Interrogative- used in asking questions
- Ends with a question mark
Example:
Who are you?
What is the capital city of Hungary?
Imperative- used in asking someone to do something
 - “you” is the implies subject
Example:
Go away
Turn around
Write your name
Exclamatory- used to express strong feeling or emotion
-end with a exclamation point
Example:
Fire!
Bomb!
You won!
Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Sentence Patterns with Transitive Verbs

S-AV-DO ( Subject-Action Verb-Direct Object)
Beth read the book quickly
I gave him a book

S-AV-IO-DO (Subject- Action Verb- Indirect Object-Direct Object)

I gave the place a new coat of paint
Mr. Padilla gave me the test results

S-AV-DO-OC (Subject- Action Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement)

The judges considered him a champion
The movie’s ending made her happy
Sentence Patterns with Linking Verbs

S-LV-PN (Subject-Linking Verbs-Predicate Nominative

That boy is the culprit
One of the contestants is she.

S-LV-PA (Subject- Linking Verb- Predicate Adjective

The show is cool
The singer sounds bad

Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

Simple Sentence- composed of one independent clause

Compound Sentence- composed of two or more independent clauses
Complex Sentence- composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses
Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses

Examples:

S i m p l e S e n t e n c e I t r i e d t o s t o p h e r
Compound Sentence I tried to stop her, but she still went awa y
Co mpl ex Sen ten c e I tried to stop her when she lef t
Compound- Complex I tried to stop her when she left, but she still went away
LITERATURE
Introduction to Fiction

FICTION
Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact.
The different types of fiction are the following:
Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which is designed to
produce a single dominant impression.
Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications involving
characters in a particular setting.
Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and dialogue.

Allegory- a symbolic fictional account conveying meaning/s beyond the literal

Element of Fiction
Plot
The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also deemed to be an
arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a narrative, and the logical sequence of
actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two ways, the first one is through Chronology-which means
that the events are arranged according to time and space, and the second one is through Climax-which means
that the events are organized according to order of suspense.

There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted from just one
conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more sources of conflicts.
Conflict
Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in the story. It can be
external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which means the conflict resides the main
character.

Here are the types of conflicts:

 Physical-man vs. nature
 Social- man vs. man
 Psychological- man vs. self
 Cosmic- man vs. God

Character
Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in fiction.

There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have the protagonist,
who is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who prevents the protagonist in
solving the conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has the opposite traits of the main protagonist;
the confidant, who serves as the friend of the protagonist; and the background characters, who are not closely
related with the protagonist.

We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was able to undergo
change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change in the outlook and action of
character.

Setting
The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It serves as the
backdrop and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of setting. The first one is time, which
sets the duration of the events; next is place, which talks about the locally; and the third one is atmosphere,
which is the emotion or the mood.

Theme
Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in the text.

Point of View
This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types;

FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it.
SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization and analysis
THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose a character from
whose consciousness the entire story is told
CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical recording device.
REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another
COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the story through the
different angles adapted by several narrating characters

Figurative Language
1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents.
Example: the face who launched a thousands ships
2. Simile- an indirect association
Example: she like a flower
3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: the sun is looking down on me.
4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement
Example: Loud silence
5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents
it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate
6. Metaphor- a direct comparison
Example: you are the sunshine of my life
7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break
8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration
 Example: Cry me a river
9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative.
Example: Loved child (illegitimate child)
10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence
Example: She walked away and so the world turns…
11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions)
Example: No retreat, no surrender

12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away
Example: Love, please come and take me.