DEPT. OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING.

NOT TO BE REMOVED FROM EXAM ROOM.

University of Surrey

Department of Electronic Engineering

Tables of constants, formulæ and transforms

13th edition, JHBD — April 2013

 CONTENTS

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS etc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS—real argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS—real argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS—complex argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
BESSEL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF SIMPLE FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Z TRANSFORMS — functions of t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Z TRANSFORMS — functions of n = 0, 1, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
TWO-PORT EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
VECTOR IDENTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
FOURIER SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
FOURIER TRANSFORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
FOURIER TRANSFORMS OF FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
AREA UNDER THE GAUSSIAN ERROR CURVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS etc.

Elementary positive charge e 1.602 18 × 10−19 C

Charge on electron qe −1.602 18 × 10−19 C
Unified atomic mass constant mu 1.660 54 × 10−27 kg
Rest mass of electron me 9.109 39 × 10−31 kg
Magnetic constant µ0 4π × 10−7 H/m
Electric constant ε0 8.854 19 × 10−12 F/m
Speed of light in free space c0 2.997 92 × 108 m/s
Intrinsic impedance of free space Z0 376.73 Ω
Avogadro constant L, NA 6.022 14 × 1023 mol−1
Avogadro number 6.022 14 × 1023
Boltzmann constant k 1.380 65 × 10−23 J/K
Planck constant h 6.626 08 × 10−34 Js
Stefan-Boltzmann radiation constant σ 5.670 51 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4
Acceleration due to gravity g 9.806 65 m s−2
Newtonian constant of gravitation G 6.674 28 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Angstrom Å 10−10 m
Base of natural logarithms e 2.718 282
Circumference/diameter for circle π 3.141 593

Values taken from IEE pamphlet:

“Units and Symbols for Electrical and Electronic Engineering”, June 1997 edition.

2
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
(Real argument)

ejθ = cos θ + j sin θ, e−jθ = cos θ − j sin θ

sin θ = − sin(−θ) = ejθ − e−jθ = 1

2j cosec θ
cos θ = cos(−θ) = ejθ + e−jθ = 1
2 sec θ
tan θ = − tan(−θ) = sin θ = 1 = ejθ − e−jθ
cos θ cot θ j(ejθ + e−jθ )

sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ = 1
2 (1 − cos 2θ)
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ = 1 (1 + cos 2θ)
2
tan2 θ = 1 − cos 2θ = sec2 θ − 1
1 + cos 2θ

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
tan 2θ = 2 tan θ
1 − tan2 θ

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan(A ± B) = tan A ± tan B
1 ∓ tan A tan B

sin A sin B = 1 [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]

2
cos A cos B = 1 [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)]
2
sin A cos B = 1 [sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)]
2

2 sin A + B cos A − B
   
sin A + sin B =
 2   2 
sin A − sin B = 2 sin A − B cos A + B
 2   2 
cos A + cos B = 2 cos A +2
B cos A − B
 2
−2 sin A + B sin A − B
  
cos A − cos B = 2 2

3
 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
(Real argument)

(eθ − e−θ ) 1
sinh θ = − sinh(−θ) = 2 = cosech θ
(eθ + e−θ ) 1
cosh θ = cosh(−θ) = 2 =
sech θ
tanh θ = − tanh(−θ) = sinh θ = 1 = eθ − e−θ
cosh θ coth θ eθ + e−θ

sinh2 θ = cosh2 θ − 1 = cosh 2θ − 1

2
cosh2 θ = sinh2 θ + 1 = cosh 2θ + 1
2
tanh2 θ = cosh 2θ − 1 = 1 − sech 2 θ
cosh 2θ + 1

sinh 2θ = 2 sinh θ cosh θ

cosh 2θ = cosh2 θ + sinh2 θ = 2 cosh2 θ − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 θ
tanh 2θ = 2 tanh θ
1 + tanh2 θ

sinh(A ± B) = sinh A cosh B ± cosh A sinh B

cosh(A ± B) = cosh A cosh B ± sinh A sinh B
tanh(A ± B) = tanh A ± tanh B
1 ± tanh A tanh B

sinh A sinh B = 1 [cosh(A + B) − cosh(A − B)]

2
cosh A cosh B = 1 [cosh(A + B) + cosh(A − B)]
2
sinh A cosh B = 1
2 [sinh(A + B) + sinh(A − B)]

√
arcsinh x = ln(x + x2 + 1)
√
arccosh x = ln(x + x2 − 1)
arctanh x = 1 1+x
2 ln 1 − x

4
 TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
(Complex argument)

sin(jθ) = j sinh θ sinh(jθ) = j sin θ

cos(jθ) = cosh θ cosh(jθ) = cos θ
tan(jθ) = j tanh θ tanh(jθ) = j tan θ

sin(A ± jB) = sin A cosh B ± j cos A sinh B

cos(A ± jB) = cos A cosh B ∓ j sin A sinh B
tan(A ± jB) = tan A ± j tanh B
1 ∓ j tan A tanh B

sinh(A ± jB) = sinh A cos B ± j cosh A sin B

cosh(A ± jB) = cosh A cos B ± j sinh A sin B
tanh(A ± jB) = tanh A ± j tan B
1 ± j tanh A tan B

BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Definition and series

1 π x2 x4 x6
Z
J0 (x) = cos(x cos θ) dθ = 1 − 2 + − + ...
π 0" 2 (2 · 4)2 (2 · 4 · 6)#2
xn x2 x4
Jn (x) = 1 − + − ...
2n n! 2(2n + 2) (2 · 4)(2n + 2)(2n + 4)

Expansions in terms of Bessel functions

cos(x cos θ) = J0 (x) − 2J2 (x) cos 2θ + 2J4 (x) cos 4θ − . . .

sin(x cos θ) = 2J1 (x) cos θ − 2J3 (x) cos 3θ + 2J5 (x) cos 5θ − . . .

Derivatives of Bessel functions

d d J1 (x)
J0 (x) = −J1 (x) J1 (x) = J0 (x) −
dx dx x

5
 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS

dy R
y(x) dx y dx
xn+1
xn nxn−1 n+1 where n 6= −1
1
x − x12 ln x
eax aeax eax
a
ax ax ln a ax a > 0, a 6= 1
ln a
ln x 1 x(ln x − 1) x>0
x
sin ax a cos ax − cosaax
cos ax −a sin ax sin ax
a
ln(cos ax) †
tan ax a sec2 ax − a
√
arcsin x
a
† p 1 x arcsin x
a + a2 − x 2
a2 − x2
√
arccos x
a
† p −1 x arccos x 2
a − a −x
2
a2 − x2
x2
 
arctan x
a
† a x arctan x a
a − 2 ln 1 + a2
a2 + x2
sinh ax a cosh ax cosh ax
a
cosh ax a sinh ax sinh ax
a
1
tanh ax a sech 2 ax a ln(cosh ax)
√
arcsinh x
a p 1 x arcsinh x 2
a − x +a
2
a2 + x2
√
arccosh x
a p 1 x arccosh x 2
a − x −a
2
x2 − a2
x2
 
arctanh x
a
a x arctanh x a
a + 2 ln 1 − a2
a2 − x2
x sin ax ax cos ax + sin ax − xa cos ax + a12 sin ax
x 1
x cos ax −ax sin ax + cos ax a sin ax + a2
cos ax
d dv du
dx (uv) = u dx + v dx
d ( u ) = 1 (v du − u dv )
dx v v 2 dx dx
R R
u dv = uv − v du
† Principal values.

6
 SERIES

Taylor
h2 ′′ hr dr f 

f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′ (a) + f (a) + . . . + f (r) (a) + . . . where f (r) (a) =
2! r! dxr x=a
(h2 fxx + 2hkfxy + k2 fyy )
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) + (hfx + kfy ) + + ...
2!
 
∂f  ∂2f 
where fx = ∂x x=a, y=b , fxy = ∂x∂y x=a, y=b , etc.

Fourier
For periodic f (t) with period T0 and with ω0 = 2π/T0 :
∞ ∞ ∞
a0 X
αn ejnω0 t
X X
f (t) = + an cos nω0 t + bn sin nω0 t =
2 n=1 n=1 n=−∞

2
Z T0 /2
where an = f (t) cos nω0 t dt
T0 −T0 /2
2
Z T0 /2
bn = f (t) sin nω0 t dt
T0 −T0 /2
Z T0 /2
1
αn = f (t)e−jnω0 t dt
T0 −T0 /2

Common expansions
n(n − 1) 2 n!
Binomial series: (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + ... + xr + . . .
2! r!(n − r)!
(Finite series if n is a positive integer or zero. If not, infinite series, convergent for |x| < 1.)

x2
ex = 1+x+ 2! + ... all x
x2 x3
ln(1 + x) = x− 2 + 3 − ... −1 < x ≤ 1
x3 x5
sin x = x− 3! + 5! − ... all x
x2 x4
cos x = 1− 2! + 4! − ... all x
x3 x5
arctan x = x− 3 + 5 − ... |x| ≤ 1

7
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

Z∞
F (s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

f (t) F (s)
af1 (t) + bf2 (t) aF1 (s) + bF2 (s)
d
dt f (t) sF (s) − f (0)
d2 f (t) s2 F (s) − sf (0) − f ′ (0)
dt2
dn f (t) sn F (s) − sn−1 f (0) − sn−2 f ′ (0) − . . . − f n−1 (0)
dtn
Rt F (s)
0 f (u) du s
RtRu F (s)
f (v) dv du
0 0
s2
tf (t) − d F (s)
ds
n
tn f (t) n>0 (−1)n d n F (s)
ds
1 f (t) R∞
F (u) du
t 0
Rt
0 f (t − u)g(u) du = f (t) ∗ g(t) F (s) G(s)
eat f (t) F (s − a)
f (t − a) with f (t) = 0 for t < 0 e−as F (s) a>0
1 t
af(a) a>0 F (as)
Re f (t) Re F (s)
Im f (t) Im F (s)
Z a
f (t), where f (t + a) = f (t) 1 f (t)e−st dt
1 − e−as 0

Z a
f (t), where f (t + a) = −f (t) 1 f (t)e−st dt
1 + e−as 0

8
Laplace Transforms of Simple Functions

f (t) F (s)
H(t) (Heaviside function or unit step) 1
s
δ(t) (Dirac δ-function) 1
n−1
t 1 (n = 2, 3, 4 . . .)
(n − 1)! sn
e−at 1
(s + a)
te−at 1
(s + a)2
tn−1 e−at 1
(n − 1)! (s + a)n
e−at − e−bt 1
b−a (s + a)(s + b)
1 sin at 1
a s 2 + a2
cos at s
s 2 + a2
1 1
a sinh at s 2 − a2
cosh at s
s 2 − a2
(πt)−1/2 s−1/2
2( πt )1/2 s−3/2
1 (1 − cos at) 1
a2 s(s2 + a2 )
1 (at − sin at) 1
a3 s2 (s2 + a2 )
1 (sin at − at cos at) 1
2a3 (s2 + a2 )2
t s
2a sin at (s2 + a2 )2
1 s2
2a (sin at + at cos at) (s + a2 )2
2

t cos at s 2 − a2
(s2 + a2 )2

9
 Laplace Transforms of Simple Functions (continued)

f (t) F (s)
√ s+a
e−at cos ωt where ω= b − a2
s2 + 2as + b
1 −at sin ωt √ 1
ωe where ω = b − a2
s2 + 2as + b
H(t − a) Heaviside function starting at t = a 1 e−as
s
H(t) − H(t − a) rectangular pulse, equal to 1 from 0 to a 1 (1 − e−as )
s
1 −at 1
a (1 − e ) s(s + a)
1 1 − b e−at + a e−bt 1
 
ab  b−a b−a  s(s + a)(s + b)
1 α − b(α − a) e−at + a(α − b) e−bt s+α
ab b−a b−a s(s + a)(s + b)
1 (ae−at − be−bt ) s
a−b (s + a)(s + b)
1 s+α
 
(α − a)e−at − (α − b)e−bt
b−a (s + a)(s + b)
e−at + e−bt + e−ct 1
(b − a)(c − a) (c − b)(a − b) (a − c)(b − c) (s + a)(s + b)(s + c)

(α − a)e−at (α − b)e−bt (α − c)e−ct s+α

+ +
(b − a)(c − a) (c − b)(a − b) (a − c)(b − c) (s + a)(s + b)(s + c)

α sin ωt
cos ωt + ω s+α
s2 + ω 2
s sin φ + ω cos φ
sin(ωt + φ)
p
s2 + ω 2
a − a2 + ω 2 cos(ωt + φ) s+a
ω2 ω2 s(s2 + ω 2 )
where φ = arctan ω a
e−at + p 1 sin(ωt − φ) 1
a2 + ω 2 ω a2 + ω 2 (s + a)(s2 + ω 2 )
where a > 0, φ = arctan ω a
e−at cos ωt s+a
(s + a)2 + ω 2
1 −at (ω cos ωt + (b − a) sin ωt) s+b
ωe (s + a)2 + ω 2

10
 Laplace Transforms of Simple Functions (continued)

f (t) F (s)
1 − p 1 e−at sin(bt + φ) 1
a2 + b2 b a2 + b2
 
s (s + a)2 + b2
where a > 0, φ = arctan ab
1 − q1 e−ζωt sin(ωt 1 − ζ 2 + φ)
p 1
2
ω ω2 1 − ζ 2 s(s2 + 2ζωs + ω 2 )

where φ = arccos ζ

α e−at  2 2
 s+α
2 2 + 2 2 (a − αa + b ) sin bt − αb cos bt
 
a +b b(a + b ) s (s + a)2 + b2

be−ct + [(c −
h a) sin bt − b icos bt] e
−at
 1 
b (c − a)2 + b2 (s + c) (s + a)2 + b2
−at
1 e−ct + p e sin(bt + φ)  1
2 2 −
 q 
c(a + b ) c (c − a)2 + b2 b a + b (c − a)2 + b2
2 2 s(s + c) (s + a)2 + b2

where a > c > 0, φ = arctan ab + arctan a −

b
c
−ct
α
2 2 +
 (c − α)e 
c(a + b ) c (c − a)2 + b2
q
(α − a)2 + b2
+ p q e−at sin(bt + φ) s + α 
2 2 2
b a + b (c − a) + b 2 s(s + c) (s + a)2 + b2

where b + arctan b + arctan b

α > a > c > 0, φ = arctan α − a a a−c
1 (at − 1 + e−at ) 1
a2 s2 (s + a)
1 (1 − e−at − ate−at ) 1
a2 s(s + a)2
1 α − αe−at + a(a − α)te−at
s+α
a2 s(s + a)2

11
 Z TRANSFORMS — functions of t

Laplace Transform Z Transform

f (t) F (s) F (z)
δ(t) 1 1
Unit impulse
H(t) 1 z
s z−1
Heaviside function or unit step

t 1 Tz
s2 (z − 1)2

2 T 2 z(z + 1)
t2
s3 (z − 1)3
n
 
tn n! lim (−1)n ∂ n z
sn+1 a→0 ∂a z − e−aT

e−at 1 z
s+a z − e−aT

te−at 1 T z e−aT
(s + a)2 (z − e−aT )2

sin ωt ω z sin ωT
s2 + ω 2 z 2 − 2z cos ωT + 1

s z(z − cos ωT )
cos ωt
s2 + ω 2 z 2 − 2z cos ωT + 1

e−at sin ωt ω z e−aT sin ωT

(s + a)2 + ω 2 z − 2z e−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
2

e−at cos ωt
(s + a) z 2 − z e−aT cos ωT
(s + a)2 + ω 2 z − 2z e−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
2

a z(1 − e−aT )
1 − e−at
s(s + a) (z − 1)(z − e−aT )

12
 Z TRANSFORMS — functions of n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Z Transform
f (n) F (z)

δ(n) [Unit impulse] 1

H(n) [Unit step] z

z−1

n z
(z − 1)2
z(z + 1)
n2
(z − 1)3
k
lima→0 (−1)k ∂ k z
 
nk
∂a z − ea

bn z
z−b

nbn zb
(z − b)2

sin an z sin a
z 2 − 2z cos a + 1
z(z − cos a)
cos an
z 2 − 2z cos a + 1

bn sin an zb sin a
z 2 − 2zb cos a + b2

bn cos an z 2 − zb cos a
z − 2zb cos a + b2
2

z(1 − b)
1 − bn
(z − 1)(z − b)

13
 TWO-PORT EQUATIONS

v1 = z11 i1 + z12 i2
Impedance (Z) parameters
v2 = z21 i1 + z22 i2
i1 = y11 v1 + y12 v2
Admittance (Y ) parameters
i2 = y21 v1 + y22 v2
v1 = a11 v2 − a12 i2
Transmission (A) parameters
i1 = a21 v2 − a22 i2
v2 = b11 v1 − b12 i1
Inverse Transmission (B) parameters
i2 = b21 v1 − b22 i1
v1 = h11 i1 + h12 v2
Hybrid (H) parameters
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v2
i1 = g11 v1 + g12 i2
Inverse Hybrid (G) parameters
v2 = g21 v1 + g22 i2

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS & VECTOR IDENTITIES

Maxwell’s equations
∂B ∂D
∇ · D = ρf ∇·B =0 ∇×E =− ∇ × H = Jf +
∂t ∂t
Stokes’ theorem; V = V (x, y, z) is an arbitrary vector field
I ZZ
curve V · dl = surface S
(∇ × V ) · dS
bounding S
Divergence theorem
ZZZ ZZ
∇ · V dv = V · dS
volume v surface S enclosing v
Identities involving ∇; φ = φ(x, y, z) is a scalar field, V= V(x, y, z) is a vector field.
∇ × (∇ φ) = 0 ∇ · (∇ × V ) = 0
∇ · (φV ) = φ (∇ · V ) + V · (∇φ) ∇ × (φV ) = φ (∇ × V ) − V × (∇φ)
∇ × (∇ × V ) = ∇ (∇ · V ) − ∇2 V

14
 FOURIER SERIES

f (t) Trigonometric form (ω0 = 2π/T ) Complex form

1 X 4 X 2 nπ −jnπ/2 jnω0 t
sin nω0 t sin e e
πn πn 2
0 T n = 1, 3, 5, . . . n = ±1, ±3, ±5, . . .

-1

1 X 8
cos nω0 t
π 2 n2
0 T n = 1, 3, 5, . . .

-1

1 ∞
2
(−1)n+1 sin nω0 t
X
T
n=1
πn
0
-1

d
∞ ∞
1 d + X 2 sin nω0 d cos nω t d + X 1 sin nω0 d ejnω0 t
T 0 T
n=1
nπ 2 n=−∞
nπ 2
n6=0

0 T

Half-wave rectified sine

∞
1 1 + sin ω0 t − 2 X cos 2nω0 t
π 2 π (2n − 1)(2n + 1)
n=1

0 T

Full-wave rectified sine

∞
1 2−4 X cos 2nω0 t
π π (2n − 1)(2n + 1)
n=1

0 T

15
 FOURIER TRANSFORMS

Z∞
F (ω) = f (t)e−jωt dt
−∞
Z∞
f (t) = 1 F (ω)ejωt dω
2π
−∞

Notation

‘f (t) ⇀
↽ F (ω)’ means ‘F (ω) is the Fourier transform of f (t) and f (t) is the inverse
Fourier transform of F (ω).’

Fourier Transform Properties

Property Time domain Frequency domain

Linearity af (t) + bg(t) aF (ω) + bG(ω)
1 ω
 
Time scaling f (at) F
|a| a
Time shifting f (t − τ ) e−jωτ F (ω)
Modulation ejω0 t f (t) F (ω − ω0 )

Differentiation (with respect to time) dn f (t) (jω)n F (ω)

dtn
n
Differentiation (with respect to frequency) tn f (t) (j)n d n F (ω)
dω
Z t
Integration (with respect to time) f (u) du 1
−∞ jω F (ω) + πF (0)δ(ω)

Duality ↽ G(ω) implies G(t) ⇀

g(t) ⇀ ↽ 2πg(−ω)
↽ H(f ) implies H(t) ⇀
h(t) ⇀ ↽ h(−f )

16
 FOURIER TRANSFORMS OF FUNCTIONS

f (t) F (ω)
Dirac delta function δ(t) 1

Unit 1 1
Step H(t) jω + πδ(ω)

Constant c 2πcδ(ω)
ejω0 t 2πδ(ω − ω0 )
sin ω0 t −jπ (δ(ω − ω0 ) − δ(ω + ω0 ))
cos ω0 t π (δ(ω − ω0 ) + δ(ω + ω0 ))
Rectangular 1
pulse 2 ωd
ω sin 2

-d/2 0 d/2

Triangular 1
pulse 8 sin2 ωd
ω2d 4

-d/2 0 d/2
Gaussian 1
pulse 2
q
π e−ω2 /4k
e−kt
k

17
AREA UNDER THE GAUSSIAN ERROR CURVE
|x−x̄|
The table below gives the area under the Gaussian error curve between 0 and z, where z = σ .
Example: Area between z = 0 and z = 1.72 is 0.4573.

z 0 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09

0.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0160 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
0.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .0714 .0753
0.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .1141
0.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
0.4 .1554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .1879
0.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
0.6 .2257 .2291 .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2517 .2549
0.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2704 .2734 .2764 .2794 .2823 .2852
0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
0.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3340 .3365 .3389
1.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
1.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
1.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4177
1.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
1.6 .4452 .4463 .4474 .4484 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
1.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4706
1.9 .4713 .4719 .4726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4761 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .4861 .4864 .4868 .4871 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 .4901 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936
2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 .4981
2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986
3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
3.1 .4990 .4991 .4991 .4991 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4992 .4993 .4993
3.2 .4993 .4993 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4994 .4995 .4995 .4995
3.3 .4995 .4995 .4995 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4996 .4997
3.4 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4997 .4998
3.5 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998
3.6 .4998 .4998 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999
3.7 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999
3.8 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .4999 .5000 .5000 .5000
Th Th
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