PREFABRICATION

SHREEYA GOYAL
160BARCHI088
4B
1. PRESTRESS
Definition : Prestress is defined as a
method of applying pre-compression to
control the stresses resulting due to
external loads below the neutral axis of the
beam tension developed due to external
load which is more than the permissible
limits of the plain concrete. The pre-
compression applied (may be axial or
eccentric) will induce the compressive
stress below the neutral axis or as a whole
of the beam cross-section. Resulting either Pre-tensioning : A method of
no tension or compression. prestressing concrete in which the tendons
Basic Concept : Prestressed concrete is are tensioned before the concrete is
basically concrete in which internal placed. In this method, the concrete is
stresses of a suitable magnitude and introduced by bond between steel &
distribution are introduced so that the concrete.
stresses resulting from the external loads Post-tensioning : A method of
are counteracted to a desired degree. prestressing concrete by tensioning the
tendons against hardened concrete. In this
method, the prestress is imparted to
1.1 TERMINOLOGY concrete by bearing.
Tendon: A stretched element used in a
concrete member of structure to impart
prestress to the concrete.
1.2 MATERIALS FOR PRE-STRESS
CONCRETE MEMBERS:
Cement : The cement used should be any
of the following
 Ordinary Portland cement conforming
to IS269
 Portland slag cement conforming to
IS455. But the slag content should not
be more than 50%.
 Rapid hardening Portland cement
conforming to IS8041.
 High strength ordinary
Anchorage: A device generally used to
Portland cement conforming to
enable the tendon to impart and maintain
IS8112.
prestress in concrete.
Concrete : Prestress concrete requires
concrete, which has a high compressive
strength reasonably early age with
comparatively higher tensile strength than
ordinary concrete. The concrete for the
members shall be air-entrained concrete
composed of Portland cement, fine and
coarse aggregates, admixtures and water.
The air-entraining feature may be obtained
by the use of either air-entraining Portland
cement or an approved air-entraining
admixture. The entrained air content shall
be not less than 4 percent or more than 6  Durability, Fire Resistance &
percent. Minimum cement content of 300 Cover Requirements For P.S.C
to 360 kg/m3 is prescribed for the Members: - According to IS:
durability requirement. The water content 1343-1980 20 mm cover for
should be as low as possible. pretensioned members 30 mm or
size of the cable whichever is bigger
for post tensioned members. If the
prestress members are exposed to
an aggressive environment, these
covers are increased by another 10
mm.
 Necessity of high grade of
concrete & steel: Higher the
grade of concrete higher the bond
strength which is vital in
pretensioned concrete, also higher
Steel : High tensile steel, tendons, strands bearing strength which is vital in
or cables the steel used in prestress shall post-tensioned concrete. Further
be any one of the following: - creep & shrinkage losses are
minimum with high-grade
 Plain hard-drawn steel wire concrete. Generally minimum M30
conforming to IS1785 (Part-I & grade concrete is used for post-
Part-III) tensioned & M40 grade concrete is
 Cold drawn indented wire used for pretensioned members.
conforming to IS6003 88 The losses in prestress members
 High tensile steel wire bar due to various reasons are
conforming to IS2090 generally in the range of 250
 Uncoated stress relived strand N/mm2 to 400 N/mm . If mild steel
2

conforming to IS6006 High strength or deformed steel is used the

steel contains: 0.7 to 0.8% carbons, residual stresses after losses is
0.6% manganese, 0.1% silica either zero or negligible. Hence
high tensile steel wires are used
which varies from 1600 to 2000
N/mm .2
 steel, recommended to
dynamically loaded structures.

1.4 DISADVANTAGES OF
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
 The availability of experienced
builders is scanty.
1.3 ADVANTAGE OF PRESTRESSED  Initial equipment cost is very high.
CONCRETE  Availability of experienced
engineers is scanty.
 The use of high strength concrete
 Prestressed sections are brittle
and steel in prestressed members
results in lighter and slender  Prestressed concrete sections are
members than is possible with RC less fire resistant.
members. 1.5 CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES
 In fully prestressed members the
member is free from tensile Prestressed concrete structures can be
stresses under working loads, thus classified in a number of ways depending
whole of the section is effective. upon the feature of designs and
 In prestressed members, dead constructions.
loads may be counter-balanced by  Pre-tensioning: In which the
eccentric prestressing. tendons are tensioned before the
 Prestressed concrete member concrete is placed, tendons are
possess better resistance to shear temporarily anchored and
forces due to effect of compressive tensioned and the prestress is
stresses presence or eccentric transferred to the concrete after it
cable profile. is hardened.
 Use of high strength concrete and  Post-tensioning: In which the
freedom from cracks, contribute to tendon is tensioned after concrete
improve durability under has hardened. Tendons are placed
aggressive environmental in sheathing at suitable places in
conditions. the member before casting and
 Long span structures are possible later after hardening of concrete.
so that saving in weight is
significant & thus it will be The various methods by which pre-
economic. compression are imparted to concrete are
 Factory products are possible. classified as follows:
 Prestressed members are tested  Generation of compressive force
before use. between the structural elements
 Prestressed concrete structure and its abutments using flat jack.
deflects appreciably before  Development of hoop compression
ultimate failure, thus giving ample in cylindrically shaped structures by
warning before collapse. circumferential wire binding.
 Fatigue strength is better due to  Use of longitudinally tensioned
small variations in prestressing steel embedded in concrete or
housed in ducts.
  Use of principle of distortion of a and used for tensioning of steel wires and
statically indeterminate structure deformed bars.
either by displacement or by
rotation of one part relative to the Chemical devices : Expanding cements
remainder. are used and the degree of expansion is
 Use of deflected structural steel controlled by varying the curing condition.
sections embedded in concrete Since the expansive action of cement 90
until the hardening of the latter. while setting is restrained, it induces
tensile forces in tendons and compressive
 Development of limited tension in
stresses in concrete.
steel and compression in concrete
by using expanding cements. The 1.7 PRESTRESSING SYSTEM
most widely used method for
prestressing of structural concrete Pretensioning system : In the pre-
elements is longitudinal tensioning tensioning systems, the tendons are first
of steel by different tensioning tensioned between rigid anchor-blocks
devices. Prestressing by the cast on the ground or in a column or unit –
application of direct forces mould types pretensioning bed, prior to
between abutments is generally the casting of concrete in the mould. The
used for arches and pavements, tendons comprising individual wires or
while flat jacks are invariably used strands are stretched with
to impart the desired forces. constant eccentricity or a variable
eccentricity with tendon anchorage at one
1.6 TENSIONING DEVICES end and jacks at the other. With the forms
The various types devices used for in place, the concrete is cast around the
tensioning steel are grouped under four stressed tendon.
principal categories, viz.

Mechanical devices : The mechanical

devices generally used include weights
with or without lever transmission, geared
transmission in conjunction with pulley
blocks, screw jacks with or without gear
devices and wire-winding machines. These
devices are employed mainly for
prestressing structural concrete
components produced on a mass scale in
factory.

Hydraulic devices : These are simplest Post-tensioned system : In post-

means for producing large prestressing tensioning the concrete unit are first cast
force, extensively used as tensioning by incorporating ducts or grooves to house
devices. the tendons. When the concrete attains
sufficient strength, the high-tensile wires
Electrical devices : The wires are are tensioned by means of jack bearing on
electrically heated and anchored before the end of the face of the member and
placing concrete in the mould. This method anchored by wedge or nuts. The forces are
is often referred to as thermo-prestressing transmitted to the concrete by means of
end anchorage and, when the cable is  Prestress concrete has more shear
curved, through the radial pressure resistance, whereas shear
between the cable and the duct. The space resistance of R.C.C is less.
between the tendons and the duct is  In prestress concrete members,
generally grouted after the tensioning deflections are less because the
operation. eccentric prestressing force will
induce couple which will cause
Most of the commercially patented
upward deflections, whereas in
prestressing systems are based on the
R.C.C., deflections are more.
following principle of anchoring the
 In prestress concrete fatigue
tendons:
resistance is more compare to
 Wedge action producing a frictional R.C.C. because in R.C.C. stress in
grip on the wire. steel is external load dependent
 Direct bearing from the rivet or bolt whereas in P.S.C member it is load
heads formed at the end of the independent.
wire.  Prestress concrete is more durable
 Looping the wire around the as high grade of concrete is used
concrete. which are denser in nature. R.C.C. is
less durable.
 In prestress concrete dimensions
are less because external stresses
are counterbalance by the internal
stress induced by prestress.
Therefore, reactions on column &
footing are less as a whole the
quantity of concrete is reduced by
30% and steel reduced by about 60
to 70%. R.C.C. is uneconomical for
long span because in R.C.C.
1.8 DIFFERENCES OF PRESTRESSED dimension of sections is large
requiring more concrete & steel.
CONCRETE OVER REINFORCED
Moreover, as self-weight increases
CONCRETE more reactions acted on columns &
 In prestress concrete member steel footings, which requires higher
plays active role. The stress in steel sizes.
prevails whether external load is
there or not. But in R.C.C., steel
2.PRE FABRICATION
plays a passive role. The stress in 2.1 WAFFLE CRETE SYSTEM
steel in R.C.C members depends
upon the external loads. i.e., no Definition
external load, no stress in steel. The waffle Crete Building system shall
 In prestress concrete the stresses in consist of large, structural, ribbed panels of
steel is almost constant whereas in reinforced precast concrete, bolted
R.C.C the stress in steel is variable together and the joints between the panels
with the lever arm. shall be caulked to form the walls, floor
and pitched or flat roofs of buildings. The
surface of each panel shall consist of 51
 mm thick slab or skin, stiffened with the
ribs around the perimeter and across the
panel, giving an overall panel thickness of
152 mm or 203 mm

Basic principle

2.2 THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Core elements
 Lightweight insulated precast insulated
moulds
 Insulated curing covers that shall be used
in conjunction with Waffle-Crete moulds 2.3 TYPES OF PRECAST CONCRETE
 Specialized equipment shall be designed PANELS AND WALLS
for use with Waffle-Crete moulds and (According to The Building Code of India –
covers 2005)
 A construction methodology for casting
and erecting concrete panels with moulds
and equipment.
Standard reinforced require, so that the top two ribs are
Standard reinforced precast concrete wall, continuous around the perimeter of the
floor and roof panels are 2.43 m wide and building, above window and door
are manufactured in lengths of 3.65 m, openings. A wide range of external finishes
4.26 m, 5 4.87 m, 5.48 m, 6.09 m & 7.31 m. and textures can be applied during casting
The surface of each panel shall consist of a of any of the panels.
51mm thick slab, stiffened with tapered
ribs around the perimeter and across the
panel. The ribs shall
be at approx. 1214 mm centres in one
direction and 610 mm in the other and give
an overall panel thickness of 152 mm or
203 mm, as required. Panels for single or
double storey building shall be either 152
mm or 203 mm thick but panels for
buildings over two floors high shall always
be 203 mm thick.

Accessory panels
Eave panels shall be used as decorative
building trim and also cover waffle voids
that may be exposed on the edges of cut
roof panels.
Grade beams shall be used to cast a first
floor foundation. Grade beam panel shall
be keyed to fit floor panel ribs.
Stair panels shall include an adjustable
blockout to cast concrete stairs of variable
width up to 2.44m. Stair moulds shall be
Harmonized reinforced available in 3.66m & 6.10m lengths with
Harmonized reinforced precast concrete 164mm risers
wall panels are 2.58 m high and are
manufactured in lengths of 3.65 m, 4.26 m, Ceiling / floor panel
4.87 m, 5.48 m, 6.09 m & 7.31 m. All Thickness of concrete of topping may vary
harmonized panels shall be 152 mm or 203 for different requirement of fire ratings.
mm thickness. The surface of these panels Floor slabs with a 60 minute fire-resistance
shall consist of a 51-mm thick slab, rating shall require a minimum of 38 mm
stiffened with ribs around the perimeter concrete topping and floor slabs with a 120
and across the panel. The ribs shall be at minute fire-resistance rating shall require a
approx. 610 mm centres, with two minimum concrete topping of 75 mm or
horizontal ribs along its length, one approx. cladding to the underside. Where ribbed
836mm from the bottom and the other panel require a 60 minute fire- resistance
418 mm from the top. These panels shall rating, the cladding to the underside of the
be used for window/door and window cut- floor shall consist of 12.7 mm thick x-rated
outs. Harmonized wall panels shall be used gypsum plasterboard of 63.5 mm x 35 mm
when a different elevation treatment is
 x 0.71 mm thick on galvanized steel wound around threaded 6 mm dia.
channels at 600 mm centers fixed to the galvanized steel fasteners hand-driven into
ribs of the panels with 18 gauze steel a previously drilled hole in the rib of the
galvanized wire wound around threaded 6 floor panel.
mm dia. galvanized steel fasteners hand-  Type 4 Wall panels lined on one side with
driven into a previously drilled hole in the two layers of 12.7 mm thick X-rated
rib of the floor panel. When ribbed panel gypsum plasterboard on galvanized steel
require a 120 minute fire- resistance studs with staggered joints similar to those
rating, two layers of 12.7 mm thick X-rated used in Type 3 wall fixed to the panel ribs
gypsum plasterboard are used, fixed as for in the same manner as wall Type 3.
floors with a 60 minute fire- resistance  Type 5 Wall panels lined on one side with
rating. A 120 minute fire-resistance rating 12.7 mm thick X rated gypsum
shall also be required for wall, floors and plasterboard on top hat section galvanized
ceilings that enclose emergency routes in steel channels fixed to the panel ribs as for
buildings. The joints between the wall Type 3 and insulated with 150 mm
plasterboard shall be sealed according to thick glass fibre.
the manufacturer’s recommendations.  Type 6 Wall panels lined on one side with
Floor slabs with a 30 minute fire-resistance 12.7 mm thick X-rated gypsum
rating shall not require a concrete topping. plasterboard on timber studs fixed to the
Thickness of concrete topping may vary for panel in the same manner as for wall Type
different requirement of fire-ratings. 2 and insulated with 50 mm thick glass
fibre.

2.5 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS

( As per IS 10505:1983 )

2.5.1 MANUFACTURING
REQUIREMENTS

Concrete requirements
2.4 TYPES OF WALLS All precast concrete components shall be
adequately cured. Components shall be
SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SIX TYPES removed from the molds only when the
concrete has attained 75% of the strength
 Type 1 152 mm or 203 mm panels, unlined. specified by the engineer.
 Type 2 Wall panels lined on one side with All precast concrete components shall be
12.7 mm thick xrated gypsum plasterboard free of honeycombing and any patching or
on 38 mm x 38 mm timber studs 7 at 600 remedial work to minor damage shall be in
mm centers fixed to the panel ribs with accordance with the relevant Standard.
screws into nailer blocks cast into concrete Mortar used for such work shall have a
at 600 mm centers. sand cement ratio equal to the aggregate:
 Type 3 Wall panels lined on one side with cement ratio of the concrete.
12.7 mm thick Xrated gypsum plasterboard
of 63.5 mm x 35 mm x 0.71 mm thick on 2.5.2 DEVIATION LIMITS
galvanized steel studs spaced at maximum All precast concrete panels shall be
450 mm centres fixed to the ribs of the manufactured with the limits specified
panels with 18 gauze steel galvanized wire
below: i. The panel thickness shall not vary essential to ensure good compaction.
by more than -3 mm and + 6 mm. 9 Needle vibrators can be used for
ii. The slab (skin) thickness shall not vary by compacting concrete in the ribs and
more than ± 2 mm screed vibrators can be used for corn
iii. The panel shall not be more than 3 mm pacting concrete in the flange. For larger
out of square per 3 m length, measured on factories, concrete placing machine which
the diagonal. iv. All anchors and inserts level, vibrate and finish the concrete units
shall be within 9 mm of the centre line can be utilized.
location shown on the drawings
v. Blockouts and reinforcement shall be
within 6 mm of the position shown on the 2.5.5 TRANSPORTATION
drawings. REQUIREMENTS
2.5.3 MOULD REQUIREMENTS Lifting hooks
The mould used for manufacturing waffle Wherever lifting hooks/holes are used
slabs normally consists of two parts (a) these shall be provided at structurally
bottom mould and (b) side moulds, advantageous points to facilitate
The bottom mould can be made out of demoulding and erection of the Precast
timber, masonry, concrete, steel FRP, unit. The lifting hooks can be formed out of
plastic or any other material acceptable to normal mild steel reinforcing bars with
engineer-ill-charge. The side moulds adequate carrying capacity to carry the self
similarly can be tirnber, steel, FRP or weight during demoulding, handling and
plastic. erection. After the erection the hooks can
When using masonry or concrete moulds, be either cut or bent down inside the
the top surface shall be finished to the screed or joint concrete that will be laid
required accuracy and made smooth. subsequently
In case of masonry moulds, the use of
chicken mesh or fibre reinforcement in the
Stacking of units
top surface
After removal from moulds the precast
will help in making the mould last longer
units shall be stacked over support places
for higher efficiency.
at about l.6’) of span from ends. Care shall
be taken to see that no support is at the
centre of the span

Transportation
For transporting and erecting the units,
rope slings shall be tied near the ends at
1/5 th of length from either end of the
In case the units are transported in trolleys,
the overhang of the units from the trolley
shall not be more than 1/5 th of length.

2.5.4 CASTING AND CURING 2.5.6 ERECTION REQUIREMENTS

Mechanical vibration either through  All steel bolts, threaded rods, washers and
mould/table vibrators or screed vibrator is nuts at connections, between panels and
 all anchor bolts shall be protected against
corrosion.
 Any drilling of holes in the precast concrete
components shall be carried so as not to
impair its structural integrity.
 Horizontal joints between concrete
components shall be grouted solid. The
non-shrink grout shall generally be injected
or rammed in, or vibrator rod used to
ensure that the joint is completely filled for
the full width. On the exterior of the
building, the joint must be partially raked
out to allow for the sealant.
 All external joints between concrete
components shall be weatherproofed by
means of a sealant.
 The specified width between concrete
components is 9 mm for vertical joints and
12 mm for horizontal joints.
 The precast components shall not be
chased.
 For fire protection all steel connections
shall be protected by coating all exposed
surfaces with 2 mm dry film thickness of an
intumescent coating.
 Where precast concrete roof panels are
used, they shall be bedded in 4:1 sand:
cement mortar on the sloping tops of the
wall panels at gable ends.
 Where suspended precast concrete floors
are used, the long and cross ribs of precast
concrete floor panels shall be fully bedded
in 4:1 sand: cement mortar 12 mm thick
(nominal) in the recesses of the precast
concrete grade beams.

ERECTION DETAILS

Advantages
Compared to conventional brick and block
construction the waffle crete system
 Reduces material and labour costs
 Slashes construction time which is monolithic or continuous,
 Eliminates need for skilled labour precast concrete buildings are made
 Has low life cycle cost of separate pieces that are bolted or
connected together.
Detail drawings
Advantages

 Since it is done in a purpose-

built precasting yard or
factory, it makes construction
easier for the following
reasons:
 The construction is done on
the ground rather than ata
height .

 It can be done inside a

climate-controlled structure,
eliminating problems of rain,
dust, cold, or heat.

 Specialised formwork
(moulds) can be built for doing
many repetitions of the same
component.

 Specialised equipment can be

used to make, move, and pour
the liquid concrete Curing of
the concrete can be done in a
controlled environment
3. PRE CAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete is an alternative Disadvantages
to cast-in-situ concrete. While cast-
in-situ concrete is cast in its actual  There are a few main
location, precast concrete is cast at disadvantages of precast
another location, either at the concrete construction:
building site or in a factory, and is
then lifted to its final resting place  Since each piece is made
and fixed securely. This means that separately, the structural
unlike cast-in-situ construction, frame or system is not
 monolithic or continuous like Enables faster programmed times –
regular concrete construction. not affected by weather or labour
The joints between pieces shortages.
create structural
discontinuity. The forces of Improves build ability – early
the building will pass through enclosure of dry envelope enables
these joints, so they have to follow-on trades to start sooner.
be designed to transfer these
 Produces a high standard of
forces safely and properly.
workmanship in factory
Note that precast concrete
conditions – reduces potential
can be used for non-structural
for accidents, addresses on-
members too.
site skill shortage.
 Again, as the building IS made  Has a high quality finish that
of discrete components, the can be left exposed –
joints between adjacent concrete’s thermal properties
members have to be sealed can be exploited in low-energy
with special sealants to make buildings
them waterproof.
3.2 FUNCTIONS OF PRECAST
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
 Each precast component is
usually large and heavy. This Primary Functions
means that cranes are  Keep water out
required to lift them in
 Prevent air leakage
position; these cranes are
 Control light
required to operate over the
 Control radiation of heat
entire building volume. Since
 Control conduction of heat
there will only be a few cranes
at site, the time taken by the  Control sound
cranes to pick up a piece and 
Secondary Functions
shift it to its final position
 Resist wind forces
becomes critical in
determining the building  Control water vapor
schedule.  Adjust to movement
 Thermal & moisture
3.1 PROPERTIES OF PRECAST expansion/contraction
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION  Structural movements
Following are the few Properties of  Resist fire
Precast Concrete Construction  Weather gracefully
Process:  Easy to install
 • Deeper elements (toward the right span
further than those that are shallower
3.3 SITE VS. FACTORY PRECASTING
• Right: Hollow core slabs stacked at
A key aspect of determining whether the precasting plant.
to use site or factory precasting are
the transport costs. Factory work Precast Concrete Beams and Girders
offers superior quality for obvious
reasons, so if there is a factory close
to the site, it makes sense to use it.
If a precasting yard is to be created,
space must be laid out for the
following activities:  Provide support for slabs.
 The projecting reinforcing bars
 Storing the raw will bond with concrete cast
materials, such as on site.
cement, aggregate,  Inverted tee beams supported
sand, admixtures, by precast columns.
water, reinforcement
bars, and steel or Precast Concrete Beams and Girders
plywood sheets for
formwork
 A concrete mixing plant
 A steel reinforcement
yard to make rebar
cages to be placed
inside the concrete
 A casting area
 A curing area
 A stacking area for  Provide support for slabs.
finished components  The projecting reinforcing bars will
bond with concrete cast on site.
3.4 PRECAST CONCRETE  Right: Inverted tee beams
FRAMING SYSTEM supported by precast columns.

Precast Concrete Slabs Precast Concrete Columns and Wall

Panels
 Skeletal frame

The correct position for the skeletal frame

joint is shown below.

 Precast concrete wall panels may

be solid (right), hollow, or
sandwiched (with an insulating
core).

 Wall panels can be ribbed, to However for the ease of precasting, the
increase their vertical span capacity skeletal frame joint is formed near the
while minimizing weight, or formed beam-column connection as shown below.
into other special shapes

Other Precast Concrete Elements

Under vertical loading, greater sagging

moments are generated in the beam. The
column moment is much smaller and
typically generated in the column itself.

 Precast concrete stairs

 Uniquely shaped structural
elements for a sports stadium.

3.4 TYPES OF PRECAST

3.4.1 CONCRETE FRAMES FOR

BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Precast concrete frames are constructed The skeletal frame is most widely used in
before actual construction starts and is the UK. Common uses are for medium to
transported to site for erection. There are high-rise commercial buildings, offices and
various types of precast concrete frames schools.
such as skeletal frame, H frame and portal
frame.
H Frame

Moment joints at the beam-column

connection and certain other features may
require special attention. The portal frame
is limited predominantly to tall single-
H frames tend to be used on the external storey work.
frame rather than the internal frame, to
provide perimeter bracing.
4. PRE – ENGINEERED
Advantage of the H frame
 It enables components to be
STRUCTURE
designed to act together, resulting
in shallower structural depth.
 Lateral forces can be carried on the
frame itself allowing wind loads to
be transmitted into the frame and
joints.

Disadvantage of the H frame

 H frame mainly concern the size of
the frame elements, which can lead
to difficulties with transportation
and manufacture. Tolerance may
also have to be smaller to permit
joints to be assembled very In structural engineering a pre-engineered
accurately. building (PEB) is designed by a PEB
supplier or PEB manufacturer, to be
Portal frame fabricated using best suited inventory of
The portal frame is similar to the H frame raw materials available from all sources
in that the bending moments approximate and manufacturing methods that can
to those of the rigid, in-situ frame. efficiently satisfy a wide range of structural
and aesthetic design requirements. Within
There are essentially two types of portal some geographic industry sectors these
frame- the flat portal which is less buildings are also called pre-engineered
common, and the pitched portal. Both are metal buildings (PEMB) or, as is becoming
mainly used for the industrial warehouses, increasingly common due to the reduced
being relatively cheap and easy to design amount of pre-engineering involved in
and build. custom computer-aided designs, simply
engineered metal buildings (EMB).
  Other Accessories: Mezzanine floors,
Bolts, Insulation, etc.

4.2 ADVANTAGES OF PEB.

There are many advantages of Pre

Engineered Buildings, which are as follows,

 Quality control is the main advantage as all

the structural member are engineered
beforehand, standards of different codes
also taken into consideration & these
components are made in factory under the
supervision of Quality Control Engineer.
 Lower cost due to the saving in design,
manufacturing and on site erection cost.
 Minimizing time of construction due to
the use of software for design of the
structural components.
4.1 COMPONENTS OF PEB  Low Maintenance due to use of standard
quality of paints over steel members ,
which increases the ability to withstand &
finally the maintenance cost will be low as
compare to conventional steel building.
 Quick Erection, as all the members are Pre
Manufactured & skilled labor is used for
connections of different components.
 Warranty on PEB, mostly warranty period
of 20 years given by manufactures for PEB.
Pre Engineered Buildings consist different
steel structural member which are as 4.3 DISADVANTAGES OF PEB.
follows,
Although PEB have many advantages in the
 Primary Frame: Primary framing of a PEB is field of Industrial structure but still there
an assembly of builtup I- are some demerits of Pre Engineered
Shaped steel members & that framing Buildings, which are as follows,
consist trusses or castellated beams etc.
 Secondary Structural Elements: It is  Rusting / Corrosion Sensitive, as if the
actually Cold Formed Members, which can quality of steel used or paint used for
be in diff. shapes like “Z”, “C” etc. In coating of steel members is not of good
general known as “Purlins”. quality , than it can damage the structure
 Roof & Wall Panels : Tin shades & Curtain and thus reduces the life of structure.
Wall made of Glass & Roll-formed steel  Insulation Cost, as insulating the building
sheets usually comes in this category , S to an agreeable benchmark will
 Sandwich Panels: Sandwich Panel is made furthermore add to your construction
of three layers , in which a non-Aluminum costs.
Core is inserted b/w two aluminum sheet.
 Appearance, Steel Sections can be
unattractive when left exposed.

4.4 APLICATION

 Warehouses
 Showrooms
 Outdoor and indoor stadiums
 Gas stations
 Metro stations, Bus terminals,
Parking lots
 Industrial Buildings

PEB can achieve different and composite

structures like:-

4.5 CASE STUDY: HOW A PRE-

ENGINEERED STEEL BUILDING
SERVES THE FORESTRY SECTOR by
METAL STRUCTURE CONCEPTS
(MSC)

Metal Structure Concepts supplied and

installed a 30,000 square foot multi-
building project for Gilbert Smith Forest
Products in Barriere, BC Canada.

The forest industry has always been a

major player in BC’s economy. According
to 2015 data, the forest sector was
responsible for 36 per cent ($12.9 billion)  Hot-dip galvanized steel sheet.
of BC’s total exports and was the primary  Aluminium.
employer in many parts of the province.  Zinc.
The forest industry has also helped other
manufacturing sectors, including the steel However, other materials that can be used
building market as can be seen by the include:
recent work completed by pre-engineered  Preecast concrete, sometimes clad
steel building contractor Metal Structure with other finishes such as brick.
Concepts (MSC).  Cement board.
 Glass fibre reinforced
MSC recently supplied and installed a steel polypropylene.
building for the expansion of Gilbert Smith  Poly vinyl chloride (PVC).
Forest Product’s cedar sawmills operation  Magnesium oxide board (MgO).
in Barriere, BC.  Plywood.
The industrial job was no small feat and
 Oriented strand board (OSB).
involved a few workflow interruptions in
 Glass reinforced plastic (GRP).
completing the multi-building project,
measuring more than 30,000 square feet in
Cladding systems typically include a rigid
total.
polyurethane core, but other core
materials include:
5. COMPOSITE PANEL  Expanded polystyrene (EPS).
Composite panels – also known as  Extruded polystyrene (XPS).
sandwich panels, insulated panels, or  Mineral wool (rock fibre) (MWRF).
white wall panels - are widely used  Modified Phenolic foam (MPHEN).
to clad the exterior of buildings or to  Polyisocyanurate (PIR).
separate spaces within buildings.  Folded metal, paper, aramid and
Composite panels are sandwich structures carbon fibres. See Foldcore for
that consist of multiple layers bonded more information.
together to create multilayer sheets, cored
 Honeycomb materials (such as
laminates, or industrial structural panels.
Polypropylene)
They are made from a variety of metal,
plastic, wood, ceramic, glass, and fiber-
based composite materials.
5.2 USES OF COMPOSITE PANELS
Sandwich panels are widely used as an
external cladding for single and multi-
storey buildings, where they are required
to provide weather resistance, and
resistance to wind-loading, access loads,
self-weight and so on. However, they are
also used to create insulated internal
envelopes, ceiling panels, partitions (for
example in cold stores) and for fire-
resisting compartment walls.

5.1 MATERIAL USED Building types that commonly feature

The outer faces of sandwich panels are sandwich panels include:
most commonly made of metals such as:
  Industrial buildings and processing in production quantities. Panels can be
plants. primed and painted or covered by gypsum
 Temporary buildings. board or other materials to match specific
 Storage buildings. requirements.
 Clean rooms.
 Agricultural buildings.
 Shopping centres.
 Sports facilities.
 Transport buildings.

5.3 TYPES OF COMPOSITE PANELS

(Source – PolyOne)
Polystrand™ Thermoplastic Composite
Hammerhead™ Marine Composite Panels Panels
Hammerhead™ Marine Composite Panels, Constructed of Polystrand™ continuous
made from thermoplastic continuous glass fiber reinforced thermoplastic facesheets
fiber-reinforced face sheets and polyester thermally bonded with a variety of internal
foam core, are engineered to provide core materials including thermoplastic
simplified installation, long-lasting foam and honeycomb core, these
components, and overall cost reduction for engineered composite panels are
boat manufacturers. constructed without secondary adhesives
for a stronger bond and more efficient
These versatile panels can be used in a manufacturing process.
variety of boat building applications These panels are designed and customized
including: interior bulkheads, decking, to maximize performance and minimize
ceilings, hatches, covers, cabinetry and weight.
fittings.

CRTM™ Composite Sandwich Panels

GlasArmor™ Ballistic Resistant Panels CRTM™ (continuous resin transfer
Constructed from multiple layers of woven molding) panels are thermoset composite
fiberglass and encapsulated with a sandwich panels with tailored, multi-axial
proprietary resin system, these rigid panels fiber reinforcements, high-fiber volume
feature exceptional ballistic resistance. and very low void content. These custom-
The unique composite matrix of the panels engineered products are available with a
allows for retention of the projectile to wide variety of core materials, including
avoid potentially hazardous ricochet. end-grain balsa, foam or engineered
Panels can be field-fabricated utilizing woods and laminate face-sheets with
simple installation methods and common continuous fiberglass and/or carbon fiber
carpentry tools. Surface finish is smooth in reinforced polyester, vinyl ester and epoxy
a white color with custom colors available or custom resins.
Panels are custom engineered to meet plate and the core material which
customer needs by varying core are symmetrically symmetrical, the
thicknesses to affect stiffness, core plate has stable internal stress and
materials to affect weight, fiber to modify has good rigidity.
the stiffness-weight ratio, and resin
material to affect strength.  Rich color and good decorative
effect : The layer of the aluminum
plastic panel can be made into
various colors. In addition, the use
of photocopying technology to
simulate the pattern of granite,
wood grain and metal can provide
a pattern with precise texture and
5.4 ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE PANEL high quality which cannot be
Aluminium Composite Panel consists of a obtained by a single color. The rich
thermoplastic compound core sandwich color and pattern design meets
between two pre-painted or brushed steel different environmental
effect aluminium sheets. Bonding of the requirements that can make
aluminium and the core is achieved by different architectural styles adapt
both chemical and mechanical action, this to the environment.
giving exceptional bond integrity.
Colours  Flat surface : The aluminum plastic
White, Red, Black, Blue, Green, Brushed composite panel is produced by a
Steel (Butler), Silver (Metallic) continuous thermal composite
Sheet Size production process. Therefore,
2500 x 1250 | 3050 x 1500 (sheet size compared with the metal sheet of a
depending on finish) single material, the surface flatness
is high, especially the large-sized
sheet material is more obvious. It is
5.4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ACP
used for building decoration and
 Little quality : The aluminum
has a flat and uniform appearance.
plastic composite panel is made of
aluminum and a relatively small
 Excellent durability : Aluminum
density of plastic core material.
plastic composite board uses metal
Therefore, compared with
and core material thermal
aluminum or other metals with the
composite technology. The bond is
same rigidity or the same thickness,
firm, and the surface coating is
the quality is small much smaller.
different according to different
materials we use. Generally, There
 Good rigidity : The aluminum
are three types of paint:
plastic composite panel is
fluorocarbon paint, polyester paint
composited under high
and acrylic paints, in which
temperature conditions, and the
fluorocarbon paints have more
aluminum sheet is placed at two
excellent weather resistance.
layers in the whole process. Under
a certain tension state, after the
molding is cooled, due to the 5.4.2 TECHNICAL DATA
contraction rate of the aluminum
Engineering properties
Thickness of Aluminium skin - 0.20mm Drilling
Tensile strength - Rm≥260Mpa It is recommended to use drill bits
Elongation - A 50≥6% acceptable for aluminium or plastic
Modulus of elasticity - E=70000Mpa
Bending with brake press or folding
Linear thermal expansion machine
Can be used between -50°C to + 80°C, the
linear thermal expansion is of
0.024mm/m/°C which means 1mm/m for
a thermal difference of 40°C

Cutting
Any conventional sawing equipment
appropriate for aluminium can be used.
This includes stationary vertical panel
saw, circular hand saw, jig saw or
indeed hand saw.

6. LIGHT GAUGE
Steel is widely used in the construction of
multi-storey buildings. However, steel
construction is seldom used and is
traditionally considered uneconomical for
landed properties. In many parts of the
Hand Holding world, timber or structural brickwork is
It is easy to fold ACP by hand if a ‘V’ preferred whereas in Singapore,
shaped groove is milled on the rear reinforced concrete construction is usually
side of the panel. preferred for landed properties.
The upper cladding sheet as well as An economical light gauge steel frame
0.2mm thick polyethylene should system is increasingly being used in
remain on the bottom. To enable a America, Europe, Australia and New
good fold it is recommended to opt for Zealand.
a groove flat of 3mm. This light gauge steel frame is developed
through a cold-formed process without the
use of heat. This process enables steel
manufacturers to produce light-weight but
high tensile steel sheets. The sheet surface
is coated with a zinc alloy that completely
covers the steel surface and seals it from
the corrosive action of its environment.
Routing and Milling This results in buildings that are more solid,
The copy milling machine, the hand milling rigid, stronger, durable and easier to build.
cutters and other conventional tools used As such, the light gauge steel frame system
by aluminium fabricators are acceptable is an attractive alternative for use in landed
properties. This is particularly in view of
concerns on the depletion of timber offering larger open spaces and increased
resources and low productivities design flexibility without requiring
associated with reinforced concrete intermediate columns or load bearing
construction. walls.
Recyclable : All steel products are
recyclable.

6.2 STEEL FRAMING LANGUAGE

Bottom Plate : A plate that contains the
bottom end of a wall stud. The top plate
has a web and flanges, but no lips. Ceiling
Joist: A horizontal structural framing
member that supports a ceiling and/or
attic loads.

C-section : Used for structural framing

members such as studs, joists, beams,
girders, and rafters.
The name comes from the member’s “C’
6.1 ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE shaped cross-sectional configuration
Benefits Build ability : The use of pre- consisting of a web, flange and lip. C-
fabricated and preassembled steel section web depth and flange width
components reduces site works, reduces measurements use outside dimensions.
material waste and improves quality.
Speed : This system requires a shorter
construction period compared to that for a
conventional system.
Strong but Lightweight : Steel has one of
the highest strength-to-weight ratios of
any construction material. This result in
savings in the foundation required and the
lightness also makes for easier on-site
handling.
Safety : Steel’s inherent strength and
noncombustible qualities enable light steel
frame houses to resist such devastating
events as fires, earthquakes, and Clip Angle : An L-shaped short piece of
hurricanes. Homes can be designed to metal (normally with a 90 degree bend)
meet the highest seismic and wind load typically used for connections.
specifications in any part of the country.
Quality: A better quality finished house Cold-forming : A process where light-
that is durable and low in maintenance. gauge steel members are manufactured
Easy to Remodel : Remodeling can be without the use of heat. Flange: The part of
easily accomplished. Non-load bearing a C-section or track that is perpendicular to
walls can be readily relocated, removed or the web.
altered. Design Flexibility: Because of its
strength, steel can span longer lengths,
Flat Strap : Sheet steel cut to a specified
width without any bends, typically used for
bracing and other flat applications

Floor Joist: : A horizontal structural

framing member that supports floor loads.

Galvanized Steel : Steel that has a zinc

protective coating for resistance against
corrosion. The level of coated protection is
measured by the weight of the galvanized
coating applied to the surface area of the
steel

Gauge : A unit of measurement

traditionally used to describe the nominal
thickness of steel. The lower the gauge, the
greater the thickness.

Header : A horizontal built-up structural

framing member used over wall or roof Lip : The part of a C-section that extends
openings to carry loads across the opening from the flange at the open end. The lip
In-Line Framing : Frame systems where all increases the strength characteristics of
vertical and horizontal load carrying the member and acts as a stiffener to the
members are aligned. flange.

Jack Stud : A vertical structural member Load Bearing Wall : A wall that carries
that does not span the full height of the vertical loads from above or lateral loads
wall and supports vertical loads and/or resulting from wind. These loads may act
transfers lateral loads. Jack studs are used separately or in combination. Both internal
to support headers. and external walls may be load bearing.

King Stud : A vertical structural member Material Thickness : The base metal
that spans the full height of the wall and thickness excluding any protective
supports vertical loads and lateral loads. coatings. Thickness is expressed in mils
Usually located at both ends of a header (traditionally expressed in gauge).
adjacent to the jack studs to resist lateral
loads. Mil : A unit of measurement typically used
in measuring the thickness of thin
elements. One mil equals 1/1000 of an
inch.

Multiple Span : The span made by a

continuous member having intermediate
supports. Non-Load Bearing Wall: Walls
which do not support any loads. Punch-
out: A hole in the web of a steel framing
member allowing for the installation of where the studs are not located directly
plumbing, electrical, and other trade under the truss load points.
installation. Top plates shall be Lysaght G550 cold
formed section (Structural plate). The top
Rafter : A structural framing member plate shall be secured transversely at a
(sloped) that supports roof loads. maximum of 1800mm centres by incoming
trusses or rafters with approved wall
Shearwall : A wall assembly capable of support brackets.
resisting lateral forces to prevent racking • The bottom plate shall be minimum G550
from wind or seismic loads acting parallel cold-formed section. The bottom plate
to the plane of the wall. must be fully supported under every load-
bearing stud.
Single Span : The span made by one
continuous structural member without any
intermediate supports.

Span : The clear horizontal distance

between bearing supports. Structural
Sheathing: The covering (e.g. steel sheets)
used directly over structural members (e.g. This is critical with studs beside openings,
studs or joists) to distribute loads, brace or studs carrying major loads for the roof,
walls, and strengthen the assembly. ceiling or upper floor construction. The
support can be provided by a floor joist,
6.2 WALL SYSTEM blocking piece or concrete slab located
Load Bearing Walls directly under the stud.
A load bearing wall is one which carries • Lintels are needed for openings greater
vertical loads from the construction above than 1200mm of load bearing walls. Lintels
or lateral loads resulting from the wind. under sheet metal roofs are principally
These loads may act separately or in designed for uplift from wind loading on
combination. Both internal and external the roof structure while lintels under tile
walls may be load bearing. roofs are designed principally to support
downward loads from the roof trusses.
• Noggings in the form of a notched plate
may be used in load bearing walls to
provide lateral restraint to the wall studs. •
Bracing is needed in certain walls to
provide racking resistance against wind
load. It could be in the form of bracing
straps or bracing sheets depending on the
requirement.
• The studs, joists and trusses must be
BHP Steel Lysaght recommends the properly aligned in order to transfer the
following for the load bearing walls: loads to the member below.
• All load bearing studs shall be minimum
Lysaght C75 G550 cold formed section. Non-Load Bearing Walls
• A structural top plate is used to carry Internal walls which do not support truss
truss loads from the roof to the studs, loads are considered non-load bearing.
BHP Steel Lysaght recommends the frame is fixed in place by using masonry
following for non-load bearing walls: anchors, which are generally
• Studs for internal non-load bearing walls hammerdriven nails, expanding shell
shall be minimum Lysaght G550 C75 cold anchors or chemical anchors.
formed section. Exact recommendations for the type and
frequency of anchors would be available
from steel suppliers or the engineer. The
wall panels are usually connected together
by mechanical fasteners such as self-
drilling screws.

• Top plate should be minimum G550 cold 6.3 ROOF SYSTEM

formed section and shall be fixed to trusses The roof structure is generally a steel truss
at 1800 mm maximum centres to provide system which can be designed for metal
lateral stability for the wall. The connection sheets or tiles. This is a roof truss system
shall not transmit vertical loads to the wall. which typically consists of C75 and C100
• The bottom plate shall be minimum sections as the chord and web members of
G550 cold formed section the truss. The steel roof framing system
• Angle lintels are not required for can suit all types of roof design – hip, gable,
openings in non-load bearing wall frames. dutch dable, steel roof sheeting or tile and
• Noggings is generally not needed for would be screwed directly onto the wall
internal non-load bearing walls. frame. When using tiles, wooden-styled
roof trusses are used with purlins running
across them for the tiles to be fitted.

Wall details and connections

Steel framing is fastened to the floor
structure through the bottom plate after
all panels have been correctly aligned and
plumbed. For concrete floor slabs the
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