"Swine" redirects here. For other uses, see Swine (disambiguation).

Domestic pig

Female (sow) breastfeeding piglet

Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Suidae
Genus: Sus
Species: S. scrofa
Subspecies: S. s.
domesticus
Trinomial name
Sus scrofa domesticus
Erxleben, 1777

Synonyms[1]
 Sus domesticus Erxleben, 1777
The domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus or only Sus domesticus), often
called swine, hog, or simply pig when there is no need to distinguish it from
other pigs, is a domesticated large, even-toed ungulate. It is variously
considered a subspecies of the Eurasian boar or a distinct species. The
domestic pig's head-plus-body-length ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 m (35 to 71 in),
and adult pigs typically weigh between 50 and 350 kg (110 and 770 lb), with
well-fed individuals often exceeding this weight range. The size and weight of
a hog largely depends on its breed. Compared to other artiodactyls, its head is
relatively long, pointed, and free of warts. Even-toed ungulates are
generally herbivorous, but the domestic pig is an omnivore, like its wild
relative.
When used as livestock, domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the
consumption of their flesh, called pork. The animal's bones, hide,
and bristles are also used in commercial products. Domestic pigs,
especially miniature breeds, are kept as pets.
 Contents

 1Biology
 2Taxonomy
 3History
 4Reproduction
 5Behavior
 5.1Rooting
 5.2Nest-building
 5.3Nursing and suckling behaviour
 5.4Teat order
 5.5Senses
 6Breeds
 7In agriculture
 8As pets
 8.1Care
 9In human medical applications
 9.1Xenotransplantation
 10Glossary of terms
 11See also
 12Footnotes
 13References
 14External links

Biology[edit]

Domestic pig skull

 Skeleton specimen of a swine

Bones of a domestic pig's foot

The domestic pig typically has a large head, with a long snout which is
strengthened by a special prenasal bone and a disk of cartilage at the tip.
[2] The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food, and is a very acute sense
organ. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, giving a total of
44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male the canine
teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by
constantly being ground against each other.[2]
Four hoofed toes are on each foot, with the two larger central toes bearing
most of the weight, but the outer two also being used in soft ground.[3]
Most domestic pigs have rather a bristled sparse hair covering on their skin,
although woolly-coated breeds such as the Mangalitsa exist.[4]
Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter
appear limited to the snout and dorsonasal areas.[5] Pigs, however, like other
"hairless" mammals (e.g. elephants, rhinos, and mole-rats), do not use
thermal sweat glands in cooling.[6] Pigs are also less able than many other
mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth
through panting. Their thermoneutral zone is 16 to 22 °C (61 to 72 °F).[7] At
higher temperatures, pigs lose heat by wallowing in mud or water via
evaporative cooling; although it has been suggested that wallowing may
serve other functions, such as protection from sunburn, ecto-parasite control,
and scent-marking.[8]
Pigs are one of four known mammalian species which possess mutations in
the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake
venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have
modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-
neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent
mutations.[9]
Domestic pigs have small lungs in relation to their body size, and are thus
more susceptible than other domesticated animals to
fatal bronchitis and pneumonia.[10]

Taxonomy[edit]
The domestic pig is most often considered to be a subspecies of the wild boar,
which was given the name Sus scrofa by Carl Linnaeus in 1758; following from
this, the formal name of the domestic pig is Sus scrofa domesticus.[11]
[12] However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the
domestic pig as a separate species from the wild boar. He gave it the
name Sus domesticus, which is still used by some taxonomists.[13][14]

History[edit]
Archaeological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated from wild boar
as early as 13,000–12,700 BC[citation needed] in the Near East in the Tigris Basin,
[15][page needed] Çayönü, Cafer Höyük, Nevalı Çori[16] being managed in the wild
in a way similar to the way they are managed by some modern New
Guineans.[17] Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC
in Cyprus. Those animals must have been introduced from the mainland,
which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then.[18] There was
also a separate domestication in China which took place about 8000 years
ago.[19][20]
DNA evidence from subfossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs
shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near
East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boar, resulting
in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in
European pig stock. Modern domesticated pigs have involved complex
exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported, in turn, to the
ancient Near East.[21][22] Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were
introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. [19]
In August 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to
ascertain their process of domestication, which was assumed to have been
initiated by humans, involved few individuals, and relied on reproductive
isolation between wild and domestic forms. The study found that the
assumption of reproductive isolation with population bottlenecks was not
supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in
Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe,
where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included a
mixture with a now extinct ghost population of wild pigs during
the Pleistocene. The study also found that despite back-crossing with wild
pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at
DNA loci that affect behavior and morphology. The study concluded that
human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing
effect of gene flow from wild boars and created domestication islands in the
genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. [23]
[24] In 2019, a study showed that the domestic pig had arrived in Europe from
the Near East 8,500 years ago. Over the next 3,000 years it then admixed
with the European wild boar until its genome showed less than 5% Near
Eastern ancestry, yet retained its domesticated features. [25]
Among the animals that the Spanish introduced to the Chiloé Archipelago in
the 16th century, pigs were the most successful to adapt. The pigs benefited
from abundant shellfish and algae exposed by the large tides of the
archipelago.[26] Pigs were brought to southeastern North
America from Europe by de Soto and other early Spanish explorers. Escaped
pigs became feral and caused a great deal of disruption to Native Americans,
who had no domesticated animals, with the exception of dogs. [27] Feral pig
populations in the southeastern United States have since migrated north and
are a growing concern in the Midwest. Considered an invasive species, many
state agencies have programs to trap or hunt feral pigs as means of removal.
 Domestic pigs have become feral in many other parts of the world
[28][29][30]
(e.g. New Zealand and northern Queensland) and have caused substantial
environmental damage.[31][32] Feral hybrids of the European wild boar with the
domestic pig are also very disruptive to both environment and agriculture
(among the 100 most damaging animal species),[33] especially in
southeastern South America from Uruguay to Brazil's Mato Grosso do
Sul (Center-West Region), and São Paulo (state) (Southeast Region), where
they are known as javaporcos (from javali and porco, thus "boar-pigs").[34][35]
[36][37][38]

With around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one
of the most numerous large mammals on the planet.[39][40]

Reproduction[edit]
Female pigs reach sexual maturity at 3–12 months of age, and come
into estrus every 18–24 days if they are not successfully bred. The variation in
ovulation rate can be attributed to intrinsic factors such as age and genotype,
as well as extrinsic factors like nutrition, environment and the
supplementation of exogenous hormones.[41] The gestation period averages
112–120 days.[42] Estrus lasts two to three days, and the female's displayed
receptiveness to mate is known as standing heat. Standing heat is a reflexive
response that is stimulated when the female is in contact with the saliva of a
sexually mature boar. Androstenol is one of the pheromones produced in the
submaxillary salivary glands of boars that will trigger the female's response.
[43] The female cervix contains a series of five interdigitating pads, or folds,
that will hold the boar's corkscrew-shaped penis during copulation.
[44] Females have bicornuate uteruses and two conceptuses must be present
in both uterine horns for pregnancy to be established.[45] Maternal recognition
of pregnancy in pigs occurs on days 11 to 12 of pregnancy and is marked by
progesterone production from a functioning corpus luteum (CL). [46] To avoid
luteolysis by PGF2α, rescuing of the CL must occur via embryonic signaling of
estradiol 17β and PGE2.[47] This signaling acts on both the endometrium and
luteal tissue to prevent the regression of the CL by activation of genes that
are responsible for CL maintenance.[48] During mid to late pregnancy, the CL
relies primarily on luteinizing hormone (LH) for maintenance until parturition.
[47] Animal nutrition is important prior to reproduction and during gestation to
ensure optimum reproductive performance is achieved.[49]

Behavior[edit]
 Domestic pigs in a wallow

In many ways, their behaviour appears to be intermediate between that of

other artiodactyls and of carnivores.[50] Domestic pigs seek out the company
of other pigs, and often huddle to maintain physical contact, although they do
not naturally form large herds. They typically live in groups of about 8-10
adult sows, some young individuals, and some single males. [51]
Because of their relative lack of sweat glands, pigs often control their body
temperature using behavioural thermoregulation. Wallowing, which often
consists of coating the body with mud, is a behaviour frequently exhibited by
pigs.[52] They do not submerge completely under the mud, but vary the depth
and duration of wallowing depending on environmental conditions.
[52] Typically, adult pigs start wallowing once the ambient temperature is
around 17-21 °C. They cover themselves from head to toe in mud.[52] Pigs
may use mud as a sunscreen, or as a method of keeping parasites away.
[52] Most bristled pigs will "blow their coat", meaning that they shed most of
the longer, coarser stiff hair once a year, usually in spring or early summer, to
prepare for the warmer months ahead.[53]
If conditions permit, domestic pigs feed continuously for many hours and then
sleep for many hours, in contrast to ruminants which tend to feed for a short
time and then sleep for a short time. Pigs are omnivorous, and are highly
versatile in their feeding behaviour. As they are foraging animals, they
primarily eat leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and flowers.[54] Domestic pigs are
highly intelligent animals,[55] on par with dogs,[56] and according to David
DiSalvo's writing in Forbes, they are "widely considered the smartest
domesticated animal in the world. Pigs can move a cursor on a video screen
with their snouts and even learn to distinguish between the scribbles they
knew from those they saw for the first time."[57][a][61]
Rooting[edit]

Juliana piglet rooting on its sibling's belly

Rooting is an instinctual behavior in pigs that is characterized by a pig
nudging its snout into something. Similar to a cat's kneading, rooting is found
comforting, first happens when they are born in order to obtain their
mother's milk, and can become a habitual, obsessive behavior which is most
prominent in animals weaned too early.[62] Often, pigs will root and dig into
the ground to forage for food.[62] Rooting is known to also be used as a means
of communication.[62] Nose rings are rings that are used to pierce the septum
of the nose; they discourage rooting because they are extremely painful.
However, by means of rooting, pigs have been used to till farmland.
The breed known as the kunekune hardly ever roots, as it can sustain itself by
feeding on nothing other than grass leaves.[63] Not having to root around in
the soil to find underground food (e.g. tubers), it thus has evolved to, for the
most part, not possess these instincts.
Nest-building[edit]
A behavioural characteristic of domestic pigs which they share with carnivores
is nest-building. Sows root in the ground to create depressions and then build
nests in which to give birth. First, the sow digs a depression about the size of
her body. She then collects twigs and leaves, and carries these in her mouth
to the depression, building them into a mound. She distributes the softer, finer
material to the centre of the mound using her feet. When the mound reaches
the desired height, she places large branches, up to 2 metres in length, on the
surface. She enters into the mound and roots around to create a depression
within the gathered material. She then gives birth in a lying position, which,
again, is different from other artiodactyls, which usually give birth in a
standing position.[50]
Nest-building behaviour is an important part in the process of pre and post-
partum maternal behaviour. Nest-building will occur during the last 24 hours
before the onset of farrowing, and becomes most intense during 12 to 6 hours
before farrowing.[64] Nest-building is divided into two phases: one of which is
the initial phase of rooting in ground while the second phase is the collecting,
carrying and arranging of the nest material.[64] The sow will separate from the
group and seek a suitable nest site with some shelter from rain and wind that
has well-drained soil. This nest-building behaviour is performed to provide the
offspring with shelter, comfort, and thermoregulation. The nest will provide
protection against weather and predators, while keeping the piglets close to
the sow and away from the rest of the herd. This ensures they do not get
trampled on and that other piglets are not stealing milk from the sow. [65] Nest-
building can be influenced by internal and external stimuli. Internal hormonal
changes and the completion of one nesting phase are indicators of this
maternal behaviour.[65] The onset is triggered by the rise in prolactin levels,
which is caused by a decrease in progesterone and an increase in
prostaglandin, while the gathering of the nest material seems to be regulated
more by external stimuli such as temperature.[64] The longer time spent on
nest-building will increase pre-partum oxytocin.
Nursing and suckling behaviour[edit]
 Sow with prominent nipples. Pigs typically have 12–14 nipples.

Compared to most other mammals, pigs display complex nursing and suckling
behaviour.[66] Nursing occurs every 50–60 minutes, and the sow requires
stimulation from piglets before milk let-down. Sensory inputs (vocalisation,
odours from mammary and birth fluids and hair patterns of the sow) are
particularly important immediately post-birth to facilitate teat location by the
piglets.[67] Initially, the piglets compete for position at the udder, then each
piglet massages around its respective teat with its snout, during which time
the sow grunts at slow, regular intervals. Each series of grunts varies in
frequency, tone and magnitude, indicating the stages of nursing to the
piglets.[68]
The phase of competition for teats and of nosing the udder lasts for about one
minute, and ends when milk flow begins. In the third phase, the piglets hold
the teats in their mouths and suck with slow mouth movements (one per
second), and the rate of the sow's grunting increases for approximately 20
seconds. The grunt peak in the third phase of suckling does not coincide with
milk ejection, but rather the release of oxytocin from the pituitary into the
bloodstream.[69] Phase four coincides with the period of main milk flow (10–20
seconds) when the piglets suddenly withdraw slightly from the udder and start
sucking with rapid mouth movements of about three per second. The sow
grunts rapidly, lower in tone and often in quick runs of three or four, during
this phase. Finally, the flow stops and so does the grunting of the sow. The
piglets may then dart from teat to teat and recommence suckling with slow
movements, or nosing the udder. Piglets massage and suckle the sow's teats
after milk flow ceases as a way of letting the sow know their nutritional status.
This helps her to regulate the amount of milk released from that teat in future
sucklings. The more intense the post-feed massaging of a teat, the greater
the future milk release from that teat will be.[70]
Teat order[edit]
 A sow with suckling piglets

In pigs, dominance hierarchies can be formed at a very early age. Domestic

piglets are highly precocious and within minutes of being born, or sometimes
seconds, will attempt to suckle. The piglets are born with sharp teeth and
fight to develop a teat order as the anterior teats produce a greater quantity
of milk. Once established, this teat order remains stable with each piglet
tending to feed from a particular teat or group of teats.[50] Stimulation of the
anterior teats appears to be important in causing milk letdown, [71] so it might
be advantageous to the entire litter to have these teats occupied by healthy
piglets. Using an artificial sow to rear groups of piglets, recognition of a teat in
a particular area of the udder depended initially on visual orientation by
means of reference points on the udder to find the area, and then the
olfactory sense for the more accurate search within that area. [72]
Senses[edit]
Pigs have panoramic vision of approximately 310° and binocular vision of 35°
to 50°. It is thought they have no eye accommodation.[73] Other animals that
have no accommodation, e.g. sheep, lift their heads to see distant objects.
[74] The extent to which pigs have colour vision is still a source of some
debate; however, the presence of cone cells in the retina with two distinct
wavelength sensitivities (blue and green) suggests that at least some colour
vision is present.[75]
Pigs have a well-developed sense of smell, and use is made of this in Europe
where they are trained to locate underground truffles. Olfactory rather than
visual stimuli are used in the identification of other pigs.[76] Hearing is also
well developed, and localisation of sounds is made by moving the head. Pigs
use auditory stimuli extensively as a means of communication in all social
activities.[77] Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only
by auditory cues but also by pheromones.[78] Similarly, recognition between
the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues. [79]

Breeds[edit]
Main article: List of pig breeds
Many breeds of domestic pig exist; in many colors, shapes, and sizes.
According to The Livestock Conservancy, as of 2016, three breeds of domestic
pig are critically rare (having a global population of fewer than 2000). They
are the Choctaw hog, the Mulefoot, and the Ossabaw Island pig.[80] The known
smallest domestic pig breed in the world is the Göttingen minipig, typically
weighing about 26 kilograms (57 lb) as a healthy, full-grown adult.[81]

In agriculture[edit]
Main article: Pig farming

Global pig stocks

in 2014

(million)
People's Republic 474

of China .1
 United States 67.
7
Brazil 37.
9

World total 986

.6

Source: UN
Food & Agriculture
Organization
(FAO)

Interior of pig farm at Bjärka-Säby Castle, Sweden, 1911

A Large White, a breed commonly used in meat production

When in use as livestock, the domestic pig is mostly farmed for its meat, pork.
Other food products made from pigs include pork sausage (which
includes casings that are made from
the intestines), bacon, gammon, ham and pork rinds. The head of a pig can be
used to make a preserved jelly called head cheese, which is sometimes known
as brawn. Liver, chitterlings, blood (for black pudding), and other offal from
pigs are also widely used for food. In some religions, such
as Judaism and Islam, pork is a taboo food.
The use of pig milk for human consumption does take place, but as there are
certain difficulties in obtaining it, there is little commercial production.
Livestock pigs are exhibited at agricultural shows, judged either as stud
stock compared to the standard features of each pig breed, or in commercial
classes where the animals are judged primarily on their suitability for
slaughter to provide premium meat.
The skin of pigs is used to produce seat covers, apparel, pork rinds, and other
items.
In some developing and developed nations, the domestic pig is usually raised
outdoors in yards or fields. In some areas, pigs are allowed to forage in woods
where they may be taken care of by swineherds. In industrialized nations such
as the United States, domestic pig farming has switched from the traditional
pig farm to large-scale intensive pig farms. This has resulted in lower
production costs, but can cause significant cruelty problems. As consumers
have become concerned with humane treatment of livestock, demand for
pasture-raised pork in these nations has increased.[82]

As pets[edit]

A crossbred miniature pig

Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs, a miniature breed of domestic pig, have made

popular pets in the United States, beginning in the latter half of the 20th
century. These pot-bellied pigs were soon crossbred with a variety of other
small breeds, such as the Göttingen minipig, with separate locations breeding
different lineages. These crossbred miniature pigs soon gained attention, even
more so than the original Vietnamese pot-bellied. As a result of this, many pet
pigs are now of unknown genetic descent.
Domestic pigs are highly intelligent, social creatures. They are
considered hypoallergenic, and are known to do quite well with people who
have usual animal allergies. Since these animals are known to have a life
expectancy of 15 to 20 years, they require a long-term commitment.
Another crossbred "Salt & Pepper" miniature pig

Care[edit]
Male and female swine that have not been de-sexed may express unwanted
aggressive behavior, and are prone to developing serious health issues.
[83] Regular trimming of the hooves is necessary; hooves left untreated cause
major pain in the pig, can create malformations in bone structure, and may
cause it to be more susceptible to fungal growth between crevices of the hoof,
[84] or between the cracks in a split hoof. Male pigs, especially when left
unaltered, can grow large, sharp tusks which may continue growing for years.
Domestic owners may wish to keep their pigs' tusks trimmed back, [85] or have
them removed entirely.
As prey animals, pigs' natural instinctive behavior causes them to have a
strong fear of being picked up, but they will usually calm down once placed
back onto the ground. This instinctual fear may be lessened if the pig has
been frequently held since infancy. When holding a pig, supporting it under
the legs makes being held not as stressful for the animal. [86] Pigs need
enrichment activities[87] to keep their intelligent minds occupied; if pigs get
bored, they often become destructive.[88] As rooting is found to be comforting,
pigs kept in the house may root household objects, furniture or surfaces.
While some owners are known to pierce their pigs' noses to discourage
rooting behaviour, the efficacy and humaneness of this practice is
questionable.[89] As such, indoor pigs should be provided with a box with
rocks, soil, straw, and/or other material for them to root in instead.

In human medical applications[edit]

The domestic pig, both as a live animal and source of post-mortem tissues, is
one of the most valuable animal models used in biomedical research today,
because of its biological, physiological and anatomical similarities to human
beings.[90][91] For instance, human skin is very similar to pig skin, therefore
pig skin has been used in many preclinical studies.[90][91] Porcine are used in
finding treatments, cures for diseases, xenotransplantation, [92] and for
general education. They are also used in the development of medical
instruments and devices, surgical techniques and instrumentation, and FDA-
approved research. As part of animal conservation (The Three Rs (animals)),
these animals contribute to the reduction methods for animal research, as
they supply more information from fewer animals used, for a lower cost.
Xenotransplantation[edit]
Main article: Xenotransplantation
Pigs are currently thought to be the best non-human candidates for organ
donation to humans. The risk of cross-species disease transmission is
decreased because of their increased phylogenetic distance from humans.
[93] They are readily available, their organs are anatomically comparable in
size, and new infectious agents are less likely since they have been in close
contact with humans through domestication for many generations. [94]
To date, no xenotransplantation trials have been entirely successful due to
obstacles arising from the response of the recipient's immune system—
generally more extreme than in allotransplantations, ultimately results in
rejection of the xenograft, and in some cases result in the death of the
recipient—including hyperacute rejection, acute vascular rejection, cellular
rejection and chronic rejection. An early major breakthrough was the 1,3
galactosyl transferase gene knockout.[95]
Examples of viruses carried by pigs include
porcine herpesvirus, rotavirus, parvovirus, and circovirus. Of particular
concern are PERVs (porcine endogenous retroviruses), vertically transmitted
microbes that embed in swine genomes. The risks with xenosis are twofold, as
not only could the individual become infected, but a novel infection could
initiate an epidemic in the human population. Because of this risk, the FDA
has suggested any recipients of xenotransplants shall be closely monitored for
the remainder of their life, and quarantined if they show signs of xenosis. [96]
Pig cells have been engineered to inactivate all 62 PERVs in the genome
using CRISPR Cas9 genome editing technology, and eliminated infection from
the pig to human cells in culture.[97]

Glossary of terms
dkjnjkf"Swine" redirects here. For other uses, see Swine (disambiguation).

Domestic pig

Female (sow) breastfeeding piglet

Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
 Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Suidae
Genus: Sus
Species: S. scrofa
Subspecies: S. s.
domesticus
Trinomial name
Sus scrofa domesticus
Erxleben, 1777

Synonyms[1]
 Sus domesticus Erxleben, 1777
The domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus or only Sus domesticus), often
called swine, hog, or simply pig when there is no need to distinguish it from
other pigs, is a domesticated large, even-toed ungulate. It is variously
considered a subspecies of the Eurasian boar or a distinct species. The
domestic pig's head-plus-body-length ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 m (35 to 71 in),
and adult pigs typically weigh between 50 and 350 kg (110 and 770 lb), with
well-fed individuals often exceeding this weight range. The size and weight of
a hog largely depends on its breed. Compared to other artiodactyls, its head is
relatively long, pointed, and free of warts. Even-toed ungulates are
generally herbivorous, but the domestic pig is an omnivore, like its wild
relative.
When used as livestock, domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the
consumption of their flesh, called pork. The animal's bones, hide,
and bristles are also used in commercial products. Domestic pigs,
especially miniature breeds, are kept as pets.

Contents

 1Biology
 2Taxonomy
 3History
 4Reproduction
 5Behavior
 5.1Rooting
 5.2Nest-building
 5.3Nursing and suckling behaviour
 5.4Teat order
 5.5Senses
 6Breeds
 7In agriculture
 8As pets
 8.1Care
 9In human medical applications
 9.1Xenotransplantation
 10Glossary of terms
 11See also
 12Footnotes
 13References
 14External links

Biology[edit]

Domestic pig skull

Skeleton specimen of a swine

Bones of a domestic pig's foot

The domestic pig typically has a large head, with a long snout which is
strengthened by a special prenasal bone and a disk of cartilage at the tip.
[2] The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food, and is a very acute sense
organ. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, giving a total of
44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In the male the canine
teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by
constantly being ground against each other.[2]
Four hoofed toes are on each foot, with the two larger central toes bearing
most of the weight, but the outer two also being used in soft ground.[3]
Most domestic pigs have rather a bristled sparse hair covering on their skin,
although woolly-coated breeds such as the Mangalitsa exist.[4]
Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter
appear limited to the snout and dorsonasal areas.[5] Pigs, however, like other
"hairless" mammals (e.g. elephants, rhinos, and mole-rats), do not use
thermal sweat glands in cooling.[6] Pigs are also less able than many other
mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth
through panting. Their thermoneutral zone is 16 to 22 °C (61 to 72 °F).[7] At
higher temperatures, pigs lose heat by wallowing in mud or water via
evaporative cooling; although it has been suggested that wallowing may
serve other functions, such as protection from sunburn, ecto-parasite control,
and scent-marking.[8]
Pigs are one of four known mammalian species which possess mutations in
the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake
venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have
modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-
neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent
mutations.[9]
Domestic pigs have small lungs in relation to their body size, and are thus
more susceptible than other domesticated animals to
fatal bronchitis and pneumonia.[10]

Taxonomy[edit]
The domestic pig is most often considered to be a subspecies of the wild boar,
which was given the name Sus scrofa by Carl Linnaeus in 1758; following from
this, the formal name of the domestic pig is Sus scrofa domesticus.[11]
[12] However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the
domestic pig as a separate species from the wild boar. He gave it the
name Sus domesticus, which is still used by some taxonomists.[13][14]

History[edit]
Archaeological evidence suggests that pigs were domesticated from wild boar
as early as 13,000–12,700 BC[citation needed] in the Near East in the Tigris Basin,
[15][page needed] Çayönü, Cafer Höyük, Nevalı Çori[16] being managed in the wild
in a way similar to the way they are managed by some modern New
Guineans.[17] Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC
in Cyprus. Those animals must have been introduced from the mainland,
which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then.[18] There was
also a separate domestication in China which took place about 8000 years
ago.[19][20]
DNA evidence from subfossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs
shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near
East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boar, resulting
in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in
European pig stock. Modern domesticated pigs have involved complex
exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported, in turn, to the
ancient Near East.[21][22] Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were
introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. [19]
In August 2015, a study looked at over 100 pig genome sequences to
ascertain their process of domestication, which was assumed to have been
initiated by humans, involved few individuals, and relied on reproductive
isolation between wild and domestic forms. The study found that the
assumption of reproductive isolation with population bottlenecks was not
supported. The study indicated that pigs were domesticated separately in
Western Asia and China, with Western Asian pigs introduced into Europe,
where they crossed with wild boar. A model that fitted the data included a
mixture with a now extinct ghost population of wild pigs during
the Pleistocene. The study also found that despite back-crossing with wild
pigs, the genomes of domestic pigs have strong signatures of selection at
DNA loci that affect behavior and morphology. The study concluded that
human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing
effect of gene flow from wild boars and created domestication islands in the
genome. The same process may also apply to other domesticated animals. [23]
[24] In 2019, a study showed that the domestic pig had arrived in Europe from
the Near East 8,500 years ago. Over the next 3,000 years it then admixed
with the European wild boar until its genome showed less than 5% Near
Eastern ancestry, yet retained its domesticated features. [25]
Among the animals that the Spanish introduced to the Chiloé Archipelago in
the 16th century, pigs were the most successful to adapt. The pigs benefited
from abundant shellfish and algae exposed by the large tides of the
archipelago.[26] Pigs were brought to southeastern North
America from Europe by de Soto and other early Spanish explorers. Escaped
pigs became feral and caused a great deal of disruption to Native Americans,
who had no domesticated animals, with the exception of dogs. [27] Feral pig
populations in the southeastern United States have since migrated north and
are a growing concern in the Midwest. Considered an invasive species, many
state agencies have programs to trap or hunt feral pigs as means of removal.
[28][29][30] Domestic pigs have become feral in many other parts of the world
(e.g. New Zealand and northern Queensland) and have caused substantial
environmental damage.[31][32] Feral hybrids of the European wild boar with the
domestic pig are also very disruptive to both environment and agriculture
(among the 100 most damaging animal species),[33] especially in
southeastern South America from Uruguay to Brazil's Mato Grosso do
Sul (Center-West Region), and São Paulo (state) (Southeast Region), where
they are known as javaporcos (from javali and porco, thus "boar-pigs").[34][35]
[36][37][38]

With around 1 billion individuals alive at any time, the domesticated pig is one
of the most numerous large mammals on the planet.[39][40]

Reproduction[edit]
Female pigs reach sexual maturity at 3–12 months of age, and come
into estrus every 18–24 days if they are not successfully bred. The variation in
ovulation rate can be attributed to intrinsic factors such as age and genotype,
as well as extrinsic factors like nutrition, environment and the
supplementation of exogenous hormones.[41] The gestation period averages
112–120 days.[42] Estrus lasts two to three days, and the female's displayed
receptiveness to mate is known as standing heat. Standing heat is a reflexive
response that is stimulated when the female is in contact with the saliva of a
sexually mature boar. Androstenol is one of the pheromones produced in the
submaxillary salivary glands of boars that will trigger the female's response.
[43] The female cervix contains a series of five interdigitating pads, or folds,
that will hold the boar's corkscrew-shaped penis during copulation.
[44] Females have bicornuate uteruses and two conceptuses must be present
in both uterine horns for pregnancy to be established.[45] Maternal recognition
of pregnancy in pigs occurs on days 11 to 12 of pregnancy and is marked by
progesterone production from a functioning corpus luteum (CL). [46] To avoid
luteolysis by PGF2α, rescuing of the CL must occur via embryonic signaling of
estradiol 17β and PGE2.[47] This signaling acts on both the endometrium and
luteal tissue to prevent the regression of the CL by activation of genes that
are responsible for CL maintenance.[48] During mid to late pregnancy, the CL
relies primarily on luteinizing hormone (LH) for maintenance until parturition.
[47] Animal nutrition is important prior to reproduction and during gestation to
ensure optimum reproductive performance is achieved.[49]

Behavior[edit]

Domestic pigs in a wallow

In many ways, their behaviour appears to be intermediate between that of

other artiodactyls and of carnivores.[50] Domestic pigs seek out the company
of other pigs, and often huddle to maintain physical contact, although they do
not naturally form large herds. They typically live in groups of about 8-10
adult sows, some young individuals, and some single males. [51]
Because of their relative lack of sweat glands, pigs often control their body
temperature using behavioural thermoregulation. Wallowing, which often
consists of coating the body with mud, is a behaviour frequently exhibited by
pigs.[52] They do not submerge completely under the mud, but vary the depth
and duration of wallowing depending on environmental conditions.
[52] Typically, adult pigs start wallowing once the ambient temperature is
around 17-21 °C. They cover themselves from head to toe in mud.[52] Pigs
may use mud as a sunscreen, or as a method of keeping parasites away.
[52] Most bristled pigs will "blow their coat", meaning that they shed most of
the longer, coarser stiff hair once a year, usually in spring or early summer, to
prepare for the warmer months ahead.[53]
If conditions permit, domestic pigs feed continuously for many hours and then
sleep for many hours, in contrast to ruminants which tend to feed for a short
time and then sleep for a short time. Pigs are omnivorous, and are highly
versatile in their feeding behaviour. As they are foraging animals, they
primarily eat leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and flowers.[54] Domestic pigs are
highly intelligent animals,[55] on par with dogs,[56] and according to David
DiSalvo's writing in Forbes, they are "widely considered the smartest
domesticated animal in the world. Pigs can move a cursor on a video screen
with their snouts and even learn to distinguish between the scribbles they
knew from those they saw for the first time."[57][a][61]
Rooting[edit]

Juliana piglet rooting on its sibling's belly

Rooting is an instinctual behavior in pigs that is characterized by a pig

nudging its snout into something. Similar to a cat's kneading, rooting is found
comforting, first happens when they are born in order to obtain their
mother's milk, and can become a habitual, obsessive behavior which is most
prominent in animals weaned too early.[62] Often, pigs will root and dig into
the ground to forage for food.[62] Rooting is known to also be used as a means
of communication.[62] Nose rings are rings that are used to pierce the septum
of the nose; they discourage rooting because they are extremely painful.
However, by means of rooting, pigs have been used to till farmland.
The breed known as the kunekune hardly ever roots, as it can sustain itself by
feeding on nothing other than grass leaves.[63] Not having to root around in
the soil to find underground food (e.g. tubers), it thus has evolved to, for the
most part, not possess these instincts.
Nest-building[edit]
A behavioural characteristic of domestic pigs which they share with carnivores
is nest-building. Sows root in the ground to create depressions and then build
nests in which to give birth. First, the sow digs a depression about the size of
her body. She then collects twigs and leaves, and carries these in her mouth
to the depression, building them into a mound. She distributes the softer, finer
material to the centre of the mound using her feet. When the mound reaches
the desired height, she places large branches, up to 2 metres in length, on the
surface. She enters into the mound and roots around to create a depression
within the gathered material. She then gives birth in a lying position, which,
again, is different from other artiodactyls, which usually give birth in a
standing position.[50]
Nest-building behaviour is an important part in the process of pre and post-
partum maternal behaviour. Nest-building will occur during the last 24 hours
before the onset of farrowing, and becomes most intense during 12 to 6 hours
before farrowing.[64] Nest-building is divided into two phases: one of which is
the initial phase of rooting in ground while the second phase is the collecting,
carrying and arranging of the nest material.[64] The sow will separate from the
group and seek a suitable nest site with some shelter from rain and wind that
has well-drained soil. This nest-building behaviour is performed to provide the
offspring with shelter, comfort, and thermoregulation. The nest will provide
protection against weather and predators, while keeping the piglets close to
the sow and away from the rest of the herd. This ensures they do not get
trampled on and that other piglets are not stealing milk from the sow. [65] Nest-
building can be influenced by internal and external stimuli. Internal hormonal
changes and the completion of one nesting phase are indicators of this
maternal behaviour.[65] The onset is triggered by the rise in prolactin levels,
which is caused by a decrease in progesterone and an increase in
prostaglandin, while the gathering of the nest material seems to be regulated
more by external stimuli such as temperature.[64] The longer time spent on
nest-building will increase pre-partum oxytocin.
Nursing and suckling behaviour[edit]

Sow with prominent nipples. Pigs typically have 12–14 nipples.

Compared to most other mammals, pigs display complex nursing and suckling
behaviour.[66] Nursing occurs every 50–60 minutes, and the sow requires
stimulation from piglets before milk let-down. Sensory inputs (vocalisation,
odours from mammary and birth fluids and hair patterns of the sow) are
particularly important immediately post-birth to facilitate teat location by the
piglets.[67] Initially, the piglets compete for position at the udder, then each
piglet massages around its respective teat with its snout, during which time
the sow grunts at slow, regular intervals. Each series of grunts varies in
frequency, tone and magnitude, indicating the stages of nursing to the
piglets.[68]
The phase of competition for teats and of nosing the udder lasts for about one
minute, and ends when milk flow begins. In the third phase, the piglets hold
the teats in their mouths and suck with slow mouth movements (one per
second), and the rate of the sow's grunting increases for approximately 20
seconds. The grunt peak in the third phase of suckling does not coincide with
milk ejection, but rather the release of oxytocin from the pituitary into the
bloodstream.[69] Phase four coincides with the period of main milk flow (10–20
seconds) when the piglets suddenly withdraw slightly from the udder and start
sucking with rapid mouth movements of about three per second. The sow
grunts rapidly, lower in tone and often in quick runs of three or four, during
this phase. Finally, the flow stops and so does the grunting of the sow. The
piglets may then dart from teat to teat and recommence suckling with slow
movements, or nosing the udder. Piglets massage and suckle the sow's teats
after milk flow ceases as a way of letting the sow know their nutritional status.
This helps her to regulate the amount of milk released from that teat in future
sucklings. The more intense the post-feed massaging of a teat, the greater
the future milk release from that teat will be.[70]
Teat order[edit]

A sow with suckling piglets

In pigs, dominance hierarchies can be formed at a very early age. Domestic

piglets are highly precocious and within minutes of being born, or sometimes
seconds, will attempt to suckle. The piglets are born with sharp teeth and
fight to develop a teat order as the anterior teats produce a greater quantity
of milk. Once established, this teat order remains stable with each piglet
tending to feed from a particular teat or group of teats.[50] Stimulation of the
anterior teats appears to be important in causing milk letdown, [71] so it might
be advantageous to the entire litter to have these teats occupied by healthy
piglets. Using an artificial sow to rear groups of piglets, recognition of a teat in
a particular area of the udder depended initially on visual orientation by
means of reference points on the udder to find the area, and then the
olfactory sense for the more accurate search within that area. [72]
Senses[edit]
Pigs have panoramic vision of approximately 310° and binocular vision of 35°
to 50°. It is thought they have no eye accommodation.[73] Other animals that
have no accommodation, e.g. sheep, lift their heads to see distant objects.
[74] The extent to which pigs have colour vision is still a source of some
debate; however, the presence of cone cells in the retina with two distinct
wavelength sensitivities (blue and green) suggests that at least some colour
vision is present.[75]
Pigs have a well-developed sense of smell, and use is made of this in Europe
where they are trained to locate underground truffles. Olfactory rather than
visual stimuli are used in the identification of other pigs.[76] Hearing is also
well developed, and localisation of sounds is made by moving the head. Pigs
use auditory stimuli extensively as a means of communication in all social
activities.[77] Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only
by auditory cues but also by pheromones.[78] Similarly, recognition between
the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues. [79]

Breeds[edit]
Main article: List of pig breeds
Many breeds of domestic pig exist; in many colors, shapes, and sizes.
According to The Livestock Conservancy, as of 2016, three breeds of domestic
pig are critically rare (having a global population of fewer than 2000). They
are the Choctaw hog, the Mulefoot, and the Ossabaw Island pig.[80] The known
smallest domestic pig breed in the world is the Göttingen minipig, typically
weighing about 26 kilograms (57 lb) as a healthy, full-grown adult.[81]

In agriculture[edit]
Main article: Pig farming

Global pig stocks

in 2014

(million)
People's Republic 474

of China .1

United States 67.

7
Brazil 37.
9

World total 986

.6

Source: UN
Food & Agriculture
Organization
(FAO)
 Interior of pig farm at Bjärka-Säby Castle, Sweden, 1911

A Large White, a breed commonly used in meat production

When in use as livestock, the domestic pig is mostly farmed for its meat, pork.
Other food products made from pigs include pork sausage (which
includes casings that are made from
the intestines), bacon, gammon, ham and pork rinds. The head of a pig can be
used to make a preserved jelly called head cheese, which is sometimes known
as brawn. Liver, chitterlings, blood (for black pudding), and other offal from
pigs are also widely used for food. In some religions, such
as Judaism and Islam, pork is a taboo food.
The use of pig milk for human consumption does take place, but as there are
certain difficulties in obtaining it, there is little commercial production.
Livestock pigs are exhibited at agricultural shows, judged either as stud
stock compared to the standard features of each pig breed, or in commercial
classes where the animals are judged primarily on their suitability for
slaughter to provide premium meat.
The skin of pigs is used to produce seat covers, apparel, pork rinds, and other
items.
In some developing and developed nations, the domestic pig is usually raised
outdoors in yards or fields. In some areas, pigs are allowed to forage in woods
where they may be taken care of by swineherds. In industrialized nations such
as the United States, domestic pig farming has switched from the traditional
pig farm to large-scale intensive pig farms. This has resulted in lower
production costs, but can cause significant cruelty problems. As consumers
have become concerned with humane treatment of livestock, demand for
pasture-raised pork in these nations has increased.[82]

As pets[edit]
 A crossbred miniature pig

Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs, a miniature breed of domestic pig, have made

popular pets in the United States, beginning in the latter half of the 20th
century. These pot-bellied pigs were soon crossbred with a variety of other
small breeds, such as the Göttingen minipig, with separate locations breeding
different lineages. These crossbred miniature pigs soon gained attention, even
more so than the original Vietnamese pot-bellied. As a result of this, many pet
pigs are now of unknown genetic descent.
Domestic pigs are highly intelligent, social creatures. They are
considered hypoallergenic, and are known to do quite well with people who
have usual animal allergies. Since these animals are known to have a life
expectancy of 15 to 20 years, they require a long-term commitment.

Another crossbred "Salt & Pepper" miniature pig

Care[edit]
Male and female swine that have not been de-sexed may express unwanted
aggressive behavior, and are prone to developing serious health issues.
[83] Regular trimming of the hooves is necessary; hooves left untreated cause
major pain in the pig, can create malformations in bone structure, and may
cause it to be more susceptible to fungal growth between crevices of the hoof,
[84] or between the cracks in a split hoof. Male pigs, especially when left
unaltered, can grow large, sharp tusks which may continue growing for years.
Domestic owners may wish to keep their pigs' tusks trimmed back, [85] or have
them removed entirely.
As prey animals, pigs' natural instinctive behavior causes them to have a
strong fear of being picked up, but they will usually calm down once placed
back onto the ground. This instinctual fear may be lessened if the pig has
been frequently held since infancy. When holding a pig, supporting it under
the legs makes being held not as stressful for the animal. [86] Pigs need
enrichment activities[87] to keep their intelligent minds occupied; if pigs get
bored, they often become destructive.[88] As rooting is found to be comforting,
pigs kept in the house may root household objects, furniture or surfaces.
While some owners are known to pierce their pigs' noses to discourage
rooting behaviour, the efficacy and humaneness of this practice is
questionable.[89] As such, indoor pigs should be provided with a box with
rocks, soil, straw, and/or other material for them to root in instead.

In human medical applications[edit]

The domestic pig, both as a live animal and source of post-mortem tissues, is
one of the most valuable animal models used in biomedical research today,
because of its biological, physiological and anatomical similarities to human
beings.[90][91] For instance, human skin is very similar to pig skin, therefore
pig skin has been used in many preclinical studies.[90][91] Porcine are used in
finding treatments, cures for diseases, xenotransplantation, [92] and for
general education. They are also used in the development of medical
instruments and devices, surgical techniques and instrumentation, and FDA-
approved research. As part of animal conservation (The Three Rs (animals)),
these animals contribute to the reduction methods for animal research, as
they supply more information from fewer animals used, for a lower cost.
Xenotransplantation[edit]
Main article: Xenotransplantation
Pigs are currently thought to be the best non-human candidates for organ
donation to humans. The risk of cross-species disease transmission is
decreased because of their increased phylogenetic distance from humans.
[93] They are readily available, their organs are anatomically comparable in
size, and new infectious agents are less likely since they have been in close
contact with humans through domestication for many generations. [94]
To date, no xenotransplantation trials have been entirely successful due to
obstacles arising from the response of the recipient's immune system—
generally more extreme than in allotransplantations, ultimately results in
rejection of the xenograft, and in some cases result in the death of the
recipient—including hyperacute rejection, acute vascular rejection, cellular
rejection and chronic rejection. An early major breakthrough was the 1,3
galactosyl transferase gene knockout.[95]
Examples of viruses carried by pigs include
porcine herpesvirus, rotavirus, parvovirus, and circovirus. Of particular
concern are PERVs (porcine endogenous retroviruses), vertically transmitted
microbes that embed in swine genomes. The risks with xenosis are twofold, as
not only could the individual become infected, but a novel infection could
initiate an epidemic in the human population. Because of this risk, the FDA
has suggested any recipients of xenotransplants shall be closely monitored for
the remainder of their life, and quarantined if they show signs of xenosis. [96]
Pig cells have been engineered to inactivate all 62 PERVs in the genome
using CRISPR Cas9 genome editing technology, and eliminated infection from
the pig to human cells in culture.[97]

Glossary of terms