First Law of Thermodynamics

Reading Problems
4-1 → 4-6 4-19, 4-24, 4-42, 4-61, 4-65
5-1 → 5-5 5-37, 5-67, 5-84, 5-104, 5-120, 5-141, 5-213

Control Mass (Closed System)

A thermodynamic analysis of a system can be performed on a fixed amount of matter known as a
control mass or over a region of space, known as a control volume.

Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Mass, which states that mass cannot be created or destroyed, is implicitly satisfied
by the definition of a control mass.

Conservation of Energy

The first law of thermodynamics states:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only change forms.

• energy transformation is accomplished through energy transfer as work and/or heat. Work
and heat are the forms that energy can take in order to be transferred across the system
boundary.

• the first law leads to the principle of Conservation of Energy where we can stipulate the
energy content of an isolated system is constant.

energy entering − energy leaving = change of energy within the system

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Sign Convention
There are many potential sign conventions that can be used.

Cengel Approach

Heat Transfer: heat transfer to a system is positive and heat transfer from a system is negative.

Work Transfer: work done by a system is positive and work done on a system is negative.

Culham Approach

Anything directed into the system is positive, anything directed out of the system is negative.

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Example: A Gas Compressor

Performing a 1st law energy balance:

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ Initial ⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎬ + Energy gain W1−2 ⎨ F inal ⎪
⎬
Energy = Energy
⎪
⎩ ⎭ −
⎪ Energy loss Q1−2 ⎪
⎩ ⎪
⎭
E1 E2

A first law balance for a control mass can also be written in differential form as follows:

dE = δQ − δW

Note: d or Δ for a change in property and δ for a path function

Forms of Energy Transfer

Work Versus Heat
• Work is macroscopically organized energy transfer.

• Heat is microscopically disorganized energy transfer.

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Heat Energy
• Notation:

– Q (kJ ) amount of heat transfer

– Q̇ (kW ) rate of heat transfer (power)
– q (kJ/kg) - heat transfer per unit mass
– q̇ (kW/kg) - power per unit mass

• modes of heat transfer:

– conduction: diffusion of heat in a stationary medium (Chapters 8 & 9)

– convection: it is common to include convective heat transfer in traditional heat transfer
analysis. However, it is considered mass transfer in thermodynamics. (Chapters 10 &
11)
– radiation: heat transfer by photons or electromagnetic waves (Chapter 12)

Work Energy

• Notation:

– W (kJ ) amount of work transfer

– Ẇ (kW ) power
– w (kJ/kg) - work per unit mass
– ẇ (kW/kg) - power per unit mass

• work transfer mechanisms in general, are a force acting over a distance

Mechanical Work

• force (which generally varies) times displacement

 2
W12 = F ds
1

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Moving Boundary Work

• compression in a piston/cylinder, where A is

the piston cross sectional area (frictionless)

• the area under the process curve on a P − V

2
diagram is proportional to P dV
1

• the work is:

– +ve for compression

– −ve for expansion

• sometimes called P dV work or

compression /expansion work

 2  2  2
W12 = − F ds = − P · A ds = − P dV
1 1 1

Polytropic Process: where P V n = C

• examples of polytropic processes include:

Isobaric process: if n = 0 then P = C and we have a constant pressure process

Isothermal process: if n = 1 then from the ideal gas equation P V = RT and P V is

only a function of temperature

Isometric process: if n → ∞ then P 1/nV = C 1/n and we have a constant volume

process

Isentropic process: if n = k = Cp /Cv then we have an isentropic process

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Gravitational Work

Work is defined as force through a distance

 2
W12 = F ds
1

Since in the case of lifting an object, force and displacement are in the same direction, the work
will be positive and by definition positive work is into the system.

 2  2  2
W12 = F ds = mg ds = mg dz
1 1 1

• integrating from state 1 to state 2 gives

W12 = mg(z2 − z1 )

• the potential energy of the system increases with an addition of gravitational work,
ΔP E = W = mg(z2 − z1 )

Acceleration Work

• if the system is accelerating, the work associated with the change of the velocity can be
calculated as follows:
 2  2  2  2
dV ds
W12 = F ds = ma ds = m ds = m dV
1 1 1 dt 1 dt
 
V

and we can then write

 2  
V22 V12
W12 = mV dV = m −
1 2 2

• if we drop an object with the assistance of gravity, the first law balance gives
ΔP E + ΔKE = 0. Potential energy decreases and kinetic energy increases.

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Charge Transfer Work (Electrical Work)

• current, I is the rate of charge transfer

d q+ coulomb
I≡ , = Ampere
dt sec

where

q + = −N e

with N being the number of electrons and e the charge of the electron.

• the electrical work done is given as

δWe = (1 − 2 ) dq + =  dq +

J oule
where  is the electrical potential difference with units volt =
Coulomb
• the electrical work done per unit time is power

δWe
Ẇe = P ower = = I (W )
dt

 2
We =  I dt
1

=  IΔt

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Control Volume (Open System)
The major difference between a Control Mass and and Control Volume is that mass crosses the
system boundary of a control volume.

CONSERVATION OF MASS:
Unlike a control mass approach, the control volume approach does not implicitly satisfy
conservation of mass, therefore we must make sure that mass is neither created nor destroyed
in our process.

m OUT

m cv

m IN
cv

⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎨ ⎪
rate of increase ⎬ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ net rate of ⎬ ⎪
⎨ net rate of ⎪
⎬
⎪
of mass within
⎪
= ⎪
mass f low
⎪
− ⎪
mass f low
⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
the CV IN OU T

d
(mCV ) = ṁIN − ṁOUT
dt

where:

mCV = ρ dV
V

ṁIN = (ρ V A)IN

ṁOUT = (ρ V A)OUT

with V = average velocity

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CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

The 1st law states:

ECV (t) + δQ + δWshaf t + (ΔEIN − ΔEOUT )+

(δWIN − δWOUT ) = ECV (t + Δt) (1)

where:

ΔEIN = eIN ΔmIN

ΔEOUT = eOUT ΔmOUT

δW = flow work
E V2
e = = u +
  + gz
m 2  
internal   potential
kinetic

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What is flow work?

This is the work required to pass the flow across the system boundaries. When mass enters/leaves
a control volume, some work is done on/by the control volume.

volume
 
ΔmIN = ρIN AIN VIN Δt

δWIN = F · distance

= PIN AIN · VIN Δt

     
F Δs

PIN ΔmIN
=
ρIN

with

1
v=
ρ

δWIN = (P v Δm)IN → flow work (2)

Similarly

δWOUT = (P v Δm)OUT (3)

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Substituting Eqs. 2 and 3 into Eq. 1 gives the 1st law for a control volume

ECV (t + Δt) − ECV (t) = δQ + δWshaf t + ΔmIN (e + P v)IN

− ΔmOUT (e + P v)OUT (4)

Equation 4 can also be written as a rate equation → divide through by Δt and take the limit as
Δt → 0

d
ECV = Q̇ + Ẇshaf t + [ṁ(e + P v)]IN − [ṁ(e + P v)]OUT
dt

where:

ṁ = ρ v ∗ A

Note that:

(v ∗ )2
e + Pv = u + Pv +
  
+ gz
2
= h(enthalpy) + KE + P E

By using enthalpy instead of the internal energy to represent the energy of a flowing fluid, one does
not need to be concerned with the flow work.

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Some Practical Assumptions for Control Volumes

Steady State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume do not change
with time. For example
P2 > P1

P1 P2 Diffuser: P changes inside the control volume, but

the pressure at each point does not change with
time.

V2 < V1

Steady Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface do not change
with time. For example

T = T(y)
Inlet Pipe: T at the inlet may be different at differ-
ent locations, but temperature at each boundary
T ≠ T(t) point does not change with time.
y

The steadiness refers to variation with respect to time

• if the process is not steady, it is unsteady or transient

• often steady flow implies both steady flow and steady state

Uniform State Process: The properties of the material inside the control volume are uniform and
may change with time. For example
o
50 C
t=0
o
50 C 50 oC
o
50 C
Heating Copper: Cu conducts heat well, so that it
Q heats evenly.
o
60 oC
t=10 60 C o
60 oC
60 C

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Uniform Flow Process: The properties of the material crossing the control surface are spatially
uniform and may change with time. For example

P ≠ P(y)
Inlet Pipe: P at the inlet is uniform
across y.
y

x
Uniformity is a concept related to the spatial distribution. If the flow field in a process is not
uniform, it is distributed.

Steady-State, Steady-Flow Process

Idealizations:

• the control volume does not move relative to the reference frame

• the state of the mass at each point with the control volume does not change with time

• the flows in and out of the control volume are steady, i.e. there is no mass accumulation
within the control volume

• the rates at which work and heat cross the control volume boundary remain constant

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Control Volume Analysis for Electrical Devices
We recall from the 1st law for a control volume

dEcv
= Q̇ − Ẇ + ṁin(e + P v)in − ṁout(e + P v)out
dt

We can consider the following analogy

Let

N = number of charged particles

q+ = +ve charge on each particle
N q+ = total charge
mq = mass of each charged particle
N mq = total mass of the “charge gas”
Ṅ mq = flow rate of the “charge gas”
 = electrical potential

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ V2 (N q + ) ⎟
ṁ(e + P v) = (Ṅ mq ) ⎜
⎜u + Pv + + gz + ⎟
⎟
⎜ 2
  (N m q ) ⎟
⎜    ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ negligible electrical potential⎠
per unit mass

 
(N q + )
ṁ(e + P v) = (Ṅ mq
(N mq )

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 = Ṅ q + 

= I

where I = current ≡ Ṅ q + = −Ṅ e

The first law takes the form

dEcv
= Q̇ − Ẇ + (Ṅ q + )in − (Ṅ q + )out
dt

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