Theory of Projections

Projection theory

In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-

dimensional media. The act of obtaining the image of an object is termed “projection”. The
image obtained by projection is known as a “view”. A simple projection system is shown in
figure 1.

All projection theory are based on two variables:

• Line of sight
• Plane of projection.

Plane of Projection

A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon which the
image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by connecting the points
where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a 2-
D representation, also called projections. The paper or computer screen on which a drawing is
created is a plane of projection.

Figure 1 : A simple Projection system

Projection Methods

Projection methods are very important techniques in engineering drawing.

Two projection methods used are:

• Perspective and
• Parallel
Figure 2 shows a photograph of a series of building and this view represents a perspective
projection on to the camera. The observer is assumed to be stationed at finite distance from the
object. The height of the buildings appears to be reducing as we move away from the
observer. In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at a single point and is schematically
shown in figure 3. .

Figure 2. Photographic image of a series of buildings.

Figure 3. A schematic representation of a Perspective projection

In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and is schematically represented in figure. 4.
The observer is assumed to be stationed at infinite distance from the object.
 Figure 4. A schematic representation of a Parallel projection

Parallel vs Perspective Projection

Parallel projection

√ Distance from the observer to the object is infinite projection lines are parallel – object is
positioned at infinity.

√ Less realistic but easier to draw.

Perspective projection

• Distance from the observer to the object is finite and the object is viewed from a single point –
projectors are not parallel.
• Perspective projections mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are difficult to draw.

Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the plane of projection is

perpendicular to the parallel line of sight. Orthographic projection technique can produce either
pictorial drawings that show all three dimensions of an object in one view or multi-views that
show only two dimensions of an object in a single view. These views are shown in figure 5.
Figure 5. Orthographic projections of a solid showing isometric, oblique and multi-view
drawings.

Transparent viewing box

Assume that the object is placed in a transparent box, the faces of which are orthogonal to each
other, as shown in figure 6. Here we view the object faces normal to the three planes of the
transparent box.

Figure 6. The object placed inside a transparent box.

When the viewing planes are parallel to these principal planes, we obtain the Orthographic
views
The picture we obtain when the line of sight is projected on to each plane is called as the
respective view of the object. The image obtained on the projection planes , i.e., on the top
face, Front Face, and Right side face are respectively the Top View, Front view and Right side
view of the object and is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7 showing the Front view, Top View and Side view of an object
Multi-view Projection

In an orthographic projection, the object is oriented in such a way that only two of its
dimensions are shown. The dimensions obtained are the true dimensions of the object .

Frontal plane of projection

Frontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the Front View (FV) of the multi-view drawing
is projected.
Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object. Front view of an object
shows the width and height dimensions.

Figure 8 illustrates the method of obtaining the Front view of an object.

Horizontal plane of projection

Horizontal plane of projection is the plane onto which the Top View of the multi-view drawing is
projected and is shownin Figure 9. The Top view of an object shows the width and depth
dimensions of the object.

Figure 9 illustrates the method of obtaining the Top view of an object.

Profile plane of projection

In multi-view drawings, the right side view is the standard side view used and is illustrated in
figure 10. The right side view of an object shows the depth and the height dimensions. The
right side view is projected onto the profile plane of projection, which is a plane that is parallel to
the right side of the object.

Figure 10 illustrates the method of obtaining the Side View of an object.

Orientation of views from projection planes

Multi-view drawings gives the complete description of an object. For conveying the complete
information, all the three views, i.e., the Front view, Top view and side view of the object is
required. To obtain all the technical information, at least two out of the three views are
required. It is also necessary to position the three views in a particular order. Top view is always
positioned and aligned with the front view, and side view is always positioned to the side of the
Front view and aligned with the front view. The positions of each view is shown in figure 11.
Depending on whether 1st angle or 3rd angle projection techniques are used, the top view and
Front view will be interchanged. Also the position of the side view will be either towards the
Right or left of the Front view.

Figure 11. Relative positions and alignment of the views in a multi-view drawing.
Six Principal views

The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an infinite number of views of an

object. However, some views are more important than others. These principal views are the six
mutually perpendicular views that are produced by six mutually perpendicular planes of
projection and is shown in figure 12. Imagine suspending an object in a glass box with major
surfaces of the object positioned so that they are parallel to the sides of the box, six sides of the
box become projection planes, showing the six views – front, top, left, right, bottom and rear.

Object is suspended in a glass box producing six principal views: each view is perpendicular to
and aligned with the adjacent views.

Figure 12. Shows the six perpendicular views of an object

The glass box is now slowly unfolded as shown in figure 13. After complete unfolding of the box
on to a single plane, we get the six views of the object in a single plane as shown in figure 14.
The top, front and bottom views are all aligned vertically and share the same width dimension
where as the rear, left side, front and right side views are all aligned horizontally and share the
same height dimension.
 Figure 13. Illustration of the views after the box has been partially unfolded.

Figure 14 shows the views of the object with their relative positions after the box has been
unfolded completely on to a single plane.

Conventional view placement

The three-view multi-view drawing is the standard used in engineering and technology, because
many times the other three principal views are mirror images and do not add to the knowledge
about the object. Figure 15 shows the standard views used in a three-view drawing i.e., the
top, front and the right side views
 Figure 15 showing the three standard views of a multi-view drawing.

The width dimensions are aligned between the front and top views, using vertical projection
lines. The height dimensions are aligned between the front and the profile views, using
horizontal projection lines. Because of the relative positioning of the three views, the depth
dimension cannot be aligned using projection lines. Instead, the depth dimension is measured in
either the top or right side view.

Projection Methods

Universally either the 1st angle projection or the third angle projection methods is followed for
obtaining engineering drawings. The principal projection planes and quadrants used to create
drawings are shown in figure 16. The object can be considered to be in any of the four quadrant.
 Figure 16. The principal projection planes and quadrants for creation of drawings.

First Angle Projection

In this the object in assumed to be positioned in the first quadrant and is shown in figure 17 The
object is assumed to be positioned in between the projection planes and the observer. The views
are obtained by projecting the images on the respective planes. Note that the right hand side
view is projected on the plane placed at the left of the object. After projecting on to the
respective planes, the bottom plane and left plane is unfolded on to the front view plane. i.e.
the left plane is unfolded towards the left side to obtain the Right hand side view on the left side
of the Front view and aligned with the Front view. The bottom plane is unfolded towards the
bottom to obtain the Top view below the Front view and aligned with the Front View.

Figure 17. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique.
Third Angle Projection

In the third angle projection method, the object is assumed to be in the third quadrant. i.e. the
object behind vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In this projection technique, Placing
the object in the third quadrant puts the projection planes between the viewer and the object
and is shown in figure 18.

Figure 18. Illustrating the views obtained using first angle projection technique

Figure 19 illustrates the difference between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques. A
summary of the difference between 1st and 3rd angle projections is shown if Table 1.

Figure 19 Differentiating between the 1st angle and 3rd angle projection techniques.
Table 1. Difference between first- and third-angle projections

Either first angle projection or third angle projection are used for engineering drawing. Second
angle projection and fourth angle projections are not used since the drawing becomes
complicated. This is being explained with illustrations in the lecture on Projections of points
(lecture 18).

Symbol of projection

The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol recommended by BIS is to draw the
two sides of a frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal The left view is drawn.
Orthographic Projections

Lines are used to construct a drawing. Various type of lines are used to construct meaningful
drawings. Each line in a drawing is used to convey some specific information. The types of lines
generally used in engineerign drawing is shown in Table-1.

Table -1. Types of lines generally used in drawings

All visible edges are to be represented by visible lines. This includes the boundary of the object
and intersection between two planes. All hidden edges and features should be represented by
dashed lines. Figure 1 shows the orthographic front view (line of sight in the direction of
arrow)of an object. The external boundary of the object is a rectangle and is shown by visible
lines. In Figure-1(a), the step part of the object is hidden and hence shown as dashed lines
while for the position of the object shown in figure-1(b) , the step part is directly visible and
hence shown by the two solid lines.

Figure 1 shows the pictorial view and front view of the object when the middle stepped region is
(a) hidden and (b) visible.

Figure 2 shows the front view (view along the direction indicated by the arrow) of a solid and
hollow cylindrical object. The front view of the solid cylinder is seen as a rectangle (figure 2(a)).
For the hollow cylinder in addition to the rectangle representing the boundary of the object, two
dashed lines are shown to present the boundary of the hole, which is a hidden feature in the
object.

Figure 3 shows the Front view of three objects. Figure 3(a) is the view of one part of a hollow
cylinder which has been split in to two equal parts. The wall thickness can be represented by the
two visible lines. Figure 3(b) is one part of solid cylinder which has been sectioned in to two
equal part. Where as figure 3(c) is one part of a solid cylindrical part which has been split in to
two unequal parts. The edge formed by the intersection of two surfaces are represented by solid
lines. In case of cylindrical objects or when holes are present in a component, the centre of the
holes or centre lines of cylinder will have to be represented in the drawing by means of centre
lines as shown in figure 4. Figure 5 shows the FV, TV, and RHSV of an object showing visiblke
edges, hidden edges (or holes), and centre lines.

Figure 2 shows the pictorial view and front view of (a) a hollow cylindrical object and (b) solid
cylindrical object.

Figure 3 shows the pictorial view and front view of sectioned part of (a) a hollow cylindrical
object (b) solid cylindrical object and (c) solid cylinder split in to two unequal parts.
 Figure 4 shows the centre lines for cylindrical objects

Figure 5. Showing TV, FV and RHSV of an object showing the three types of lines mentioned
above. The pictorial view of the object is shown at the top hight hand side.

Conventions used for lines

In orthographic projections, many times different types of lines may fall at the same regions. In
such cases, the following rules for precedence of lines are to be followed:

• Visible lines take precedence over all other lines

• Hidden lines take precedence over center lines
• Center lines have lowest precedence

When a visible line and a hidden line are to be drawn at the same area, It will be shown by the
visible line only and no hidden line will be shown. Similarly, in case of hidden line and centre
line, onlu hidden line will be shown. In such case, the centre line will be shown only if it is
extending beyond the length of the hidden line.
Intersecting Lines in Orthographic Projections

The conventions used when different lines intersect is shown in figure - 6(a) & (b).

Figure 6(a): The conventions practiced for intersection lines.

Figure 6(b): The conventions practiced for intersection lines.

Some ortho graphic projections of solids showing the different lines and their precedence are
shown as examples below. The 3-D view of the respective objects are also shown in the figures
with the direction of arrow representing the line of sight in the front view.
A few examples of the projections showing the conventions in drawing are presented below.
Example 1

Example 2
Example 3

Example 4
Example 5

Example 6
 Example 7

Example 8 (application of Precedence rule)

Example 9 (Objects with circular features : holes, flanges, etc )