Volodymyr Bondarenko_ Roman Dychkovs'Kyy_ Iryna Kovalevs'Ka - New Techniques and Technologies in Mining _ Proceedings of the School of Underground Mining, Dnipropetrovsʹk_Yalta, Ukraine, 12-18 Septemb

NEW TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MINING
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCHOOL OF UNDERGROUND MINING, DNIPROPETROVS’K/YALTA,
UKRAINE, 12–18 SEPTEMBER 2010
New Techniques and

Technologies in Mining
Editors
Volodymyr Bondarenko
Department of Underground Mining, National Mining University, Ukraine
Iryna Kovalevs’ka
Roman Dychkovs’kyy
III
CRC Press
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New Techniques and Technologies in Mining – Bondarenko, Kovalevs’ka & Dychkovs’kyy (eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-59864-4
Table of contents
Preface VIII
Efficiency of water supply regulation principles 1

G. Pivnyak, A. Beshta & A. Balakhontsev
Substantiation of design and installation technology of tubular rock bolts

by explosive method 9
V. Bondarenko & I. Kovalevs’ka & Y. Cherednychenko
Technology in life 15
Y. Romaschin & I. Saleev
Improvement of the methodology of managerial solutions substantiation

in coal mining industry 19
A. Akmaev & I. Fesenko
Review of support systems and methods for prediction of gateroads

deformation 25
S. Prusek
Natural and mining factors that define quality of black coal for heat power
stations 37
P. Pilov
Influence of advance rate of high-output longwalls on methane abundance

of mine workings 43
M. Illyashov
Strength calculations of block elements of room-and-pillar mining under

permafrost conditions 47
V. Buzilo, T. Savelieva & V. Saveliev
Dependence of effectiveness of development of mining operations on processibility

of coal seams deposits with thickness of 1.2 m 51
A. Kuz’menko, V. Ryabychev & V. Pochepov
Safe electric power transmission for explosive underground mines 57

A. Ivanov & I. Kirillov
Analysis of hydrogeodynamics in a mining region during exploitation till closure

of coal mines 61
I. Sadovenko, D. Rudakov & O. Podvigina
Bifurcational model of rock bottom heaving in mine workings 71

A. Shashenko, A. Solodyankin & S. Gapeev
V
Numerical modeling used for designing of coal mine roadway support 77
T. Majcherczyk & Z. Niedbalski
Calculation substantiation of the yield lock model of the polygonal yieldable

support with elongated props by means of experiment 83
I. Kovalevska, V. Fomychyov & A. Vyvcharenko
Design of mine workings network on the basis of their functional-structural 89

description
V. Okalelov
Conditions for safe underground gasification of lignite in Poland 97

J. Kudelko & J. Nowak
Control and power supply of highly efficient mining plough systems 103
M. Lubryka & J. Lubryka
Possibility of production complex of sufficient gasses in Ukraine 113

V. Bondarenko, M. Tabachenko & J. Wachowicz
Researches of influence of depth of an in-seam working on displacement field

of rocks in its vicinity 121
G. Symanovych, K. Ganushevych & V. Chervatyuk
Research of influence of support resistance of the stope in the immediate roof

condition 127
V. Buzilo, V. Serdyuk & A. Yavorskiy
Improvement of mining methods with consolidating stowing of iron-ore deposits

on big depths 131
A. Kuz’menko, A. Furman & V. Usatyy
New generation concrete – new approach in designing of underground structures 137

P. Czaja & J. Hydzik
Results of the 3-D simulation of the transversely isotopic rock mass stress state
around a longwall 145
S. Vlasov & A. Sidelnikov
Effect of design of half-mask respirators on their key qualities 151

V. Golinko, S. Cheberiachko & Y. Cheberiachko
Modern rescue service as a factor providing a sense of staff security

(on example of coal mining) 157
P. Hetmańczyk, K. Tausz & A. Krowiak
Analytical determination of parameters of material and thermal balance and physical

parameters of a coal seam work-out on mine “Barbara”, Poland 161
V. Falshtyns’kyy, R. Dychkovsk’yy, K. Stanczyk & J. Swiadrowski
The research of stresses around the mine working relative to a coal seam in the
models made of optical material 167
P. Ponomarenko
VI
Formation of gas hydrates while mine methane extracting and possible methods
of the problem solving 171
L. Shirin, Y. Korovyaka & V. Astakhov
Prediction of mining-induced seismic activity with the use of neural networks

on displacement field of rocks in its vicinity 175
J. Kabiesz
The role of natural and technogenic components in failure of geomechanical

stability of the territories which are in the influence zone of mining objects 189
V. Timoshuk, U. Demchenko & Y. Sherstuk
Technology of support of workings near to extraction chambers 193

M. Kononenko & O. Khomenko
Bolting for mining workings in clay rocks and ores 199

V. Nikonets, N. Stupnik & I. Horbatenko
The first Ukrainian corporative university 203

O. Khomenko & D. Rudakov
Influence of the shape of portal support of working junctions on its stress state 207
M. Rotkegel
Clean energy from hard coal 213

A. Krowiak
Features of selectivity process of borehole underground coal gasification 219

Y. Svetkina, V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy
Definition of rating loading of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable 223

K. Zabolotny & Y. Panchenko
Design principles of the control systems considering diversity of automation objects 231
N. Stadnik & V. Tkachev
Increase of stability of development openings using combined mining system

for flat coal seams at big depths 237
V. Medyanyk & J. Medyanyk
The concept of automation and monitoring of the production process

in an underground mine 245
J. Kicki & A. Dyczko
Methods of calculation of pressing value of frame support’s props 255

A. Mamaykin, V. Lapko & L. Tokar
VII
Preface
Mining is the foremost source of minerals that all countries find essential for maintaining and improving
their standards of living. Mined materials are needed to construct roads and hospitals, to build automobiles
and houses, to make computers and satellites, to generate electricity, and to provide many other goods and
services that consumers enjoy. The high tech industries and even the better known resource industries are all
dependent, in some way, on the mining industry.
But exploring, extraction and processing of minerals require big material and labour costs and there is a
large number of acute problems to face; such as: environment and water pollution, worsening of mining-
geological conditions, depletion of minerals that can be extracted only by conventional methods, rock
pressure manifestation, big depths of the deposits and transportation of the minerals on the surface.
In order to find modern solutions there is a large number of scientists and engineers all over the world
dedicating their researches to most current problems and inventions of innovative technologies and
techniques in mining. Some of the most important results of such researches are presented in this book and
cover the following topics: management of strain and stress state of the massif, underground coal
gasification, substantiation of rational parameters of various types of support, ventilation in underground
openings, design of mine workings and other vital questions.
The primary aim of “School of Underground Mining” is exchange of experience, transfer of new
progressive technologies, consolidation of the efforts concerning saving and development of scientific
trends, good traditions and worthy status of a mining engineer in society.
Volodymyr Bondarenko
Iryna Kovalevs’ka
Roman Dychkovs’kyy
Dnipropetrovs’k
September 2010
VIII
Efficiency of water supply regulation principles
G. Pivnyak, A. Beshta & A. Balakhontsev

National Mining University, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: The paper deals with energy efficiency of water supply regulation in different applications:
water supply, heating and cooling systems etc. Each case is characterized by a set of requirements to supply
and head pressure level. Two major approaches for supply regulation are compared: throttling and pump
speed regulation. It is shown that variable speed electric drive application is not always expedient and in
some cases can bring no significant cost benefit. Parallel operation of several pumping units is also exam-
ined. Recommendations for pump installations’ parameters selection, such as regulation range, are given.
1 INTRODUCTION specific performances of equipment installed and its

economical efficiency. Incorrect evaluation of eco-
Energy and resource saving programmes are con- nomical performances of certain control principle
sidered now to be key factors for word’s industry leads to introduction of improper technical solution
due to constant growth of prices for fuels and en- and thus low production efficiency.
ergy resources. Specific energy intensity of gross The application of variable speed drive itself can-
domestic product in Ukraine is significantly higher not provide significant power consumption de-
than in countries of Central Europe thus making crease. Energy saving requires thorough evaluation
these problems more urgent. However, the aware- of technological and technical factors concerning
ness of energy management specialists of modern production regulation.
energy saving techniques and principles in Ukraine The production level of water supply and utiliza-
is still low. tion facilities tends to vary in wide range during op-
Electric drive is a major consumer of electric eration. The main controlled parameter at the pump-
power in industry and municipal engineering with ing station is the pressure at the discharge line or at
its share up to 65%. Electric installations with con- the control point (step-up pumping stations of mu-
tinuous duty cycle and varying productivity posses nicipal water supply system). In some cases it is wa-
the largest potential for energy saving. The prevail- ter level or its flow (supply) rate.
ing mechanisms in this class are installations with It should be taken into account that when using
so called parabolic speed-torque characteristic (cen- uncontrolled water pumps the excessive pressure
trifugal pump, screw propeller etc). Such installa- can occur under low production rate. Excessive
tions are as a rule equipped with induction motors pressure in pipeline causes electric power loss. To
with squirrel cages. They are widely used in indus- minimize such losses it is necessary to achieve
try and agriculture and municipal enterprises. The maximal efficiency by mutual adjustment of pump’s
electric drive of these installations is mainly uncon- mechanical parameters and the entire system.
trolled and therefore to regulate productivity throt- Energy losses can also be decreased by proper
tling and bypassing principles are applied. Unfortu- pipeline processing measures – interior surface
nately lowering productivity is not equal to lowering processing, elimination, or at least, minimization of
electric energy consumption. So this control princi- elbows and narrowings in the line (Goppe 2008).
ple meets technological demands but does not ac- However, these measures most often cannot be ap-
count energy efficiency of water transportation. plied for existing water supply facilities. It should
Thereby, to justify the expediency of variable be taken into account while designing new systems.
speed drive application it is necessary to estimate Meanwhile, application of variable speed drives
the cost benefits of this solution. which become more and more available (Pivnyak &
Volkov 2006) is possible for newly developed as
2 EXISTING APPROACHES ANALYSIS good for existing systems’ modernization.
The simplified water supply scheme can be pre-
Selection of proper production control principle is to sented as it is shown at Figure 1.
be made according to technology requirements and The output of pumping unit is supply (flow) rate
1
Q pump and head pressure H pump (Geyner, Dulin & valves and the filter on H1 ,the main pressure de-
Zarya 1991). Because of extra pressure H pump the creases down to H CV . The control valve CV deter-
head pressure in the mainline grows from H 0 up to mines pressure drop depending on the main parame-
ters H C and QC control principle.
H p . Because pressure drops on the sealing and stops
H0 Hр H CV Hс
PUMP back Filter

CV
valve
valve 1 valve 2 …
Q С1 Q C2 Q C3 Q сn
H pump H 1 H 2
Figure 1. Simplified water supply scheme.
The head pressure H C and flow consumption H C  H1 . Thus

QC can be controlled according to the following
Ppump  k  H C  H 0  H1  H 2   QC . (2)
principles (Geyner, Dulin & Zarya 1991):
1) H C  const , QC  var ; The electric power rate (consumed from the elec-
tric mains) can be determined via efficiency of the
2) H C  var , QC  var ; pump  :
3) H C  var , QC  const .
Ppump , el  k  H C  H 0  H1  H 2   QC /  . (3)
Let us examine each case from the point of energy
efficiency. The Q-H curve of the pump is described as fol-
lows
2 REGULATION UNDER CONSTANT H  A  2  B   Q  C  Q2 , (4)

PRESSURE ( H C  const , QC  var )
where А, В, С  coefficients;   angular speed of
Let’s consider the first principle, when it is neces- the pump’s wheel.
sary to maintain constant pressure in the hydraulic When pump speed is constant its curve can be
network under varying water consumption (supply) written as
QC  QC1  Q2  ...  QC n . This case is common
H  A  B Q  C  Q2 , (5)
for main pipelines which must provide necessary
supply level for each consumer. where A1  A   2 , B1  B   , C1  C .
The control valve CV maintains constant head
pressure H C at required constant level by varying The hydraulic characteristic of the line is de-
scribed by
pressure drop H 2 value. The output power of the
pump unit is defined as H  H0  R Q2 (6)
Ppump  k  H pump  QС , (1) where H 0  static pressure (back pressure, or uplift
where k – certain proportional gain. pressure), R  line hydraulic pressure.
This power is used to provide necessary con- The operating mode of the pump unit is defined
sumption and to cover losses k  H1  H 2   QC
by the intersection point of pump (Figure 2, curve 1)
and hydraulic line (Figure 2, curve 2) characteris-
and also to maintain constant pressure level
2
tics. The intersection point “1” is the ideal joint op- Pd H1Q1  H1  H Q1  Q 
eration calculation point for the pump and the line. e*d   
P1 H1Q1 (9)
 
At this point the rated supply Q1 is provided under
 Q*  H * 1  Q* ,
required pressure H1  H pump and maximal effi-
ciency. * P H1Q1  H1 Q1  Q 
e    Q* , (10)
When water consumption decreases down to Q2 P1 H1Q1
level, the operating point moves to the position ‘2’.
It is caused by the rise hydraulic resistance because where Q*  Q Q1 , H *  H H1 .
of the closing of consumers’ valves. The head pres- Formulas (9) and (10) prove that speed regulation
sure rises up to H 2 value, causing the control valve is always more efficient than throttling, because un-
CV to increases the pressure drop H 2 in order to der normal operation it is always H *  0 ,
provide the required line pressure H C . Meanwhile, Q*  1 .
the pumping unit keeps operating with pressure Thus
H 2 . This is an obvious lack of throttling control.
The pressure can also be decreased by pump

e*  e*  e*d  H * 1  Q*  0 .  (11)
wheel speed regulation. In this case, the curve of the
Lets transform (11) to
pump will move to ‘1’ position, and the operating
 
point will move to the ‘3’ position (Figure 2). How-  H * 
ever, under these conditions, the required supply e*    1  Q* Q* . (12)
 Q* 
Q2 is not provided. The supply will be lower and  
consumers will open their valves, so decreasing The equation (12) shows that the value of e*
line’s hydraulic resistance. After several iterations, a which determines relative efficiency of speed regu-
new operating point ‘4’ will be set. lation principle in compare with throttling depends
So, the decrease of the supply in the line to Q
on Q* regulation range and H * Q* ratio at
value by throttling causes the increase of pressure
on H and, accordingly, variation of the pump the new operating point. Let us use (5) to deter-
power to mine H * Q* . Equation (5) in per units is
Pd  k  H1Q1  H 2Q2  . (7)
H *  A1*  B1*  Q*  C1*  Q*2 , (13)
And same decrease of water supply by means of
speed regulation leads to the change of power on where H *  H H1 , Q*  Q Q1 A1*  A1 H1 ,
P  k  H1Q1  H1Q2  . (8) B1*  B1Q1  H1 , C1*  C1Q12 H1 . 
H Taking increments of (13) we obtain
H2
2
2' 1
1
2
 H *

 Q*


  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*

 (14)
H1  
3 1'
4
H And substituting (14) in (12) we estimate effi-
ciency
H0 Q
Q
   
e*  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*  1  Q*  Q* .  (15)
Q2 Q1 Formula (15) shows that speed regulation effi-
Figure 2. Regulation under constant pressure.

ciency relative to throttling e* depends on regula-
tion range relative to the given point Q* and
Thus we can asses regulation efficiency comparing
pump’s Q-H curve B*1 and C*1
power values calculated by (7) and (8) relative to
base value P1  k  H1Q1 . So The formula estimates useful power saving under
speed regulation. Losses in the pump are not taken
into account. However, it is known that pumps effi-
3
ciency significantly depends on supply, taking sary to introduce  ( Q* ) in (15). Figure 3 shows
maximum value at the rated operating point. That is
corrected dependency (15) for several pumps
why in order to estimate energy saving it is neces-
(pumps data are given at the Table 1 (Popov 1990)).
Table 1. Pumps characteristics.
Q-H curve equation

# Pump type Efficiency equation
H  A1  B1  Q  C 1  Q 2
CSP* 38-44-220, 2950 rpm,

1 26.8+0.168Q-0.00787Q2 0.04Q0.00073Q2+0.000003Q3
38 m3 / hr, 44 m
CSP 180-76-880, 2950 rpm,
2 75+0.139Q-0.00098Q2 0.0068Q0.000017Q2+0.017·10-6Q3
180 m3 / hr, 76 m
CSP 180-500-900, 2950 rpm,
3 105.5+0.096Q-0.0007Q2 0.0085Q0.0000276Q2 +0.014·10-6Q3
180 m3 / hr, 500 m
CSP 850-240-960, 1450 rpm,

4 126.2+0.035Q-0.000049Q2 0.237·10-20.02410-4·Q2+0.00062·10-6Q3
850 m3 / hr, 240 m
* CSP stands for “centrifugal sectional pump”, correspondent soviet abbreviation is CNS.
0,04 3. When operating at Q-H curve shifts to lower

e* , p.u. supply zone (to the left), efficiency of the pump will
0,035
be even less due to higher stiffness of the curve, de-
0,03
spite on the fact that efficiency of the motor shifts
0,025 the same direction under speed regulation.
1
3
0,02
4
2
0,015
3 REGULATION UNDER VARIABLE
0,01 PRESSURE AND SUPPLY
0,005
Let us consider supply regulation H C  var ,
0
0,95 0,85 0,75 0,65 0,55 0,45 0,35 0,25 0,15 0,05 QC  var i.e. when there is no requirement for
Q* , p.u. keeping pressure constant. It is peculiar to cases
when water supply is stipulated by technology, like
Figure 3. Energy efficiency under regulation by pump refrigerating systems, irrigation and so on.
speed.
The analysis of this section shows the following. H

1. When head pressure is to be maintained, power
2 1
(energy) benefits from introduction of speed regula- H2
tion principle relative to throttling significantly de- H 2 1 2
pends on pump’s Q-H curve stiffness. The higher H1
stiffness the less efficiency is (look formula (12)). H 1 H
2'
Figure 3 shows that benefit from supply regulation H2'
by speed does not exceed 3.7% in the entire regula-
tion range. Q
H0 Q
2. Maximal efficiency under speed regulation
falls within 10…45% supply range relative to oper-
ating point. Thus deep regulation (supply less then Q2 Q1
45% of the rated value) so and “shallow” (regula-
tion range within 10%) is not expedient. Measures
Figure 4. Regulation under variable pressure and supply.
for variable speed drive introduction will not pro-
vide cost benefits.
4
This case the decrease of supply down to Q2 where R*  R1*  C1* , D*  2 R*  B1* ,
value by means of speed regulation lowers pump’s
Q-H curve and shifts operating point from “1” to R1*  1  H *0 .
“2'” position (Figure 4). Thus under supply level 1  Q*m the speed regu-
Still, throttling shifts the operating point to “2”
position. lation benefits will be maximal relative to throttling
Energy benefits of speed regulation principle rela-
tive to throttling is defined by (11), where the dif-
   
e*max  R* 2  Q*m  B1*  1  Q*m  Q*m . (23)
ference is calculated by the following expression
Equations (22) and (23) shows that e*max de-
*
H  H *21 *
 H12 , (16)
pends on relative static pressure H 0* and coeffi-
where H *21  H 21 H1  relative pressure in- cients of pump’s Q-H curve B1* and C1* for pump’s
* rated speed.
crease in case of throttling; H12  H12 H1 
relative pressure decrease as a result of pump speed Let us analyze the dependence of Q*m and
lowering. e*max on the mentioned parameters. It is assumed
It is obvious that H *21
and corresponding effi-
that they do depend on R*  R1*  C1* (not on R1* ).
ciency is defined by (14) and (15). The value of
This assumption affects only factor R1* range. Thus
H *21 can be estimated by water line’s equation in
per units R*  1 H *0 , where H *0 variation range is shifted
H *  H *0  R1*  Q* , (17) on C1* value. The B1* value represents stiffness of

Q-H curve. The higher B1* is, the higher stiffness is
where  H 0 H1 , H *0 H1 . R1* R1Q12 and the less efficiency of speed regulation we ob-
The expression in incremental form relative to tain.
“1” point, considering that H1*  1 , Q1*  1 :
Q*m , p.u.
*
H12  R1* Q* 2  Q* ,   (18)
0.45
0.4
where  1 R1*
. H *0
0.35 B1*
0.3
Substituting (14) and (18) in (16) and find 0.25
0.9
  
0.4
0.2
H *  C1* Q*  B1*  2C1*  0.1
0.15
 
 R1* 2  Q* Q* .  (19)
0.1
0.05
From (16) and (19) we determine 0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
H 0 , p.u.
*
e   R1*  C1* 2  Q   1  Q  Q
*
 B1* * *
(20)
Figure 5. Q-H curves for various stiffness.
In order to examine (20) let us obtain
   
d e* d Q* and find its roots: In the range for different B1* = 0.1; 0.4; 0.9 trends
d e 
of maximal efficiency were obtained (Figure 5).
 D  23R 
* Figure 5 shows that maximal efficiency is
* *
 B1* Q* 
d Q  * achieved under maintenance of the pump with no
(21)
uplift pressure. And the increase of the Q-H curve
* *2
 3R Q  0. stiffness dramatically lowers the speed regulation
benefits relative to throttling. The figure also proves
Q*m 
R *
 D*  R*2  R* D*  D*2
, (22)
that maximal efficiency lies
Q*m = 0.35…0.42 range. Higher Q *m corresponds
within
3R*
5
lower values of B1* and H *0 . For B1* = 0, H *0 = 0 Formula (24) and Figure 7 shows that maximal
benefit of pump speed regulation relative to throt-
we have Q*m = 0.423. Substituting this in (23) we tling is limited by uplift pressure
obtain e*max  0.385. e*max  1  H *0 . (25)
So, for the water supply regulation under variable
pressure, the following conclusions can be made. Thus when the pump is operating to the water line
1. Theoretical maximal efficiency (energy bene- with no uplift pressure, the benefit of speed regula-
fit) of water supply by means of pump’s speed regu- tion is limited only by its stability in low supply
lation relative to throttling is 38.5% of the power range.
consumed at the pump’s operating point. This effi-
ciency is obtained for 42.3% regulation depth
(range) relative to rated supply. 5 PARALLEL PUMPS CONNECTION
2. The uplift pressure increase significantly de-
creases speed regulation efficiency (Figure 6). In some cases it is expedient to connect several
pumping units for parallel operation in order to pro-
vide higher supply under given required pressure.
4 REGULATION UNDER CONSTANT SUPPLY Conclusions given above can be transferred for this
case. For instance, supply regulation can be pro-
In the third case for some technologies it is neces- vided by simultaneous regulation of all connected
sary to maintain constant supply of QС  const , units. However, it is not always expedient because
which is possible only by varying pres- this way implies installation of variable speed drives
sure H С  var . The pumping unit can operate with for all installation, which is expensive.
Let us analyze parallel operation of two pumps.
constant power and supply stability can be provided Total supply, obviously, is defined as a sum of indi-
with bypass system. Another, more efficient princi- vidual supplies
ple, is maintaining constant power by speed regula-
tion (Figure 6). Supply stabilization, for example, in Q*  Q*I  Q*II , (26)
water heating system, requires the pump speed low-
ering. where Q*  Q Q1 , Q*I  QI Q1 , Q*II  QII Q1 ,
H Q1  total supply.
1 Let the relative regulation range
1 *
H1 be Q  Q Q1 . Assuming that only one variable
speed drive is installed (pump II), while the other
H one is a fixed speed drive. Then
2
H2 2  
1  Q*  Q*I , y  Q*II , y  Q* , (27)
H0
where Q*I , y , Q*II , y  rated supplies of the pumps.
Q
According to the previous statements, under con-
Q1
stant hydraulic pressure it is reasonable to select
Figure 6. Q-H curves for regulation under various supply. maximal supply regulation range within  of its
rated supply, i.e. Q*max  Q*II ,y . Then under re-
When consumers open their throttles the main Q-
H curve shifts from “1” to the “2” position. quired regulation range Q* it is necessary to in-
So, the efficiency of speed regulation is defined by stall a pump with rated supply
*
e  e  e*d
* *
 H , (24) Q*
Q*II , y  . (28)
Pd 
where e*d  0,
H1Q1 The supply of the first pump is defined from
* P H Q  Q1 H1  H  Q*
e   1 1  H * . Q*I , y  1  . (29)
H1Q1 H1Q1 
6
For example, if supply regulation range in the 6 CONCLUSIONS
system with constant pressure does not exceed 10%
then energy saving (benefit) of speed regulation is Theoretical maximal energy benefit from pump’s
only 1.5% relative to throttling (Figure 3). Obvi- speed regulation application relative to throttling
ously, it is not wise to install variable speed drive in principle is 4% under constant pressure and about
this case. 40% when pressure can be varied.
Two pumps with one of them equipped with vari- When two pumps operates in parallel, supply
able speed drive can provide only 3.7% energy sav- regulation range of one of then is to be 5…50% of
ing. And even this small value can only be obtained its rated supply.
under wide regulation range – 40…50%. (Figure 7). Energy saving due to variable speed drive appli-
cation is defined by equivalent supply regulation
range.
0.45
e*max , p.u. Installation of variable speed drive in water
0.4 mains, where constant pressure must be maintained,
0.35
B1* is not a reasonable solution. Energy saving (bene-
fits) of in this case does not exceed several per cents
0.3
0.4 relative to throttling.
0.25
0
0.2
The operation of pumping stations must be organ-
ized in a way that each pump would operate at its
0.15
maximal efficiency under given pressure regulation
0.1
range. Application of several unregulated drive and
0.05 one equipped with variable speed drive can be ex-
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
pedient in this case. The regulated pump is to be
-0.05 chosen from required regulation range.
H0, p.u.
The most beneficial is application of variable
speed drive in case of necessity of constant supply.
Figure 7. Efficiency under pumps’ parallel operation.
These results can be transferred to the case when REFERENCES

the pressure is not to be maintained. In this case
maximal regulation depth for variable speed pump Goppe, G.G. 2008. Decreasing energy losses in header
is to lie within 35…42% range relative to its rated water and gas transportation pipes. Energy saving and
supply (Figure 5). The increase of uplift pressure at water processing.Vol.1(58): 68-73.
the unregulated pump output is also to be taken into Pivnyak, G.G. & Volkov, O.V. 2006. Modern variable
speed induction drives with PWM. Monograph. Dni-
account.
propetrovs’k: National Mining University: 470.
For the case H C  var , QC  const there is no Geyner, V.G., Dulin, V.S. & Zarya, A.N. 1991. Hydraulics
necessity to apply pump stations with several and electric drive. Moscow: Nedra: 321.
pumps. One powerful variable speed drive should Popov, V.M. Water pumping units: reference book. 1990.
be installed. Moscow: Nedra: 250.
7
Substantiation of design and installation technology

of tubular rock bolts by explosive method
V. Bondarenko & I. Kovalevs’ka

Y. Cherednychenko
Ministry of Coal Industry of Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Mechanism of interaction of a rock massif with rock bolt is developed and simplified tubular
rock bolt construction is designed, manufacturing of which is combined with the installation in one process –
blast of an explosive linear charge in the internal cavity of tubular shell located in a blast hole. Basic re-
quirements of bolt support are substantiated and positive features of tubular bolt are noted.
1 INTRODUCTION mines of Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Norway and

other countries.
Experience of application of rock bolts for securing Usage of rock bolting also contributes to increase
of underground workings stability testifies about of drivage rate by 30…40% (Kovalevska 2003).
considerable economical advantages of the given High level of mechanization of an opening bolting
type of support that allows to drastically decrease process (up to 65…85%) should be mentioned as
material and labour costs, increase working effi- well and also possibility of its partial automation. In
ciency and safety of works. This is achieved by addition, usage of bolting significantly decreases
involvement of rock massif, with help of a rock bolt, number of accidents that leads to increase of mining
into the process focused on resistance against grav- operations safety. For example, bolting at mines of
ity forces, i.e. strength characteristics of rock massif Germany has allowed to decrease the number of
are used (in a varying degree) and it is not necessary accidents from 86 to 34 among 100 thousand of
anymore to install material-intensive supports for people, i.e. more than 2.5 times. Thus, given data
maintenance of mine workings. testify about big effectiveness and availability of
Mentioned advantages of a rock bolt gave rise to bolting use for support of mining openings.
their wide usage in mining sectors of industries of
many countries of the world. So, basic support for
chambers’ roof support (room-and-pillar mining 2 CRITERIA OF BOLTS FUNCTIONING
method) in coal mines of USA is rock bolting with
annual installation volume more than 60 million of There are more than 600 various designs of bolts
bolts (Bondarenko 1997), including about 1.5 mil- known in domestic and foreign practice by the
lion of bolts that are being reused. Just on the poly- present time. Existing variety of rock bolts, as a
metal mines of USA there are more than 7 million rule, has its advantages and disadvantages which are
of bolts installed annually; at iron-ore mines of analyzed both from view point of geomechanics of
Lorraine there are more than 2 million bolts used deformation of strengthened near-contour rock
annually; at copper mines of Poland there are massif process and technical-economic indexes of
85…90% of the openings length is supported by their work. This analysis has a final aim to create a
bolts. At coal mines of France 1.5 million of bolts bolt design with most rational regime of interaction
are installed annually, at that, a quarter of this vol- with rock walls of a blasthole and rock massif in
ume is used as an independent support. About 50 whole with its relatively little cost (Kovalevska
thousand of bolts are installed at the mines of Swed- 2001). During research and critical analysis of
ish company “Karuna” monthly, 150 thousand of modern structures of bolts there were formed three
bolts – at mines of RSA. Bolt supports are widely basic criteria that characterize application effective-
used at mines of PRC (People’s Republic of China). ness of one or another structure of bolts for mine
Rock bolting is used at more than 30 coal mines of openings support.
Great Britain, at all mines of Canada, on many From viewpoint of geomechanics of near-contour
9
rock massif strengthening process, the first criterion – simplicity of structure;
demands to achieve rational deformation-load – processability of installation of joints and com-
characteristics of a rock bolt. Near-contour rock ponents of a bolt;
massif strengthened by bolts is considered as a load- – reliability of a bolt installation in a blasthole
bearing structure in modern theories which receives (Bulat 2002);
load from the side of deformed rock massif and acts – little force of inserting the bolt into the blasthole
as a support of working. In order to effectively and its anchoring in the blasthole;
maintain mine openings, deformation-load charac- – no necessity to design special equipment (if
teristics of this kind of support must, first of all, possible) for bolting;
correspond to value and nature of rock pressure Third criterion characterizes economical effec-
manifestation, i.e. bearing capacity of strengthened tiveness of application of various bolt designs and
by bolts rock layer must be not less than a load states the following requirements:
value from the side of rock massif, and its yield – – relatively low cost of a bolt manufacture;
not less than a predicted value of displacement of – high working efficiency during bolts installa-
rock contour with given value of support rebuff tion.
reaction. Secondly, deformation-load characteristics
of the strengthened rock layer must provide maxi-
mum degree of compatibility of separate layers and 3 PRELIMINARY RESULTS
blocks deformation that compose unstable rocks in
order to decrease load. In this connection, it was Theoretical basis for design development of a tubu-
established by research method (Kovalevska 2006, lar bolt is the above considered conceptions of a
1999) that the most rational characteristic is the bolt’s work in a rock massif. At this, the main
deformation-load characteristic of a support that requirement for tubular bolt is the possibility of
reflects its work in mode of constant resistance with creation of iron-rock structure (beam, arc) with
value of reaction, that is close to the predicted load maximum possible degree of wholeness. Thus, there
on support caused by weight of rocks of unstable is a task to maximally decrease process of foliation
balance zone. and fracturing of rock structure during its deforma-
Thus, for effective support of an opening, rock tion, liquidate earlier occurred lamination and to
bolt must form load-bearing iron-rock structure that limit fracturing. Moreover, requirement for securing
would work in a mode of constant resistance (or of specified installation firmness of a bolt in a
close to it) with rebuff reaction and yield value blasthole is the secondary requirement compared
equal to or excess predicted load and displacement with the major one – creation of solid iron-rock
of rock contour (Kovalevska 2005). structure with required bearing capacity.
Based upon the above stated material, require- While functioning, under influence of external
ments of the first (geomechanical) evaluation crite- load and its own weight there are shear stresses
ria of effectiveness of a rock bolt structure were occur in the beams, value of which substantially
formed. First of all, in order to form strengthened determines bearing capacity of considered construc-
rock layer of a high bearing capacity, rock bolt must tions. At the same time, during process of deforma-
have high reaction of resistance against pulling tion of a rock that contains mine working, intensive
loads, because the bigger pressure load by bolt of fracturing occurs in most of the cases and lamina-
the rock layer the bigger bearing capacity of the tion along planes of weaknesses resulting in signifi-
most strengthened layer with all the rest conditions cant decrease and disappearance of tangential
being equal. Secondly, during realization of yield of stresses along these axis, and layers and blocks that
strengthened rock layer, a bolt also must have re- form rock structure deform as separate elements.
quired yield value, taking into account difference of And with that, bearing capacity of rock structure
displacements of an opening rock contour and rock considerably decreases. The aim of a bolting is to
at the deepened tip of the bolt (Kovalevska 2000). prevent lamination and fracturing. Apparently, the
Thirdly, in order to achieve functionality of biggest effect of rock strata fastening into solid
strengthened rock layer in constant resistance mode, structure is achieved when a rock bolt contacts with
the bolt itself also has to have deformation-load rock along its whole length. At every sector of
characteristic that reflects this mode, i.e. construc- contact due to cohesion forces with rock walls of the
tion of the bolt has to provide its functionality in blasthole, the bolts prevent lamination of separate
constant resistance mode or close to this mode. rock units and occurrence of fracturing. Moreover, it
Second criterion characterizes processability of is important that the bolt material would have de-
manufacturing and installation of a bolt and requires formation characteristics, in particular, elasticity
the following: modulus (or deformation modulus) and shear
10
modulus that significantly exceed corresponding along whole length of the blasthole and basic re-
characteristics of fastening rocks. Indeed, develop- quirements for their structures were defined. Some
ment of a crack during collateral deformation of a of these requirements, first of all, is high rigidity of
bolt with rock walls of a blasthole, should trigger a bolt material that achieves its highest value in
response in a bolt that is directed to crack closing metals. For example, the cheapest construction
that exceeds (per unit area) initial forces of lamina- brands of steel have elasticity and shear modules
tion as much as deformation moduluses of a bolt that, in average, by an order exceed proper brands of
material exceed deformation moduluses of the rock. concrete (reinforced concrete bolts) and by two
This condition, as matter of fact, is the condition of orders – synthetic resin (steel-polymer bolts). There-
minimal fracturing and lamination, according to fore, direct contact of metal with rock walls of a
which, the greater rigidity of a bolt material the blasthole significantly increases forces that prevent
greater resistance of the iron-ore structure to occur- lamination and fracturing of rock layers, compared
rence of cracks and lamination in fastened rocks, the with the case, when there is an intermediate less
less number of weak areas in iron-rock structure and rigid medium that links metal rod with rock.
the greater its bearing capacity. Big bolt rigidity The condition of realization of the requirement of
along axial direction can be realized under condition the high material rigidity of the bolt, as it was con-
of creation of significant cohesion force along sidered earlier, is the provision of high tear strength
contact surface with the blasthole walls. Thus, it is of the bolt itself and its fastening in the blasthole.
necessary that the cohesion forces maximally use Fastening in the blasthole of the majority of consid-
strength characteristics of the rock. Simultaneously ered designs of the bolts is provided either by cohe-
high strength of the bolt installation in a rock should sion forces with the rock (reinforced concrete or
correspond to the strength capabilities of a bolt steel-polymer bolts) or by forces of friction or shear
material. of rock ledges (screw-in bolts).
Preconditions for limitation of fracturing and These forces cannot use strength characteristics of
lamination during the process of iron-rock structure rocks in full because the rocks, in connection with
deformation are considered here. But in some cases anisotropy of strength characteristics, have lowered
even before bolting of a rock massif containing an shear resistance. Shear strength for rocks, as a rule,
opening, there are already some cracks and broken many times and even by one order less than com-
contacts among the layers. So it is necessary to pression strength. If there are some rock distur-
minimize softening action on the loading construc- bances in the rock, for example, micro cracks in the
tion. This condition requires maximum degree of plane of shear, then shear strength becomes even
mutual deformation of separate elements of an iron- less. The only type of load that the rocks resist most
rock structure. For example, if the separate layers in successfully is the compression, and in that connec-
the composite structure do not have sufficient rigid tion it is quite effective to use strength compressive
link between each other, when bending they will be characteristics of the rocks for bolts fastening along
moving relatively to each other, that is deforming the full length of the blasthole. Obviously, realiza-
independently and the bearing capability of the tion of this idea can be carried out by means of
whole beam is determined by the bearing capability applying of normal stresses on the blasthole surface
of a single layer. It means that the main condition of from the side of the bolt, which provide emergence
the mutual deformation of separate rock layers is the of tangential stresses during bolt’s movement rela-
absence of movement of the rock layers relatively to tive to the blasthole. By changing the value of
each other. If to take into consideration that even normal stresses, it is possible to achieve maximal
when we have dislocations of (5-30) × 10-3 m on use of strength properties of rocks and, conse-
each edge of the structure in an opening with width quently, receive high strength of fastening of the
span equal to 5 m, its separate layers deform inde- bolt. Such method of fastening can be successfully
pendently, in this case a bolt has to ensure not only used in loosely-connected rocks, where shear resis-
longitudinal (respectively to a bolt) but also a trans- tance is extremely little and its usage in known
versal rigid link which would not allow big trans- structures will not provide with the desired results.
versal dislocations. Performance of such link can be Along with provision of high fastening strength of
executed only by means of direct contact of the the bolt in the blasthole it is necessary to also in-
blasthole rock walls with the bolt along its whole crease its tensile strength. In this respect, a metal
length when a bolt material, working in shear, will that can be strengthened, advantageously differs.
resist any transversal movement of rock layers. Moreover, it is necessary to consider influence of
Thus, based upon analysis of modern views about yield of the bolts on their bearing capacity, as due to
functioning of bolts in rock massif, the conclusion only yield of support, destroying concentration
has been made in favour of the bolts with supporting stresses can be avoided, which often occur during
11
high rock pressure. Yield of the bolt depends on its shape of a hollow metallic cylinder with constant or
character of contact with rock walls of the blasthole. alternative lengthwise cross-section i.e. it has
Cohesion forces (reinforced concrete, steel-polymer smoothbore or corrugated shape.
bolts) cannot provide significant yield, because Workpiece of a tubular bolt is performed in a
when bolt dislocates relative to the blasthole, the shape of a piece of metallic tube inside of which, in
contact breaks and cohesion forces (except rough- the central area of the cross-section, there are explo-
nesses that create friction during sliding of the bolt) sive linear charge and blasting agent (Figure 1).
practically disappear - the bolt loses bearing capac- As an explosive, detonating cord of a type DC-A
ity. Yield of such bolts is provided by means of or DC-V is taken, explosive energy of which pro-
stretching of their material. The most acceptable, in vides necessary cohesion at the contact rock-bolt for
respect of yield, is the earlier considered contact that a wide range of mining-technical and geological
provides cohesion of bolt with rock by means of conditions, and as the blasting agents – permissible
forces of friction with radial pressure along the electrical detonator of immediate and delayed ac-
contact surface. Such contact, under condition of tion.
keeping the pressure at the same level, allows to
move the bolt respective to the blasthole on any
acceptable value without loss of bearing capacity.
Thus, basic disadvantages of the most widespread
structures of the bolts were discovered with fasten-
ing along the full length of the bolt and basic re-
quirements for effective bolt design development:
– material – steel;
– direct contact of steel with the blasthole surface
without any intermediate fastening materials;
– character of the contact – radial pressure along
the whole blasthole surface that provides occurrence
of tangential stresses of friction;
– strengthening of the bolt material during crea-
tion of contact;
These requirements can be performed most suc-
cessfully in the structure of tubular bolt that is
deformed before creation of a definite pressure
along the contact surface with the blasthole. The
most producible and economical method of expan-
sion of the tube shell in the blasthole is the applica-
tion of the charge explosion energy of the explosive.
As this takes place, possibility of a significant
strengthening of the bolt’s material occurs simulta-
neously with pressing of the bolt in the blasthole.
4 RESULTS
The property of carbon steels to deform without

breakage of material uniformity by a big value lies Figure 1. Structure of a shell tube (a) and tubular rock bolt
in the basis of the tubular bolts design. Rocks pos- ТА1 (b): 1 – blasthole; 2 – shell tube; 3 – clay cap;
sess this property, in average, lower by an order, 4 – detonating cord DCА or DCВ; 5 – electrical detonator;
6 – electrical wires; 7 – filling compound (sand, water).
and this allows to use rock walls of the blasthole as
more rigid body, as a matrix for punching and
fastening of tubular bolt with needed diameter in it As an inert material, sand or water is taken which
(matrix) by means of explosion. At this, idea of serve as a preventive cover for the detonating cord
combination of a bolt manufacturing with its instal- and promotes to even and more intensive influence
lation in one process, and increase of strength char- of a shock wave on the material of the shell tube.
acteristics of applied type of steel by means of Fixing of the detonating cord in the middle area
explosion processing is realized. of the cross-section of the shell tube is performed
Structurally, tubular bolt “TA1” is performed in a with help of end caps, for example, from cardboard,
12
clay and other materials, and the fastening of the and also used tubes, which significantly increases
shell tube in the blasthole – with help of a wooden possibilities of the given method realization and
wedge. In case of tubular bolts usage at mines that lowers cost of the support;
are dangerous by gas and dust, the length of the clay – usage of explosive as an energy source allows,
caps on the edges of the workpiece should be not simultaneously with punching and bolt installation,
less than 0.1 m according to МаkSNI (Makeevka carry out strengthening of its material that provides
research institute). a way to decrease consumption of material or to
Inverse initiation of the detonating cord for the increase the bolt’s bearing capacity.
purpose of shock wave increase is accepted. – filling of the internal cavity of the tube shell
Basic technical data and geometrical dimensions with inert material increases influence of the shock
of the tubular bolts have to correspond to calcula- wave on the workpiece material by 1.5-2 times and
tion data and chart of support of the opening. ensures safe conditions of detonating cord usage in
Applied materials and bought-in articles have to mines that are dangerous by gas and dust.
correspond to current standards and technical condi- The most effective installation of the bolts, in
tions. terms of maximum use of strengthening effect of
Following demands are required for the shell tubular bolts, is their installation during the opening
tubes for bolts: drivage with distance from the face being not more
– admissible tolerance of the shells length than 2 meters. In this case the bolts come into opera-
±10 mm; tion immediately, preventing fracturing and lamina-
– there must not be any metal overlaps caused by tion of the near-contour rock massif.
gas welder along edges of the shell tube; Installation of the explosive in the tube shells is
– shell tubes that have twists are not acceptable carried out by a shot-firer in the following conse-
for usage; quence:
Transportation of shell tubes is carried out in – electric detonator is fixed at the end of the deto-
mine cars and storage – on the stacks that exclude nating cord by means of electric wires and then it is
possibility of their deformation and bending, and rolled up into clay cover-cap, the second end of the
also ingress of moisture. detonating cord is also fastened by electric wires
Considered structure of the tubular bolt TA1 has a and DCA is inserted into a tube shell, the end of
line of advantages: which is closed by a clay cap with length of which
– as an energy source for a bolt manufacturing not less than 0.1 m from the side of electric detona-
and its installation, the energy of an explosive is tor.
accepted, and performance of these various opera- – plastic funnel with electric wires is inserted in
tions is done simultaneously with the blast of an the open end of the tube shell and then the shell is
explosive in a workpiece located in the blasthole; filled up with either sand or water;
– tube shell is quite simple and has a shape of a – after the closing of the second end of the tube
piece of a tube of an existing diameter and does not shell with a cap of 0.1 m length, the workpiece is
require any preliminary surface treatment and its inserted into the blasthole and, if necessary, fixed in
manufacturing consists of cutting of the needed it with help of a wooden wedge, that prevent its
length tube pieces; falling out of the blasthole under its own gravity or
– there is no necessity in manufacturing and in- step-by-step performance of blasting.
stallation of such a complex element as a bolt’s At a later stage connection of detonators located
lock, as the support is manufactured by means of an in the workpieces to the main line and explosion is
explosive punching as a solid structure; performed by a shot-firer. Manufacturing and instal-
– there is no necessity in hammering and screw- lation of tubular bolts TA1 are finishing at this
ing of the bolts and, consequently, there is no need stage.
in the equipment to mechanize these operations; In case there are some “misfires”, their elimina-
– operation time significantly decreases and tion is done by the following method: on the edge of
working productivity during bolt manufacturing and the workpiece at the blasthole collar parallel to
its installation increases due to exclusion of a row of detonating cord, the hole is made in the clay cap by
operations that are usually carried out during manu- means of breaking, in which the electric detonator is
facturing and installation of existing rock bolts; inserted and closed by clay. Repeated blasting is
– reliability of blasting increases because the elec- carried out after connection of electric detonator to
tricity wires of the detonator are located inside of firing circuit.
the internal cavity of the tube shell;
– it is possible to use nonstandard products of the
tube production for the rock bolts manufacturing
13
REFERENCES Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2000. Analysis of experience of bolting
application, improvement of the structures by means of
Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevs’ka, I.A. Symanovych, G.A. parameters calculation method. Dnipropetrovs’k: System
1997. New design of a rock bolt that works under con- technologies: 86.
stant resistance. Coal of Ukraine, 8: 10-12. Bulat, A.  Vynogradov, V. 2002. Supporting bolting of the
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2003. Geomechanics of interaction of mine openings of coal mines. Dnipropetrovs’k: Vyl’po:
elements of system “rock massif-strengthened rocks- 374.
support of underground openings”. Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 1999. Calculation of parameters of
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2003. Geomechanics of interaction of multiple-layers support of mine openings with various
elements of system “rock massif-strengthened rocks- thickness of the layers. Dnipropetrovs’k: System tech-
support of underground openings”. Dnipropetrovs’k: nologies: 44.
National mining academy of Ukraine: 234 Kovalevs’ka, I.A. 2005. Calculation of parameters of
Kovalevs’ka, I.A 2001. Theory of bolting application. stability management of subsystem “strengthened rocks-
Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 247. support of underground openings”. Dnipropetrovs’k:
Kovalevs’ka, I.A. Symanovych, G.A. 2006. Geomechan- System technologies: 113.
ics of interaction of integral bolt support with rock massif.
Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 104.
14
Technology in life
Y. Romaschin & I. Saleev

NPC “Mine machines”, Donetsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Demand on energy in the developing nations is growing rapidly alongside with gradual recov-
ering of the economy and improving the standards of life. But to satisfy the energy requirements in different
parts of the world, it is the coal, that remains attractive and important being the only source of energy.
1 INTRODUCTION thickness of 1.45 m, and in the structure of coal

reserves, the seams with thickness of more than
The International Energy Agency states: coal com- 1.2 m have the share of only 20.4%, the thin coal
prises 60% of world’s reserves of fossil fuel and is seams (up to 1.2 m) – the share is 74%, including
spread more evenly and widely than other types of very thin coal seams (less than 0.7 m) – the share is
fossil fuel. With today’s modern rates of coal con- 33.3%.
sumption in the world, the coal will run out in
250 years, as distinguished from oil reserves, which
according to modern estimates, will run out in 2 BASIC PART
40 years and natural gas will run out in approxi-
mately 65 years. So in long term perspective, there The mines with thin coal seams have been running
is no alternative to “black gold-coal”. But the situa- for decades in the main industrial Donbass region.
tion is getting complicated by the fact that the main In the course of time it is getting harder and harder
coal reserves are concentrated in thin coal seams. It to mine coal, the considerable amount of workable
is interesting to note the fact that there is no strict coal seams are hazardous in terms of mine impacts
classification in terms of thickness of the coal seam and mine gas emissions. The depth of each forth
in the world practice of coal mining. For example, mine exceeds 1 km. In Central Donbass (in mines of
in Russian Federation, the thin coal seam are to be the towns Gorlovka, Dzerzhinsk, Yenakievo) thin
the seams which are less or equal to 1.3 m thick- coal seams yield 70% of coal production, and more
ness. In Poland, the thin coal seams are considered than 80% of coal is mined in steep coal seams. Un-
to be the coal seams which are less than 1.5 m, for der such conditions, it is very complicated to
example, in mines “Bogdanka” in Lubel and in Ka- mechanize the technological processes and to ensure
tovitse mining company. The same can be attributed the safety of mining.
to mines in Germany and to mines in American The main supplier of the equipment which operate
Appalachian mountains. In Ukraine the following in such hazardous conditions is the company “Min-
qualification is adopted: coal seams which are less ing Machines”, the main office of which is situated
than 0.7 m – very thin coal seams; 0.7-1.2 m – thin in Donetsk, Ukraine. “Mining Machines” is the
seams. leader of Ukrainian mining machine building. The
According to the opinion of specialists of Interna- company managers the running of the seven large
tional School of Underground Mining, the produc- machine building plants, which are located in the
tion of coal out of coal seams with thickness of south east of Ukraine and in the south of Russian
more than 1.2 m decreased nearly two fold, and Federation, and which have more than 100 years’
more than half of coal production falls to coal seams experience of producing the equipment for compli-
with thickness less than 1 m. cated mining geological conditions. They are:
Ukraine is the only country in the world which “Druzhkovskiy machine building plant”, “Gor-
has gained long term experience, required technolo- lovskiy Mashinostroitel”, “Donetskgormash”, “Do-
gies and equipment for production of coal out of netskiy Energozavod”, “Sverdlovskiy machine
thin coal seams. building plant”, “Kamenskiy machine building
The coal seams in Ukraine have the smallest plant” and “Ukrtransmash”.
thickness in the world, among industrialized coal Powerful production facilities allow to produce
mining countries, the coal seams have average 70% of existing mining equipment in the world.
15
This fact grants a good opportunity for the custom- Having such high technical characteristics, the
ers to order the complete deliveries of the mining cost of the company’s products is essentially lower
equipment on a “turn-key” basis. in comparison with the western analogues. This
The company’s facilities achieved their historical equipment enables to produce coal in semi-
annual production output of mechanized supports – automatic and automatic modes and to control the
240 sets, shearers – 1000 units, winding engines – shearer by tracing hypsometry of the coal seam. The
362 units, fans of the main shaft – 65 units, trans- above mentioned supports enable to produce coal in
former substations – 2640 units. coal seams with thickness starting from 0.85 m to
Anticipating the trends in the development of 1.6 m. Maximum resistance is 3300 kN .
mining industry, the facilities of the company have The shearer UKD 400 (Figure 1) is holding one of
been used as early as in 2001-2003 to start the pro- the priority positions in the production range of the
duction of two- prop hydraulic supports of a new company. It has a frequency adjusted drive and is
generation – 1КDD, 2КDD, DM and DT for thin designed for cutting coal in the coal seams with
coal seams. Their life time is three fold more than thickness of 0.85-1.5 m in the coal faces which are
that of previous types of supports (i.e. up to 8 years more than 300 m long. Two electric motors with
without overhaul) and they ensure improved techni- power of 200 kW, enable to cut practically all sorts
cal performance. of hard coal at the feed of up to 8 m per minute.
The new supports have the same technical pa-
rameters as their foreign analogues and even con-
siderably surpass their operational data.
Figure 1. Shearer-loader UKD 400.
Maneuvering speed of the shearer UKD 400 is up played on the shearer’s monitor. According to ex-
to 12 m per min. It is necessary to mention that data perts’ opinion, the shearer UKD 400 is the embodi-
of the shearer’s performance: speed, load, the posi- ment of power multiplied by speed and durable life
tion in the coal face, troubleshooting etc. are dis- time.
16
For the market with average and big thickness the output which exceeds 1.5-2 fold the production
coal seams the specialists of the company “Mining capacity of its analogues and considerably allows to
Machines” performed the project of creating the improve the efficiency of coal cutting with the same
shearer KDK 500 (Figure 2). This shearer ensures costs of coal production.
Figure 2. Shearer KDK 500.
The shearer КDК500 proved to advantage while production of 1700-2400 t / 24 hours. The estimated
operating in the coal face #17 of Mine Administra- life time of new equipment in several times exceeds
tion “Sadkinskaya” (Belokalitvinskaya district, that of replaced analogues and has much longer
Rostov region, Russian Federation). The use of the operational life time ensuring 2-3 fold increase of
shearer КDК500 enabled the mine to increase aver- productivity.
age 24 hours capacity up to 3165 tons. One of the latest innovational machinery which has
The study of timing observations showed that the been put into practice is the flameproof electric bat-
main operations of the technological cycle at coal tery locomotive with transistor control system АВ8Т.
cutting by the shearer reached 79.6% of time dura- The locomotive is designed on the basis of battery
tion of the shifts. The shearer КDК500 has produced locomotive АМ8D with the main design parameters
1.43 mln. tones of coal for the period of 14 months (overall dimensions, rigid base, clearance). The basic
in the coal faces #17 and #19. model has undergone some innovations – a remov-
The decision to purchase the shearer КDК500 enable cabin has been added. A new modern control and
abled the mine to ensure the steady increase of pro- slow down systems have been implemented alongside
duction in thick coal seams at JSC “Mine Administra- with some additional functions aimed at improving
tion “Sadkinskoye” to achieve the following figures: safety of operation. IGBT modules have been used in
average monthly production of coal starting from the function of power elements. Modes of operation
68.7 thousand tones reached 200 thousand tones are chosen by using software of the central processor.
(2.9 fold increase); productivity of the worker in coal The battery locomotive ensures smooth descending,
face ranges from 31 tonnes up to 88 tones / shift slow down and makes very low the consumption of
(2.8 fold increase). the electricity from battery. The power supply is acid
The shearers КDК500, which operate in the battery, type PzS, capacity 560 Аh, which ensures
mines “Yuzhnodonbaskaya #3”, the state enterprise two shift charging cycle at regular operation.
“Donetskugol”, named after Bazhanov, the state In order to produce modern mining equipment
enterprise “Мakeevugol”, “Novodonetskaya”, the which meets the highest quality standards, the com-
state enterprise “Dobropolyeugol”, enabled the pany acquires the best technological equipment
mines to achieve maximum production capacity in from Czech Republic, FRG, Italy , Japan and other
the coal seams with the thickness of 1.6 m for the countries. In 2006 the company started a complex
coal face of 3200 t / 24 hours at average monthly innovation program of production facilities with
17
more than 20 million dollars of investment. Such The designing and upgrading of mining equip-
amount of currency will be spent for technical re- ment is performed by using innovational technolo-
equipment in 2010. gies and completing items which are produced by
the leading foreign manufacturers. The powerful
3 CONCLUSIONS stand facilities for conducting performance trials of
the produced equipment on the shop floor has been
It is worth mentioning, that in order to improve the organized at the machine building plants of the
efficiency of operation of the produced mining company. Particularly, two out of the three trial
equipment, the company highlights the increasing of stands, which are functioning in Europe – STD
complete deliveries of equipment to match the spe- 2000, which are to be used to trial the produced
cific geological conditions of the customer and wid- mechanized supports’ sections are located at the
ening the range of equipment due to production of plants of the company “Mining Machines”:
new modifications. “Druzhkovskiy machine building plant” and
The company considers its priority to interact “Kamenskiy machine building plant”.
with the customers by rendering real practical assis- In 2010 the company intends to diversify the de-
tance to mines in erection, training of the staff, liveries of the mining equipment geographically by
maintenance of new equipment in the course of offering complete deliveries to the end-users of
operation and regular supply of required spare parts. Russian Federation, Iran, Каzakhstan, Vietnam and
Comprehensive scientific-technical strategy en- India. At the moment, the company is developing
abled the company, alongside with the scientists, service-distributional net in the global market.
design engineers, specialists from the institutes, to While working with the customers, the company
master the production of all basic types of transpor- “Mining Machines” follows the innovational princi-
tation equipment, shearers, road headers which meet ple which highlights the individual approach to each
all modern world requirements in terms of produc- customer by offering the design of the equipment
tivity, safety, ergonomics and reliability. for the specific geological-mining environment
conditions.
18
Improvement of the methodology of managerial

solutions substantiation in coal mining industry
A. Akmaev
Donbass State Technical University, Alchevsk, Ukraine
I. Fesenko
ABSTRACT: In article questions of methodology of management by coal-mining industry and modern

methodological principles of efficiency estimation of managerial solutions concerning functioning of the
coal-mining enterprises are considered. Preconditions of searching of the new approaches to a substantiation
of managerial solutions in branch and a state level as a whole are determined. Main principles and ap-
proaches to forming of the new methodology of management by coal industry are proposed, the basic theo-
retical positions of this concept are determined. In the work it is also proved the necessity of improving of
basic directions of management by resource-saving and management of resource potential is planned.
1 INTRODUCTION nation of priorities and comparison of separate kinds

of effects – economical, social, ecological, political,
Development of scientific-technical progress, devel- expenses and results etc. Due to different reasons, a
opment of society, urbanization and globalization, priority was far from being attached to economically
increasing role of human factor in social life, as well efficient decisions.
as initiated transition to post-industrial society require Because of specific modern economics, progress
deviation from utilitarian understanding and estima- in integration processes and peculiarities of coal
tion of efficiency of state managerial decisions con- mining industry in general, except Ukrainian one,
cerning coal and other branches of economy. Evolu- not all managerial decisions concerning current and
tion of world economy and economical relations perspective functioning of coal mining enterprises is
resulted in less part of past and vital work at each reasonable to explain by the level of economic
enterprise reflecting social expenses for manufacture efficiency of their activity.
of production at this enterprise. In addition, with the From our point of view, the necessity of forming
growing of social significance of humanitarian and of the new methodological substantiation of mana-
ecological factors in human life, visual results of each gerial decisions has matured. It could consider
enterprise and economical branches in their financial challenges of globalization and state’s role in soci-
and other reported indexes continuously show less ety’s life, present-day condition of economical and
accurate efficiency of their operation in national social relations, human values as well as transition
economy and real social usefulness of these results. to open model of economical activity, which accepts
Everything mentioned requires reviewing former values and integrity with environment.
views of sense and content of “usual” categories, as a Long-term practice of world’s state management
sample, an efficiency, social expenses, cost, goods for is a practice of number of transfers, i.e. free transfer
improving of substantiation of managerial decisions. of money, goods, services, tangible property. Last
The aim of this article is to study different ap- world economical crisis showed that to provide
proaches to forming of modern methodology of stable functioning of economy, many state decisions
substantiation of managerial decisions in coal indus- are also accepted, which are not aimed to obtain
try management. direct current economical effect. In addition, from
the state budget, stabilization funds spent multi-
billiard costs, which are introduced into keeping rate
2 RESULTS of currency, providing bank liquidity, cheap credits,
stabilization of work of many large enterprises etc.
In historical perspective science and management The same situation happens in management for state
practice always work out the problems of determi- property. So, M.D. Bilyk observes, that referring to
19
defined role of state property the most preferable According to the thoughts of many economists,
tendencies of functioning of state property are the an economical function is the most important be-
ones outgoing from the regulatory state function, cause it creates material foundation for realization
particularly: of other state’s functions.
– filling economical caves with unfavorable Economical function usually has anti-crisis orien-
manufacture conditions, to which private capital tation and forms stable economical development of
comes too slowly, but its development is necessary the state. General economical function of state
for the whole country’s economy; consists of many partial economical functions.
– sanitation of separate enterprises, or probably From our point of view, starting from the neces-
whole branches of economy, which temporarily or sity to provide economical safety for national econ-
continuously are revealed unprofitable; omy, one of the main declared functions of the state
– regulation of social aftereffects of cycloid type is necessary to mark insured and compensative
of production by widening of scale of social works regulation of economy in those social spheres,
for overcoming of unemployment; where even market methods can’t provide necessary
– providing of realization of active regional pol- positive results. It’s clear, that market methods don’t
icy oriented to leveling of great disproportions in work in those spheres of economy or others where
economical development of regions; investments don’t give reasonable benefit.
– motivation of developing of science intensive, In certain degree insurance function and compen-
progressive branches, which require enormous sability regulation for state used to be performed
initial capital investments and do not provide with and today it is performed through other state func-
quick refund of capital; tions, but growing and modern understanding of the
– increasing of quantity and quality of so-called importance of economical crisis requires its separate
“social” goods, i.e. economical, social and adminis- investigation.
trative areas of the whole society; All managerial decisions, which are accepted in
– creating and providing of the activity of enter- organizations and state control bodies can be di-
prises in strategically important branches; vided into two groups – programmed and unpro-
– participating in the activities concerning the na- grammed. Programmed ones are those decisions
ture protection, achievement of the ecological bal- which operation order is standard and doesn’t re-
ance, improvement of recreation technologies (Bilyk quire searching for alternative options. There is full
2006). information about those decisions as well as organi-
Thus, one can affirm that on the present stage of zation has established actions for their acceptance
development of world economy within modern and realization and all alternatives are known and
social-economic relations in conditions of globaliza- formalized. For example, tax charge, custom fee etc.
tion on the goals indicated and generated state func- Unprogrammed managerial decisions have the
tions then spending of state money according to following features:
managerial decisions haven’t the aim of obtaining of – non-standardized precedence rule with their ac-
direct economical effect. These expenses are used ceptance and solving;
mostly for efficient performing of state’s functions. – scanty information for overall substantiation of
During establishment and development of eco- decision;
nomical relations, forms and methods of manage- – not established accurate criteria for effective
ment are changing and a state receives new func- solving;
tions and tasks. Main functions of the state are – probable alternative decisions with not accurate
determined by the tasks arising before the state in a determined results;
certain moment in all social spheres. In different – it’s impossible to forecast accurately the devel-
progress periods the state faces continually new opment of economical situations in national and
tasks, for solving which there necessary real re- world economy especially in conditions of widening
sources including the managerial ones. There are of crisis phenomena;
such situations when the state functions reveal that – it’s impossible to forecast accurately people’s
dependence on permanently changing conditions behavior as the main element of social-economic
can not stay invariable. Despite the main state system.
functions which are permanent and are performed Practically all strategic decisions, which are ac-
systematically, they are changing, developing cepted by state control bodies, are unprogrammed,
dependently on those tasks which the state has on so it’s impossible to calculate precisely their intro-
the certain historical stage. Subject to tasks and duction of efficiency using famous methods, but in
purposes of state are determined economical, politi- separate cases they try. Explanation of such deci-
cal and social conditions. sions is possible only basing on natural laws and
20
logic laws. sions and perform them. Rational behavior covers
Long-term continuous unprofitableness of the affective use of all kinds of economical resources
majority of coal mining enterprises, hot demand of during the process of achieving the set tasks of
enormous state subventions for their keeping in activity.
operation don’t allow solving the most important So, methodology improvement of substantiation
problems of the future of coal industry, and the of coal industry development stipulates essence of
branch itself was and has been so-called stepchild of reveal of rationality of managerial decisions and
Ukrainian economy. searching for methods of effective usage of the
On our mind one of the main reasons of such economical resources.
situation is methodological uncertainty as to solving To accept decisions concerning development of
of the specific problems of the specific and at the coal mining industry in general and its state sector
same time very important branch of national econ- separately is proposed to use methodology of state
omy. rationalism, which has combined character.
That methodological foundation being used now Usually rationalism is considered like sign of ma-
was formed in Soviet Union in other kind of econ- turity, civilization, modernity, like significant fea-
omy. So formation task of new methodological ture of industrial life style.
principles is topical for explanation of managerial Rationalism is usually explained as person’s abil-
decisions which can meet the present state of econ- ity to keep intellectual laws, to be logical and se-
omy. quential; ability to methodological procedure and
Design analysis of methodological character cognitive attitude to the reality; maximization and
shows that nowadays methodological range of optimization of activity results at limited resources
problems of certain science branches is studied and methods, structuredness and analytical transpar-
rather less than generally philosophic and generally ence of research material, standards, principles,
scientific, moreover it has unsolved methodological norms and ideals, which are supported by scientific
problems. In the same content it concerns an econ- community, behavior quality, which is oriented to
omy of coal mining industry. realization of personal interest etc.
First of all it touches the questions of restructur- State rationalism is explained as methodology of
ing of coal branch, state support for coal mining accepting of managerial decisions by state control
enterprises etc. For example, in recent years it was bodies, which is rest upon the priority of common
made a lot of attempts at all management levels to national interests, oriented to economical develop-
solve problems of coal mining industry of Ukraine ment and based on the limitedness of society’s
by content using of generally scientific methods. economical resources.
But, as a rule, branch specificity is not considered as Principle of state rationalism in economy man-
well as influence of forms on processes in country’s agement: less expenses – bigger results, both in
economy, which occur in coal mining industry. current period and in the perspective. Among rele-
Necessity of independent scientific approach to vant peculiarities of rationalism one should notice:
accepting the decisions on functioning of coal sequence, connectivity, harmony, simplicity, struc-
mining enterprises are mentioned by other econo- turedness and others. Rationality possesses univer-
mists too (Chilikin 2000). sal methods. It’s one of the general views of indus-
Formation of methodological base generally and trialized society.
certain science branch separately stipulates collec- On the authors’ opinion, the methodology of state
tion of data and phenomena, their systematization, rationalism in economy, first of all must be based on
classification and generalization. In modern eco- such main principles:
nomic literature concerning economics of coal – accounting of natural laws and logical laws;
industry facts and phenomena, which are specified – reasonability of state control for economical
by scientists and practitioners are spread in many relations, growth and economy structure pace;
publications and according to them, nobody made – maximization of useful information for substan-
any sufficient modern methodological conclusions. tiation of decisions;
In this connection, development of all level meth- – following the Constitution and laws;
odology and, first of all, particular-scientific level – responsibility before the international legisla-
can be studied as one of the most important condition;
tions of further economical development of coal – declaration of person’s life and health as the
mining industry of Ukraine. highest value;
Economical science comes out from background – national security (economical, energetic, etc);
of rational behavior of management agents, owners – sound mind – i.e. equivalence between people’s
and public officers, which accept managerial deci- personal opinions and environment;
21
– efficiency – economical, social, political (cur- system influence of state decisions onto national
rent and perspective); economy and society, coal mining enterprises re-
– unity with environment; quire further state support. The other matter is the
– system in influencing of state decisions onto state’s ability to provide support, optimization of
national economy and society; this support over subjects, kinds, volumes and
– transparence for society over all stages of increasing efficiency of state funds using.
preparation and realization of decisions. Formation of modern methodology for estimation
It is considered that formation of methodology of of efficiency of managerial decisions in coal mining
state rationalism and its implementation into man- industry is a difficult process which requires efforts
agement practice will allow formation of managerial of many scientists and practitioners for a long pe-
decisions acceptance process, i.e. creation of oppor- riod. But some approaches to formation of such
tunities of using formal logic when explaining methods, principles are studied by science and they
managerial decisions concerning unprofitable can be offered now.
branches, e.g. coal mining. Among them are:
Over last 15 years mass media generate the opin- – coal is a main current and strategic energy
ion in the society oriented to necessity of mines source of Ukraine;
closure, which operation is unprofitable and requires – coal is the base for power and economic secu-
enormous subventions from the state. Over inde- rity of state;
pendence period in Ukraine in accordance with – the majority of time coal industry of Ukraine
developed programs during restructuring process in was unprofitable;
coal industry more than 100 unprofitable mines – with deepening of excavations the expenses
were closed. From those 138 coal mining enter- grow more for coal production;
prises left in the branch being under control of – increasing of coal cost leads to increasing of
Ministry of Coal Industry of Ukraine, only 15 of cost for goods and services in the country;
them or 11% are considered as financially balanced, – when closing mines the losses are bigger than
the others are determined as the ones requiring subventions for supporting their operation and
subventions and incapable to work independent producing coal;
(Tulub 2007). – economical effect from performing of manage-
One should notice that acceptance of decisions rial decisions is important, but it is not the only
concerning closure of unviable coal mining enter- effect from this decision;
prises, all enterprises of national economy, regard- – economically unprofitable decision can be use-
less to kind of proprietorship, having legal inde- ful if promotes achieving the other vital goals;
pendence, are bound by system economical relations – significant factor of efficiency of managerial
with other national enterprises. For example, coal decision is refrained loss;
mining enterprises are bound with supplier of goods – in cost price of coal in mines the part of condi-
which are used during coal production process. In tional-permanent expenditures is 60-70%, so a mine
addition, one can note the system ties with the can not work properly with low level of coal pro-
enterprises which produce mining equipment, per- duction;
form preparation of new longwall. – investments’ growth into coal industry results in
All enterprises which operate in national econ- multiplied profit growth in economy; reduction of
omy pay taxes into state local budget, pay charges investment results in multiplied decline of profits
into fund-in-trust. And if in this system the opera- and consumption demand.
tion of some coal enterprise is stopped then reduc- Further formation of methodology estimation of
ing production capacity at many enterprises will be efficiency of managerial decisions is an important
resulted and then the decrease of all kinds of background for economic progress in coal mining
charges into budget and fund-in-trust. So, more industry. First of all a solution of methodology of
frequently when closing a coal mining enterprise state support for coal mining enterprises is worth
oriented to reduction of state subventions, national being developed as well as progress of coal industry
economy faces much more losses, which are not with improving of technique of labour remuneration
accounted by present methods of analysis and and management of resource potential.
estimation. Performed researches proved that clos- Management of resource potential of coal mining
ing of many unprofitable mines leads to more losses and other enterprises is impossible without use of
in economy than total state subventions on their questions which arose from globalization of scien-
keeping. tific-technical progress, development of ownership
Based on methodology of state rationalism and its relations, which require their own accounting in
such principles like national security, efficiency, theory and practice of resource using.
22
At more detailed consideration, resource potential renewable nature of the job subject – mineral re-
is accepted both like ordinary economical resources sources, variable conditions of coal excavation, and
and specific resources: intangible assets, enter- non even natural quality of coal; orientation of
prise’s image, information, time, etc.; involved business activity at the coal mining enterprises onto
resources which form the resource potential of reducing the losses and decreasing volume of state
enterprise and it can change the type of ownership; subventions on covering of production expenses;
resource potential of mining enterprise is limited by specific effect of time factor onto the activity of coal
time limits that is connected with terms of produc- producing enterprises, particularly: when decelera-
tion of mineral in different conditions; resource tion of intensity of second working relatively to
potential is greatly influenceced by not only pres- time absolute and comparative expenses are grow-
ence of resources but their quality, ability to effi- ing greatly on keeping breakage heading and prepa-
cient use. ration of sites as results of rock pressure; termina-
Resource potential of each coal producing enter- tion of performing some production operation for
prise is one of the constituent parts of coal mining several dozens of hours, for example, dewatering
industry of Ukraine and national economy in the and ventilation, can completely destroy the mine.
whole. It stipulates the importance, urgency and So, these peculiarities have cumulative influence
necessity to continue researches and application of on results and operation characteristics of mines and
principally new approaches of solving the problems it requires formation of special methodological
of effective formation and more complex use of approach for their accounting in analysis and plan-
resource potential of coal mining enterprises ac- ning of coal mining enterprise’s activity.
counting their special features.
Social needs are always connected with resources.
Oriented to guaranteeing economical supply for 3 CONCLUSIONS
society, the first range task of any state is state
regulation, to provide efficient use of these re- In spite of rather deep study of many tasks of state
sources. regulation for economy branches, a range of substan-
At all stages of society’s life there is constant gap tiation and rationalization factors in managerial
between consumption level and production possi- decisions require further formalization. Bu using of
bilities, because economical resources are always proposed methodology of state rationalism one can
limited. At the same time society always has oppor- shape the decisions of important problems in coal
tunity for alternative and more rational using of mining industry, connected with using of current and
these resources. development of perspective production-economical
Usually resources consumption is in certain space- potential of coal producing enterprises etc.
term limits and with accounting of real or, at least, From our point of view, development and practi-
potential physical accessibility of such resources. cal implementation of state rationalism methodol-
It’s necessary to note that opportunities of alterna- ogy allow to increase the validity of many unpro-
tive (more rational) use of economical resources grammed decisions, which are accepted nowadays
have considerable specifics in different spheres of on the base of intuition and subjectivity.
society and economy. So, it is using of accurate- And accounting of branch peculiarities of applica-
scientific methodology, which is implemented into tion of economical resources is the main direction of
research methods and which is pierced by funda- methodology improvement of managerial decisions
mental and common science methodology that will substantiation with resource saving and progress of
allow to consider branch peculiarities in economical coal producing enterprises.
substantiations of branch progress. On the grounds
of their scientific methodology, an opportunity to
develop and use management methods appears, as REFERENCES
well as methods of plan calculations and analysis of
Bilyk, M.D. 2006. New approaches to estimation of
activity etc, activity model, algorithms of actions effective activity of state enterprises of Ukraine’s econ-
and other managerial tools for economical subjects. omy. Formation of market relations in Ukraine, 7-8: 3-8.
There are some peculiarities of using of economi- Chilikin, A.I. 2000. Coal mining enterprises of Ukraine in
cal resources in coal mining branch, which require the system of market relations: theory and practice.
special methodological approaches for their per- Donetsk: IEP NASU: 256.
forming. Particularly, big final “price” of miners’ Tulub, C.B. 2007. State and perspectives of progress in
job. This “price” consists of relatively big salary, coal mining industry of Ukraine. Kiev: UkrNiiproekt:
70.
big social charges and big pension payments; non-
23
Review of support systems and methods

for prediction of gateroads deformation
S. Prusek
Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper describes the support systems applied in gateroads on the basis of selected countries
conducting underground mining of hard coal seams. There have been presented the support systems for those
workings, being applied in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Poland. The methods applied
in those countries, allowing to compute gateroad deformations, and to design appropriate supports, for given
geological and mining conditions, have also been described.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 CHARACTERIZATION OF HARD COAL

MINING I NDUSTRIES AND SYSTEMS OF
Longwall coal mining has been practiced for many GATEROADS SUPPORT IN THE: U.S., UK,
years particularly in European coal mines. In the GERMANY AND POLAND
case, when this method is used, for each longwall
panel gateroads and a set-up rooms are developed. With the aim of obtaining a broader view in the
In those workings the longwall equipment is placed, subject of support systems applied in gateroads,
containing: shield supports, a shearer or a face typical solutions have been described, being applied
conveyor. The European mining industry is working in the countries conducting underground extraction
with single entry roadways system, while in the U.S. of hard coal seams. To compare, such countries
for one longwall panel from 3 to 5 tailgates and have been chosen as the: U.S., UK, Germany and
maingates are developed. During longwall mining Poland. The United States are counted among the
the gateroads perform many functions that decide on biggest producers of hard coal in the world. In the
a proper production process. They are the ways that year 2009, a total U.S. production was 973 million
enable output haulage, transport of miners and tonnes, in that 302 million of hard coal were ex-
materials, or are ventilation ducts for the mining tracted with underground methods (50% with a
area. The aspect of proper ventilation is of vital longwall system, the other 50% with room and
importance in the case when mining operations are pillar). An average depth of underground mining is
conducted in the conditions of high level of hazards 400 m. In the remaining, European countries se-
methane explosion or fire. In such situations, con- lected in the paper, the hard coal production level
siderable deformations of gateroads that give rise to using underground methods, in the year 2009, var-
reduction of their cross sections, influence substan- ied from 13.8 million tonnes in Germany to 77.5
tially the rise of the level of hazards mentioned, million in Poland. In the UK, 17.9 million tonnes
thereby putting the working crew in danger. were produced, while nearly 10 million were ob-
Considering the importance of gateroads in the tained using surface mining. Figure 1 shows the
production process, numerous research works have above presented values of hard coal production in
been conducted in many countries aimed, in princi- the individual countries, together with the values of
pal, at ensuring the stability and proper size of those average depth of mining, in the case when under-
workings. In this paper there are described different ground mining methods were used.
kinds of gateroads support which are applied in the: In the USA, for each longwall panel, from 2 to 5
U.S., UK, Germany and Poland. The methods ena- tailgates and maingates of rectangular cross section
bling to predict the deformation of those workings, are driven (Barczak 2005 & Peng 2006, 2008). Be-
and process of designing the supports reducing this tween those workings chain pillars are left, providing
deformation have also been presented. an additional roof support. Rock bolts are the main
type of support used in the gateroads, being driven, in
general, by means of Continuous Miner. There are
used steel bolts of 19 mm diameter and length, most
25
frequently, from 1,8 m to 2,4 m. The fully resin steel In the locations with high values of stress e.g. in
bolts are installed with spacing of 1.2 m. (Barczak abutment pressure areas, or in tailgates located in
2005 & Peng 2006). Figure 2 shows an example of the one-sided surroundings of the goaf, there are
rectangular roof bolted roadway. applied additional reinforcements of the main sup-
ports, such as cable bolts or various standing sup-
ports (Barczak 2005 & Tadolini 2005). The selected
types of standing supports, being applied in rein-
forcement of the main rock bolt supports in the
gateroads, are shown in Figure 3.
The Can-type standing support is one of the most
frequently used supports. It is composed of a tube
filled with material having high mechanical strength
parameters. In the U.S. gateroads, there are also used
various timber supports, for instance: Cluster Props,
Propsetter, or Link-N-Lock cribs (Barczak 2005).
In the UK, after ownership transformation and
privatization of the hard coal mining industry, the
rectangular cross section and rock bolts as the main
support became to be a standard in the gateroads
(Bigby, Altounyan & Cassie 2006). Such a system
of supporting the entries, introduced in a large scale
in 1987, results mainly from continual striving for
lowering the production costs, and from the ability
to obtain higher rates of development works (Al-
tounyan & Hurt 1998). To protect the gateroads, as
the primary support fully resin steel bolts are used
and additionally flexible or cable bolts, including
pretensioned bolts. The spacing between the rows of
bolts varies, depending on geological conditions, 0.6
m to 1.0m. In the roadways, there is also used rib
bolting using either steel bolts or GRP bolts (on face
rib side). The reinforcement being frequently used,
in particular in tailgates outby the face, are the Link-
N-Lock cribs (Bigby, Altounyan & Cassie 2006).
Figure 4a presents a detailed scheme of the rock bolt
in a gateroad in which fully resin steel support and,
additionally, flexible bolts were installed in the roof.
Figure 1. Production of hard coal in the year 2009 and In the face rib sides, GRP bolts were applied. Figure
average depth of underground mining in the: U.S., UK, 4, b shows a view of the rectangular rock bolted
Germany and Poland. gateroad in one of the UK mines.
In the UK mines, with the aim of ensuring ac-
ceptable size of the rock bolted gateroads, coal
pillars are being left between longwall panels. The
width of those pillars is variable, for instance, at a
depth of mining of 800 m, the width of pillars
ranges from ca. 60 m to 120 m (Cassie, Altounyan
& Cartwright 1999).
In the German mining, the principal support ap-
plied in gateroads is the steel arch yielding support.
The single frame of support consists, most fre-
quently, of five-elements of section with mass from
34 to 40 kg / m. The gateroad cross section value
varies from 25 m2 to 36 m2, on the average being
30 m2. The frame distance ranges from 0.6 m to
Figure 2. An example of rectangular roof bolted roadway
in one of U.S. mines. 1.2 m, most 0.8 m. Currently in Germany, nearly
70% of gateroads are developed in combined sup-
26
port i.e. bolt and arch support with concrete backfill, bolts, and then, at a distance of up to 50 m, the arch
called type A (Eikhoff 2010). This type of support support (Junker et al 2006). Figure 5 presents work-
was developed at Ibbenbüren mine in 1985, and ing development in combined support – type A.
relies on applying in workings at the beginning rock
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Selected types of standing support being applied in gateroads in the U.S.; Can support (a), Link-N-Lock crib (b),
Cluster Props support (c).
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Rock bolted gateroad in one of the UK mines; (a) detailed scheme of rock bolting, (b) view of rectangular rock
bolted gateroad.
In German mines most rock bolts the 2.5 m long forcement of steel supports, and additionally isolat-
and 25 mm diameter are used, and having the tensile ing the goaf debris (Junker et al 2006).
strength of 340 kN. In the workings, concrete back- The main support type used nearly in all hard coal
filling is used between the breach of working and mine roadways in Poland, including gateroads, is the
the supports, using the materials with high mechani- steel arch yielding support. The frame is the main
cal strength. During retreat longwall mining very element of this support, in general arch-shaped. It
often the one of roadway after the first passage of contains three or four elements made of V section,
the face is being used. In such cases, roadside packs and most often having a unit mass in the range 25-
are being made in the roadways providing rein- 32 kg / m (Prusek 2010). Over the last years, in the
27
Polish mining industry, the frames have been used In the Polish mining gateroads, combined support
with cross sections from 13 m2 to 18 m2. Most often, is more and more often used, with the bolts playing
in above 50% of workings, the support with the cross a role of additional supports. Many mines perform
section of ca. 15 m2 is used. Depending on the local bolting of cross-bar arches of steel supports, which
geological and mining conditions, the frame distance apart from strengthening the rock mass, eliminates
adopted is from 0.5 m to 1.0 m, while most frequently the necessity of installing steel props in the area of
the spacing used is either 0.75 m or 0.8 m. longwall T-junction. This bolting is generally made
outby the face by means of fully resin steel bolts, of
the length from 2.5 m to 2.7 m (Figure 6a). There is
also applied bolting between steel frames or fasten-
ing with bolts steel cross bars or stringers to the
arches. This is made by using flexible bolts of the
length ranging, in general, from 4.5 m to 8.0 m.
Apart from bolts, the most frequently applied in
strengthening steel yielding arches in gateroads,
there are used: stringers, frictional steel props and
timber props. In the case of repeated use gateroads
after first face passage, are often made reinforce-
ments of steel supports by means of wood cribs, or
there are made roadside packs along the goaf line,
using various chemical materials (Figure 6b)
Figure 5. Working development in combined support, type
A (Eikhoff 2009).
(Prusek 2008, 2010)
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Reinforcement of steel yielding arches in gateroads by means of: (a) bolting cross bar arches with fully resin
steel bolts, (b) roadside pack of mineral binding material.
With the aim of improved utilization of support

parameters, and obtaining a momentary contact of
the support with the roof, the Polish mines under-
take more and more often the trials to apply back-
filling with the use of chemical materials. The back-
filling of this type is commonly used at Bogdanka
mine. There, it has become a standard supporting
element, being one of the factors that ensure obtain-
ing of very good rates of roadway drivage
(Chmielewski, Masiakiewicz & Kozek 2010). The
mine working with the arches backfilled with bind-
ing material at Bogdanka mine is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Roadway at Bogdanka mine with arches back-

filled with binding material.
28
In Poland, the number of mines that use the sup- the inflexion point, in consequence the convergence
ports made of new sorts of steel with enhanced is no longer acceptable and puts in danger of rock
mechanical parameters has increased over the last fall. It should be noted that in the case of using high
years. Apart from enhanced mechanical parameters, stiff support in the gateroad, the support will be
the new steel is also more resistant to corrosion subjected to high load values, being able to cause its
processes which may substantially lower the load- premature damage. For this reason, in every case,
bearing capacity of the supports, and finally result in individual computations and analyses should be
the loss of their stability. The use of steel with made to select the suport relative to a given course
enhanced parameters positively affects the process of roadaway convergence (Mucho et al. 1999; Es-
of roadway maintenance, and results in reduced terhuizen & Barczak 2006; Barczak et al., 2005).
costs of drivage through increasing the pitch of the
frame or using lighter section (Prusek, Kowalski &
Skrzyński 2006).
3 METHODS OF PREDICTING
GATEROADS DEFORMATION
The investigations on the phenomena occurring in

the gateroads, and in particular the rock mass de-
formations caused by abutment pressure have been
the matter of interest of scientists from many coun-
tries, in which underground mining of hard coal
seams has been conducted. As a result of research
work conducted, a number of methods have been
developed, enabling to predict deformations of the
gateroads, and optimize the supports being sub- Figure 8. Concept of selecting working support based on
jected to abutment loads. Among those methods, the GRC (Mucho et al., 1999).
one can distinguish empirical methods and numeri-
cal modelling methods commonly used over the
recent years.
In the U.S. mining industry, when planning un-
derground mining process using the longwall
method, in relation to gateroads, mainly the compu-
tations are performed in respect of designing chain
coal pillars to be left between the entries, and of
analysing roadway supports. The size of pillars,
which can be either stiff or yielding ones, are being
computed by applying various analytical and nu-
merical methods, as well as empirical relationships
(Mark 1990, 2006). During designing gateroad
supports, the U.S. approach takes as a base the
conception of the Ground Reaction Curve (GRC).
This curve presents the dependence of abutment
load and convergence which may occur in given
gateroads (Mucho et al., 1999; Mark & Barczak
2000; Esterhuizen & Barczak 2006). The concept of
selecting the supports based on the determined
ground reaction curve is presented in Figure 8. Figure 9. Numerical modeling of the rock mass deforma-
When selecting gateroad support based on the tion around the tailgate by means of FLAC program (Es-
knowledge of the GRC, one takes mainly into ac- terhuizen, Barczak 2006).
count: load-bearing characteristics of the support,
time of its installation in the working and conver- With the aim of computing the course of gateroad
gence of working. Figure 8 presents an example of deformation, such programs as LaModel and FLAC
applying too soft support, when the line of its load- are commonly used (Barczak et al., 2005). The
bearing characteristics intersects the GRC behind LaModel program utilizes the boundary element
29
metod, and allows to compute the convergence of In the UK, when selecting gateroad support, nu-
roof strata consisting of laminated elastic rock mass, merical modeling is being applied. Also, there are
and assessment of interaction of: support, roof, floor performed underground measurements of the
and pillar yielding (Heasley & Salomon 1996, gateroad deformation for optimization of numerical
Barczak et al., 2005). In the case of inelastic rock models, and at selection of an optimal support
and failure of the roof or floor, the FLAC program scheme, ensuring minimization of deformation. An
is utilized in numerical modeling (Barczak et al., example of underground measurements of gateroad
2005). An example of applying this program for convergence at Daw Mill Colliery is presented in
numerical modeling of the rock mass around the Figure 10.
tailgate is presented in Figure 9. One can observe from Fig.10, that as the longwall
When selecting the gateroad support using the face comes nearer, the rise in horizontal conver-
GRC conception, of vital importance is the knowl- gence of the roadway takes place, and at a distance
edge of the support load characteristic. The majority of 50 m outby the face, the value of convergence
of standing supports used in gateroads (50 different exceded even 600 mm. Taking into account substan-
types) had been tested in mine roof simulator in the tial difficulties related to side wall deformation in
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety the gateroad, a number of actions were taken with
and Health). The results of the tests were included the aim of limiting this negative phenomenon. New
in the program named STOP (Support Technology support types were introduced and longer and larger
Optimization Program). The program allows to diameter rock bolts were applied for bolting the side
compare the support characteristics with the ground walls. To evaluate the effect of changed rock bolting
reaction curves and to choose an optimal support parameters on deformation of the gateroad, numeri-
relative to occurring convergence (Barczak 2000). cal modeling was applied (Figure 11).
Referring to the problem of gateroad deformation, The investigations on the course of gateroad de-
the U.S. experience points out that those roadways formation have extensively been conducted in the
are more stable in the case of their smaller width, German mining industry. Based on the results of
and appropriate orientation of the workings with the measurements and underground observations, as
direction of maximal horizontal stress (Mark & well as physical modeling, a number of empirical
Barczak 2000). relationships have been worked out, enabling to
The subject of appropriate orientation of work- predict the gateroad convergence (Götze & Kammer
ings relative to the direction of maximal horizontal 1976; Jacobi 1976; Kammer 1980). To calculate the
stress is devoted a lot of attention in the UK. The principal convergence (K 0 ) of the gateroads, the
first measurements of the direction of action of relationship has been given, and then modified
maximal horizontal stress were conducted in under- throughout the years. The last of the published
ground conditions in mid-eighties of the last century forms of the relationship is that as shown below
at Selby mine. Since that time, such measurements (Junker et al., 2006):
in the British mines have been conducted currently,
being one of the most important factors in the proc- K 0 = 78 +0.066 T + 4 ,3 SV  M +
ess of designing mine working supports (Bigby,
  34 
Altounyan, Cassie 2006). Wide experience obtained  24.3  - 4  ln Dmin , (1)
points out that improper orientation of the gateroads  168 
relative to the direction of action of maximal hori-
zontal stress can give intensity of their deformation. where: K 0 – convergence of roadway as percentage
ratio of initial height; T – depth of mining, m; M –
thickness of seam, m; SV – number depending on
the type of roadway protection at the edge of goaf;
 Dmin – minimal compressive strength of rock in the
roof or floor of roadway, MPa.
Relationship (1) allows to calculate principal verti-
cal convergence of the roadway developed during the
advancing longwall with caving, being outside the
past mining activities, and with arch supports applied
with stone lining. In other cases, the roadway conver-
Figure 10. Horizontal convergence in the gateroad depend- gence ( K ) is being calculated taking into account the
ing on the distance from face (Bowler, Betts & Altounyan principal convergence ( K 0 ) and proper correction
2008). factors (Kammer 1980; Junker et al., 2006).
30
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Numerical modeling of gateroad deformation at Daw Mill Colliery; (a) conventional scheme of bolting; (b) scheme
of bolting using side wall rock bolts with increased length and diameter (Bowler, Robinson & Altounyan 2009).
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Numerical modeling of gateroad deformation; (a) rectangular bolted gateroad (Langhanki 2001); (b) arch-
shaped bolted gateroad (Ruppel & Scior 2008).
In Germany, apart from empirical methods, to

predict gateroads deformation numerical modeling
is also used (Hucke et al., 2006; Langhanki 2001;
Ruppel & Scior 2008). Computation examples of
convergence of gateroads with rectangular and arch-
shaped cross section, with rock bolting are shown in
Figure 12.
The numerical computations are verified, and the
rock mass models created are calibrated based on:
laboratory testing of rock and supports, physical
modeling, underground measurements of: properties
of rocks, convergence and stress. The information
required for calibration of numerical models is
shown in Figure 13. Figure 13. Information required for calibration of the
numerical model (Studeny & Scior 2009).
31
Also in the Polish mining industry for many years model the caving zone (Prusek & Masny 2007).
underground investigations of gateroads deforma- Figure 15b presents the results of computations of
tion have been conducted. On the basis of measure- rock displacement into the gateroad at the distance
ments a number of empirical relationships have 100 m inby the face. Calculations were carried out
been worked out (Prusek 2008). From among the by means of the Phase2 software and modified
methods that base on empirical relationships, the Hoek-Brown’s criterion (Prusek 2008a).
most extensive is the method worked out at the
Central Mining Institute (GIG). This method allow-
ing to predict the course of vertical convergence of
gateroads, taking into account a large number of
geological and mining parameters (Biliński 1989).
The relationships applied in this method underwent
many modifications, based on currently obtained
results of underground tests. The prognoses of
convergence based on the method discussed are
being made by means of elaborated computer pro-
grams, speeding up and improving the process of
computations. An example of the computation result
of predicted deformations of the gateroad is show in
Figure 14.
In Poland, apart from empirical methods, in mak-
ing assessment of gateroad deformations, numerical
modeling is being often applied. Figure 15a presents
the results of numerical modeling of gateroad main- Figure 14. Results of computations of the course of
gateroad convergance outby and inby the face based on
tained inby the face using support members to
empirical method worked out at GIG (Prusek 2007).
(a)
JOB TITLE : 54 m (*10^1)
FLAC (Version 5.00)
LEGEND 6.000
5-Apr-07 9:52
step 15540
3.669E+01 <x< 6.025E+01
3.966E+01 <y< 6.322E+01 5.600
Boundary plot
0 5E 0
5.200
Plasticity Indicator
* at yield in shear or vol.
o at yield in tension
Cable Plot
# 2 (Cable) -2.478E+05
# 3 (Cable) -1.181E+05 4.800
Support plot
Beam plot
Beam Plot
Structural Displacement
Max Value = 2.962E-01 4.400
Wojciech Masny 4.000

GIG Katowice
3.800 4.200 4.600 5.000 5.400 5.800
(*10^1)
32
(b)
Figure 15. An example of numerical modeling of the rock mass around gateroads; (a) zone of rock mass damage in the
surroundings of the gateroad, axial forces and vectors of support displacements at a distance of 54 m inby the face (Prusek
& Masny 2007), (b) displacements of rock strata into the gateroad at a distance of 100 m inby the face (Prusek 2008c).
Both in the case of applying empirical methods 5

1
and numerical modeling, the results are verified 7
based on currently performed measurements of 7
gateroads deformation. Such measurements are
2
performed both manually, by means of simple
measuring devices, and using special research
equipment that enables continuous measurement of
roadway deformations. An example of such equip-
ment is a monitoring system developed by GIG
specialists within the framework of MONSUPPORT
8
project, which was financed by the Research Fund for
Coal and Steel. Within the framework of research 6
work, a number of sensors and measuring devices 4
were developed, enabling to measure loads and 3
deformations of steel arch yielding supports and
Figure 16. Scheme of monitoring system of roadway
bolts, together with the system of data transmission support: underground computer (1), module for support
to the surface (Prusek 2008b). A scheme of the deformation measurement by means of the
monitoring system developed is shown in Figure 16. photogrammetric method (2), laser module (3), hydraulic
dynamometers (4 and 5), displacement sensors to measure
the slide in support friction joints (6), tensometric sensors
of bolt load (7), tensometric sensors to measure the force
acting at the support shackles’ bolts (8). – (Prusek 2008b).
33
4 CONCLUSIONS used in computation of convergence in gateroads, or
assessment of changes that take place in the rock
The overview of the support systems applied in the mass surrounding those workings. Specialist com-
gateroads point at its relatively high diversity. In puter softwares currently available allow to perform
general, one can say that outside Europe, e.g. in various types of computations and analyses, being
such countries as the United States, the principal necessary in selection of the gateroads support.
support type is rock bolting, while a characteristic However, when using numerical methods, it is
feature for the U.S. mining industry is making sev- necessary to keep in mind the possibility of making
eral gateroads with pillars for one longwall panel. In errors, for instance resulting from improperly as-
the case of European countries, the situation is sumed rock mass parameters in the computations.
similar in the UK, where the mining industry was For this reason, it is considered indispensable per-
privatized, and continual striving for reducing costs forming periodical verification of numerical compu-
of mining resulted in wide application of rock bolt- tation results, on the basis of underground meas-
ing. However, it should be noted that in the UK urements. Such an approach allows to calibrate
single gateroads are driven for each longwall panels numerical models and to reduce the prediction
and to maintain their stability, coal pillars are left errors.
between panels of the width being often more than
100m. In Germany, where an average depth of
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Verlag Glückauf. mechanicznych. Bezpieczeństwo Pracy i Ochrona
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planung für Abbaustrecken mit einem EDV-Programm. zlokalizowanego w jednostronnym sąsiedztwie zrobów
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35
Natural and mining factors that define quality

of black coal for heat power stations
P. Pilov
ABSTRACT: Demand for quality of anthracite coal, its basic formation and provision of necessary level of
quality, taking into account mining-and-geological and mining conditions, demands of market and existent
standards are considered.
1 INTRODUCTION 100  A d  W
Q nр  Q v  0.025W , MJ / Kg,
100
Production and economical indices of power sta-
tions depend on quality of the fuel. Unsubstantiated
quality level of coal in modern conditions can lead where Q v – highest calorific value of coal; Ad –
to economical failure of the enterprises-manufactu- factual ash content of coal in air-dry state, %; W –
rers and consumers. moisture content, %.
Conception of the quality is complex, multiple- Requirements demanded for coal quality are de-
factor and can be described by only one index. Inte- termined by technologies of its use. The most wide-
gral characteristics of coal quality for power engi- spread method in coal energetics is method of burn-
neering can be calorific value of working fuel. It is ing of preliminary dried and grinded to 0.1 mm fuel
the most important consumer feature of the fuel for in flash furnaces. Burning of coal-dust flame is per-
its usage in power engineering. formed in the flow in which high efficiency of oxi-
Most important characteristics of coals are calo- dation is reached that is conditioned by developed
rific value, grindability and reactivity which are surface for the reaction of grinded fuel with oxygen.
connected with petrographic compound and meta- In general, all types of coal can be used for dust
morphism level of coals. flaming. Their ash content varies in range from 20
to 45%.
Expenditures for technological material (fuel) rise
2 BASIC INFORMATION and the consumption of fuel for power generation
rises too, also its cost, tariffs for transportation,
There is higher calorific value of coals, i.e. combus- volumes of its processing in the warehouses and in
tion heat of organic mass of coal (without admix- technological process itself.
tures) and lower calorific value of working fuel, i.e. Decrease of fuel consumption, except for increase
calorific value of coal taking into account its ash of economical indices, leads to positive integral
and moisture content. effect.
Higher calorific value is connected with elemen- It is known, that with increase of ash content, it is
tary compound of coals and their metamorphism required to buy and process larger amounts of natu-
level. ral fuel with high content of ash.
Lower calorific value of working fuel is deter- Consequently, the power station processes more
mined together with highest calorific value of coal slags, captured ash with corresponding expenses of
and its ash and moisture content, composition of means and labour. But ash brings many harmful
mineral admixtures and other elementary indices of components that trigger premature erosive and cor-
quality. rosional wearing of the equipment.
In practice of energy calculations, the following During designing of heat power stations, fuel re-
formula for determination of the lowest calorific sources of the region is taken into account, and also
value of working fuel is used (by means of recalcu- composition of coal and their ash content. Thus,
lation of the highest calorific value, taking into ac- each of them can have economical operation mode
count the amount of ballast admixtures):
37
with fuel quality corresponding to the project val- important characteristics of coals. They define coal
ues. usage in industry and also characteristics of gained
With decrease of coal quality, in order to keep slags and ash losses during burning (Eryomin &
thermal capacity of the boiler unit and provision of Bronoviec 1994.).
required parameters of burning it is required to addi- Mineral components of coals are conditionally
tionally burn more high-calorie fuel: natural gas or divided into two groups: macro- and micro compo-
fuel oil that causes additional costs. nents (correspondingly with their content in mineral
For stimulation of fuel quality increase for power matter more or less than 1%). Macro elements are
stations in Ukraine in 2002, the state standard for Si , Al , Fe , Ca , Mg , S , and sometimes N ,
hard fuel is approved (Technical conditions 2002), Ka , Ti . Mineral components are deposited as rock
according to which, the coal for dust burning on
layers, lens, burs, organomineral compounds. Min-
thermal power stations is divided into 4 categories
eral formations in coals can be presented also by
based upon conformity of basic indices of quality to
mineral fragments and rocks as mudstone, siltstone,
project requirements of active coal-dust boiler units.
sandstone and limestone.
Coefficients of energy value of a unit of lowest
Mineral matters, just like moisture, is a ballast
calorific value are introduced for each quality cate-
during transportation of coals. In addition, they
gory, correspondingly: 1.00; 0.75; 0.50; 0.30. These
represent the source of an ash formation, quantity
coefficients should consider costs for coal enrich-
and composition of which can significantly influ-
ment and additional expenses of thermal power
ence possibility of coals use in production.
stations for fuel burning with quality lower than the
High coal ash content worsens working condi-
project one and can be used for price formation
tions of energy units. Ash leads to decrease of coke
(Pilova 2004 & Sinyakovich 2004).
quality and, consequently, indices of blast furnaces:
In the first quality category there are coals quality
consumption of coke increases per ton of produced
of which provides stable conditions of dust burning
cast iron. So, with increase of coke ash content by
without addition of natural gas or fuel oil. Lowest
1%, coke’s consumption increases approximately by
calorific value of these coals must be not less than
2% and, correspondingly, productivity of a blast
20.097 MJ / kg.
furnace decreases.
In the second quality category there are coals that
Properties of ash and slag depend on mineral
have lowest calorific value equal to limits from
components containing in coal, ash-forming com-
17.585 to 20.097 MJ / kg. These coals are also good
ponents, and also rocks contaminating coal during
for dust burning but only with addition of natural
an extraction. Composition of ash considerably
gas or fuel oil. The third quality category contains
differs from mineral component of coals that under-
intermediate products with lowest calorific value
goes significant changes during oxidation and ther-
not less than 16.747 MJ / kg, the fourth category –
mal decomposition during burning.
slags with lowest calorific value not less than
12.560 MJ / kg. With that, general moisture of the Basic components of coal ash are oxides: SiO2 ,
coals of the first, second and third categories should Al2O3 , Fe2O3 , MgO , CaO , Ka2O , Na2O ,
be not more than 12-14%, intermediate products – TiO2 , SO3 . Besides, there are rare and dispersed
9% and slags – up to 18%.
elements in ash: nonferrous metals, noble and radio-
Analysis of these data and their comparison with
active metals.
ash content of raw coal ash shows that only a little
For many coal deposits there is a correlation be-
part of them can be attributed to the second category
tween ash content and ash composition. During
without enrichment and practically all extracted coal
burning process on large power stations, 60% of
does not correspond to the first quality category.
inorganic components transfer into ash and slags.
Thus, from point of view of fuel cost decrease
Mineral component is removed from coals at en-
during power generation, one should look up to use
richment plants. At this, around 40% of inorganic
of first category coals. Thus, all extracted coal for
components are directed to wastes as a rock.
energy purposes should be enriched.
Sulphur is enclosed in fossil coals and coal rocks
Problem of quality and effectiveness of black coal
as sulphides, sulphates, organic compounds and
and anthracite usage is defined by both natural con-
elementary sulphur.
ditions (mining-geological, seams thickness, their
Sulphide sulphur is enclosed in coals basically as
ash content, sulphur content) and used extraction
pyrite and marcasite. Sulphite sulphur basically
technologies.
Fossil coal presents solid system of organic mat- occurs as CaSO4 and Fe2 SO4 3 in a small amount
ters and inorganic components (minerals). There- (0.1-0.5%) and makes up 10-12% of general sul-
fore, composition and amount of mineral part are phur. Its content significantly increases due to
38
weathering and strong coal oxidation. Elementary vide energy independence and safety of the gov-
sulphur has 0.03-0.20% in coal of Donbas and is ernment in extreme conditions, either because of the
basically located in fine-dispersed form. imperfect mechanism of the prices adjustment.
Possibility of coals usage depends on ash content Character feature of the coal industry production
in coals. During energy usage of coal all types of is its single and multipurpose use. In connection
sulphur except of sulphite one transfer into SO 2 and with this, one should differentiate such categories of
is removed together with combustion gases and that coal quality as theoretical, consumer and integral.
causes wearing of the chimneys, boilers and equip- Theoretical quality of fossil coals are defined by
ment, and also leads to negative influence on the aggregate of their objective properties such as petro-
environment. graphic composition, chemical composition, heat
Extraction of black coal has a line of peculiarities value, physical-mechanical and technological char-
and they are determined by a row of factors: spatial acteristics.
change of mining operations, dependence of results Consumer quality evaluates properties of coal in-
of mining production on characteristics of a coal dustry one-sidedly, considering it only from a posi-
seam and mining-geological and mining-technical tion of concrete consumer, based on the level of
conditions, low accuracy of information about ob- technology and economics. Each enterprise-
ject of mining production. consumer is interested in usage of high quality coals
Listed factors influence the change of extracted as its own production costs reduce.
coal quality. Unlike consumer quality, integral quality is de-
Quality of gained coal is formed under aggregate fined on the basis of accounting of indices of pro-
influence of a big number of factors that are com- ductions that take part in creation of the end prod-
bined in groups: natural, economical and techno- uct. For example, mining, processing (enrichment),
logical factors. metallurgical, energy and others. The basis of the
Each of the factors except natural can be attrib- integral approach of assessment of the production
uted to manageable. Manageable factors are those quality should be aspiration to receiving the summa-
that can be influenced to change coal quality and its rized effect from the whole chain of adjacent pro-
stability relative to the desired level. Unmanageable ductions, providing thereby minimum of labour and
factors cannot be influenced by any manageable material costs for creation of the final product and
actions. They contain group of natural and eco- also rational use of the earth resources.
nomical factors. They are connected with the con- Optimal quality defines such aggregate of con-
sumers in given kind of coal production, with its sumer features of coal that provides the most profit-
amount on the market and also with prices fluctua- able indices of the end product taking into account
tions and other economical changes. expenses for extraction, enrichment and processing
Economical factors determine, in general, effec- of the end product.
tiveness of coal deposit development, rationality of Efficiency of coal usage is defined by not only its
acceptance of this or that technical, technological composition and properties of organic matters but
and organizational decision. But, in its turn, eco- also by amount and composition of accompanying
nomical indices of extraction and process of coals inorganic components that are considered as ballast
depend a lot on natural and technological factors and harmful admixtures. They are also a reason of
and on the market conditions. So, economical fac- environment pollution.
tors can be determinative and secondary during Coal after being extracted represents by itself a
management of quality of production. mechanical mixture of coal and rock pieces of dif-
Natural and economical conditions are dominat- ferent sizes and also pieces of intermediate frac-
ing for coal quality determination. In addition, level tions.
of mining operations technology significantly influ- Pollution of coal by fractions is conditioned by
ences economical results. Development of geotech- technology of its extraction and structure of a coal
nologies creates preconditions for decrease of natu- seam. Ash content of fractions is different – for coal
ral factors influence level on the coal quality (selec- it is equal to an internal ash content substantiated by
tive extraction, improvement of underground trans- mineralization of a coal matter. Otherwise, this ash
port schemes and so on). content is called mother ash content and ranges
Except of mentioned natural, technological and from 3 to 15%. Ash content of intermediate frac-
economical factors, there are organizational, social, tions makes up 25-45% and is determined by level
political and other factors that have an influence on of coal saturation with admixtures of host rocks and
the quality of coal industry. Quite often, a coal with products of their destruction. Ash content of a coal
lower quality is economically reasonably to extract rock ranges in quite wide limits: from 70 to 92%
under conditions of deficit for fuel in order to pro- and is conditioned by level of its saturation with
39
organic matters. by natural properties of fossil coals, mining-
Presence of mineral admixtures in coals substan- geological conditions and mining-technological
tiates not only increase of their ash content but also factors of extraction.
their density. Coal ash content, i.e. mass or weight 2. Black coals of Ukraine’s deposits are not worse
fraction of incombustible remains after burning of a than other world’s deposits by their quality defining
coal matter is conditioned by mineral admixtures in indices, except increased sulphur content.
coals. 3 One of the most important factors that define
Mineral admixtures have different origin. So, de- calorific value and technological suitability of black
pending on this, they are divided into internal (in- coals, is their ash content consisting of internal and
ternal ash) and external (external ash). The source of external ash. Internal ash is conditioned by natural
external ash is different salts, coverings of mineral factors that are considered as uncontrollable. Exter-
matters that took place during accumulation of plant nal – to mining-technological and economical that
residues in a process of coal creation. The sources are controllable and partially controllable.
of internal ash are interstratified rocks in a coal 4. Decrease of external ash content is possible by
seam and also roof and bottom rocks that is substan- means of proper extraction technologies and separa-
tiated by applied technologies of coal extraction. tion of ballast admixtures from coal at processing
Coal fractions are those that have density not less plants. Coal industry of Ukraine has processing
than 1500 kg / m3, intermediate fractions have den- plants with total power increasing modern level of
sity of 1500-1800 kg / m3 and natural fractions – production output.
more than 1800 kg / m3. 5. Enriched coal has higher consumer properties
Separation of rock fractions from coal ones is im- and even with existing economical conditions and
plemented according to their density difference formed prices, Ukrainian coals can be competitive.
(Reference book for coals enrichment). In practice But quality level should be economically substanti-
of coal enrichment, gravitational methods of separa- ated for each kind of coal production.
tion are applied for these purposes based on the 6. Rational quality is reached with full separation
difference of interaction of separated materials of polluting rock fractions with concentrates receiv-
pieces with liquid medium that have diverse density ing and ash content being equal to rock mass ash
and size. Dense-media separation is mostly used for content that corresponds to the world’s practice
big classes of coal that is carried out in magnetite (Pilov 2001, 2002 & Pilova 2002). But due to high
suspensions. For small classes – heavy-media hy- dilapidation of Ukrainian power stations, applica-
drocyclones, spiral separators. For sludges (particles tion of such fuel is not rational without their recon-
less than 0.5 mm) – flotation is used or hydraulic struction.
classification. 7. Prevailing factor of coal extraction economical
Peculiarity of black coal deposits in Ukraine is a indices increase is ash content of raw coals, rational
big stratification depth, low thickness of coal seams level of which has to be substantiated taking into
and their complex structure. These factors prede- account factors that determine prime cost of coal
termine respectively high prime cost and big ash production and demands of its consumers. Thus,
content of a rock mass. Depending on these condi- rating of raw coals ash content has to be based on
tions and also taking into account fuel deficit and new principles considering not only mining-
social-economical problems of mine regions, factual geological conditions of extraction but also their
ash content of a rock mass ranges in limits of grade composition, following technologies of en-
35-55%. So, based on the mentioned demands of the richment, demands of coal production market.
consumer to the quality of coal industry, virtually all
gained coal has to be enriched. As the concentrate
yield defines volume of finished products, so its REFERENCES
value considerably influences economical indices of
coal output. With other equal conditions, concen- Black coal and anthracite for coal-dust burning at thermal
trate output decreases with increase of ash content power stations. Technical conditions. 2002. Kiev:
Derzhstandart of Ukraine: 9.
of enriching coals.
Eryomin, I.V. & Bronoviec, T.M. 1994. Grade composi-
tion of coals and their rational usage: Reference book.
Moscow: Nedra: 254.
3 CONCLUSIONS Pilov, P.I., Sharov, A.I. & Pilova, Y.P. 2001. Technologi-
cal and economical model of a coal quality substantia-
So, based upon the executed analysis, the following tion for energy sector. Mining information-analytical
conclusions can be made: bulletin, 3: 161-165.
1. Quality of extracted black coals is conditioned Pilov, P.I. & Pilova, Y.P. 2002. Technological and eco-
40
nomical model of a coal quality substantiation for en- Blagov, I.S., Kotkin. A.M. & Zarubin, L.S. 2nd edition.
ergy sector. Yalta. 8th International seminar “Coal in Moscow: Nedra: 614.
metallurgy and energetics”: 40-52. Pilova, E.P. 2004. Analysis of factors that determine qual-
Pilova, Y.P. 2002. Improvement of production economical ity of black coals during extraction. Naukowy wisnyk,
indices of coal concentrates for energetics due to in- 8: 23-25.
crease of their quality. Donetsk. Collection of scientific Sinyakovich, B.G. & Chernyavskiy, N.V. 2004. Energy
works: 373-281. coal of Ukraine: price and quality ratio. Energetics and
Reference book for coals enrichment. Under edition of electrification, 12: 37-40.
41
Influence of advance rate of high-output longwalls

on methane abundance of mine workings
M. Illyashov
Concern “Energo”, Donetsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Research results focused on increase of reliability and authenticity of output prognosis in
highly productive long faces based upon laws of methane discharge into longwalls with outputs more than
3000 t / day are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION data. It is taken into consideration that while choos-

ing research object, in high-output longwalls, venti-
Experience of designing and mining of longwalls lation schemes with additional fresh air stream
that have working load of more than 3000 t / day mixed with outgoing air stream are used as a rule,
under conditions of seams thickness equal to 1.8 m and also effective methods of complex degasifica-
and stratification depth of more than 800 m, has tion of adjacent seams and worked out areas are
shown that the results of calculation of expected used as well. Methane debit in longwall is the basic
methane debit and its distribution along sources of factor that restricts extraction of coal.
emission based on the natural methane content, does Information about actual methane debits in work-
not correspond to actual data. It can be explained in ings is received based upon gas surveys performed
the way that calculation methods, mentioned in at extraction areas of mine “Krasnoarmeyskaya-
existing regulatory documents, to the great extent, Zapadnaya #1”. This mine is the biggest mine of
are based on empirical dependences received in Ukraine and it develops single gaseous seam d 4 .
longwalls that advance with rate of 6 m / day. Usage Daily average output of the longwall exceeds
of methane abundance prognosis method, based on 3000 tons, taking into account that several long-
such dependences, at high speed of advance can wall’s output reaches 5000-7000 t / day. The mine is
lead to significant errors. considered to be extremely dangerous according to
Provision of high output of a longwall is one of methane factor, dangerous by coal dust explosions,
the main trends of efficiency increase of mining coal, rock and gas outbursts. During mining opera-
operations. Achievement of high technical and tions and increase of the operational depth, absolute
economic indexes using combined mining method, gas abundance of mine is increasing from
including extraction panel development and retreat 193 m3 / min in 1999 up to 296 m3 / min in 2008.
system of mining of longwall with direct-flow Predicted gas abundance reaches 350 m3 / min in
ventilation scheme. the end of 2010. With coal’s methane content being
16-20 m3 / t of dry ash-free mass, methane emission
at extraction areas exceeds 45 m3 / min. Meanwhile,
2 CONDUCTION OF RESEARCHES consumption of gaseous mixture and methane
content ware checked in workings and degassing
A fresh air stream is directed into the longwall along
pipelines with interval of 30 minutes, using standard
two workings, meanwhile one of the workings is
methods and devices.
maintained behind the longwall and the other one is
Survey points were located in longwalls 10-
filled after its advancement. During development of
15 meters from ventilation working and in outgoing
the extraction panel it is best to drive one conveyor
air streams of extraction areas, daily average coal
drift, provide its protection and reuse it during
output was being registered during survey time.
mining of lower longwall to the dip. Such mining
Data of methane content and air consumption regis-
method satisfies modern requirements of mining
tered by automatic control devices were added to
operations safety.
the results analysis.
In recent years the author has executed experi-
General average debit of methane at the area
mental works dedicated to the comparison of actual
methane debits in longwalls with computational ( I area ) was determined as the sum of average
43
debits during observing time of methane debit in into account seam’s ash-content and moisture con-
outgoing ventilation stream of an area ( I area ) and tent. Initial data presented by geological service of
the mine were used for calculations.
in degassing gas pipeline ( I deg ). Methane debit that Analysis of the results has shown (Table 1, Figu-
discharges from worked-out area is calculated re 1) that actual debit of methane in a stope can
according to the next formula: significantly differ from the computational one. This
difference increases with rising of rate of coal
I w.a  I area  I st , m3 / min (1) production. With production of up to 500 t / day, the
debits virtually coincide. With increase of output up
Average methane debit was compared with debit- to 4000 t / day and more, actual debit makes up
calculated according to natural gas content taking about 30% from the calculation debit.
Table 1. Gas balance of extraction.

Methane debit, m3 / min Ratio of
calcula-
actual debit
Names of stopes output At the In a In worked- tion debit
and calcula-
area stope out area in a stope
tion debit
Southern of block #6 470 14.0 4.2 9.8 4.2 1.0
1 southern of block #5 1100 17.9 5.1 12.8 6.2 0.82
6 northern of block #6 1087 18.8 5.3 13.5 6.5 0.82
1northern of block # 8 2000 26.0 5.2 25.8 10.9 0.48
1 stope of block #8 2540 26.6 4.0 23.7 12.8 0.31
3 southern block #3 3500 33.9 4.0 29.9 13.6 0.29
45
40
35 lw.a = 0.135A 0.67

R2 = 0.93
30
Debit, m³ / min
25
20
15
10 lav = 4.7 m³ / min
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Methane debit in a stope Output, t / day
Methane debit in worked-out area
Figure 1. Dependence of methane debit in a stope on coal production rate.
44
16
14
12
Debit, m³ / min
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Factual methane debit Output, t / day
Calculation methane debit
Figure 2. Dependence of methane distribution in workings on coal production rate.
Increase of coal production rate is followed by That 1.15-2.1 times greater than actual number at
methane emission rise from adjacent seams and gas- output of 500 and 4000 t / day correspondingly.
bearing rocks as a power function, while absolute First value is within the limits of error prognosis.
methane debit in a stope virtually does not change, The second value is an evidence of an obvious error
remaining at level of 4.7 m3 / min (Figure 2).With that in either determination of initial gas content of coal
relative debit decreases from 13.5 down to 1.7 m3 / t. in its zone of extraction or in residual gas content
Residual methane content of coal that is trans- outside of the working area. An error in both pa-
ferred outside of the stope is calculated according to rameters is not excluded though.
the following formula: Decrease of initial gas content can be explained
by flowing of liberated methane from off-loaded
100  W  Аash  0 ,6 
Х0  18.3 V daf , (2) face area of the seam into worked-out area through
100   cracks in roof. The researches performed by the
scientists of various countries and approved by the
where W  3 % – moisture content of coal; experience of mining operations, have allowed to
Аash  15 % – ash content of coal; V daf  30 % – determine that roof movement essentially decreases
during increase of stope advance speed down to 4-5
volatile matter content
m/day, its further increase virtually does not influ-
100  3  15 ence the movements. Fast longwall advance leads to
Х0  18.3  30  0 ,6  2.2 m3 / t more intensive movement of roof but with that its
100
subsidence decreases, fracturing in rocks develops
Having natural methane content of coal equal slower, rocks deform less, due to that fact sustain-
to Х  17 m3 / t in boundaries of the working area, ability of exposed roof increases and conditions of
the following amount of methane should discharge its management improve.
from an extracted seam: Increasing of longwall advancement from 4-5 to
10-12 m / day virtually does not influence roof’s
q seam  1  k ex    Х  Х 0  , (3) subsidence.
In case of a high advance speed of the longwall
where k ex  0.05 – coefficient of exploitation losses (more than 200 m / month) the roof rocks do not
that take into account part of methane discharged break in face area. Increase in face advance rate
from coal in worked-out area substantiates decrease of fracturing, face slip in face
area of the seam and decrease of roof movements,
q seam  1  0.05   17  2.2   15.5 m3 / t increase of step of primary and secondary roof
45
cavings, but it can contribute to accumulation of but also decreases requirements for worked-out
potential energy of reversible deformation in host area’s gas drainage.
rocks. With all that, accumulated energy can mani-
fest itself during the rocks breakage with dynamic
effect. 3 CONCLUSIONS
Presence of such phenomenon is proved experi-
mentally. Radioactive gas (crypton-85) injected into a Increase of output in the stopes reduces staying time
seam on a distance of 35 meters ahead of the long- of the broken-down coal in the boundaries of stope
wall, was found in check boreholes within 10 meters and that is why residual methane content determina-
along the strike of the seam at the 5th meter above the tion method needs to be specified as well.
gas injection place. When the face advances by the Performed researches allow to conclude that an
distance of 18 meters from the injection place, radio- existing method of methane abundance prognosis is
active gas used to be found in air leaks through overstated and this does not allow to use it with the
worked-out area. Flow of methane through cracks in output more than 1000 t / day. Under such condi-
roof rocks above the longwall was found as well by tions it is reasonably to determine expected methane
means of boreholes drilling from this working that debit in designed longwalls based upon actual debit
cross only immediate roof that has thickness 6 meters. during stoping in comparable mining-geological and
Methane was discharged along the boreholes by mining-technical conditions.
means of natural pressure with debit of 0.27 l / min Because of this, it is logical to correct working
which increased up to 5.1 l / min after the shearer’s standards using which it is prescribed to determine
passing. actual methane debit in a longwall “on a distance of
Process of methane discharge needs to be care- 15-20 meters from a longwall”, because methane
fully explored. Decrease in methane discharge from flows to this area not only from a longwall but also
a mined seam depends not only on face advance from a part of a worked-out area. Debit of methane
rate, seam thickness and mechanical features of roof that flows into a longwall, is suggested to measure
rocks, but also on the effectiveness of roof’s gas in this working on a distance of 10-15 meters from a
drainage by boreholes. Exploration of this process is ventilation working. This will allow to increase
important because an error in methane distribution safety and reliability of methane abundance progno-
that discharges from mined seam between the stope sis, and to optimize complex of actions that prevents
and worked-out area does not only decrease admis- gas danger, that, in general, will promote increase of
sible coal production rates depending on gas factor effectiveness and safety of mining operations.
46
Strength calculations of block elements

of room-and-pillar mining under permafrost conditions
V. Buzilo, T. Savelieva & V. Saveliev

ABSTRACT: The paper covers the results of rheological properties of gypsum under natural conditions of
permafrost and stress-and-strain conditions of the rocks of room’s roof in gypsum quarries depending upon
the thickness of the roof. The recommendations concerning room and pillar parameters are given.
1 INTRODUCTION avoid the effect of mining process on the research

results.
The research of both strength and rheological char- Cores were selected from monolith. Cores were
acteristics of rocks under specific mining and geo- prepared manually. Tests were performed on spring-
logical conditions helps to determine optimum controlled stands. Samples were loaded using hy-
dimensions of rooms and pillars for long-time draulic jack. Jack pressure was measured with the
strength. help of manometer. Deformation was determined by
Rheological properties of rocks are one of the means of clock indicators.
most important factors that determine stress-and- Before creep tests the strength of gypsum as for
strain conditions of rock massif to develop under- uniaxial compression was determined. The informa-
ground workings. Mining pressure in underground tion is required for preliminary choice of loads on the
constructions, time effect on underground workings sample (Erzhanov 1964). Fracture load was 110 МPа.
roof stability, displacement of rock mass while 15 samples were taken for rheological tests. Three
mining, etc. are the results of changing of mechani- similar samples were under each load. Value of the
cal properties of rocks connected with their loads was 0.3; 0.4; 0.5; 0.7; 0.85; 0.95 of fracture
rheological properties. value. Rock creep tests lasted for 150 days. Time
Rocks of Olekminsk deposit (Yakutia, Russian diagrams of deformation under constant load that is
Federation) are situated in permafrost zone. creep curves were developed on the basis of the data
Rheological properties of the gypsum deposits have (Figure 1).
not been studied yet. The most important is the Creep curves have three specific areas: initial
research of rheological properties of frozen gypsum. curvilinear area belonging to non-stationary creep;
It is known that ice is very creepy. One can suggest rectilinear area called stationary creep, and terminal
that frozen gypsum has the same properties under area of curves belonging to progressive creep which
sufficient ice content. results in fracture.
Thus, the research of rheological properties of Rheological tests of frozen gypsum show that it
frozen gypsum is rather important to substantiate has noticeable creep under loads being more than
parameters of rooms and pillars. 0.4 of fracture one. If load was 0.3 of fracture the
deformation would stop after 20 days and creep
would not be available. The results give the ability
2 STUDYING OF THE RHEOLOGICAL to make the conclusion. Strength margin equal to
PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM three may be taken if durable strength of construc-
tion and complete elimination of gypsum creep are
As the effect of positive temperatures changes, required.
rheological properties of rocks testings were per- If loads are 0.5 to 0.85 of fracture one, then creep
formed under natural conditions of quarry. In order rate is not important and irreversible deformations
to do that, one of the quarry rooms was used as a of pillars grow slowly. If it is required to keep the
research laboratory. The temperature in the room construction stability during several decades then
was three degrees below zero Centigrade. The strength margin can be decreased up to two. In this
laboratory was located in such a way in order to case the pillars will deform themselves. Their height
47
will be decreased as a result of plastic deformation sults. The deformation value coincides rather accu-
but fracture will not take place. Pillars will keep rately if load is 0.3  destr and if loads are more than
their carrying capability. 0.85  destr . If loads are within 0.4  destr and
0.7  destr calculated deformation value is some
ct
fra
-5
35
c t higher. As it increases strength margin, one may say
10
t fra
frac
95
0. 0.85 0.7 that the calculation method reflects gypsum creep
30
adequately.
Relative deformation,
25 Obtained values of relative deformations were

fract
0.5 used to determine absolute deformation of pillars
20
with given height after 50 and 100 years. The results
fract
are in the Table 1.
15 0.4
0.3 fract
10 Table 1. Relative and absolute deformations of pillars
under durable loads in gypsum quarry.
5
Load in 50 Years 100 Years
parts of
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 fracture Relative Absolute Relative Abso-
Time, hours one deforma- deforma- deforma- lute
tion, tion, mm tion, defor-
Figure 1. Curves of Gypsum Creep Е·10-5 Е·10-5 mation,
Experimental Curves; mm
Design Curves. 0.3 80.5 6.4 99.4 8.0
0.5 244.7 19.6 328.3 26.4
To determine absolute deformation of pillars in a 0.7 517.8 41.4 697.5 56.0
long time the experimental data concerning gypsum
creep are shown as a functional relation.
For sedimentary rocks congenital linear creep
with sufficient degree of accuracy is described by an 3 EFFECT OF ROOF THICKNESS
equation where creep memory function is expressed ON STRESS IN IT
as exponential function which reflects initial stage
It is not difficult to determine dimensions of inter-
of the rock creep process completely (Erzhanov
chamber pillars while substantiating room parame-
1964):
ters. Results of numerous research show that simple
 t     0 1 
 calculation methods are expedient for gypsum
t1   
 
(1)
 1  deposits (Melnikov 1964 & Methods 1962).
It is much more difficult to determine maximum
where  (  0 ) is the sample of deformation under allowable room distance. The issues are highlighted
rapid load up to stress value;  and  are the completely in construction standards and regulations
equation parameters (rheological characteristics of where room roof is considered as a slab with equally
rock). distributed load. Gypsum quarries don’t have “false
To determine  and  parameters calculation roof”. Roof is rock layers with different strength and
method from (Guidelines 1972) was used. Initial elastic properties. There is some kind of tie between
data are: layers that is rocks transit into each other gradually.
Listed peculiarities should be taken into account to
• the value of initial deformation  (  0 ) for
calculate strength of room distance.
t 0; If roof rocks are weaker than gypsum then the
• deformation period; gypsum ceiling is left in the roof, if it is necessary to
• those corresponding to chosen deformation pe- test strength of the ceiling.
riods. Finite element method (Zienkiewicz & Taylor
Creep curves for the loads under which experi- 2000) is used to calculate ceiling stresses if room
mental curves were obtained according to calcula- distance in gypsum quarry is constant and roof
tions of relative axial deformations were developed. thickness is 1, 2 and 3 m. The calculations are
The results are shown in Figure1. required to determine effect of roof thickness on
Comparison of design data and results of natural stress in it.
research demonstrate good coincidence of the re- The results show that if roof thickness increases,
48
the stresses in it increase too. Finite element method was used to calculate
Calculation method of Privarnikov-Philippov stresses in the construction. The strength margin
(Philippov 1979) was used for similar conditions. equal to three is determined to correspond to 4m
Calculation results on two methods are in the Table 2. pillar width, 8 m room distance, and 1 m thickness
Stress values in the ceiling calculated according of gypsum ceiling.
to the two methods may be considered as equal
ones. The data are used to obtain the dependence of Table 3. Elastic characteristics of gypsum and rocks of
tension stresses in ceiling depending upon its thick- Olekminsk deposit.
ness variation (Figure 2). Rocks Elastic modulus, Poisson ratio
4
Table 2. Results of ceiling stress calculations. E 10 МPа
Gypsum 38 0.7
Method Tension stresses (МPа) in room roof Dolomite 50 0.8
is ceiling thickness is Argillite 11 0.30
1m 2m 3m Siltstone 20 0.13
FEM 5.91 8.90 9.10
Privarnikov- Finite element method helped to take into consid-
Philippov 6.17 7.05 8.23 eration the effect of rock stratification on stressed
state of pillars and room roof. Besides, the method
Following conclusions are possible. Usually, the allows determining stresses around rooms having
ceiling is considered as a support beam or a slab complicated forms (Figure 3).
loaded with equally distributed load. In this case
stresses decrease if thickness increases. Actually x , MPa 10 5 0 5 10 x , MPa
stratified medium with layers tied is available in
room roof. The analogy with support beam is not
Dolomite
expedient. Besides if roof thickness increases, the
4
height of room decreases, and it results in stress

Gypsum
increase in roof.
2
Dolomite
4
10
Siltstone
2
2 Argillith
2
Ceiling Stress,
8 y ,MPa
50
1
30
Gypsum
8
10
6
7
4 8 4
Dolomite
2
0 1 2 3
Ceiling Thickness, m Gypsum
2
Figure 2. Dependence of tension stresses in room roof on

ceiling thickness: 1 – on FEM; 2 – on Privarnikov-Philip- Figure 3. Design diagram and stress epures in roof and
pov method. pillar rooms.
4 SUBSTANTIATING DIMENSIONS 5 CONCLUSIONS

OF ROOM AND PILLARS
The research helps to come to the conclusions. The
The results were used to calculate strength of inter- research of rheological properties of frozen gypsum
chamber pillars and room distance of gypsum de- shows that under 0.35-0.85 loads of fracture one the
posit by the finite element method. rate of stable creep is not important. In 50 years the
Design values of compressive stresses within pil- absolute pillar deformation will be 41 mm if load is
lars and tension stresses within distance center were 0.7 of fracture one. Creep stops in 15-20 days if
compared with allowable stresses as for compres- loads are less than 0.35 of fracture one. In 100 years
sion and tension for rock. Elastic characteristics of absolute deformation of pillars will be 26 mm as a
rock taken for calculations are in the Table 3. result of stable creep under load equal to 0.5 of
49
fracture one. Strength margin can be equal to three Rocks. 1972. Leningrad.
if it is required to have durable strength of construc- Melnikov, Е.А. 1964. Methods of Determination of Tight
tion and to avoid gypsum creep completely. Thus Dimensions of Interchamber Pillars. Moscow: Institute
of Scientific Information.
recommended parameters of rooms are: width of
Methods to Determine Dimensions of Support Pillars and
pillars is 4m, room distance is 8m, and thickness of Ceilings. 1962. Moscow: Publishing House of AS of the
gypsum ceiling within the roof is 1m. Using the USSR.
parameters of rooms for Olekminsk deposit helped Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Taylor, R.L. 2000. Finite Element
to decrease gypsum losses by 30%. Method: Volume 1 – The Basis. London: Butterworth
Heinemann.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. & Taylor, R.L. 2000. Finite Element
REFERENCES Method: Volume 2 – Solid Mechanics. London: Butter-
worth Heinemann.
Erzhanov, Zh. S. 1964. The Theory of Creep of Rocks and Philippov, N.А. 1979. As for Calculations of Stress-and-
its Applications. Alma-Ata: Nauka. strain Conditions of Stratified Rock Massif. Physi-
Guidelines on Laboratory Tests of Plastic Properties of cotechnical Problems of Mining. Novosibirsk: Nauka.
50
Dependence of effectiveness of development

of mining operations on processibility
of coal seams deposits with thickness of 1.2 m
A. Kuz’menko & V. Pochepov

V. Ryabychev
Eastern-Ukrainian National University of V. Dal’, Anthracite, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Questions of effective application of high-efficient longwall equipment in difficult mining-

geological conditions of Donbass on seams with thickness up to 1.2 m depending on processability of devel-
opment of deposits in mine field are considered and criteria of estimation by means of coefficients of proc-
essability and use of means of coal extraction mechanization are proposed.
1 INTRODUCTION “the Red Partisan” where daily average output from

one face reaches 3-5 thousand tons, and daily ad-
Donetsk coal basin of Ukraine is characterized by vancing equal to 8-12 m.
difficult mining-geological conditions: low thick-
ness of coal seams, big mining depth, high gas
abundance, propensity of many seams to sudden 2 PROBLEMS
outbursts of coal and gas, weak country rocks.
Mining operations are conducted at 25 mines Majority of the Donbass underground mines
(11.5%) at depths of 1000-1300 meters. Mining equipped with mechanized complexes, operate in
conditions at the reached depths are rather complex. hard mining and geological conditions. It leads to
Combination of mining-geological negative factors big delays and loss of working time. Expenses for
demands improvement of exploration, development purchases of complexes turn out to be not reason-
and extraction technologies. able because of the incompatibility of mining-
Thickness of mined coal seams is 0.65-2.39 m, geological conditions to technical requirements of
seams with thickness of 1.0-1.5 m are prevailing. the given mechanisms. It is hard to achieve high
Increase of average thickness of mined seams is results as the coal reserves do not correspond to the
caused by increase in volumes of wall rocks cutting technology which is used by the mechanized com-
on seams with thickness less than 1.0 m, and, as a plexes.
consequence, by increase of ash content of extracted The task of stable and high efficient output is
coal. Coal refers to the class of humite and some- polyfactorial and cannot be solved by means of
times contains sapropelic-humus interlayers. taking separate actions focused on liquidation of
Mudstones are deposited in a roof, and sometimes consequences of conditions changing especially
siltstones, sandstones, rarely limestone are as well. change of face equipment in one extraction panel.
The bottom of coal seams is presented by mud- A question of coal seams suitability for extraction
stones and siltstones. Coefficient of working coal- by high efficient mechanized complexes is emerg-
presence of a productive strata, in average, makes ing and there is also a question of whether these
up 0.77. seams are ready to be extracted.
At the present time, achieved high face outputs
are related to mining of coal seams under favorable
mining-geological conditions on mines of Donbass 3 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCHES
and in other coal basins of the world. An average AND PUBLICATIONS
level of mechanisation of stopings makes up about
65.8%, reaching 100% at some mines. High face In the work, the authors divide reserves of an ex-
output is reached on mines “Krasnoarmejskaja- traction panel into categories and groups by stratifi-
Western”, “Krasnolimanskaya”, “of Zasyad’ko”, cation conditions of coal seams that judging by their
51
thickness can be applied in conditions of Donbass, (Baranov 2006). Depending on the readiness degree
but judging by the conditions of geological phe- of the deposits for mining, there are four groups
nomena and readiness of the reserves for the begin- which they are divided into: highly producible,
ning of the extraction, such assessment is quite producible, low producible and non-producible.
acceptable. Application of highly productive face mechanized
First of all, it is necessary to consider structural complexes for the last group of the deposits is not
changes in mother rocks that can be encountered in rational because it is unreal to gain high longwall
mining extracted area during stoping. Geologic output in this case. Presence of zonality in structure
phenomena are related to such structural changes that of the host rocks of the Donetsk basin indicates on
need correction of the technology or performance of the third group of the deposits where it is necessary
actions to bring the massif in accordance with techni- to carry out measures directed to provision of the
cal conditions of implementation of mechanization deposits produceability.
means. Questions concerning readiness of the re- Taking into account possible variants of zonality
serves for the stoping contain a whole complex of combination in structure of the host rocks, per-
mining operations. Among them: drivage of extrac- formed measures should provide acceptable mining
tion drifts, face entry and assembly chambers, instal- conditions for effective application of the face
lation of the equipment and transport. equipment during the whole process of the extrac-
These are the important components of a common tion panel mining.
system of a longwall functionality. But in order to
provide high face output it is necessary to consider
rock massif condition, its properties and process of 4 RESULTS OF THE RESEARCHES
formation of loads on a face support and support of
extraction openings. Also possibility of immediate Effective application of the stoping technology
roof to collapse during exposure, inclination of the intensification under mining-geological conditions
seams to geodynamical phenomena and coal to self- on the big stratification depths is constricted by
ignition. natural and anthropogenic formations of the host
For rational disposition of development openings rocks structures. Classification of the structural
it is desired to know the stress state of the tectonic massif changes zones is proposed for the performed
block and orientation of horizontal stresses. At measures focused on stabilization of the rocks in
parallel disposition of extraction openings with longwalls (Figure 1).
respect to horizontal component of stresses, the The basic formations of the natural character are
costs for opening’s maintenance decrease by 1.5- the low-amplitude geological phenomena, zones of
2.0 times (Baranov 2006 & Zabrodin 1981). intensive fracturing and dynamic rocks displace-
Given approach to planning of mining operations ments, lithologic differences and their thickness
development is acceptable at the initial mining of a changes, and also zones of deep faults with possible
part of a mine field under conditions of already water rupture into mine workings. The anthropo-
accepted project solutions, the awareness of the genic formations are the zones of lithological differ-
stress field location allows to choose density of ences layering, dynamic rocks displacements, un-
support installation and predict costs for the extrac- controlled rocks cavings and heaving of the rocks.
tion openings maintenance. Influence of these factors is displayed as a bottom
Analysis of structural composition of the host heaving and deformation of the openings, rocks
rocks massif and its change during the mining of the cavings into the working area of the face, difficul-
extraction panel is the basis when choosing set of ties in supporting the longwall’s abutment with the
face equipment based upon the criterion of the stopes, load increase on the support’s elements.
minimal resistance of a section of a mechanized Effectiveness of the technology of highly-
support. Given criterion is established according to mechanized stopes is determined by the machine
the weight coefficient of the roof taking into ac- time coefficient, maintenance of the stopes without
count areas with changes of structure of the host repairs and by the presence of local control of the
rocks and advance rate of the face. It is established host rocks massif condition with timely implemen-
that the face advance rate and structure of the host tation of planned preventive measures. Considering
rocks have a significant influence on the rocks an extraction panel as a solid object, there are four
dislocation mechanism and on the character of load zones that can be distinguished: substitution of
formation on the support elements. lithologic differences, liquidation of the water
ruptures in fractured massifs and deep faults, and
There is a known method of maximum longwall
also sudden loads on the support during hanging of
output in which stability of the roof in the zone of
thick and hard rock layers.
the shearer’s cutting depends on its width of cut
52
Zones of structural changes of host implementation in concrete zones of structural
rocks massif changes. Length of the zones and their possible
distribution area in massif, type of lithologic differ-
Natural formations Anthropogenic formations
ences and their thickness are determined during the
Low-amplitude phenomena
stage of designing of mining-geological chart of the
Layering of lithologic differences
extraction panel. Physical-mechanical properties of
Intensive fracturing
the host rocks are defined, stability of the immediate
Dynamic displacements of rocks
Substitution of lithologic
differences
roof and bottom, possible water inflows and gas
discharge into mine workings.
Thickness change of lithologic Uncontrolled rocks caving
differences Disposition of cracks in a massif and their orien-
Deep faults with ruptures of water Uncontrolled rocks heaving
tation according to the plane of a face are deter-
mined. During study of given factors it is necessary
Figure 1. Classification of the zones of structural changes to consider all stratigraphy of rock massif in order to
of host rocks massif. take into account mechanism of rock pressure for-
mation. Level of credibility of the received initial
Each of these zones has its peculiarities and re- information is sufficient for forecast of the possible
quires extra resources and equipment for its success- rock pressure manifestation as when using pillar
ful overcoming. Zones with various structure of the mining method the deposits are contoured by mine
host rocks massif differ by the character of rock workings. Qualitative and quantitative indices are
pressure manifestation. Given feature becomes defined in order to describe condition of the coal.
obvious during coal extraction by the highly mecha- Considering geomechanical task as the defining
nized face complexes which can move along the effectiveness of the mechanized face equipment
massif with quite high speed of the daily advance. application, it is necessary to provide produceability
In order to provide stable face output and effec- of the deposits by means of measures implementa-
tive coal extraction it is necessary to establish pro- tion in zones and their distribution along an extrac-
duceability of the deposits in extraction panel and tion panel taking into account the time for their
their correspondence to technical conditions of realization.
mechanization means. Such approach will allow to Design diagram for determination of deposits
preliminarily define list of measures focused on produceability in extraction panel is shown on
increase of effectiveness and rationality of their Figure 2.
Figure 2. Design diagram for determination of deposits produceability in extraction panel.
Each of the zones is characterized by area in delay in the face advance.

which it is necessary to carry out measures that are Quantity of additional measures depends on the
differ in technology and in duration time of the complexity of the geomechanical characteristics
influence on the massif. Taking constant longwall change and on the technical conditions of the
length as an evaluation parameter of the influence mechanized complexes application.
on technological processes, we can establish length For influence evaluation of the complicating fac-
of the zone along direction of the face advance. This tors on the application effectiveness of mechanized
is a quite acceptable admission as even small area at complexes it is suggested to introduce coefficient of
a separate section of the longwall leads to general deposits produceability (k prod ) which shows the
53
volume ratio of the deposits that are deposited under So the effectiveness of usage of the mechanized
mining-geological conditions out of limits of a complex resource is proposed to evaluate also with
complex technical conditions to general quantity of coefficient of service life usage during extraction of
coal reserves in extraction field. coal in the mine field (panel). With zonal structure
Taking into account consequence of passing of of the rock massif the coefficient of service life can
zones with different production readiness of depos- be expressed as a ratio of deposits mining time to
its, produceability coefficient can be presented as a general time of expenditure of service lives in
product of coefficients of various produceability separate components of the complex (shearer, face
conveyor, pump station and so on), it has the fol-
n
ktech   ki , (1) lowing formula
i n
 tt.d.
where k і – coefficient of technological complexity i
of i zone, in which it is necessary to implement the kt  m
, (3)
measures; n – number of zones in extraction panel  tm
j
in which it is necessary to implement the measures.
Coefficient of technological complexity of i zone where t t.d. – deposits mining time in an extraction
expresses ratio of general costs for implementation field of i zone of host rocks structure with n number
of measures directed to improvement of geome- of zones, hour; t m – time of service life of j’s com-
chanical characteristics of the host rocks to the level ponent of mechanized complex with general quan-
of produceability of the deposits, to general costs for tity m, hour.
the coal mining, which meet technical conditions of The expenditure of the service life of mechanized
the complex based on the length of the extraction complex is influenced not only by the length of
panel. extraction panel, but the length of a longwall as
Зi li well, i.e. some area index that defined productivity
ki  , (2) of a stope in unit time. Therefore, with zonal struc-
Зtech  ltech ture of host rocks these two indexes should be used
for objective assessment of effectiveness of high
where З i – costs per one meter of the longwall ad-
performance complex application. In the aggregate
vance for implementation of the measures directed to
they characterize rightness of making a technologi-
improvement of geomechanical characteristics of the
cal decision and selection of mechanization means
host rocks to the technological conditions of the
in extraction field. Technological measures of
complex, UAH; l i – length of the zone in which the
improvement of host rocks to the level of corre-
measures should be implemented, m; З tech – costs per
sponding technical conditions of the mechanization
one meter of longwall advance during coal extraction
means functioning are considered, also their conse-
under technological conditions, UAH; l tech – length of
quence and time of implementation.
the extraction panel with mining-geological condi-
On the basis of above stated information, coal de-
tions which meet the technological conditions of the
posits in an extraction field are proposed to be con-
complex, m.
sidered producible under condition when coefficient
Evaluation of the coefficient of deposits produce-
of produceability k prod. > 0.85 and coefficient of
ability of coal in an extraction panel is not enough
service life usage of mechanized complex k m > 0.90.
to provide effectiveness of high performance
Given admissions are accepted based on the data
mechanized complexes application. The coefficient
about probable error of initial information concern-
does not express the time for the mining of deposits
ing mining-geological conditions of mining process.
and the degree of the usage of resource by the
When defining the coefficient of service life us-
mining equipment and its correspondence to the
age of the mechanized complex it is necessary to
anthropogenic environment of mine workings.
consider various value of service life for coal shear-
Zonality of mining-geological conditions and
ers, conveyors and mechanized support. Probably to
physical-mechanical properties of a rock massif
equalize service life of the components, for exam-
necessitates the correction of technological proc-
ple, sections of mechanized support, it will be
esses and consumption of different volume of the
necessary to change a face conveyor several times
shearer’s resources, conveyors, pump station and so
or a coal shearer in which service life depletes much
on. Thus, time of the deposits extraction in different
earlier. Thus, expenses for packaging of the face
zones without implementation of measures directed
complex will be increasing to all reserves but it will
to improvement of deposits to technological condi-
have discount cost for the left reserves.
tions will differ from a rated time.
54
Therefore, to determine produceability of an ex- and amount of water income into mine workings,
traction panel reserves it is necessary to develop there can be applied both measures designed for
classification of technological principles of rock water drainage from a working zone and controlled
massif state management during its structure chang- parameters of stope disposition.
ing.
It is known, that technological parameters of stop-
ing significantly influence the stress-strain state of 5 CONCLUSIONS
the rocks, formation of load on the support elements
and manifestation of rock pressure in mine work- Effectiveness of mining operations development
ings. Length of longwall, its rate of advance in unit depends on the orientation of development workings
time define condition of stopes and also character of with respect to force field of stresses of the Earth at
rock cavings in worked-out area. This instrument of a concrete area of a mine field and on the produce-
regulation of rock massif condition can be effec- ability of reserves for stoping.
tively applied at substitution of lithologic differ- With zonal structure of host rocks, it is necessary
ences and their thicknesses change because the to introduce produceability coefficient of extraction
influence area embraces a considerable value of host panel and coefficient of service life usage of face
rocks. mechanized complex in order to objectively evalu-
Presence of zones of intensive fracturing and low- ate effectiveness of high performance complex
amplitude faults in an extraction panel is a constrict- application. In total they characterize rightness of
ing factor during intensive extraction of coal seam, technological decision acceptance and selection of
although their stress state can be regulated by tech- means of mechanization in an extraction field.
nological parameters under definite circumstances: Coal reserves in an extraction field are considered
shearer’s width of cut, density of support installa- to be producible when coefficient of produceability
tion and its yield. is k prod. > 0.85 and the coefficient of service life
Zone of rocks crashing which is squeezed be- usage of face mechanized complex is k t > 0.90. At
tween immovable tectonic blocks has sufficient this, technological measures designed for improve-
cohesion force in order to not fall with a small ment of host rocks to technical conditions of func-
exposure area of immediate roof rocks. At the same tioning of mechanization means, their consequence
time a long period of face presence in this zone and time of implementation are taken into account.
leads to redistribution of stresses around the stope
and can lead to rocks fall and blockage of working
area. It is essentially especially for abutment of REFERENCES
longwall with stopes where the increased concentra-
tion of stresses takes place. Quite different character Baranov, S.G., Rozenbaum, M.A. & Khapsirokov, V.B.
2006. Evaluation of readiness of extraction areas for
of rock pressure manifestation takes place with mining with high productive stopes. Nedelia gorniaka,
presence of humidity that leads to plastic state of 12: 142-145.
massif in the zone of intensive fracturing. With Zabrodin, V.Y. 1981. System analysis of disjunctives.
presence of collector connection with water-bearing Moscow: Nauka: 200.
levels in considered zone, water comes into mine
workings as drops or water jets. Depending on place
55
Safe electric power transmission for

explosive underground mines
A. Ivanov & I. Kirillov

ABSTRACT: New system of electric power transmission for explosive underground mines is considered.
The system includes equipotential current-carrying paths which advanced disabling in the case of emergency
state of the line is provided. Processes in the proposed power transmission system caused by open faults,
short circuits and current leakage occurrence are described. Obtained relationships show possibility and ways
of sparking-proof power transmission enhancement. Investigations made it possible to develop specialized
units for monitoring of processes faults occurence. Reserves of the transmitted power rise in the suggested
system were revealed and that was confirmed by testing. The obtained results indicate possibility to imple-
ment the system in powerful DC and AC networks for increase of their safety in explosive environment.
1 INTRODUCTION parallel circuits and their mutual coupling should be

taken into consideration. This coupling can be of
Earlier research and experiments in relation to greater importance because of greater length and
spark-proof properties of parallel paths of trolley smaller distance between the current carrying con-
locomotive current collecting devices showed pos- ductors.
sibility of safe breakage of the shunting power Taking into account that breaking of one of the
transmission lines feeding load of quite high power parallel branches does not stipulate changes in the
(Ivanov 1995). This idea had been taken as a basis paths, being at different potential, processes arising
of new devices providing sparking suppression at at the line break may be analyzed using an equiva-
current collection of trolley mine locomotives lent circuit for unipotential branches (Figure 1). The
(Ivanov 2000). The flame- and sparking-proof prop- capacitor voltages caused by some unbalance of the
erties of the device are provided by means of deter- line actual parameters are negligible. The line longi-
mination of the current in the parallel paths distribu- tudinal per unit capacity is rather small. Ignoring the
tion and disabling the power consumers when this indicated parameters the equivalent circuit becomes
distribution becomes uneven. The uneven distribu- as it is shown in Figure 2. Maximum energy liber-
tion serves as a criterion of the state preceding one ated in electric discharge that develops in the place
more path breakage. As a result of the investiga- of the branch breakage is assessed by maximum
tions, the general current distribution behavior was voltage across the capacitor C after the switch of
determined and the devices effectiveness was sub- S break. Providing that the load current I does not
stantiated.
vary at one of the branches break, i.e. I  const .
The above mentioned method provides use of
This is explained by the fact that breakage of a par-
electricity in enhanced explosive conditions may be
allel path in the considered circuit in the presence of
applied for development of new electric power
another operating path, the line resistance variation
transmission systems of increased power for such
is very small and does not affect the load current.
conditions including spark-proof systems of electric
A set of equations describing processes in the
power supply.
line:
i1  i2  I
2 ENERGY LIBERATED
AT CONDUCTOR BREAK d i1 d i2
Ri1  L M  Ri 2 
As compared to the devices providing sparking dt dt
, (1)
suppression at current collection of trolley mine d i2 d i1
L M  uc
locomotives, in this case, much greater length of the dt dt
57
where L and R – inductance and resistance of one The energy dissipating in the discharge can be
branch, M – mutual inductance of current carrying considerably less than the determined capacitance
line conductors. maximum energy, as far as zero, if the protection
comes into action previously the full break of one of
the conductors. This is explained by the fact that the
full break is preceded with redistribution of the cur-
rent between the parallel branches.
It follows from equation (5) that the more coeffi-
cient of mutual inductance of the line parallel con-
Figure 1. Equivalent circuit for unipotential parallel ductors the less is the released energy that dissipates
branches. in the discharge at breaking of one of the line con-
ductors.
Therefore, to reduce the released energy it is nec-
essary to use cables that have greater mutual-
inductance coupling of the conductors. The effect
can be promoted with shielding of the unipotential
parallel conductor groups.
3 CLOSING THE CONDUCTORS

Figure 2. Equivalent circuit for assessment of energy liber-
ated in the discharge. Analyzing processes at closing in the circuits of the
transmission line with parallel branches the cases of
With account of initial conditions closing the conductors of unipotential paths, closing
i1 0   i2 0   I / 2 , the system solution for i2 and
the conductors that have different potentials and the
line output terminals should be considered.
uc is With respect to danger of explosive sparking,

closing of the unipotential conductors is safe be-
i2  I exp  R  t
2 2L  M cos t  (2)
cause of very small voltage between the points to be
connected. This voltage can appear only due to in-
R
2 L  M sint significant unbalance of these conductors. But, fol-
lowing these conductors connection, the line break
uc  IR1  expt  in any point between the point of closing and the
, (3) load does not bring to variation of current distribu-
 cost  sint   1 / 2 RC  /   tion in the circuit part between the power source and
where this point and can not be detected from the initial
point of the line. On this reason, the line should be
R disabled when closing of unipotential conductors in
 ,
2L  M  any point occurs.
Such possibility will be provided if closing the
parallel conductors at any point causes their current
1 R2
  . distribution variation.
2C L  M  4L  M 
Ignoring the damping, we find that the maximum

voltage across the capacitor is
LM
U cmax  I . (4)
2C
At that the energy stored in the capacitor is equal

Figure 3. Circuit providing current redistribution under
to the maximum energy that can be released in the conductors connection.
electric discharge comes to
CU c2max LM 2 The transmission line circuit meeting the re-
A  I . (5) quirements is shown in Figure 3. Its particular fea-
2 4
58
ture is availability of identical resistors R1 and R2 , potentials. The sparking protection sensitivity must
being of small value, additionally introduced into guarantee its reliable operation when the leakage
the branches, the first at the beginning and the sec- current reaches unsafe value.
ond at the end of the line. In this case, connection of
R2
the parallel conductors in any intermediate point u2  ilk . (7)
along the section l causes the currents redistribu- 2 R  R1  Rl
tion that can be revealed by comparison the voltage
Protective cutting off for the case of short circuit at
drops in the resistors R .
load end can be provided by common methods. The
The described circuit has high sensitivity rela-
described method of electric power transmission
tively to approaching between unipotential conduc-
makes possible switching off a power source at the
tors but is ineffective at short circuits between the
very early stage of sparking developing and mainly
line conductors of opposite polarity and in the case
before the line conductor break. This permits to
of small but unsafe leakage currents in the line.
increase maximum permissible current of a line.
4 LEAKAGE AND SHORT

CIRCUIT DETECTION
The leakage currents and short circuits occurring in

the line can be detected if resistors R , which in
particular may be of equal magnitude, are inserted
in each line branch at its ends.
Figure 5. Leakage sensitivity assessment.
Sufficiently high sensitivity to leakage currents at

use of fast acting switching device permits to in-
crease the line voltage. Devices of sparking sup-
pression based on the described method provide
considerable increase of the spark-safe power
transmitted to a load through electric line.
Figure 4. Equivalent circuit for sensitivity assessment.
Preliminary test results confirm applicability of
the described method for safety improvement of
For assessment of sensitivity relative the short cir- powerful DC and AC lines employed in explosive
cuit, use the voltage increment u1 . Consider the dangerous conditions.
worst conditions when the short circuit is located at
the far end of the line (Figure 4). Assume that before
5 CONCLUSIONS
the short circuit the branch currents are equal, then
RR1 New method of power transmission safety im-
u1  I , (6) provement for explosive dangerous environment,
2 R  2 Rl  R1
based on advanced line disabling and measurement
current distribution in parallel current carrying paths
where Rl – resistance of a branch.
can find application in explosive underground mines
It follows from the equation (6) that the circuit sen- for feeding of automation, telemetry, communica-
sitivity depends on the load current. It should be taken tion means as well as for power lines supplying
into account when devices for sparking protection are electric consumers of technological equipment.
developed. The parameters must be selected so that Analysis of processes caused by a conductors
reliable power source would switch off at the short break in the transmission line with parallel current
circuit occurrence at minimum load current. carrying paths indicates to possibility of consider-
Assessment the circuit sensitivity for leakage cur- able increase of its spark-safe transmitted power.
rents in the same conditions (Figure 5). Use of the transmission line having parallel con-
It is seen from equation (7) that magnitude of the ducing paths provides better conditions for safety
signal is directly proportional to the leakage current improvement at occurrence short circuits and unsafe
between the line conductors having different electric leakage in the line.
59
REFERENCES Ivanov, A. 2000. Selection of current collection operation
mode and power circuit design. In Proceedings of 9th
Ivanov, A. 1995. Trolley locomotives with sparkless cur- International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equip-
rent collection. In Proceedings of the 3d International ment Selection. Rotterdam, Brookfield: Balkema.
Symposium on Mine Mechanization and Automa-
tion.Vol. 1. Golden, Colorado.
60
Analysis of hydrogeodynamics in a mining region

during exploitation till closure of coal mines
I. Sadovenko & D. Rudakov

O. Podvigina
Ukrainian State Geological Prospecting Institute, Dnipropetrovs’k, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the results of studies concerning changes of hydrogeodynamics in the re-
gion of Central Donbass (Ukraine). The active mines are expected to be closed within the next twenty years,
which requires predictive estimations for hydrogeodynamic trends in mined out strata. The studies were per-
formed by numerical modeling of regional ground water flow. The model allowed reproducing paleo-
hydrogeological conditions during pre-mining time, which is highly important to assess the impacts of the
exploitation period. The predictive parametrical estimations were analyzed for different scenarios of mine
closure. The proposed technical schemes include local draining and grouping of mine drainage; they aim
eventually at self-draining of the post-mining region.
1 INTRODUCTION namics in mined out rocks, comparative analysis of

engineering solutions and technical measures being
The Donetsk basin (Donbas) is the main coal region developed to regulate ground water head on mine
in Ukraine having more than 200 years history of lands.
mining, with the number of active mines exceeding The hydrographic network in Central Donbas
one thousand. The Central region as one of the consists of small rivers Kryvyi Torets, Balmutka,
Donbas key areas belongs to heavily built and Rosokhovata, Zalizna, Krynka and their inflows
highly developed mining industry agglomerations, Bulavin, Korsun’, and Sadki. The absolute levels of
with total population approaching to one million water in rivers varies from 85 to 252 m, absolute
people. Such industrial cities as Gorlivka, Ye- elevation of watersheds reaches 310 m. The river
nakievo, Dzerzhins’k and Vuglegors’k are located network density ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 km / km2.
here. Twenty eight coal mines have been operated in Meandering river beds have significant slope; their
Central Donbas till the year 2000; they exploited width narrows to 5-10 m during the lowest water
from 19 to 26 coal seams. level in summer. The average value of underground
Long-time mining has changed hydrogeological runoff for the coalmining area in Donbas is esti-
conditions in Central Donbas on the area larger than mated at 0.8 l / (km2 s). Ground and surface waters
410 square kilometers due to increase in rock per- are well connected hydraulically.
meability, total exhaustion of water resources and The aquifers in Central Donbas are located in
further complication of underground runoff into modern Quaternary, Permian, and Carbon sediments
streams. The situation was aggravated by restructur- (Hydrogeology and engineering geology of deep
ing of the coal industry, which disturbed the equilib- horizons in Donbas 1974, Hydrogeology of the
rium in the system “ground waters-bedrocks-day USSR 1971). The aquifer in modern sediments ex-
surface”. Closure of coal mines has led to ground tends along rivers as a narrow strip or localized on
water rise and flooding large areas, this initiated watersheds. The aquifer in Carbon sediments often
dangerous subsidence and firedamp emission. reaching the day surface is spread throughout. Per-
These phenomena were studied by systematiza- meable sandy and clayey soils in Carbon sediments
tion of monitoring data, estimation of hydrodynamic form the complex of confined aquifers. Its top part
impacts on bedrocks, evaluation of geotechnical lies as a rule in highly fractured rocks of 40-100 m
conditions in mining affected zones, mathematical thickness. Ground waters here are replenished by
modeling of ground and mine water flow, calibra- infiltration and discharge from the dense river and
tion of key parameters for modeling of hydrody- gully network in Donetsk Ridge.
61
One of the main factors influencing environ- fers (Bear et al. 1968, Hydrological Forecasting
mental conditions around the mines being closed is 1985, Zhernov & Pavlovets 1976). The number of
the ground water head distribution over area and in equations is determined by the aquifer number, head
depth. Ground water rise considered as flooding values and layer elevations.
complicates industrial and agricultural activities on Depending on hydrodynamic conditions three
mine lands and leads to undesirable hydrogeological types of boundaries are simulated. They are de-
transformations (Norvatov 1988, Zilberg 1983). The scribed by time-dependent head, discharge, and the
available standards define flooding as a complex relation between head and discharge:
process caused by man-made and natural impacts Seepage through low-permeable confining layers
and accompanied by changing of the water balance is simulated according to Miatiev-Girinski’s as-
up to critical values, which requires taking protec- sumption about neglecting horizontal flow in aqui-
tive engineering measures. tards and vertical flow in aquifers (Shestakov 1979).
The flow domain is divided by volume elements of
horizontal size x and y formed as a result of
2 METHOD OF MODELING crossing vertical orthogonal planes. The saturated
rock properties are averaged for each cell and relate
Prediction of complicated ground water conditions to its center. The computational scheme is based on
on mining affected areas was performed by mathe- the inflow-outflow balance between adjacent grid
matical modeling that is used now as the advanced blocks.
tool for development of engineering solutions The spatial derivatives of the flow equation are
(Bachmat et al. 1980, Gavich 1980). Its first stage replaced with the differences along Ox and Oy axes
consists in taking assumptions and acceptable hy- (Lomakin et al. 1988, Shestakov & Luckner 1976)
drogeological simplifications as well as determining
parameters and site characteristics, which allows   H  H i , j 1  H ij
formulating the proper flow scheme. The next stage F T   
x  x  ij 
1  x j 1 x j 
results in the calculation scheme and joining its
 
modules followed by identification of the model. Its yi  2Ti , j 1 2Tij 

sensitivity to variations of flow parameters and , (1)
boundary conditions is estimated by solving a series H i , j 1  H ij

of inverse problems, which enables calibrating and 1  x j 1 x j 
validating the model. The third stage of modeling is   
yi  2Ti , j 1 2Tij 
aimed at making hydrodynamic predictions, calcu-  
lating additional characteristics, improving the flow
scheme, numerical analyzing proposed engineering   H  H i 1, j  H ij
F T   
solutions to quantify their impacts. y  y  ij 1  yi 1 y 
The software MIF developed at the Laboratory  i 

x j  2Ti 1, j 2Tij 
for hydrogeological studies of the Ukrainian State 
, (2)
Geological Prospecting Institute (Dnipropetrovsk) H i 1, j  H ij
and adopted for mining hydrogeology conditions 
1  yi 1 y 
was used to create and identify the flow model of   i 
Central Donbas. The program is applicable to nu- x j  2Ti 1, j 2Tij 
 
merical solution of differential equations governing
2D and 3D flow and transport in heterogeneous where F = x j y i , F – horizontal area of a cell con-
layered rocks. The model accounts for ground and taining the node (i, j), H i1,j1 – average levels in
surface water interaction, seepage through confining neighbor cells; T i1,j1 – average transmissivities in
layers, precipitation, infiltration and artificial re- neighbor cells.
charge, evaporation depending on ground water Difference approximation of the term describing
depth, discharge on the day surface, mine water flow between adjacent aquifers is written as
drainage by stationary devices, time-dependent
k 0 ,ij x j yi
boundary conditions and flow parameters, transition
between free and confined flow mode, hydraulic Qaq ,ij 
m0 ,ij
H1,ij  H 2,ij  , (3)
connection among aquifers, nonlinearity of flow in
free aquifers, and rock anisotropy. where k 0,ij – conductivity, m 0,ij – confining layer
The unsteady flow in hydraulically connected thickness, H 1,ij and H 2,ij – heads in two aquifers.
permeable layers is governed by the known system The recharge w distributed over the block area is
of differential equations for free and confined aqui-
62
formally concentrated in the node (i, j) so that tion, aquitard permeability etc. (Livshits & Be-
 
Qr ,ij  w x j , yi x j yi . (4)
lokopytova 1987, Rudakov & Sadovenko 2006).
The vertical components of conductivity and
transmissivity between blocks of adjacent layers is
The boundary condition governing ground and calculated according to formulas for piecewise-
surface water contact is written as follows homogeneous medium

Qgsw,ij   ij H s ,ij  H ij ,  (5)
K z ,l 1 / 2 
zl  zl 1
, (9)
zl zl 1
where  j – leakage coefficient quantifying flow 
K z ,l K z ,l 1
resistance of boundaries between ground and sur- zl  zl 1 1
Tz ,l 1 / 2  , (10)
zl 1 0,5zl  zl 1 
face waters, and openings,
zl

Tij N ij K z ,l K z ,l 1
 ij  , (6)
Lij  Lij
where K z,l and K z,l+1 – conductivities of layers in-
where H s,ij – average water head in the stream, L ij – dexed with “l” and “l+1”.
distance between the block center to the stream, The model is identified by comparison with well
testing data that are sensitive to the interval of the
L ij – the parameter of bed penetration into the aq-
borehole used for measurements. The narrower this
uifer, N ij – stream length in the block.
interval becomes, the more exact head values can be
Mine drainage is governed by the relation
obtained. The averaged value of ground water head

Qmd ,ij  Tw,ij x j yi H w,ij  H ij ,  (7)
in the measuring working interval within the block
(i, j) on the layer “b” is estimated as (Bilokopytova
et al. 2003)
where H w,ij – water head hold owing to mine drain- n Tb ,ij  hb ,ij
age, T w,ij – additional transmissivity accounting for 
lnrab rw 
hydraulic connection in cells containing mine drain- hw  b  m , (11)
age. n Tb ,ij

The condition given along the pond contours of b  m lnrab rw 
small hydraulic resistance can be written as
(Livshits & Belokopytova 1987) where T b,ij – transmissivity, h b,ij – ground water
head, r w – well radius, r ab – radial distance from the
 
Q p ,ij  T p ,ij H ij  H p ,ij x j yi , (8) block center to the circumference where head is
assumed to be equal h b,ij , r ab equals to the radius of
sinking S = h b,ij – h w in the observation well.
where T p,ij – pond bottom transmissivity, H p,ij –
water level in the pond.
The time derivative in the flow equation is re-
3 MODEL CREATION
placed with the difference relation corresponding to
the implicit calculation scheme. The calculation scheme was compiled after analyz-
The number of layers in the flow model is deter- ing mining area conditions and interpreting the test
mined by practical reasons. The more complicated problem solutions aimed at evaluation of the opti-
is the hydrogeological structure, the more layers mal number of layers. The aquifer in fractured rocks
should be introduced to describe it. Greater inclina- was reproduced by two layers on watersheds and
tion of strata and tectonic breaks as well as the in- one layer on elevations lower than 170 m. Ground
creasing range of conductivity in depth requires water flow in deeper strata was simulated using four
more layers for calculations. After mining due to layers, which enabled proper reproducing vertical
rock crumbling may arise a larger aquifer hydrauli- and horizontal heterogeneity, mine water inflow to
cally united through underground workings. In such drains on different depth. Owing to the model re-
case the number of layers can be reduced, especially gional scale the flow in the locally spread Quater-
for closing thin coal seams. The inflow values are of nary aquifer was simulated together with the flow in
most importance for description of remote perme- Carbon sediments. Thicknesses of the first and sec-
able strata. Flow parameters in each layer are sche- ond layer reach 130 and 90 m respectively. The
matized with regard to horizontal and vertical het- relatively permeable third and fourth layers of
erogeneity; their average values depend on eleva- thickness 200 and 300 m contain watered tectonic
63
breaks; the fifth and sixth layers are located in the being wider than the block size is calculated as
deeper zone of slow water exchange.
k0
The flow area was contoured regarding to the DL  Fb ,
boundaries of hydrogeological basins and water- m0
sheds in order to maximally diminish the effects of
outside inflows on the total water balance. where k 0 – river mud conductivity (on the average
The following data were used for model creation: k 0 = 210–4 m / day), m 0 – river mud thickness (usu-
surface elevation, hydrogeological sections, vertical ally m 0 – 0.25 m), F b – water body area in the
profiles of conductivity along deeply penetrated block. The parameter DL for Volyntsevs’ke and
wells and shafts, absolute heads of ground water in Gorlivs’ke water accumulating ponds reaches
zones of high fracturing and mining, water levels in 200 m2 / day.
streams and ponds, mining work schedules, inflows Piecewise distribution of the infiltration rate is
to different mining horizons etc. The area covered formed by dividing the area into zones with regard
with the flow model of Central Donbas occupies to geomorphology and ground water depth. Before
1151 km2, grid step equals 0,5 km, the number of mining the natural recharge was ranging from 18 to
grid blocks amounts 27139 (Figure 1). 25 mm / year. The total infiltration rate during min-
The weighted average conductivities in blocks ing includes also leakage from accumulating ponds,
along the Ox and Oy axes differ due to varying ve- which was estimated by inverse modeling.
locity directions and rock anisotropy. The layer To describe mining horizons in the numerical
initial conductivities along the Ox axis estimated by model the schemes of their location on the area of
aquifer testing were corrected while inverse model- neighboring mines were compiled (see an example
ing (Figure 2). The calculated anisotropy relation on Figure 3).
k y /k x ranging from 0.05 to 2.0 accounts for differ- Inner boundaries such as surface of underground
ence in longitudinal and transversal conductivities workings were simulated with account for addi-
caused by rock heterogeneity and tectonic breaks. tional flow resistance on openings, and the differ-
River and ponds were simulated as third-type ence between the mining area and the block size.
flow boundaries, with using absolute water stage, The flow resistance parameter was estimated by
bottom elevations, and conductance of bottom inverse modeling with regard to ground water head
sediments. The parameter of interaction between elevation over mining horizons and inflow into
surface and ground waters below rivers and ponds workings.
Клебан-Бикське
Kleban-Viks’ke
водосховище
water storage pond Myronivs’ke
Миронівське water
водосховище
storage pond
Дзержинськ
Dzerzhins’k
Debal’tsevo
Дебальцеве
Горлівка
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Вуглегірськ
Vuglegors’k
Єнакіїве
Єнакіїве рр..О
Ол
Yenakievo ллььхх
r. Ol’khovata
оовваа
а ааттаа
к яя
ин
r. Krynka
р
р.К
Жданівка
Жданівка
Zhdanivka Кіровське
Кіровське
Авдіївка
Авдіївка Kirovs’ke
Avdiivka Ясинувата
Ясинувата
Yasynuvata
Figure 1. Calculation grid of the flow domain.
64
0.14 water head were systemized regarding to locations
0.12 of layers and intervals of their crossing by bore-
0.1
2 holes. If a borehole penetrates several layers, the
0.08 head averaged over these layers should be used to
K, m/d
0.06 compare the modeling results with observations.
0.04 1
0.02
0 4 MODELING RESULTS
0 200 400 600 800 1 000 1 200 1 400
z, m The model was identified through successive solv-
Figure 2. Change of weighted averaged conductivity K in ing of inverse problems. Firstly steady ground water
depth z: 1 – modeling, 2 – aquifer testing. flow was calculated for pre-mining time; then un-
steady flow was simulated from 1980 till 2004 with
The data for water intake schedule were input regard to changes in hydrogeological trends caused
from the State ground water inventory related to the by flooding of mines having started since 1996.
Donetsk region in years 1981, 1991, 1992, 2000. Special attention was paid to the factors affecting
The simulated area does not contain wells of essen- ground water head. The decisive influence on its
tial intake except single ones; the systematic data distribution under natural conditions was shown to
about pumping rates miss. The most of wells were make increased conductivity and infiltration. The
not equipped with measuring units so water dis- obtained conclusions about parameters and bound-
charge was evaluated by pump rates and their work- ary conditions changing ground water head were
ing time. Eventually, water intake was simulated as used for model calibration starting from the steady
the distributed negative parameter to be added to flow problem.
infiltration. The absolute values of intake within The layer conductivities along the Ox axis esti-
Central Donbas was ranging from 2.46 to mated by modeling were proven to be close to the
3.7 mm / year. values obtained by aquifer testing. Calculated
Geological structure of Central Donbass changed ground water head was ranging from 84 to 300 m
by mining has led to the complicated ground water before mining. Flow on watersheds was found to be
head distribution in depth that had to be taken into directed downwards; on the contrary, ground water
account at model identification. This required a in confined aquifers flows from valleys upwards.
special approach to compare simulated and ob- The differences in heads reach 10 m. Ground water
served heads and inflows correctly. depth in the zone of intensive fracturing does not
All wells penetrating several layers were distrib- exceed 5 m on the major part of the simulated area,
uted among grid blocks; the data about ground locally reaching 20-40 m (Figure 4).
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
730
18 610
490
370
250
164
19 75
Mining horizon Grid block

Figure 3. The mine works schedule on the mine named after Rumiantsev over the seam “Yulievs’ky” according to grid-
ding.
Before mining the ground water balance was Depending on the mine work schedule and avail-
formed mostly by infiltration (88.3% of inflow), ability of the monitoring data the following stages
discharge to surface water bodies (50.4% of out- of ground water flow during mining were simulated:
flow), and evaporation (39.8% of outflow). The (1) from 1980 till 1990, (2) from 1990 till 1993, and
computational analysis of all inflow and outflow (3) from 1993 till 1996.
components has confirmed their complete equiva- The calculated distribution of ground water head
lence in the ground water balance. at 1980 was given as the initial conditions for the
65
next period; the same flow parameters were used. compared with the available data about total mine
Deepening mines was simulated by changing abso- outflow. The difference between simulated and
lute elevation of mining horizons and varying resis- observed inflows did not exceed 1.05%. According
tance to water inflow to workings. The model re- to the calculated balance in 1990 (Figure 5) mine
produced changes of the day surface under mining inflow was provided mostly by infiltration, stored in
impacts. Calculations related to 1980-1990 were rocks and surface waters.
Dzerzhins’k
Debal’tsevo
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Vuglegors’k
Depth of
Глибина ground
залягання
рівня підземних
water headвод
< 3 m3 м
менше Yenakievo
Єнакіїве
33–5
-5м m
55–20
- 20 мm
> 20 m
більш 20 м
Жданівка Кіровське
Zhdanivka Kirovs’ke
Авдіївка
Avdiivka Yasynuvata
Ясинувата
Figure 4. Depth of ground water head before mining calculated by modeling.
Flow modeling under further deepening of mines Conductivity of affected rocks was given several
during 1990-1993 was verified by head elevations times higher than undisturbed rock conductivity.
measured in 1993. The conductance parameter
5
quantifying the boundary condition on workings
1.20%
was estimated within the range from 0.01 to 4
1.2 m2 / day. 23.20%
Figure 6 demonstrates modeling correctness on
1
the example of two layers. The water balance during
1993-1996 remained almost stable, only the storage 38.60%
share decreased slightly.
During simultaneous flooding and exploitation of
mines in 1996-2004 underground hydrodynamics 3
was formed by flows in artificial voids like work- 11%
ings and ruptured zones with increased fracturing
and natural voids like pores and fractures in undis-
turbed rocks. 2
Artificial voids are considered as a hydraulically 26%
united system that determines boundary conditions
for saturated rocks during flooding. For this time Figure 5. Calculated balance components of water inflow
underground workings and shafts were simulated as to mine in 1990: 1 – recharge, 2 – storage, 3 – shortening
connected voids governed by the parameter of of ground water runoff, 4 – surface water inflow, 5 –
shortening of infiltration.
gravitational storage capacity in mined out rocks.
66
(a) (b)
300
200
250 100
Ho, m
Ho, m
0
200
-100
150 -200
150 200 250 300 -200 -100 0 100 200
Hm, m Hm, m
Figure 6. Comparison of modeled (Hm) and observed (Ho) ground water heads: (a) second layer, (b) fourth layer.
Inverse modeling of mine flooding was per- tional inflows through connecting workings from
formed in two stages: (1) from 1994 till 2000, and flooded mines to those being exploited were also
(2) from 2000 till 2004. Calculations were com- taken into account (Sadovenko & Rudakov 2005).
pared with measured inflows to mines and mining Figure 7 demonstrates accepted agreement between
horizons as well as to water heads in observation observed and simulated heads in a mine during its
wells and flooded shafts in 2000 and 2003. Addi- flooding.
-6 2 0
-6 4 0
-6 6 0
-6 8 0
H, m
м
-7 0 0 Observation
об'єкт
Modeling
модель
-7 2 0
-7 4 0
-7 6 0
7.01 1.01 2.02 5.02 9.02 2.02 3.03 6.03 0.03 1.04 4.04
28.0 05.1 13.0 24.0 01.0 10.1 20.0 28.0 06.1 14.0 23.0
Дата
day
Figure 7. Rise of ground water head H in coaly rocks during flooding of the mine “Chervony Profintern”.
The verified model allows building predictive zontal and radial drains as well as deepening natural
hydrogeological map (Figure 8) showing ground river beds.
water head distribution after flooding of all mines in
accordance with the temporal schedule.
The identified predictive flow model of Central 5 CONCLUSIONS
Donbas enabled estimating the efficiency of mine
areas protection against flooding by grouping drain- The regional flow model of Central Donbas identi-
age on major mines, which was quantified by the fied on the scale of 1:50000 enabled adequate re-
relation of the drained area to the drainage rate. This producing of hydrogeological conditions for pre-
approach was proven to be effective for two mines mining time, analyzing regional trends in ground
only. It can be explained by long-time exploitation water head re-distribution on area and along key
having formed the man-made water balance with profiles during exploitation and flooding of mines.
dominating surface layer components. The devel- The changes of principal factors influencing
oped model allows optimizing different engineering ground water head in mined out rocks were esti-
solutions suited for these conditions including hori- mated. Particularly, rock conductivity increased 10-
67
100 times, gravitational storage grew 7-14 times, 56% of the total region area. This requires differen-
infiltration became 2.8-3.5 times more comparing to tiating mine closure in time and taking proper pre-
the pre-mining period. ventive measures.
The generalized parameter quantifying ground Zoning of mine areas by hydrogeological and
water inflow to workings takes into proper account geotechnical conditions and determining the mine
their additional flow resistance. Depending on the flow intensity enabled contouring the areas to be
mining stage and rock heterogeneity it is ranging protected effectively with drainage. Different
from 0.01 to 1.2 m2 / day. schemes to mitigate mine closure impacts were
Simultaneous flooding of all mines in Central developed. Deepening river beds coupled with hori-
Donbas from 2005 till 2030 was shown to result in zontal drainage in valleys and radial drainage on
significant ground water rise. The area of ground built-up territories will further to transformation of
water depth less than 5 m is expected to enlarge Central Donbas into the sustainable geotechnical
from 264.1 to 647.2 square kilometers and reach system.
Dzerzhins’k
Debal’tsevo
Горлівка
Горлівка
Gorlivka
Vuglegors’k
Умовні позначення
Єнакіїве
Єнакіїве
Yenakievo
глибина рівня підземних вод
(прогнозof
Depth наground
2030 р. при поступовому
water head
закритті шахт)
до
< 33 метрів
m від 5 до
5–20 m 20 метрів
3–5
від m5 метрів
3 до >більш
20 m20 метрів
Жданівка
Жданівка
Zhdanivka Кіровське
Кіровське
Kirovs’ke
Avdiivka
Авдіївка
Авдіївка Ясинувата
Ясинувата
Yasynuvata
Figure 8. Predicted ground water depth in Central Donbas after mine closure by 2030.
REFERENCES cation in hydrogeology. Moscow: Nedra.

Hydrogeology and engineering geology of deep horizons
Bachmat, Y., Bredehoeft, J., Andrews, B., Holtz, D. & in Donbas. Ed. by V.S. Popov and I.A. Skaballanovich.
Sebastian, S. 1980. Groundwater management: the use 1974. Kyiv: Naukova dumka.
of numerical models. Water resources monograph, se- Hydrogeology of the USSR. 1971. Vol. 6: Donbass. Ed. by
ries 5, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. D.I. Shchegolev. Moscow: Nedra.
Bear, J., Zaslavsky, D. & Irmay, S. 1968. Physical princi- Hydrological Forecasting. 1985. Ed. by. M.G. Anderson.
ples of water percolation and seepage. Paris: UNESCO. Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore:
Belokopytova, N.A., Synah, V.Y., Tokar, M.B. & Pod- John Wiley & Sons.
vigina, O.O. 2003. Features of modeling of hydro- Livshits, V.M. & Belokopytova, N.A. 1987. Methodical
geological conditions of Donbas. Kiev. Sci. Bulletin of recommendations to computer modeling of seepage in
UkrDGRI 2: 59-62. layered rocks. Dnipropetrovs’k: DO UkrGIMR.
Gavich, I.C. 1980. Theory and practice of modeling appli- Lomakin, Y.A., Mironenko, V.A. & Shestakov, V.N.
68
1988. Numerical modeling of seepage in rocks. Mos- Geotechnical Mechanics, 61: 93-100.
cow: Nedra. Shestakov, V.M. 1979. Ground water dynamics. Moscow:
Norvatov, Y.A. 1988. Study and forecasting of man-made MGU.
ground water behavior. Leningrad: Nedra. Shestakov, V.M. & Luckner, L. 1976. Modeling of seep-
Rudakov, D.V. & Sadovenko I.O. 2006. Forecasting of age in rocks. Moscow: Nedra.
hydrodynamic behavior while working out and flooding Zhernov, I.Y. & Pavlovets, I.N. 1976. Modeling of seep-
mines. Scientific Bulletin of Zhitomir Technical Univer- age processes. Kyiv: Vyshcha shkola.
sity 1 (36): 151–157. Zilberg, V.S. 1983. Recommendations to the method for
Sadovenko, I.O. & Rudakov D.V. 2005. Analysis of over- estimation and prediction of hydrogeological conditions
flows while flooding adjacent mines. Dnipropetrovs’k: on urban areas being flooded. Moscow: Stroiizdat.
69
Bifurcational model of rock bottom

heaving in mine workings
A. Shashenko, A. Solodyankin & S. Gapeev

ABSTRACT: The process of rock floor heaving in workings of coal mines in Ukraine is researched. Analy-
sis of “in-situ” measurements and numerical simulation is made. The behavior of a geomechanical system
“working-rock mass” is established. The fact is proven that the process of a sill is linked to the elactoplastic
stability loss of rock mass around working. The bifurcational model of rock pressure phenomenon is offered.
Distribution of equivalent stress around workings before and after the moment of bifurcation point appear-
ance is obtained
1 INTRODUCTION 2 “IN-SITU” RESEARCHES

OF CONFORMITIES TO THE
On the coal mines of Donbass rock floor heaving is LAW OF ROCK MASS DEFORMATION
one of the most widespread sign of mining pressure IN THE VICINITY OF A WORKING
in works. Expenses on liquidation of rock floor
heaving are very large. From data (Koshelev, Igna- Shashenko (1988) offered new approach to the
tovich & Poltavec 1991), an extent of the deformed study of rock floor heaving problem in workings.
working from the rock floor heaving is 45% from a His approach based on a hypothesis about the elas-
general extent. toplastic stability loss of rock mass in the vicinity of
For adequate description and prognosis of con- the single working. It is a summary of many results
duct of rock mass around of working on deep hori- of “in-situ” researches of working contour dis-
zons of mines, it is necessary to perfect theoretical placement. These researches allowed to select the
models taking into account more heavy terms. presence of four areas around of working. Every
A complex index while estimating state of work- area is characterized by different intensity of me-
ing are deformations of the rock contour. chanical processes flowing:
All rock pressure phenomena can be divided into I – area of elastic deformations;
two groups on magnitude of working contour de- II – area of plastic deformations;
formation and velocity of its increase. 1st group – III – area of rock floor heaving;
geomechanical phenomena which show in a work- IV – area of stabilizing (2) or unstabilizing (1) of
ing as displacement of a rocky contour with the rock floor heaving process.
maximum magnitude up to 20-30 cm and which are On a Figure 1 the lines of displacements and
implementation of plastic deformation. These phe- speeds of working contour displacements are re-
nomena can be adequately circumscribed on the ba- sulted for the mine “Belozerskaya” of “Dobro-
sis of strict analytical solutions engaging continuous pol'eugol”. In workings of this mine ground rock
medium models. 2nd group – phenomena with big- floor heaving is the characteristic display of rock
ger plastic deformations. Depending on physical and pressure.
mechanical rock properties, number of geomechani- The area of rock floor heaving (III) is distinctly
cal and technical factors, the large moving can be visible on the line of displacements speeds on Fig-
realized both by instant dynamic processes (mining ure 1b. It is characterized by the rapid flowing of
shots, sudden raising of soil) and during long period process and sharp increase of displacements after
of time (rock floor heaving) as a static processes. achievementt critical limit.
Mathematical descriptions of both one and another A fourth area completes the process of active de-
phenomena from positions of the generally accepted formation of rock mass near contour. Intensity of
elastoplastic or elasto-viscidly-plastic models of en- deformations falls sharply. They either stabilize
vironment difficultly and for their research of the spe- (line 2) or slowly proceed in time (line 1).
cial approaches and models are required.
71
(a) (b)
U,mm  U/  t,
600.0 mm/days
1
IV 60
500.0
2 50
400.0
III 40
III
300.0
30
200.0
20
II II
IV 1
100.0
10
I I 2
0.0 t,days
0 t,days
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 2 7 9 24 36 48 58
Figure 1. Displacements (а) and speeds of displacements (b) of contour with in meters of “Belozerskaya” of “Dobro-
pol'eugol” (1 – undamping process and 2 – damping process).
3 LABORATORY RESEARCHES dependences from Figure 2. We can highlight three

OF CONFORMITIES TO THE LAW levels of deformations there: level І – resilient de-
OF ROCK MASS DEFORMATION formation of model; level ІІ – formation of unresil-
AROUND WORKING ient deformations zone around working; level ІІІ – a
loss of elastoplastic stability of rock mass – ground
Researches were executed on the special flat stand rock floor heaving. The third level of deformations
for workings with the arched form of section, lo- is characterized by that the considerable moving of
cated in a homogeneous rock mass. floor in working u corresponds a small increment of
As equivalent material mixture of sand, technical the external loading dP / du .
vaseline, paraffin and graphite was used. Composi- Such mechanism of rock floor heaving comports
tions of mixtures correspondent to the properties of with the vectorial picture of markers displacements
rock mass in “Dobropol'eugol'”. on the model (Figure 3). Results discovered that
On the model of rock mass, containing working, during rock heaving basic deformations take place
weight was put with an interval in 1 kg. Rising de- in floor of working and affect deep layers.
formations of mass registered on every stage by Executed “in-situ” and laboratory researches, well
camera. By shots the high-quality picture of mass show us the picture of rock floor heaving develop-
behaviour was built. The process of model deforma- ment. It also shows that a general physical model is
tion was studied by the special markers which were the basis of this phenomenon.
inflicted on the side surface of the model.
u, мм
8 4 DETERMINATION OF AN ANALYTICAL
7
TASK ABOUT THE ELASTOPLASTIC
STABILITY LOSS OF ROCK MASS IN THE
6
VICINITY OF THE SINGLE WORKING
5
level III
4 Beginning of rock floor heaving of working is al-
3
ways related to formation of area ІІІ. Its characteris-
tic feature is very hasty growth of deformations dur-
2
ing short interval of time. It takes place after
1 level II achievement of critical values by deformations.
0
level I
dP/du From the power point of view there is next process.
0 2 4 6 8 While a working advances back from face, at the in-
Figure 2. Dependence of floor heaving on the intensity of significant change of the tense state, there is a rapid
an exterior loading. emitting potential energy. It is used for additional
destruction of structural connections in a rock mass
It was set that the mechanism of geomechanical and loosening. After it the mechanical system finds
processes corresponds the physical model of elasto- the balance state again.
plastic stability loss. It is evidently characterized by
72
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3. Vectors of angular points displacement on measured grid for homogeneous model at loadings: (a) 0.00 kN, (b)
2.61 kN, (c) 4.56 kN, (d) 7.04 kN.
This process is characterized by the significant r  1  d cos  , (1)

change of one parameter (moving on the contour of
working) during an insignificant increase of other where d – constant,  – polar corner.
(components of tensions on an external contour). In Thus, on a tense ground-state some protuberant
physics such transients are named as loss of balance state is laid on. It is caused by the change of internal
stability. In this case, the elastoplastic stability loss scope terms. This circumstance is showed on a
of balance in rock mass occurs. Figure 4. ( K – coefficient, taking into account in-
According to Shashenko (1988) the task of criterial fluence of face of working on external scope terms,
equations determination for the prognosis of rock K – a small increase of coefficient K , causing a
floor heaving is solved. For the solving of this taskthe change of internal border geometry).
a simplified approach was used which is showed in As a result of solving analytical task (Figure 4), a
Ishlinskiy (1954) and Leybenzon (1951). The feature criterion is got:
of this approach is that the parameter of flowing is
entered only in scope terms which take into account  v rL*2 ln 2 rL*  2  0 , (2)
the changes of border form during rock floor heaving.
Solving of elastoplastic task lies in basis of re- where  v – is an average value of relative increase
searches. In general case at the loss of equation sta- of volume within the limits of the area of plastic de-
bility of the distorted internal contour it is possible
formations (APD); rL* – is a relative critical radius
to write:
of plastic deformations area.
73
(a) (b)
kH ( K  K )H
L L
k H P0 rL ( K  K ) H P0 rL
*
Figure 4. The solution scheme for problem of elasto-plastic stability losses: (a) an initial state of system ( rL  rL ); (b) the
*
disturbing state of system ( rL  rL ).
The criterion (2) defines a possibility of rock tour,  = R р /R c – factor of brittleness of rocks;
mass transition from one equilibrium limit state to R p , Rc – standards of rocks tensile strengths on
another. This process is accompanied by rock floor
monaxonic tension and compression.
heaving.
The offered criterion allows already on the stage
This process is accompanied by ground rock ris-
of planning to estimate possibility of rock floor
ing. Its physical essence consists of the following.
heaving in working and plan measures on the de-
Subject to the condition of rock floor heaving will
cline of harmful influence of this phenomenon.
happen in making.
V rL*2 ln 2 rL*  2  0. (3)

3 NUMERICAL MODELING
It is possible to write down in expression (2): OF A DEFORMATION PROCESS
AROUND AN UNDERGROUND WORKING
rL*  1   v0.4 . (4)
At reaching critical sizes of this area the third level
In Shashenko, Solodyankin, 2007 on the basis of occurs. Thus there is a fast transition of system from
base decision (2), other criterion is offered. Here for the second energy level to the third one. The transi-
the estimation of possible of rock floor heaving dis- tion is accompanied by major displacement of work-
placements of contour are examined: ing contour. This process is termed as losses of
elasto-plastic stability, or rock floor heaving.

u*y  0.006 14.7  1  67.2 v exp  
  1  
  1 , (5)
The numerical modeling of a rock floor heaving
process is carried out with use of finite element
  NB   method (FEM) at the basis of the third models of the
rock failure.
where u*y  U / R0 – size of critical displacements The size of rock floor heaving is accepted on the
of soil of contour which the out of control process basis of the real dependences of u  f T  , the typi-
of rock floor heaving begins at; U – absolute value cal type of which is resulted on a Figure 5. On this
of displacements of contour of making, line three characteristic temporal intervals are se-
rL2  krem 21    Rc lected: T1 – period of realization of the elastoplastic
B , N     ,  –
1  rL2  H deformations, T2 – period of active development of
index of terms of development; k rem  Rrem / Rc – process of rock floor heaving of rock and T3 – pe-
remaining assurance factor; R0 – radius of work- riod of passive development of process of rock floor
heaving.
ing, Rrem – remaining strength of rock on a con- The temporal interval of T3 is broken on the ar-
74
eas of Ti , length of which is accepted the equal size
of T2 . The size of rock floor heaving ui and picture
of the stress-strain state corresponds to every inter-
val аround the working. Modeling of development
of process of rock floor heaving in time is executed
successive introduction of size of ui .
The additional displacement of ui forms the addi-
tional tense state. This tension is laid on basis and
added up on the basis in accordance with the idea of
Ishlinskogo-Leybenzona. Additional moving, simi-
larly put incrementally and their size increases from
a zero to the maximum with some increment.
The model allows to imitate development of
process in a time and considers floor heaving as dis-
crete quasistatic process.
Calculations started with the solution of a prob-
lem for a homogeneous rock mass. Nonhomogene-
ity of structure of a rock mass from task to task was
increasing. The generalized scheme is presented on
Figure 5.
It is shown, that sizes of APD in floor exceed
original one in 2-3 times at value of a floor heaving
being 0.3 m (Figure 6). Figure 5. The generalized solution scheme.
I (a) (b)
II (c) (d)
75
III (e) (f)
Figure 6. Configuration APD: (a), (c), (e) up to the floor heaving; (b), (d), (f) after the floor heaving, І – homogeneous
rock mass including a coal seam; ІІ – rock mass including a coal seam and seam of sandstone in roof (distance between
coal seam and sandstone is hsandstt = 10.0 m); ІІІ – rock mass including a coal seam and seam of sandstone is floor (dis-
tance between coal seam and sandstone is a sandst = 7.0 m).
REFERENCES Shashenko, A.N. 1988. Stability of the underground working

in a unhomogeneous a rock mass. – Diss. of doctor of
Ishlinskiy, A.Y. 1954. Consideration of questions about technical science. Dnipropetrovs’k: 507.
stability of equilibrium of resilient bodies from point of Shashenko, A.N., Tulub, S.B. & Sdvizhkova, Y.A. 2002.
mathematical theory of resiliency of. Kiev: Ukrainian Some tasks of statistical geomechanics. Kiev: Pul'sari:
mathematical magazine. Vol.6/2: 140-146. 304.
Koshelev, K.V., Ignatovich, N.V. & Poltavec V.I. 1991. Shashenko, A.N. & Solodyankin, A.V. 2007. Criteria of
Maintenance of interfaces of working. Kiev: Techni- estimation of stability of floor of the underground work-
cian: 176. ing. Dnipropetrovs’k. Scientific bulletin of the Natіonal
Leybenzon, L.S. 1951. About application of harmonic Mining University, 1: 44-49.
functions to the question about stability of spherical and
cylindrical shells of. Moscow. Scientific bulletin. Vol.1:
50-85.
76
Numerical modeling used for designing

of coal mine roadway support
T. Majcherczyk & Z. Niedbalski

AGH-University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, Krakow, Poland
ABSTRACT: Design of optimal support for underground headings in hard coal mines, particularly for the
conditions with intensified rock pressure is a serious challenge for engineers and coal companies. Not only
already existing technological practices are continually being improved but also numerous novel solutions
related to such problems are being implemented. The paper presents results of numerical analysis carried out
in order to design optimal support for headings driven at the depth of 1100 m and 1300 m.
1 INTRODUCTION hence allowing to assume proper support schemes

for actual conditions.
Underground heading drivage below the depth of
1000 m enhances serious complications and diffi-
culties related to the following phenomena: consid- 2 DEPTH-RELATED CHANGES
erable values of primary vertical stress, large de- AROUND THE HEADING
formation pressure, increased range of stress con-
centration zones around tectonic disturbance, raised Depth of working occurrence is one of essential
temperature of rocks, increased seismic hazard, or factors affecting stability of headings and, subse-
frequent influence of numerous exploitation edges. quently, selection of a particular support type to be
Complex mining and geological conditions, as well applied. In order to determine quantitative variations
as mining at considerable depths, force engineers to in the volume of damage zone, numerical analysis
apply specific technological solutions (Hoek 1995 was carried out using Hoek-Brown criterion (Hoek
& Majcherczyk 2008). 2002, 2007). At the same time, the actual layout and
Underground heading designers customarily re- properties of lithologic layers of workings designed at
sort to practical experience obtained in adjacent the depths of 1100 m and 1300 m were assumed. The
headings of a particular seam or working level. Also results of the analysis are presented as maps of
guidelines elaborated for a given mining basin or a maximum principal stress with marked plastic zones.
specific mine prove useful in such instances (Engi-
neer Manual 1980 & Rock Mechanics Technology
Ltd. 2004). Also it is possible to use test results of
underground research (Majcherczyk 2007, 2008).
The situation looks slightly different in the case of
designing opening-out headings, which provide
access to subsequent working levels, as then no
precise prospecting of mining and geological condi-
tions is available. Hence, rock properties can only
be estimated on the basis of bore holes located at
large distances from one another. In such conditions
it is possible to determine a proper support type only
by means of statistical (Sheorey 1997) or numerical
analysis (Jing & Hudson 2002).
This paper presents the results of numerical
analysis carried out in order to design optimal sup-
port for headings driven at the depth of 1100 m and
1300 m. The computations helped to determine
dislocation and damage zones around the headings, Figure 1. Support scheme for Cw-1 heading.
77
2.1. Cw-1 heading at the depth of 1100 m schist were deposited. Table 1 presents the assumed
strata parameters.
Rock mass in the vicinity of Cw-1 heading was
An analysis of principal stress  1 points to stress
significantly heterogeneous. The roof and immedi-
ate floor of the heading mainly consisted of argilla- concentration in walls (at the distance of several
ceous schist and sandy shale with different thick- meters) amounting to 42 MPa (Figure 2). Increased
nesses. The suggested support scheme for this head- stress at a certain distance from the heading’s con-
ing included a series of LP10/V29-type steel frames tour results from rock mass plasticity; hence it is
(yield Re  480 MPa) with the spacing of 1.0 m related to rock mass damage and relief. The trans-
mission of load by rock mass occurs only outside
and two 5-meter long string roof bolts in each field
plastic zone. Also in the floor, increased stress is
between the frames (cf. Figure 1).
recorded at the distance of approximately 4 m,
The numerical model assumed that the walls of
reaching the value of nearly 40 MPa. Such a distri-
the heading contained 0.6 m of argillaceous schist,
bution of stress may lead to considerable disloca-
1.9 m of coal and 1.3 m of sandy shale. In the im-
tions of walls and floor. The range of plastic zones
mediate roof there was also 7-meter thick argilla-
in the roof reaches approximately 3.2 m, and dam-
ceous schist with variable sand inclusions, above
age occurs mainly as a result of shear. In the walls,
which sandy shale deposit with the thickness of
damage zone reaches the range of 5.3 m, whereas in
14 m having a thin coal inclusion of 0.4 m was
the floor – approximately 4.3 m. Despite such an
located. Above this layer, sandstone was deposited.
extensive damage zone, only in the case of the floor
The floor consisted of a thin 1-meter layer of argil-
and, rather insignificantly, in the case of the walls,
laceous schist, below which there was a 5.9-meter
destruction occurs simultaneously as a result of
layer of sandy shale. Further on, 11.6 meters of
shear and tension.
sandstone and 6.5 meters of sandy argillaceous
Table 1. Parameters of rock layers for numerical model of Cw-1 heading.
Linear elastic Compression Empirical Empirical

Bulk density  Poisson’s
Rock layer modulus E strength R c Hoek-Brown Hoek-Brown
3
[kN / m ] ratio 
[MPa] [MPa] Parameter m Parameter s
coal 12.032 1800 0.30 6.104 0.821 0.0004
argillaceous schist/
sandy argillaceous 25.805 5000 0.26 44.458 1.094 0.0014
schist
sandy shale 26.178 7000 0.24 51.459 1.436 0.0018
sandstone 25.514 11500 0.22 56.789 2.908 0.0075
Figure 2. Volume of plastic zone around Cw-1 heading.
78
In the case of Cw-1 heading, coal-mine tests (in disproportion was the assumption of spring-elastic
situ) were carried out after the heading construction. model of rock mass for the computations. In the
The tests embraced, inter alia, measurement of case of fracture zone range, a lower value was ob-
fracture zone range and volume of roof-bolt loading tained from numerical analysis.
(Table 2).
2.2. Cross heading at the depth of 1300 m
Table 2. Comparison of in-situ test results with numerical
analysis results for Cw-1 testing gallery (seam 401). Numerical analysis assumed a strata layout, in
which the following layers are deposited above the
Analyzed/measured Coal-mine Numerical working floor: 3.5 meters of argillaceous schist and
volume tests (in situ) analysis 0.60 m of sandstone. Immediately in the heading’s
Range of fracture roof there appear 0.4-meter layer of sandstone,
zone f s , [m] 4.70 3.20
2.4-meter layer of coal and 7.2-meter layer of argil-
Maximum axial force laceous schist. Further strata include: 7.8 m of sand-
in a roof bolt N k , 105 280 stone, 6.5 m of sandy shale, 0.7 m of argillaceous
schist, 2.0 m of sandstone, 0.2 m of coal and 2.7 m
[kN]
of argillaceous schist. The heading’s floor consists
of argillaceous schist layer with the thickness of
The comparison of roof-bolt loading obtained 5.5 m, in which 1.0 m of coal is deposited. Below
from numerical analysis and coal-mine tests clearly there is argillaceous schist with a 0.8-meter thick
indicates that the value of roof-bolt loading in the coal layer. The values of physical and mechanical
former case (i.e. determined by means of numerical parameters assumed for the analysis are presented in
computations) is higher than the one measured in
Table 3.
situ. What was decisive for the occurrence of such a
Table 3. Properties of strata assumed for numerical analysis.

Hoek-
Young’s Compression Hoek-
Poisson’s Brown
Rock type modulus E GSI index strength Brown
ratio  constant
[MPa]  с [MPa] constant s
mb
coal 3500 40 0.30 10.54 1.374 0.0013
argillaceous schist
10000 50 0.26 60.73 1.677 0.0039
(sandy)
sandy shale 15000 60 0.24 94.00 2.157 0.0117
sandstone 17878 65 0.24 71.55 4.298 0.0205
In order to achieve working stability at the depth walls (Figure 4). The values of maximum principal
of 1.300 m, having in mind a predicted considerable stress reach 50÷55 MPa. It is located in the floor-
volume of plastic zone and serious dislocations, a side part of walls, as well as in the upper part of
slightly different scheme of support was assumed, walls, at the distance of approximately 1.5 m from
i.e. a LPZ 11/V32 (yield Re  480 MPa) – type of the heading’s contour.
full framing with the spacing of 0.5 m, alongside The calculated values of dislocations range be-
with two rows of rope bolts in the roof and one row tween 0.070.08 m in the floor and walls, and
of steel bolts in each wall. Additionally, bolting 0.05 m in the roof (Figure 5). Additionally, a predic-
with steel binding joists fixed alternately at every tion can be made that fixing the support simultane-
second frame was assumed (Figure 3). ously with mining the excavation will also result in
Numerical analysis indicates that a plastic zone massive loading of bolts, since the axial force will
appears in the excavation’s contour: up to 2.5 m in reach its maximum value almost at all length.
the roof, to 3.5 m in the floor, and up to 2.0 m in the
79
Figure 3. Scheme of cross heading’s full support.
Figure 4. Plastic zone around the cross heading.
80
Figure 5. Map of dislocations around the cross heading.
3 CONCLUSIONS and deformation properties should be reinforced by

means of support with bolts in the heading face. The
Following conclusions may be drawn on the basis of
application of full frames will allow to limit the
the analysis presented above:
volume of dislocation, especially in the floor,
1. Support of headings should be designed indi-
whereas bolting with binding joists will guarantee
vidually and specifically, assuming the existing
frame stability. Reinforcing roof strata with roof
mining and geological conditions, as well as the
bolts will help to diminish the range of fracture zone
intended use and estimated lifetime of a given work-
and, ipso facto, to reduce support loading.
ing. In this respect, particular attention should be
paid to designing headings located in complex
mining and geological conditions. REFERENCES
2. Implementation of novel schemes of support
should be based on a series of coal-mine tests, Engineer Manual 1110-1-2907. 1980. Engineering and
which should allow to verify earlier-accepted as- Design. ROCK REINFORCEMENT. Department of the
sumptions and to evaluate actual behavior of par- Army U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
ticular elements of support and surrounding rock Hoek, E., Carranza-Tores, C. & Corkum, B. 2002. Hoek-
mass. Brown failure criterion – 2002 edition. Proceedings
3. In the case of designing headings in completely North American Rock Mechanics Society. Meeting in
Toronto. http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references.
new (i.e. earlier-unrecognized) conditions, for in-
Hoek, E., Kaiser, P.K. & Bawden, W.F. 1995. Support of
stance, in new, deeper excavation levels, analytical underground excavations in hard rock. Balkema: Rot-
or numerical calculations prove to be the only way terdam: 215.
to select the most effective support scheme. None- Hoek, E. & Marinos, P. 2007. A brief history of the devel-
theless, during excavation, a routine evaluation of opment of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. Soil and
geomechanical properties of rocks and a regular Rocks, 2. http://www.rocscience.com/hoek/references.
control of interaction between strata and support Jing, L. & Hudson, J. A.2002. Numerical methods in rock
should be made. If necessary, some needful altera- mechanics. International Journal Of Rock Mechanics &
Mining Sciences, 39: 409-427.
tions in support scheme should be implemented.
Majcherczyk, T., Małkowski, P. & Niedbalski, Z. 2007.
4. Support of headings excavated at considerable Measurements of roof support load in headings: in situ
depths and adjacently to the rocks of low strength research. Technical, technological and economic as-
81
pects of thin-seams coal mining: International Mining Symptoms of rock pressure: in situ research. New chal-
Forum / eds. Eugeniusz J. Sobczyk & J. Kicki. London, lenges and visions for mining: 21st World Mining Con-
[etc.]: Taylor & Francis: 37-46. gress. Poland, Kraków-Katowice-Sosnowie. E.J. Sobczyk
Majcherczyk, T., Małkowski, P. & Niedbalski, Z. 2008. & J. Kicki. London [etc.]: CRC Press/Balkema: 167-176.
Rock mass movements around development workings in Rock Mechanics Technology Ltd. 2004. Coal mine road-
various density of standing-and-roof-bolting support. way support system handbook. Research Raport 229a,
Journal of Coal Science & Engineering (China), 3. HSE Book: 67.
Vol. 14: 356-360. Sheorey, P.R. 1997. Empirical Rock Failure Criteria. A.A.
Majcherczyk, T., Niedbalski, Z. & Małkowski, P. 2008. Balkema, Rotterdam/Brookfield: 176.
82
Calculation substantiation of the yield lock model

of the polygonal yieldable support with elongated props
by means of experiment
I. Kovalevska & V. Fomychyov

A. Vyvcharenko
OJSC “Pavlogradugol”, Pavlograd, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Computer modeling of geomechanical system “rock massif-polygonal yieldable support with
elongated props (“PYSEP”) is substantiated on full diagram of deformation of all its components with a
model of yield lock that allows to ensure stability of the computation process with formed wide base of
considered parameters of the system. Spatial geomechanical model of displacement around in-seam opening
of thin-seam massif of weak rocks is substantiated, taking into consideration finite-elements pattern of real
geometrical parameters of a frame support, step bearings, laggings and support area with appropriate condi-
tions of their contact and real mechanical characteristics. The model is performed with help of finite-
elements method based on modern computer programs and their applications.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 STAGES OF MODELLING
Accumulated experience of computer modeling of Nevertheless, task of adequate reflection of construc-

stress and strain state of a rock massif that contains tion of a frame support “PYSEP-15.0” in system
an opening and its support, indicates on the neces- “rock massif-support” was considered in the previous
sity of preliminary creation of geomechanical model researches. Real cross section of a frame made of
for consecutive solving of a line of tasks with com- special profile SCP-27 (special curved profile) with
pulsory testing of gained results to determine if they precise reflection of construction of the yield lock,
correspond to classical regulations of mechanics of step bearing and interframe shield made of metal
underground constructions and natural observations mesh, and also shape of the frame support have
in concrete mining-geological and mining-technical been modeled.
conditions. This analysis is needed not only for Special profile SCP is made of steel-5 (Geleskul
control of modeling process and elimination of 1982) with following mechanical characteristics:
possible technical errors in technology of calcula- rated yield point  y  270 MPa, modulus of elastic-
tions execution but also it is always needed to
constantly look for a compromise between computa- ity E f  21 10 4 MPa, Poisson’s ratio  f  0.3 .
tional ability of computers, performance of software These characteristics are accepted for calculation
and tendency for maximum degree of presentation when modeling the full diagram of deformation of
of real object. With regard to construction of the steel-5, that includes elastic stage (    y ), area of
support, this requirement for modeling of the system
almost ideal yield (    y ) and stage of metal
“rock massif-support” acquires increased currency.
The difficulties lie in the reflection of real design strengthening until it reaches the value of temporal
features of the support elements, linear dimensions tear resistance  t  560 MPa (  y     t ).
of which are many times smaller than the average
dimensions of the coal-containing strata compo- Reflection of the full diagram of steel-5 deforma-
nents, and that requires smaller finite-element mesh tion allows to consider occurrence and development
and considerably increases time needed for calcula- of plastic deformations in a frame that are often
tions even when using quite powerful computer observed in mine conditions. Such approach con-
equipment. tributed to increase of adequacy of modeling to a
real object. But construction and operating regimes
of the yield lock required conduction of special
83
researches in order to make a full diagram of deformation of the material it is made of.
(а) (а)
(b) (b)
Figure 1. Stress and strain state of the system “rock massif- Figure 2. Stress and strain state of the system “rock massif-
support” with full reflection of the yield lock’s design: support” with full reflection of the yield lock’s structure:
(а) distribution diagram of vertical stresses σ у ; (b) distribu- (а) distribution diagram of calculation stresses  ; (b) distri-
tion diagram of axial stresses  z . bution diagram of horizontal stresses  x .
At the first modeling stage of the yield lock, an of lock joint. Analysis of the given situation has
attempt was made to precisely reflect its structure discovered that because of “point” contact of end
with regard to the support “PYSEP-15.0”. Resulting sections of the props and roof beam with each other
from a quite labor-intensive and long process of in the lock and a small area of this contact, a possibil-
adaptation of the software with the features of real ity of deformation (dislocation) of the frame by a big
construction of the lock, initial and boundary condi- value emerges (along coordinates X, Y and Z) with
tions of its modeling, it was possible to perform a quite little increment load that malfunctions in the
calculation of stress and strain state of the system program and stops stress and strain state computation.
“rock massif-support”: distribution diagram of the The situation gets even more complicated while
vertical stresses  y (Figure 1a) and axial stresses  z modeling the yielding process of the lock when roof
beam slides relatively the prop because of existing
(Figure 1, b); distribution diagrams of the shown
geometry of the frame, the area of their contact on the
stresses  (Figure 2a) and horizontal stresses  x
sector of the lock changes arbitrarily with increase of
(Figure 2b). But the calculation of stress and strain free dislocation of the frame (static imbalance) in any
state of the system was successful only in elastic direction. Also perspective of development of given
condition until the support subsidence (until the yield geomechanical model is needed to be taken into
lock actuation) that is characterized by little disloca- consideration in order to reflect real scheme of the
tion of the opening’s contour. An attempt of model- bolts installation, possibility of plastic flow of ar-
ing of full diagrams of deformation of all elements of mouring metal of the bolts and frame, emergence of
the system “rock massif-support” has discovered areas of not only softening but also loosening in
instability of the calculations performance technology adjacent rock massif, taking into account rheological
using finite-elements method (FEM) because of, as it factors and rock fracturing. Thus, consideration of all
appears to us, static unbalance of a frame in the area
84
mentioned factors led to essential complication of calculations of stress and strain state of the system
geomechanical model that objectively increased “rock massif-support”. But simplification of the lock
instability of technologies of stress and strain state design is not supposed to deviate its deformation-load
calculations and real indefiniteness of time of over- characteristics when working in the yielding mode.
coming of the given difficulties of modeling. There- Given condition, as it seems to us, will allow to fully
fore, it seemed more rational to idealize construction adequately simulate the work of the yield lock.
of the yield lock that would allow to stably continue
(а) (а)
(b) (b)
Figure 3. Stress and strain state of the frame support with Figure 4. Stress and strain state of the frame support with
simulators of the yield locks: (а) distribution diagram of simulators of the yield locks: (а) distribution diagram of
calculation stresses  ; (b) distribution diagram of horizontal vertical stresses σ у ; (b) distribution diagram of full displace-
stresses  x . ments U .
3 PRELIMINARY RESULTS tensile stresses and little compression stresses  y ,

and the props are subjected to considerable compres-
Simulation of the idealized yield lock design was
performed in two stages. On the first one – a pad was sion stresses  y because they accumulate all vertical
placed in the area of the yield lock location, it is made load on themselves; horizontal stresses  x have a
of easily-deformable material that under influence of quite high value of compression in roof beam (accu-
compression forces in the frame ensured its yielding. mulates side pressure of rocks on itself) and sign-
With that, stability of process of stress and strain state changing stresses  x act along the contour of the
system calculation was gained with full diagram of
deformation of its elements, and to prove that, some props and this is provided by their bend deformations.
distribution diagrams of deformations and disloca- Shown stresses  (using which we perform further
tions in a frame support were shown on the Figures 3 strength calculation) indicate on the average level of
and 4. Analysis of distribution diagrams  y and  x load on the roof beam (from 20% till 60% from yield
point of steel-5) and high load on the props with
has shown their correspondence to classical regula- formation of limited plastic areas in zones of their
tions of mechanics of underground constructions: bearings and at the level of height of the zone of
roof beam of the frame is under influence of local people passage. Artificially increased scale (for
85
presentation) of full dislocations (Figure 4b) indicates 0.8 Pmax
on bending of the props at height of 0.8…1.5 m with  ly  sin  ,
2F
range of movements of frame into the workings’
space U  20...30 mm. These results do not contra- where F – cross-section area of SCP;  – angle of
dict visual observations of the support’s condition on position of the lock’s center relatively to the vertical
an experimental area of a conveyor footway at mine axis of the opening.
“Yubileynaya” OJSC “Pavlogradugol”. So, for standard type of the support PYSEP-15.0 and
Thus, simulating of a yield lock with deformational SCP-27 at the experimental area of conveyor passage
pads made of easily-deformable material does not Pmax  490 kN,   44 , F  34.37 10 4 m2. Then,
considerably deviate the pattern of load of a frame
support. accordingly to the formula we get the value of the
lock’s material’s yield point  ly  39.3 MPa, which
we choose for the calculation. Modulus of elasticity
4 NUMERICAL MODELS
and Poisson’s ratio we take as for steel-5
The second stage of the lock simulation is per- ( E l  E f  21 10 4 MPa,  l   f  0.3 ) and that
formed in order to achieve adequacy of the real elastic deformation characteristics would be constant
yield process in a numerical pattern. In this connec- along all frame’s contour.
tion deformation-load characteristics of the lock
presents dependence of reaction of its resistance P
from the value of yield U y (as a rule, in a vertical
direction along coordinate Y ).
A row of laboratory researches of the frame three-
link yieldable support, in particular on the stands of
Institute of Mining of A.A. Skochynskiy (Russian
Federation) shows (Figure 5a) the kind of work of the
lock made of special profile SCP that approaches a
mode of constant resistance (Melnikov 1980). Using
the same experiments it is established that having
correct assembly of the lock, frame support transfers
into mode of yield with resistance being
Py  0.7...0.8Pmax , that approaches maximum load
capacity of the frame Pmax . Described mode of quasi-
constant resistance of the yield lock can be quite ade-
quately expressed by a diagram of the ideal plasticity of
material (Figure 5b), that is located in the frame along
the coordinates of the locks installations. Parameters of
the material should express real deformation-load
characteristics of the lock for concrete typical cross-
section and a special profile SCP. Yield point  ly of
Figure 5. Substantiation of a yield lock model of a frame
the lock simulator should be such as if when having support made of SCP: (a) deformation-load characteristics
average normal stresses in cross-section area of SCP of the real construction of a lock; (b) full diagram of
(in the middle of the lock’s length) with load on the deformation of the lock simulator’s material.
frame equal to 80% from its load capacity, material of
the yield lock’s simulator would transfer into ideal Simulator of the yield lock is placed in a shape of
plasticity and ensure yield of the support. the cross-section of the appropriate special profile
SCP along coordinates of the support locks of real
length equal to 400 mm. This helps to simulate a
5 RESULTS solid frame (from left prop to right one) along the
support contour with two pads made of the lock
Calculation yield point of the material from which simulator’s material that differs from steel-5’s
the yield lock is made of is determined according to mechanical characteristics only by decreased yield
the following formula point. Such idealization of the yield lock has pro-
vided stability of the stress and strain state calcula-
86
tion procedure of the system “rock massif-support” Geomechanical model is opened for its improve-
on all deformation diagram of the materials of all its ment (based upon results of mine researches) par-
elements. ticularly for consideration of factors weakening the
Conducted test of geomechanical model of the rock and construction-technological features of the
system “rock massif-support” with simulator of building and maintenance of the openings.
yield lock of the PYSEP support did not reveal
principle contradictions compared to modern re-
searches of dislocation processes of coal-containing REFERENCES
strata near in-seam opening on the one hand and
mine observations – on the other hand, and this Gelescul, M.N., Karetnikov V.N. 1982. Reference book for
substantiates reasonability of application of de- capital and development workings support. Moscow:
Nedra.
signed model for prognostic assessment of the
Melnikov, N.I. 1980. Bolt support. Moscow: Nedra.
openings’ condition of block #3 of mine
“Yubileynaya” of OJSC “Pavlogradugol”.
87
Design of mine working network on the basis

of their functional-structural description
V. Okalelov
Donbass State Technical University, Alchevsk, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Mine working network is a complex multifunctional dynamic system, which is adequately
described by the complex of functional, functional-structural and structural-functional models. Functional
description of this system provides generating of project’s ideas using a theory of solving the invention
problems. Searching the options of material carriers of functions is provided by making and estimation of
functional-structural models of mine working networks. They reflect the interconnection between the work-
ings and technological functions performing by them. The original number of options of functional-structural
models is formed using morphological analysis, and separating the subset of preferable ones from it is car-
ried out on three private criteria using Paretto’s procedure.
1 INTRODUCTION modeling a procedure of forming the initial list of

options for MWN is complex and ambiguous. So far,
Mine working network (MWN) is a main structural the dominant factor is using the experience and
element of coal mine. Nearly 70% of its capital intuition of designers that does not guarantee inclu-
costs are expended onto its construction. In recent sion in the initial set of options. An attempt to solve
years the cost of mining has increased significantly this problem using combinatorial methods did not
and is 15-20 million UAH (1.8-2.5 million USD) produce the desired result, since on the one hand it
per 1 km of mining working (Gogol 2008). Hence, sharply aggravated the problem of the dimension of
even a slight decrease in the length of carrying out the original set, and on the other – the imperfection of
excavation leads to significant savings in financial individual criteria for its evaluation aimed at reducing
resources for the renewal of mining works. lead to formation of excessively large subset of
At the same time, practical data show that the to- preferred options (up to 80% of the their original
tal length of the ongoing and supported headings is number). In this case the procedure of phased optimi-
increasing. Thus, in “Dobropoleugol” company the zation was extremely hard. Nevertheless, the general
increase for the period from 1970 to 1990 is 43.7% approach to solving the problem by many researchers
and if no measures are taken, the extent of heading has been recognized as very promising. It was em-
in 2010 can be 780 km, and in 2015-825 km (To- phasized that if we can develop a fairly simple proce-
polov 2005). On the basis of these data they came to dure of its implementation, it will be a major contri-
conclusion about the necessity to justify the best bution to the development of a general theory of
optimal concentration parameters of mining works optimal design of complex systems.
before the project implementation that is not carried Impact of the degree of favourable conditions of
out at the present moment. coal layers and their individual parts onto the topol-
ogy of MWN didn’t find any adequate reflection in
the known methods of MWN. This factor influences
2 MODERN CONTENT OF THE THEORY greatly the order of their processing and, conse-
OF OPTIMAL MINE WORKING quently, the configuration of MWN.
NETWORK DESIGN The proper attention is not paid to explanation of
the list of technological functions the mine workings
One of the reasons for present situation is the imper- perform and their opportunities to be mixed that
fection of existing methods of designing optimal doesn’t allow finding the specific project ideas on
networks of mine workings. Their analysis showed maximum simplification for MWN and increasing
that the methods based on mathematical program- their reliability.
ming do not guarantee finding the global optimum. There are still actual questions during MWN de-
For methods based on technical-economic com- sign concerning the probability nature of the initial
parison of variants and the economic-mathematical
89
information and reasonability taking into account this purpose, the generalized functional model (FM
possible errors in initial data. Existing solution MWN) is used, which is a logical-graphical represen-
methods for these questions are extremely complex tation of the content and interlinks of technological
and labour-intensive to implement. As a result, functions performed by the mine workings network
practically the dominant models are deterministic (Okalelov 1992). It is presented in Figure 7 and
models for MWN design. includes the following functions: F 1 – to provide the
In connection with the presented above the devel- coal production; F 2 – to provide the access from the
opment of improved methods for the optimal net- surface to mineral extraction area; F 3 – to provide
work mining design is a highly relevant scientific transfer of mineral to the surface; F 21 , F 22 , F 23 – to
and technical problem. provide opening, preparing and formation of produc-
tion face; F 31 , F 32 , F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , F 36 , F 37 , F 38 , F 39 ,
F 310 – to provide people’s movement, placing the
3 RESULTS equipment, coal and material transporting, power
supply, rock transporting, ventilation of mines, water
The proposed design method of optimal networks of supply, water pumping, safety for the layers with
mine workings is based on functional-structural dangerous emissions; f 211 , f 212 , f 213 , f 214 – to provide
approach, which forms the basis of the functional- access from the surface to transport, ventilation and
cost designing of technical systems (Moiseyev 1988). drainage horizons, access to coal layers; f 221 , f 222 ,
At the initial stage of its implementation the in- f 311 , f 223 – to divide coal field into the areas, to group
formation supply for the design process is provided. the seams, to prepare the seams; f 231 , f 232 , f 233 – to
For mine workings networks it covers a prediction form taking-out fields, sites (columns), to set the
of engineering-geological conditions that affect the heading direction; f 311 , f 312 – to provide people’s
topology of the MWN and techno-economic pa- transporting and escape way; f 361 , f 362 – to move the
rameters of the mine workings operation. rock to OKD and to put it out to the surface; f 371 , f 372 ,
A particular importance in this case should be f 373 – to supply with fresh air, to refresh the outgoing
given to identifying heterogeneous environment air jet, to delete the outgoing air jet; f 374 – to provide
conditions of coal beddings and their individual sites. degasation of coal-rock massif; f 391 , f 392 – to move
These problems are solved using the methods de- water to main water storage and pump it out to the
scribed in the papers (Okalelov 1988, 2001 & 2008). surface.
In the second stage the generation of principal pro-
ject ideas for mine workings network is made. With
Levels
I F1
II F2 F3
III F21 F22 F23 F31 F32 F33 F34 F35 F36 F37 F38 F39 F310
f211 f214 f221 f223 f231 f232 f233 f311 f312 f361 f362 f371 f374 f391 f392
IV
f212 f213 f222 f372 f373
Figure 7. General functional model of mine working network.
Function F 1 – is the main, F 21 and F 22 are the combined with the implementation of related ones.
main, the rest are secondary of III and IV levels. After that, the possibility of excluding the remaining
An analysis of the MWN FM stipulates an excep- functions is revealed by finding the answer to the
tion of those functions from it which perform in a question: how will the superior function be per-
specific context and are not required, as well as formed, after the exclusion of inferior function,
90
which provides it? Technical contradiction occur- eral number of secondary functions for all levels of
ring then is overcome with the help of heuristic MWN FM; N нп – number of neutralized negative
methods of theory of inventive problem solving. affects; N оп – general number of negative affects;
Analysis of great number of inventions in the field
of mine workings topology showed that the most Fн – number of functions required for neutraliza-
frequently used methods of inversion (vice versa), tion of negative affects.
fragmentation, taking out, local quality, integration These criteria meet the standard requirements for
and versatility. solving of multiobjective problems: the dimen-
While generating ideas of the project then several sionless, independence, equivalence and presence of
kinds of design decisions may be obtained each of sense. Therefore, for the integrated assessment of FM
which corresponds to a functional model of its own. their average k и is used. For the initial MWN k и is
Choosing the best of them at this stage using equal to 0.400. Performed calculations showed good
techno-economic calculations is impossible because sensitivity to the degree of perfection of MWN FM,
of their complexity and lack of necessary informa- which realization a priori requires the least expenses.
tion. Therefore the individual evaluation criteria of After selecting the most advanced functional
perfect functional model have been developed, model searching for the variants of the effective
which characterize the degree of function concentra- implementation of all listed functions is performed.
tion k kf , presence of negative affects for environ- This problem is solved by designing and evaluating
ment after their implementation k оп and level of the functional-structural models of the network min-
n 1
neutralization of these affects k on : kkf  1  Fi , ing (MWN FSM), which represent different variants
п  1 i 1 Fi 1 of combining the functions with the structural ele-
kоп  1  Fоп / Fв  , kon  N nn / Fn  N оп  , where ments of the system. Their formation is made sepa-
rately for the opening, preparation and excavation
Fi и Fi 1 – number of functions at I and i+1 levels; systems through morphological analysis. General
n – number of FM’s levels; Fоп – number of view of MWN FSM is presented in Table. 1.
functions, resulting in negative affects; Fв – gen-
Table 1. General view of functional-structural model of MWN.

Functions
Main Fi Fi 1
System Secondary of
elements Fij Fij 1 Fnm Fi 1, j Fi 1, j 1 Fn 1,m 1
the 1-st level
Secondary of f ijg fij 1g 1 f nmt fi 1 jg fi 1 j 1g 1 f n 1,m 1,t 1
the 2-st level
1 + + +
2 +
… … … … … … … …
Nэ + + +
In Table 1 index + marks necessary functions, preparing and developing headings. Within each
performed by certain heading, and index + poten- group there are determined subgroups of main and
tially possible. additional, principal and secondary headings.
As the initial elements of MWN FM are the cer- Main and additional differ on the indicator of ac-
tain mining headings, performing the certain combi- cess providing to the mineral. Main headings are
nations of technological functions, then it leads to intended for transporting of mineral, and secondary –
essential development of mining heading classifica- for performing the rest technological functions. For
tion which is adapted to the morphological analysis each group and subgroup combinations the topologi-
procedure. These classifications are given in Table cal indicators are determined as well as variants of
2, 3, 4. combining the technological functions performance.
According to the conformity indicator of the Based on this classification the original list of
above subset there was determined the opening, mines and their characteristics are formed which
91
correspond to the specific geological and techno- cators, characterizing the spatial arrangement of
logical conditions of mining operations. For this openings, it is taken into account the optimal order
purpose, an area of rational using of mines and their of coal seams mining and their plots, bedding in
characteristics is determined. When choosing indi- dissimilar geological conditions.
Table 2. Classification of opening headings.
Classification of opening headings

Headings
Characteristics Features
Main and additional, principal and Type Vertical, inclined, horizontal
secondary
Place of heading Through coal, through the rock
Main and additional principal Combination variants of techno- F 33 , f 362 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 362 , f 373 , f 374 ,
logical functions performing F 35 , F 38 ; F 33 , f 362 ; F 33 ; F 33 ,
f 373 ; F 33 , f 371 , F 34 ; F 33 , F 35 , f 361 ,
f 311 , f 312 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 ,
f 374 ; F 33 , f 361 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 ,
f 361 ; f 371
Main and additional secondary The same f 311 , F 34 , f 371 , f 392 ; f 362 , f 311 , F 34 ,
f 371 , f 392 ; f 373 , f 312 ; F 34 , f 373 ,
f 392 ; f 361 , f 391 ; f 311 , F 34 , f 373 ;
f 311 , F 34 , f 371
Main and additional, principal and Bedding place along the line of Central
secondary stratum stretching
Main and additional secondary The same Flanking, unit-type
Main and additional, principal and Bedding place along the line of Central, concerned (to upper or
secondary stratum falling lower boundaries of mine field,
horizon boundaries)
Table 3. Classification of preparing headings.
Classification of preparing headings

Headings
Main and additional, principal and secondary Type Inclined, horizontal
Temporary The same Vertical, inclined, horizontal
Main and additional, principal and secon- Place of heading Through coal, through the rock
dary, temporary
Main and additional principal Combination variants of F 33 , f 361 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 , f 374 , F 35 , F 38 ;
technological functions F 33 , f 361 ; F 33 , f 373 ; F 33 , f 371 , F 34 ; F 33 , F 34 ,
performing F 35 , f 311 , f 312 , f 361 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 , f 373 , f 374 ;
F 33 , f 361 , F 34 , f 371 ; F 33 , f 361 ; f 371
Main and additional secondary The same f 361 , f 311 , F 34 , f 371 , f 391 ; f 373 , f 312 ; f 311 , F 34 ,
f 373 , f 391 ; f 361 , f 311 , F 34 , f 371 ; f 373 , f 391 ; f 311 ,
F 34 , f 373 ; f 311 , F 34 , f 371
Main principal and secondary Bedding place along the line Central
of stratum stretching
Additional principal and secondary The same Central, flanking, in the center of wing of
mine field, unit, panel
Temporary The same At the boundaries of taking-out fields,
central
Main principal and secondary Bedding place along the line Central, concerned (to upper or lower
of stratum falling boundaries of mine field, horizon bounda-
ries)
92
Table 4. Classification of development headings.
Classification of development headings

Headings
Main and additional, principal and secon- Type of heading Horizontal, inclined
dary
Additional principal The same Horizontal, inclined, vertical
Additional secondary, temporary The same Horizontal, inclined
Main and additional, principal and secon- Place of heading Through coal, through the rock
dary, temporary
Main and additional principal Combination variants of techno- F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 312 , f 371 ; F 33 , F 34 ,
logical functions performing F 35 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 ; F 33 , f 311 , F 34 , F 35 ,
f 371 ; F 33 , F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 361 , f 371 ; F 33 ,
F 34 , F 35 , f 311 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 , F 33 ; F 33 ,
f 312 , F 311 , F 34 , f 371 ; f 372
Main and additional secondary The same f 312 , f 372 , f 373 , f 374 ; f 311 , F 34 , F 35 , f 371 ;
f 312 ; F 34 , F 35 , f 371 ; f 312 , F 34 , F 35 , f 372 ,
f 373 ; f 312 , f 373 ; f 312 , F 34 , F 35 , f 361 , f 372 ,
f 373 , f 374 ; f 311 , F 34 , F 35 , f 372
Main principal. Temporary secondary Description on the number of Combined, individual
longwalls maintain
Main secondary. Temporary principal The same Individual
Main principal and secondary. Temporary Order of heading After longwall, before longwall,
principal, parallel to the main passed beforehand
Temporary principal, normal to the main. The same Passed beforehand
Temporary secondary
Main principal, secondary. Temporary, Cancel order Is cancelled after longwall developed,
parallel to the main is supported for repeated usage, is
cancelled following the longwall
Temporary principal and secondary The same Is cancelled after longwall developed
Main principal and secondary Placing relatively to the bedding Along stratum bedding, stratum
elements of stratum falling
After making a morphological list of openings ni – number of characteristics of elements т.

and their characteristics the conditions of their For pair-wise incompatible intersecting character-
incompatibility are formulated. Taking these condi- istics of related elements
tions into account, in the process of generating a set
of morphological variants leads to its significant
reduction. A preliminary assessment of the quantity
k
i p
mk
i t
d

N к  N o   niu   ni   ni  niu  niu  ni 1 ,
is
 
(N к ) of those variants is therefore necessary to
select the algorithm for generating preferred subsets where d – number of elements, which contains pair-
from them. wise intersecting incompatible characteristics; s –
For pairwise incompatible non-intersecting char- element’s order number, which contains intersecting
k mk pairwise incompatible characteristics.
acteristics N к  N o   niu   ni , where N o –
i p i t For all other conditions of incompatibleness the
upper limit N к is determined on the developed
m
initial number of variants N o   ni , niu – number algorithm, based upon graph’s theory in combina-
i 1 tion with matrix method and morphological analy-
of incompatible characteristics for i-th element sis. The developed algorithm allows determining the
(heading); k – number of р- elements, which contain number of technically performed variants of any
pairwise incompatible features; t – element’s order system that makes it universal.
number, not containing incompatible characteristics; Finding from the initial variety of variants the
93
subset of preferable is performed by using Paretto’s number of favourable and unfavorable sites within
procedure. For its realization there were developed the mine field thereafter; Ц ti and С ti , Ц tj and С tj –
three private functional-structural criteria: compati- price and totally mined cost price per excavation of
bility degree of functions k cF , their width k шF and 1 ton of coal at i-th favourable and j-th unfavourable
concentration of structural elements k N sites relatively, UAH.; Z пр.t – industrial reserves,
m m
developed in t-year after a mine put into operation
c c п п
 N i Fi  N i Fi or its reconstruction, tons; K t1 – capital expenses in
i 1 i 1
kcF  , k rf  , t 1 -year of construction or reconstruction, UAH; Е –
N com Fcom N com Fcom
accepted standard for benefit ability of capital
m expenditures; Т 0 – recoupment period of initial
 N i ni capital expenditures, years; Т 1 – period of mine’s
i 1
kN  , (1) construction, years.
N com ncom
Risk level estimation for realization of the opti-
where N ic – number of elements, performing і-th set mal variant is made by generating of quasirandom
values of total effect Э с from development of de-
of functions combination Fic ; m – number of vari- posit, which is calculated using the optimal criterion
ants of functions combination; N com – total number (1) due to excluding from the probable total income
of elements; Fcom – total number of functions per- the value of given initial capital costs.
Combination of factors and indicators which in-
forming; N iп – number of elements, performing і-th fluence Э с is generated using planning principles
for experiments and morphological analysis.
set of potential functions combination Fiп ; N i – In the complex of formed values Э с a theoretical
number of elements (headings), maintaining the і-th law of their distribution is set. After that for mini-
set of mine field parts ni ; ncom – general number of mum hurdle in terms of investor value of the total
mine field parts, maintained by all headings. income Эс min the probability of its unconfirmed α
These criteria are obtained using matrix approach is calculated, which is taken into account when
and accordingly characterize specific weight of calculating the potential damage from denial У 1 or
filled matrix cells N com  Fcom and N com  пcom . agree to invest the project У 2 : У1  1     Эс min ,
Criterion k cF characterizes the multifunctionality T1
level of of system elements, k rf – its adaptive ability У 2    K t 1  Е t1 , according to these results the
and k N – concentration level for mine works. t 0
Applying only 3 local estimative criteria allows final decision on reasonability of investment into
determining of about 10-12% morphological variants realization of optimal MWN project is accepted.
from the initial number into the number of more
preferable ones that makes it able to significantly
smooth the actuality of its dimension problem. 4 CONCLUSIONS
From formed subsets of preferable complexes of
opening, preparing and developing headings the Based on the obtained results we can conclude the
initial variety of variants of MWN FM is synthe- following:
sized, which includes all mentioned groups of – it is proved that mine workings network
headings. Synthesis and estimation method for these (MWN) is adequately described by complex of their
functional and functional-cost models;
variants is similar to considered above. As a result
– project’s ideas generation is more effective on
the subset of preferable synthesized variants of
the basis of analysis of organization level of func-
MWN topology is formed where it is chosen the tional models of MWN and their estimation using
optimal variant using the criterion (2). functional criteria;
n – the developed classification of mine headings
   Z пр.t 
То m
   P Bi Ц ti  Cti    P A j Ц tj  Ctj allows forming of morphological variants of their
t  0 i 1 j 1  networks and determining the subset of preferable
Т1 ones from them using developed functional-
  K t1 1  E t1 , (2) structural criteria;
t1  0 – determining from the subset of preferable vari-
ant is made by means of proposed optimal criterion,
where Р(В i ) and Р(А j ) – probability of developing based on the internal income standard and distribu-
the stocks on the i-th site with favourable and j-th tion of probabilities of an arbitrary number of joint
site with unfavorable bedding conditions; n and m – and mutually exclusive events that characterize the
94
different degree of homogeneity and complexity of Coal mining industry of Ukraine: Energy resources,
the conditions of coal seams bedding; perspectives, state, problems and development strategy.
– risk level estimation for realization of the opti- Donetsk: Ltd Co Alan: 408.
mal variant is made on the basis of analysis of Moiseyeva, N.K. & Korpunin, M.G. 1988. Principles of
theoretical distribution law for quasirandom values theory and practice of functional-cost analysis. Mos-
of total income from project performance and prob- cow: Higher school: 320.
Okalelov, V.N. & Frumkin, R.A. 1988. Methods for
ability of its non-confirmation volume from the
determining the comparative valuability and order of
investor’s point. exploration of coal sites. Ugol Ukrainy, 11: 27-29.
Okalelov, V.N. 2001. Prediction method of enlarged cost
parameters in market conditions. Ugol Ukainy: 44-46.
REFERRENCES Okalelov, V.N. 2008. Prediction method of technical-
economic parameters of longwall and mines operation
Gogol, L.I. & Gorelenko, V.Ye. 2008. Problems of price applicable to estimation of coal deposits. Alchevsk:
formation in coal mining industry. Ugol Ukrainy: 14-15. DonSTU. Issue, 26: 33-49.
Topolov, V.S., Gryduschiy, B.A. & Petrenko, S.M. 2005.
95
Conditions for safe underground gasification

of lignite in Poland
J. Kudelko & J. Nowak

KGHM CUPRUM LTD. – Research & Development Centre, Wroclaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper contains the analyze of possibilities and conditions for underground gasification of
lignite. Standing regulations with regard of lignite deposit utilization as well as requirements concerning
keeping the sustainable development policy while implementing this method are presented. Particular atten-
tion was paid to geotechnical problems encountered during lignite mining in Polish deposit conditions. Geo-
technical protection of safe lignite utilization by its gasification involves many issues such as presence of
underground water, predicted land subsidence and deformation, mining technology etc. Great importance is
attached to surface facilities and buildings safety and to protection of urban areas. The analyze showed that
underground gasification of lignite gives a great chance to utilize the big part of resources which are very
difficult to extract using other methods, due to the surface conditions. It offers also a diversification of en-
ergy source.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 GEOLOGY OF LIGNITE DEPOSIT AREAS

IN RESPECT OF PZWB IMPLEMENTATION
Methods of lignite utilization by its gasification
have been known for a long time and have been Geology of lignite deposit areas in Poland is very
successfully applied during last decades, especially complex. The lignite beds are usually horizontal or
the underground gasification. Most of output in this with little inclination but also a disturbed beds are
method development comes from numerous studies encountered. Thus the techniques of underground
and applications carried out in former Soviet Union gasification specific for horizontal beds will domi-
countries. Those achievements were implemented in nate. They are much more difficult in practice than
dynamic development of many countries. the ones applied in case of deposits having big
Currently the research studies on using the under- inclination.
ground gasification of lignite are carried out in The lignite may have a form of many beds or one
Poland funded by the science grants but also by very thick bed, for example 35 m ore more, but also it
KGHM Polska Miedź SA. The dominating opinion may be divided into several layers. Typical is high
in the company says that the word experience humidity of lignite beds, reaching 40-50%, what in
should be utilized in order to shorten the research turn causes problems with dewatering and dosing the
period before implementation of commercial instal- vapor necessary in gasification process. Moreover, in
lations. In light of previous technological achieve- the overburden multi-layer complex systems of dif-
ments such approach will substantially accelerate ferent soils such as: sands, clays, muds, aggregates
the possibility of practical application of under- i.e. mostly crushed formations, occur. Very often the
ground gasification of lignite (PZWB). over-lignite beds are aquifers, what is a great chal-
One of the barrier, in implementing this method, lenge while draining them and preparing the opera-
is a way of reporting the lignite resources and legal tion of underground gas generators. Complex struc-
procedure while applying for exploration and min- ture of the overburden requires such location of gas
ing concession. Standing regulations concerning the generators to have the impermeable soils within the
above issues is very favorable for the open pit min- zone of continuous deformations, therefore at the
ing methods. According to these regulations, under- proper distance over the high temperature sectors. It
ground gasification of lignite is regarded as lignite is aimed to protect the tight bed from the thermal
mining through unconventional method. impact and the structural changes. If it is impossible,
the additional engineering methods of sealing the
zones over the gas generators should be used.
97
Separate and very important issue is a protection always sufficient. Additional analyze of geological
of surface and underground water reservoirs. Since and water conditions of the deposit area where
the researches show attenuation of contamination 30 gasification is planned becomes necessary. In such
meters from its source, it is deemed that minimal cases model studies using advanced software, bas-
distance from the reservoir should be 40 m. Utiliza- ing on finite elements method, are the most justi-
tion of such 10 m long safety zone is, however, not fied.
Table 1. Hydrogeological conditions.

Utility aquifers and main under- Beds occurring below utility aquifers (minimal distance 40 m),
ground water reservoirs absence of main underground water reservoirs in close vicinity of
prospective extraction field (minimal distance – 2 km)
Porosity of surrounding rocks Rocks above and below the deposit sholud have smaller gas perme-
ability than the lignite bed, Thickness of rock with low permeability
surrounding the lignite bed should be 1-2 m for 2 m thick lignite bed
or 2-4 m for 3-10 m lignite bed
Water inflow Maximum volume of water necessary gas production is 0.5 ton per
1 ton of gasified lignite, water surplus should be pumped out
Filtration properties of rocks Lignite bed porosity vs. surrounding rock porosity should not be
smaller than 18:20
One of the crucial issue while using PZWB subsidence is integral process accompanying this
method is protection against excessive subsidence, type of extraction. In case of PZW the subsidence is
especially of non-continuous nature. In many coun- bigger because the over lying soils are the subject of
tries using PZW installations, the surface subsidence additional deformations resulting from thermo-
problem is of smaller importance due to location of consolidation processes i.e. changes of humidity,
the site where the extraction is carried out or be- swelling and shrinking, cracking and uncontrolled
cause of specific outcrop structure. It may be a water flows.
depopulated land or located on mining area, where
extraction using other methods takes place or the 3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
overburden is formed of soft rocks. However, in AND PZWB METHOD
Poland the population is high, the surface infrastruc-
ture is complex: roads, numerous buildings, rail- Objective with regard of sustainable development is
ways, power supply lines etc. In such situation the an effort to maintain the balanced relations between
land subsidence is not acceptable. technical progress, environmental protection and
The overburden occurring over the lignite deposit economic development. PZW method is relatively
is formed of loose soil beds. These are sands of cheap, however, in case of adverse deposit parame-
different granulation, often water saturated, clays, ters costs of its application increase. Also protecting
silts, muds and others. Layers of such soil are often the environment from its negative impact may be
interrupted, have numerous lens and admixtures and expensive. In this instance the location of deposit is
structural discontinuities. Under such conditions, of vital importance, Table 2.
Table 2. Site conditions for PZW installation.
Area required for PZW minimal area for pilot installation is 50-100 ha (0.5-1 km2), for commercial
installation installation over 100 ha, changing location
Safety conditions Minimal distance from: residential areas (1-3 km), rivers and lakes
(1-3 km), protection areas (5 km), operating mines/mining areas
(5 km), closed mines/workings (3 km), power lines and railroads (1-3 km)
Legal conditions Preparing the opinion on environmental impact, identifying land property,
getting concession for deposit exploration, geological study concerning
probable mineral reserves, public consultation, delimitation of mining area
and getting concession for deposit extraction, buying the land
98
When planning the location of area for under- cation is of great importance. In some cases not only
ground gasification, the critical elements of infra- drainage will be necessary but also silting-up the
structure and environment, present over the deposit, extremely permeable aquifers. It may be necessary
must be taken into consideration. Among these to maintain the water inflow on the level enabling
elements are: land development (buildings, telecom the proper gasification process. Otherwise the syn-
and power lines, gas mains, roads, railroads), level gas parameters will be on inadequate level.
of land use, distance from old mine workings and Under Polish conditions extremely important is
operating conventional mines, environmental condi- backfilling the voids formed as a result of gasifica-
tions (soils, forests, protection areas, lakes, rivers). tion. The geological structure and processes occur-
All those factors may be decisive with regard of ring inside the overburden layers show that these
possibility of using the method in agreement with voids will be formed generally in the lignite bed and
environment and community development. inside the overburden. It is a result of roof collapse
Currently high capacity installations for under- due to the stability loss. The overburden falling into
ground gasification are widely used. However, they the voids and solid products of gasification are
are not suitable for very big deposits, which, when porous. Blow gases flow well through the empty
mined using open pit method, give 20-30 million spaces despite the rubble formation, and at the same
tons per year during many years. Conventional time the loosen overburden and empty rooms shift
method does not need also great volumes of back- upwards. In such case the backfilling may be held
filling material preventing the subsidence. While the even in the over lignite zone. It requires the proper
PZW method does not guarantee the development of identification of room location in order to fill it with
whole big deposit but only a part of it, due to the backfilling material as fully as possible. Both hy-
demand for huge amount of backfilling material. draulic and pneumatic methods may be used there.
In such case constructing many smaller installa- When the beds are thicker and there are several gas
tions spread over the big area seems to be reason- generators (lignite beds) caving results in adding the
able. It is important to diversify the energy sources post-reaction voids what in turn allow for better
and to limit the power loses on big transmission filling them. Thus the backfilling effectiveness is
lines. better.
Underground gasification systems give the wide Further subsidence protection may be achieved by
range of products with different application such as using the proper organization of mining operations.
energetic gas, heat, power energy, liquid fuels (oil Gasification may be carried out along the line
and gas) and numerous valuable but less commonly courses, leaving the temporary, safety pillars be-
used products. For first Polish implementations the tween them. After gasification of lignite along two
most reasonable is production of energetic gas, lines and backfilling them, the gasification of pillar
power energy and heat energy manufactured in the between two lines can be started. Such organization
co-generation systems. of mining effectively prevents the subsidence and at
the same time allows for efficient utilization of
deposit as well as reduction of loses.
4 GEOTECHNICAL PROTECTION IN PZWB Using adequate and properly selected geotechnical
METHOD IMPLEMENTATION solutions is a condition for correct operation of the
installation and protection against adverse impact on
Like in every mine, the geotechnical issues are the environment.
extremely important in case of underground lignite
gasification. They decide about the possibility of 5 CONDITIONS FOR IMPLEMENTING
using this method. Geotechnical processes occurring THE METHOD IN POLAND
during the lignite mining from Polish deposits con-
cern many elements of their development. Geotech- The basis during implementation of PZW method
nical protection aimed to assure the safe utilization and constructing the installation for underground
of lignite reserves using this method refers to un- gasification are the project assumptions which
derground water, predicted land subsidence and describe the function, power and period of enter-
deformations, mining system and environmental prise in details and thereby specify the minimal
protection. level of lignite reserves. When it is planned to ex-
When PZW method is used, the effective drain- tend the project it is necessary to provide the possi-
age of the part of lignite deposit destined for gasifi- bility of mining further mining fields.
99
Table 3. Specification of qualification criteria for lignite beds destined for underground gasification.
Qualification criterion Characteristics
Type of lignite xylite, xylite-earthy, earthy, bituminous
Physical & chemical properties of lignite Preferred lignite with ash content below 20%, and low
critical for gasification process sulphur content
Thickness of lignite bed More than 2 m, optimal – 4 m and more
Depth of lignite bed Recommended more than 150 m
Inclination of lignite bed preferowane pokłady poziome lub o niewielkim kącie
nachylenia
Rock mass and surrounding rocks tectonics Preferred absence of cracks and big tectonic distur-
bances (faults)
Lithology of overburden rocks Preferred grounds of small permeability (clays, silts,
muds)
Water conditions Preferred beds laying below utility aquifers (minimal
assumed distance – 40 m), absence of main under-
ground water reservoirs in the vicinity of planned instal-
lations
Reserves volume – research installation; minima reserves of 75,000 –
450,000 tons of lignite,
– commercial installation; min. 3.5 million ton sof
lignite.
Preliminary safety conditions Preferred absence of surface facilities, rivers, lakes,
protected areas
Planned installations for underground gasification Poland has quite big reserves of lignite. Thus all
must meet the requirements of: available and technically processed methods of its
– Geological and mining law; extraction should be used. It is also possible to use
– Power energy law; the PZW method as supplementary with relation to
– Environmental protection law; open pit mining on the same deposit or its part.
– Building law; Anyway the correctly elaborated technical design is
– Land development plan. necessary.
Consistency with above legal document impose The method of lignite deposit evaluation if it
many, difficult to meet, conditions, which imple- qualifies for gasification, presented here, is only a
mentation may continue over even several years. preliminary one. Different engineering measures are
The possibility of using underground lignite gasi- possible to improve the gasification conditions
fication in Poland meets with big public expecta- resulting from geological and hydrogeological
tions. It mostly results from the belief that this conditions. However, additional engineering meth-
method can totally replace open pit mining, widely ods may be expensive thus the final decision about
used now. Disadvantage of the latter, in public applying the gasification depends on the cost-
opinion, is the degradation of environment. Most effectiveness of the project. The latter will change in
often it is caused by shortage of knowledge, among the course of time depending on costs, prices, tech-
local community, about proper procedure of carry- nical progress etc. Each project requires complex
ing out mining activity and about its effects. There economic evaluation in order to identify possible to
is also lack of common knowledge concerning the obtain profits offered by this method.
legal requirements with regard of planning and In case of PZW installation the biggest impact on
monitoring such projects. Before launching any costs have drillings made to build the exploitation
project the vide information campaign should be (air blow and syngas extraction) and drainage wells.
carried out among local population about safety Therefore the most productive is gasification of
issues concerning social and environmental aspects lignite beds having great thickness.
of the investment. Therefore economic, technical, legal and social
Under the shortage of information the method of factors decide about PZW method implementation.
underground gasification is regarded as equal alter-
native for open pit mining. However, it is not al-
ways reasoned.
100
6 СONCLUSIONS 1. Construction of commercial installation in Po-
land is possible within 6-8 years.
Popularity of underground lignite gasification 2. The conditions for PZW installation implemen-
method consistently increases. It is a result of Clean tation are as follows:
Lignite Technologies development. Probably in – proceeding formal and legal action in coopera-
Poland it will be implemented within several years, tion with relevant authorities and elaboration of
what is a consequence of its development in many necessary regulations,
countries. Operation of gasification systems for – finding the social acceptance for new method,
example in China (and other countries) in the com- – training the technical staff for handling the gasi-
mercial scale, gives a chance for constructing, in a fication system,
short time, such installations also in Poland. – carrying our reasonable strategy of lignite de-
Implementation of this method requires meeting posit development (including their protection) with
many legal conditions concerning mining, power regard of environmental protection policy.
energy and building operations. Extremely high
expectations concern the environmental issues.
Polish environmental standards are currently com- REFERENCES
patible wit European Union ones. The EU also
controls observing them. Pre-feasibility study for pilot installation using under-
Mining activity subject the special requirements. ground gasification of lignite deposit and project com-
Basing on to date experience concerning the prepa- mercialization. 2010. KGHM CUPRUM – CBR, Wro-
cław (not published).
ration of underground gasification it may be con-
cluded that:
101
Control and power supply

of highly efficient mining plough systems
M. Lubryka & J. Lubryka

Elgór + Hansen Company, Kopex, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper presents experience gained during development, implementation and commission-
ing of high performance plough units rated to new generation of machines as well as outlines specification of
the power supply and control systems for coal plough units.
1 INTRODUCTION technology that is essentially based on electrohy-

draulic control of the powered roof support (Mysz-
Detailed analyses of the balance on the market of kowski & Paschedag 2008). Operation of the
power and fuels demonstrate that demand for coal, plough-based set of equipment is carried out from
gas and coking grades shall be gradually increasing the dedicated control panel that is placed either in
(Tor 2008). Even under circumstances of the current the end tail gate or on the mine surface – no person-
economic crisis one can clearly see that reserves of nel is needed on spot to directly operate the plough.
crude oil and natural gas are still less and less whilst Operators at the control panel are on-line informed
the hard coal still remains quite cheap and reliable about essential operation parameters associated with
energy carrier that guarantees safety of power sup- the equipment status and are able to make correc-
plies to Poland and improves fuel balance in other tions of these parameters (Stopa 2008). The plough-
countries of the European Union. However, the based technology for extraction of thin seams is
indispensable provision that the verified and bal- successfully applied in Germany, Russia, China, the
anced reserves of coal are used in the appropriate USA, Czech Republic and Kazakhstan (Materiały
manner is the wise and efficient management of the reklamowe).
possessed coal deposits. Reasonable means that the Over the years 2006 to 2008 the plough-based
management is aimed at limitation of coal losses to technology was thoroughly examined with the aim
the minimum amount, which is achieved by extrac- of its application to extraction of newly developed
tion of thin seams, whilst efficient mining technolo- seams at the “Zofiówka” Colliery of the Jastrzębska
gies are understood as those that are modern, safe, Coal Company plc. as well as Lublin Coal “Bog-
highly productive and reduce involvement of human danka” plc. In case of the both mines the analysis
personnel in mining operations (Tor 2008). has led to the decision to launch coal extraction with
Such definition of trends and demands to the min- use of high-performance plough systems.
ing technologies encourages application of mining Innovative solutions of explosion-proof and intrin-
plough units due to their obvious advantages sically safe design developed by Elgór+Hansen and
(Myszkowski & Paschedag 2008): intended to supply extraction machinery with electric
a) possibility to effectively extract thin coal power have proved their applicability under tough
seams; conditions of underground excavations. In addition,
b) less disintegration of the virgin coal and, con- the acquired operation experience with simultaneous
sequently, possibility to extract coarser coal grades; tracing the newest research and scientific develop-
c) possibility to extract with shallow webs with ments have enabled company to offer, within a rela-
quick advance or power roof support in areas with tive short time period, dedicated solutions that not
the hazard of brittle roof; only guarantee high level of safety but also meet
d) simplified and more lightweight design of the requirements of applicability of the delivered equip-
mining equipment; ment for the high-performance plough units.
e) improvement of occupational comfort and safety The attention must be paid that the innovative
owing to automation of the extraction process. approach covers also automation of the machinery
Automation and control facilities are the most operation with computer control as well as connec-
important components of the highly efficient plough tion of computers by means of IT networks in order
to achieve full-speed and comprehensive data ex-
103
change. The degree of technical advance of com- really high technological demands, guarantee opera-
puter networks in the mining industry, availability tional reliability and definitely improve occupa-
of access to networks and popularity of such solu- tional comfort and safety of maintenance service-
tions are on a very high level, both on the side of men in mines. Power supplying systems of plough
technological processes and the equipment that is units are supplied from transformer stations encap-
intended for automatic control of the same. That is sulated into d31 casings, so called “large” ones that
why manufacturers, designers, users and operators can house stations equipped with transformer with
of modern equipment have to cope with really the power of 1750 kVA, 2100 kVA and 2600 kVA
demanding challenges. where the transmission ratio is 6/3.3 kV.
All the aforementioned transformer stations are of
the explosion proof and dry design, with the resin
2 POWER SUPPLYING AND CONTROL insulation of the rowing type and dedicated for
EQUIPMENT FOR THE HIGH- purposes of the mining industry (Rozporządzenie
PERFORMANCE PLOUGH UNIT Ministra Gospodarki 2003). Individual segments of
the stations are mechanically connected with use of
Technological solutions that were implemented in flameproof bolted flanges which not only assures
high-performance plough units enforced application bodily integration but also assured correct and safe
of medium voltage to supply machinery incorpo- operation of the entire station.
rated into the unit. Elevated supplying voltage not The upper voltage chamber (GN) of stations in
only improves reliability of the power supplying the d31 enclosures are equipped with protections for
means to the machinery but is also conducive to the power transformer and a compact connecting
enhancing of occupational safety and demonstrates a switch with the insulation SF 6 400A, which sub-
series of additional advantages (Morawiec 2009): stantially improves ability to protect protection the
1. Makes it possible to deploy a part of electric power supplying circuits in a reliably and efficient
power supplying equipment, in particular portable way. The GN chamber is furnished with a fast
flameproof transformer station, outside the longwall earthing switch that has been introduced as a man-
length or within a substantial distance from the datory standard for all the range of the offered
same, which allows to decrease: transformer stations. It is the chamber that serves
a) ambient temperature in excavations; simultaneously as the medium voltage distribution
b) extraction expenses due to reduction of the bay and decides about supply capacities as well as
amount of electric equipment. reliable and correct operation of the entire trans-
2. Eliminates problems associated with installa- former station.
tion of more powerful drives in the machinery of the Chambers of low voltage (DN) of the transformer
unit, station involve innovative solutions that enable
3. Allows to use hose cables with smaller diame- transmission of the entire power offered by the
ters. station from the fully protected outlets to the com-
As early as in 1999 Elgór+Hansen focused its at- mon connection for the switching appliances –
tention on designing and implementation of equip- parallel supplying via two, three or four cables and
ment for the voltage of 3.3 kV. Approving assess- or hose cables at the outlets.
ments, gained experience associated with operation The applied protection means of electric power
of flameproof contactor switches, thyristor starters functionalities as well the adopted standard for
and transformer station are the reason for continu- control and collaboration with technological units
ous perfection of products offered by the company benefit from application of explosion proof (intrin-
with particular attention paid to improvement of sically safe) electric circuits, which makes it possi-
operational safety and selection of the best available ble to supply the equipment that is operated in
and the most advanced subassemblies that make up potentially explosive areas. The transformer stations
together really high-performance longwall extrac- are equipped with the explosion proof (intrinsically
tion units as well as plough-based units, ready for safe) system that is meant for safe repositioning
challenges of 21st century. (ON/OFF) of the main switch on the primary (GN)
side. All transformer stations are also furnished with
a fast earthing switch installed on the secondary
2.1 Transformer stations of the explosion-proof
(DN) voltage that guarantees extremely high level
design
of operation safety for the personnel (Rozpor-
ządzenie Ministra Gospodarki 2003). The station
Transformer stations offered by Elgór+Hansen for can be relocated in underground areas of mines by
to supply plough-bases sets of equipment meet means of the wheeled undercarriage with use of
104
fixed transportation holders. the unit EH-d31-2600/6,0/3,3/02.01 with the trans-
Figure 2.1 presents a typical schematic (one-wire) formation ratio 6/3.3 kV.
diagram of a transformer station on the example of
Figure 2.1. Schematic (one-wire) diagram of the transformer station type EH-d31-2600/6,0/3,3/02.01.
2.2 Switching appliances of explosion proof tion that sets up new standards in the area of safety.
(intrinsically safe) designed intended to handle To supply the entire set of the integrated longwall
individual appliances of the plough unit machinery with the voltage of 3.3 kV with no need
to deliver other supplying voltages, different from
Specific examples of the appliances that are used for 3.3 kV, to the extraction area the range of the dedi-
high-performance plough units are the following cated electric equipment can be supplemented with
devices that have been recently introduced to the the flameproof transformer unit of the type EH-d03-
commercial offer of E+H: a flameproof contactor 160/3.3/0.5(or 1.0)/0.2/4/01. The unit was devel-
switch with four outlets, a switch with a thyristor oped in 2006 and offers the output power of
starter as well as a transformer with power of 160 kVA and transformation ratio 3.3 kV / 525 kV
160 kVA and transformation ratios 3.3 kV / 1 kV or 3.3 kV / 1050 V. Apart from four three-phase
and 3.3 kV / 0.5 kV (Morawiec 2009). outlets for 500 V or 1000 voltages it is provided
The flameproof contactor switch, type EH-d03- with two fully protected outlets with the voltage
W/3.3/I/01.xx or type EH-d03-W/3.3/I/02.xx 230 V and output load of 500 VA as well as one
(ELGÓR+ HANSEN Sp. z o. o.) as well as the fully protected outlet for the voltage of 24 V and
switch type EH-d03-WR/3.3/I/01.01 (Elgór + Han- output load of 500 VA. This unit, similarly to the
sen Sp. z o. o.) with a thyrisor starter represent new generation of switches for 3.3 kV, is furnished
appliances that make difference as compared to the with a disconnecting switch and an earthing switch,
range of switching equipment for the voltage of the both installed on the power supply (primary)
3.3 kV that has been offered to date. That new side Figure 2.2 (a) and 2.2 (b) present the schematic
equipment incorporates circuit breakers with fast diagram for the new generation of switching devices
earthing switches capable to earth wires at the for the voltage of 3.3 kV as well as the schematic
power supplying connector as well as additional diagram of the transformer unit and the switch with
protecting switches (circuit breakers) that make it a thyristor starter. In turn, Figure 2.2 (c) presents the
possible to install the appliances everywhere, re- schematic diagram of the power supply system for
gardless to the short-circuit hazard of the power the entire set of the plough-based extracting ma-
supplying network in underground areas of mines. chinery operated in the Hard Coal Mine
The switching equipment is equipped with a system “Zofiówka”, whilst Figure 2.2 (d) comprises the
of mechanical and electric interlocks that also sub- schematic diagram for a similar power supply sys-
stantially improves occupational safety of mainte- tem for the extraction set but deployed at the Lublin
nance staff employed for mining enterprises (Roz- Coal “Bogdanka” plc.
porządzenie Ministra Gospodarki 2002).
The installed switching appliances have also fast
earthing switch at every output, which is the solu-
105
Q
Q
T
T
F
Q F
Q
K
K
42V
42V
3,3kV 3,3kV
Figure 2.2 (a). The schematic diagram of the four-outlet contactor switch of the type EH-W/3,3/I/01.xx and the schematic
diagram of the contractor switch type EH-d03-W/3.3/I/02.xx intended for reversible supply of main motors intended to
drive the coal plough.
Q T
F
T Q
F F
Q
T
K T
K
V T
K F
K K K K K K K K
42V
3 ,3 k V 3 x5 0 0 V l u b 3 x1 0 0 0 V 3 x2 3 0 V 42V 24V
Figure 2.2 (b). The schematic diagram of the contactor switch type EH-d03-WR/3,3/I/01.01 furnished with a thyristor
starter as well as the schematic diagram of the transformer unit, type EH-d03-160/3.3/0.5(lub1.0)/0.2/4/01.
Figure 2.2 (c). The schematic diagram of the power supply system for the high-performance longwall set of equipment
operated in the Hard Coal Mine “Zofiówka”.
106
Figure 2.2 (d). The schematic diagram of the power supply system for the high-performance longwall set of equipment
operated at the Lublin Coal “Bogdanka” plc.
2.3 Control system for the plough-based h) intrinsically safe system for loud-speaking
extraction set communication, signal transmission and interlocks,
for this purpose the UGS-01/2 from Elekrometal
The control system for the machinery incorporated
was used at the Hard Coal Mine “Zofiówka”.
into the high-performance plough-based extraction
set represents an advanced and highly sophisticated Urządzenia zasilające E+H
microprocessor system that is meant to carry out the WIZUALIZACJA

LOKALNA BUCYRUS PMC-R
Elektro-hydrauliczne
following operations (Czechowski 2008): Urządzenia E+H

WIZUALIZACJA
sterowanie obudowami
a) direct control, łączeniowe CENTRALNA BUCYRUS PMC-LD

System modemów
transmisyjnych - obudowy
b) visualization, Układ łączności BUCYRUS
E+H
BUCYRUS PMC-V
MCU
c) keeping logs of events,
głośnomówiącej i Wizualizacja lokalna
blokad PZS + PZP Komputer w systemów PMC-R, PMC-D
obudowie
d) keeping historical records, Układ pomp wodnych do

chłodzenia i zraszania
STEROWANIE przemysłowej;
Wizualizacja
urządzeń w ścianie
BUCYRUS PMC-LD
System modemów
e) diagnostic operations. Sterowanie automatyczne

struga;
transmisyjnych - strug
Deployment of the extraction system components

BUCYRUS PMC-D
Pozycja struga;
Oświetlenie ściany Informacje z przekładni
on a large area entails application of a field structure LEGENDA:
of the control system with use of industrial IT

BUCYRUS
E+H
INNE
networks as data transmission carriers. The plough-

based extraction system is made up of a number of Figure 2.3 (a). The mimic diagram of individual subsys-
subsystems that are responsible for individual tasks tems within the high-performance longwall extraction set.
associated with control and visualization, namely:
a) control system for the electric equipment deliv- Information processing within the system is car-
ered by Elgór+Hansen; ried out in accordance with the hierarchic structure,
b) local visualization system for the electric starting from the level of control subsystems for
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen; individual components, through parameterization of
c) central visualization system for the electric the equipment, diagnostic procedures, enrolling
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen; current events to the system logs, visualization,
d) visualization system for the plough position keeping local and central records up to the level of
and for diagnostics of the driving gear PMC-D from central management for the entire technological
Bucyrus; process.
e) control system for the hydraulic jacks (powered By its principle the system analyses a number of
roof support) PMC-R from Bucyrus; relationships and attempts to the maximum possible
f) local visualization system PMC-V from Bu- number of cases, situations and states of both the
cyrus; machinery themselves and the heavy-duty surround-
g) system of transmission modems PMC-LD from ing environment (Czechowski 2008). By the logic
Bucyrus;
107
structure the control system is subdivided into two common industrial network that is operated under the
mutually interconnected parts: control and visualiza- master-slave principle, where the diagnostic informa-
tion. tion is passed through the central controller and is
then visualized and stored by means of the central
S te r o w a n ie
visualization system developed by Elgór+Hansen.
A u to m a t y c z n e
All the devices and modules that are embedded
therein are furnished with the built-in firmware
L o k a ln e T ra n s p o rt intended to perform basic functions of monitoring and
R e w i z ja S p in a n ie control for individual, componential communication
processes to resources of the PLC and the system,
D i a g n o s ty k a
with issuing addresses for each individual modules as
R e je s tr a c ja i a r c h iw iz a c ja c e n tr a ln a W iz u a liz a c j a
well as to execute communication services to enable
R e je s tr a c ja i a r c h iw iz a c ja lo k a ln a
In t e g r a c j a z in n y m i s y s te m a m i
remote diagnostics and test operations.
The system communication between separate
units and the controller employs the system bus to
Figure 2.3 (b). Tasks to be carried out by the control the standard RS485 and the MODBUS RTU proto-
system for the plough-based set of extraction machinery.
col. In turn, communication between controllers is
also based on the bus to the standard RS485 along
2.3.1 Control system for the electric with the PROFIBUS DP protocol. On the level of a
equipment delivered by Elgór+Hansen singe unit the device controllers serve as masters
while all the functional modules are considered as
The system has been designed as a set of general-
slaves and are identified by their types and the
purpose functional appliances that mutually com-
preliminarily assigned addresses. The structure of
municate with each other via a serial data bus:
connections within the network of controllers is
a) the control unit of the type EH-O/06/02 (pro-
based on a similar solution that is made up of one
grammable logic controller PLC);
master (supervising) station and a number of slave
b) the control unit of the type EH-O/06/03 (PC
(subordinated) units. The system has been designed
computer of the industrial design /IPC).
for the transmission rate of 9.6 and 19.2 kBits / s.
The system follows the rule of the field control.
The next stage for development of the control
Individual controllers (with purposefully adjusted
system for the coal plough consists of accurate
configuration) have been placed at the control panel
definition of the control algorithm. The algorithm
of the plough operator, at the drive of the push-plate
takes account for correlations between all the input
armoured face conveyor (AFC), as well as at the
and output signals, e.g. status of sensors received
main drive of the plough and inside the compact
from the EH-O/06/02 devices, information from the
stations. The designers have put stress onto opera-
Bucyrus control system, status of actuators incorpo-
tion and control simplicity as well as easiness of
rated into the switching devices, etc., These signals
possible extensions and alterations that can be
have served as a basis to develop the application
implemented in future.
software for the central controller and for local
One of the major functions that is to be carried
control units. A part of tasks that are to be per-
out by this control subsystem is to assure operation
formed by the control process have been assigned to
reliability and safety embedded into the control
individual local controllers where the information
algorithm for the technological process. It is why
between controllers are exchanged with use of the
the system was provided with an independent ana-
network protocol.
log hardware system for the emergency stop func-
tion. Selection of subassemblies for assembly of the
control system was performed with the prevailing 2.3.1.1 The programmable logic
criterion of reliability, surety that the operation controller EH-O/06/02
parameters shall be continuously maintained with Owing to implementation of an industrial program-
simultaneous high degree of integration. As much as mable controller, the control device of the type EH-
possible, the application software for individual O/06/02 enables execution of complex logic input
components performs also the testing functions, and output functions within the control system where
including both self-tests and dedicated tests for they are used. The device can receive signals form
subunits. explosion proof (intrinsically safe) external sensors
Individual switching devices, including switches connected thereto as well as from external actuators
for movement signals and switches that incorporate (e.g. solenoid valves, signalling /warning/panic
thyristor-based starters have been connected to a devices, separators, other systems, control circuits of
108
flameproof connecting switches, systems for visuali- terminating components. The panel communicates
zation and data transmission, etc.). with the supervising (master) unit by means of an
intrinsically safe interface for data transmission,
2.3.1.2 Industrial PC, type EH-O/06/03 compatible with the RS485 and CAN standards. The
panel is capable to implement various data transmis-
Owing to implementation of an industrial PC, the sion protocols, such as Modus RTU, Profibus, CAN
control device of the type EH-O/06/03 enables 2.0B and CANOpen.
execution of complex logic input and output func- The control panel is meant to switch on and off
tions within the control system as well as functions any specific electric circuit within the control sys-
intended to supervise the entire control system that tem of the dedicated mining machine and to provide
is made up of many subordinated (slave) subassem- information with use of LED indicators whether the
blies and is capable to implement various transmis- desired operation status of electric circuits has been
sion interfaces and various transmission protocols. achieved or not.
The device can receive signals from explosion
proof (intrinsically safe) external sensors connected 2.3.2 Description of the logic workflow associated
thereto as well as from external actuators (e.g. with operation of the plough-based set of
solenoid valves, signaling /warning/panic devices, extraction machinery and executed by the
separators, other systems, control circuits of flame- control system from Elgór+Hansen
proof connecting switches, systems for visualization
and data transmission, etc.). The following operation modes have been pre-
scribed and then implemented within the control
system dedicated for the plough-based set of extrac-
2.3.1.3 Industrial PC, type EH-O/06/04
tion machinery:
Owing to implementation of an industrial PC along – automatic mode;
with a full-screen display, the control device of the – local control mode;
type EH-O/06/04 enables execution of complex – inspection /tensioning;
functions associated with visualization of the con- – transportation.
trol processes as well as parameterization of the The extraction set can be controlled from the con-
control functions for the entire control system. In trol panel of the underground control station of the
addition, it is capable to implement various trans- plough operator, from local control panels deployed
mission interfaces and various transmission proto- at specific drives or from the control room on the
cols. mine surface. The system described in Section 2.3.2
serves merely as an example and can be modified in
accordance to requirements of various customers.
2.3.1.4 Digital control panels EH-O/01/05
and EH-O/01/06
2.3.2.1 Automatic mode
The control panels of the types EH-O/01/05 and
EH-O/01/06 present digital electric devices of When the automatic mode of operation is selected
explosion-proof (intrinsically safe) design and they the set of extracting machinery can be activated
are used to control circuits of the mining machinery. from the control room of the plough unit located on
The panels collaborate with explosion-proof circuits the mine surface. After depressing the button
of the ia category, but operation of the control “Załącz Automat” (“Automatic On”) individual
panels with circuits of the ia category is also al- pieces of equipment are subsequently switched on in
lowed. The devices have been designed in accor- accordance to the start-up sequence and with pre-
dance with requirements of the EU Directive scribed time intervals between activation of individ-
94/9/EU (ATEX). Parameters of the explosion- ual devices. The pumping unit is switched on the
proof design and intrinsically safe features make it first, then the crusher, the push-plate haulage con-
possible to classify the control panel to the group I veyor and the push-plate armoured face conveyor.
and category M2, therefore the device can be used Setting of each individual device in motion is pre-
in areas with potentially explosive atmospheres. ceded with an acoustic warning signal as well as
The EH-O/01/05 control panel has the modular with activation of the motor cooling system.
design, i.e. types and number of control instruments The plough itself is started up with use of separate
and indicating devices are adjusted in accordance push buttons. The mandatory condition to do this is
with the specific requirements of the control system preliminary actuation of the AFC (armoured face
where the panel is to be applied. To the terminal conveyor). Prior to setting the coal plough in motion
strip one can connect rectifying diodes or other an appropriate warning signal is produced. The
109
initial direction of the plough operation is defined provision to start up the crusher, conveyors or the
by the plough operator. plough is to keep the pumping unit running, there-
In the automatic operation mode the plough fore it is the subassembly that is switched on with
reaches end of the longwall, then stops and auto- the positive feedback to maintain its continuous
matically reverses its motion towards the opposite operation, in contrary to all the other drives.
direction after a predefined time interval that is Operation of the equipment for inspection or ten-
defined as a system parameter. sioning is activated form local control panels of
individual devices. During inspection /tensioning of
2.3.2.2 Local control mode the armoured face conveyor it is disabled to switch
the plough and only one motor can be set in motion
In the local control mode individual pieces of the at a time. Inspection /tensioning of the plough chain
extraction equipment are switched on by means of disables actuation of the AFC. Also in case of the
local control panels deployed at each drive. Starting crusher inspection it is impossible to switch on the
sequence and hierarchy of individual devices is haulage conveyor and vice versa – inspection
predefined by the extraction technology and must be /tensioning of the haulage conveyor prevents the
carried out in the same manner as in case of the crusher from being switched on. Activation of any
automatic mode, i.e. pumping unit → crusher → piece of equipment is preceded with an acoustic
haulage conveyor → AFC → coal plough. warning signal.
The pumping unit, the crusher and the haulage
conveyor are started up from the control panel that
2.3.2.4 Transportation
is placed nearby the extraction equipment in the end
tail gate at the drives. The transportation mode enables to set in motion
The AFC and the coal plough are activated from solely the conveyors. However, the mandatory
the control panel on the main drive. In this case it is provision to start up the conveyors is to keep the
possible to use a router to hand over control of the pumping unit running, therefore it is the subassem-
plough to the operator’s control station and the bly that is switched on with the positive feedback to
operator is capable to see full visualization of the maintain its continuous operation. The possibility to
plough position within the longwall. activate the crusher of the plough is disabled in this
Setting of each individual device in motion is mode. Setting the conveyors in motion is preceded
preceded with an acoustic warning signal as well as by a warning signal.
with activation of the motor cooling system.
When the local control mode is activated, the 2.3.2.5 Stop and shutdown of individual devices
plough reaches the longwall end and stops. Its within the set of extraction machinery
restart towards the opposite direction is possible
after the operator depresses one of the switching Individual components of the extraction set can be
pushbuttons. switched off in the following cases:
Even if the plough is started up with use of the a) depressing the “OFF” pushbutton for individ-
‘high speed’ pushbutton the machine starts initially ual devices depending on the operation mode and
at low speed and then, after a time period that is with respect to the shutdown sequence of mutually
predefined by the operator within the system pa- dependent devices;
rameters, the high speed operation mode can be b) depressing the ‘emergency stop’ pushbutton;
activated. When the plough approaches its driving c) triggering of appropriate sensors depending on
unit at high speed the machine switches over to the the operation mode and importance of each sensor
low speed mode within the already predefined for the equipment, d) tripping of protections on the
distance from the driving unit. However, the opera- electric power lines;
tor can decide to cut the entire longwall at low e) switching of the downstream device that is pre-
speed and start the machine up with use of the ‘low ceding in the start-up sequence;
speed’ pushbutton. If so, the control system shall f) failure of data transmission,
abstain from switching the plough to the ‘high g) lack of control signals form the contacts of the
speed’ operation mode. system intended to control powered roof support
units, both in the local and automatic control modes;
h) no acknowledge of the switchover completion
2.3.2.3 Inspection /tensioning
from the activated contractor.
The inspection and tensioning mode enables indi-
vidual operation of each drive within the set of
extraction equipment. However, the mandatory
110
2.3.3 Description of the visualization system The central visualization covers all the devices
provided by Elgór+Hansen and intended that are included into the plough-based set of extrac-
to trace operation of the plough-based set tion machinery and carries out the following major
of extraction machinery functions:
– visualization of the control system status;
The system intended to visualize operation of the
– visualization of equipment incorporated into the
electric equipment for the plough-based set of
train of the electric equipment;
extraction machinery was subdivided into:
– visualization of devices incorporated into the
a) local visualization system;
control system;
b) central visualization system.
– parameterization of the control system;
The local visualization system, by its nature, is
– central data storage;
dedicated exclusively to a single unit, e.g. a compact
– viewing of historical information for the pur-
transformer station or a transformer unit. The scope
poses of maintenance analyses.
of information that was subjected for visualization
has been limited to one operator and appropriately
structured to make the local diagnostics easier for
the operator. The microprocessor system that is
responsible for local visualization procedures may
be differentiated depending on which device opera-
tion is to be visualized. For instance, local visualiza-
tion for switches and starters of the plough-based
extraction machinery is carried out by means of the
KSK-1 appliance from Somar while a LED display
EH-P05/03is used for the transformer unit. As for
some other appliances, such as control units EH-
O/06/02 or EH-O/06/03 the procedures of local
visualization indicate status of individual devices of
the equipment by means of dedicated LEDs. In
addition, the visualization system based on the
KSK-1 device enables to keep records on the ma-
chine operation on a local data carrier. An example Figure 2.3.3 (b). The main screen for central visualization.
of a local visualization screen is shown below.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Comprehensive and thorough analyses for efficiency

of coal extraction from thin coal seams are currently
being carried out in many countries. The experience
acquired for extraction from low longwalls with use
of coal ploughs provides the proof that the plough
technology is a reasonable method for extraction of
such seams due to technical reasons. In addition,
application of the plough technology is backed by
essential economic arguments that confirm the tech-
nology as the most beneficial for extraction of coal
seams with their thickness up to 1.5 m (Stopa 2008).
The Polish mining industry has to deal with and will
continue to extract still more and more seams of such
a thickness, therefore number and technical level of
Figure 2.3.3 (a). The example of a main screen for local plough-based extraction sets shall be continuously
visualization. improved. It is why permanent perfection of power
supply and control systems dedicated for such
The central visualization is based on the device equipment is becoming a hot issue. Manufacturers are
type EH-O/06/04 that is made up of a computer enforced to offer more advanced power supply and
along with a full-screen display and an intrinsically control systems purposefully dedicated for high-
safe keyboard. performance plough-based sets of extraction machin-
ery to be up-to-date with the offer of the solutions that
111
are capable to perform all the demanded technical Czechowski, A., Lubryka, J. & Lubryka, M. Opracowanie
tasks and meet the cost-effectiveness criterion. It must aplikacyjnego oprogramowania układu sterowania i
be emphasized that the plough extraction technology wizualizacji kombajnu ścianowego (Światowy Kongres
Górniczy) Kraków 2008 (Development of the applica-
presents new challenges that must be withstood by
tion software for the control and visualization system
each component of the equipment set. Only meeting for a longwall shearer, The World Mining Congress,
the challenges guarantees successful performance of Cracow 2008).
mining enterprises which, in turn, is directly and Elgór + Hansen Sp.z o.o.: Instrukcja Obsługi i Bezpiecznego
proportionally transformed to economic healthiness Użytkowania wyłącznika stycznikowego typu EH-d03-
of companies that are leading suppliers for the mining W/3,3/I/01.01 oraz typu EH-d03-W/3,3/I/02.01 (Manual
industry. The new challenges inflict a great leap for Operation and Safe Use of the Contactor Switches type
forward in terms of technology but it is also a mental EH-d03-W/3,3/I/01.01 and type EH-d03-W/3,3/I/02.01).
Elgór + Hansen Sp. z o. o.: Instrukcja Obsługi i Bezpiecznego
conversion that will definitely change scope of opera-
Użytkowania wyłącznika z rozrusznikiem tyrystorowym
tion tasks for maintenance staff of coal mines. Conse- typu EH-d03-WR/3,3/I/01.01. Manual for Operation and
quently, amendments to the existing regulations and Safe Use of the Switch type EH-d03-WR/3,3/I/01.01 with a
rules of mining operations are expected. In this con- thyristor starter
text, standardization and modular design of the Rozporządzenie Ministra Gospodarki z dnia 28.06.2002
equipment present major directions for further devel- roku w sprawie bhp, prowadzenia ruchu zakładu
opment of the Elgór+Hansen company. górniczego oraz specjalnych zabezpieczeń przeciwpo-
Since the very beginning stage, when the Polish żarowych podziemnych zakładów górniczych wraz z
późniejszymi zmianami (Dz. U. nr 139. poz. 1169 z
mining industry only initiated the renaissance of the
dnia 02.09.2002 roku wraz z późn.zm.) w zakresie
plough extraction technology, Elgór+Hansen has zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa ich użytkowania w
been actively participating in research and devel- warunkach zagrożeń występujących w ruchu zakładów
opment jobs on the power supply and control górniczych. (Ordinance of the Minister of Economy of
equipment. It is why the company presents here the 28th June 2002 on occupation health and safety,
offer of broad and extensive collaboration in that operation rules for mining enterprises and special fire
area with all the existing and new partners as well as protections for underground mining enterprises, with
with all possible stakeholders. further amendments, Journal of Laws, No 139, pos.
1169 of 2nd September 2002 with further amendments)
with regard to assurance of safety of their operation
under conditions of hazards that occur during operation
REFERENCES of mining enterprises).
Rozporządzenie Ministra Gospodarki, Pracy i Polityki
Tor, A., Kubaczka, C., Olma, R. & Kapcia, J. Uwarunkowania Społecznej z dnia 28 lipca 2003 r. w sprawie zasadni-
techniczne eksploatacji cienkich pokładów węgla czych wymagań dla urządzeń i systemów ochronnych
kamiennego z wykorzystaniem kompleksu strugowego w przeznaczonych do użytku w przestrzeniach zagrożo-
warunkach Jastrzębskiej Spółki Węglowej S. A. (Szkoła nych wybuchem (dyrektywa 94/9EWG–ATEX)
Eksploatacji Podziemnej Szczyrk) luty. (Technical condi- w zakresie grupy I – urządzeń przeznaczonych do
tions for extraction of thin coal seams with use of a plough- użytku w zakładach górniczych, w których występuje
based set of equipment under circumstances of the zagrożenie metanowe lub zagrożenie wybuchem pyłu
Jastrzębska Coal Company plc. The School for Under- węglowego. (Ordinance of the Minister of Economy,
ground Extraction, Szczyrk, February 2008). Labour and Social Policy of 28th July 2003 on essential
Stopa, Z. Perspektywy eksploatacji cienkich pokładów requirements to protective equipment and systems in-
węgla kamiennego w LW Bogdanka S. A. (Szkoła Ek- tended for operation in potentially explosive areas (Di-
sploatacji Podziemnej Szczyrk) luty 2008 (Prospects for rective 94/9/EEC – ATEX) for the equipment of the 1st
extraction of thin coal seams at Lublin Coal “Bog- group – appliances dedicated for use in mining enter-
danka” plc. The School for Underground Extraction, prises with the hazard of methane inflow or the hazard
Szczyrk, February 2008). of coal dust explosion).
Myszkowski M. & Paschedag U. Wybieranie ścianowe w Morawiec, M., Jędruś, T. & Macierzyński, D. Bezpieczeń-
pokładach o średniej grubości – porównanie wrębiarki stwo eksploatacji sieci średniego napięcia w aspekcie
ze strugiem (Światowy Kongres Górniczy- Sesja 6 konstrukcji i wyposażenia urządzeń dla podziemnych
Górnictwo węglowe-możliwości i wyzwania) Kraków zakładów górniczych węgla kamiennego (EmTech
2008 (Longwall extraction from seams of medium 2009) Ossa 2009 (Operational safety of MV electric
thickness – comparison of a longwall cutter against a grids in the aspect of designs and assembly of machin-
plough. The World Mining Congress – Session 6, Coal ery for underground enterprises of the coal mining sec-
Mining – opportunities and challenges, Cracow 2008). tor. EmTech 2009, Ossa 2009).
Materiały reklamowe Bucyrus International Inc. company
(Advertisement leaflets of Bucyrus International Inc.)
112
Possibility of production complex

of sufficient gasses in Ukraine
V. Bondarenko & M. Tabachenko

J. Wachowicz
ABSTRACT: The questions of complex technologies use of energy production are considered. Technological
schemes of generator gas production oriented on biogas creation from different sources including stations of
underground coal gasification are offered. The different methods of coal gasification are presented. Such
developments allow at high-quality new level to product power and chemical raw material and provide
efficiency functioning of all of the system.
1 INTRODUCTION earthly surface is not almost violated and this gases

is ecologically acceptable type of fuel.
The most important direction of increase the func-
tioning power and heat efficiency in Ukraine is
application the combined (compatible) production 2 UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION
on one gas-productivity enterprise which will be
used the gases of underground and surface gasifica- Underground coal gasification can be examined as
tion and also biogas. one of examples of generator gas reception which
Only at new building of such enterprises the carry out new principle – combination of coal ex-
economy of traditional fuel at the combined produc- tracting with its simultaneous processing in the
tion arrives at 25-30%, and annual charges diminish unique technological process.
on 20-26%. Thus approximately contamination of For today’s day in the world there is the new inter-
environment diminishes on 30-45%. est to development of new mine and borehole under-
Separate technologies of gas production by un- ground coal gasification (BUCG) technology.
derground gasification, surface gasification and BUCG interest is conditioned that the prices on
biogas are created and used in the industrially de- electric power, gas and oil grows constantly, that is
veloped countries, such China, Australia, Japan, why a price on gas from underground coal gasifica-
South Africa. tion in this situation will appear considerably below
Nowadays the use of restoration energy sources in than price on natural gas. Accordingly power and
Ukraine is on the initial stage. Their particle make thermal energy, produced from UCG gases, will be
about 0.5% power potential. At the same time bio- cheaper of analogical products, got after use of natu-
mass power potential is estimated in more than ral gas. UCG gases is especially attractive in ecologi-
7.5 mln.t. / year accumulates in the agro-industrial cal advantages, as during underground gasification an
complex of Ukraine. earthly surface is not almost violated and this gases is
Counts show that biomass power potential would ecologically acceptable type of fuel.
satisfy to a 10% general consumption energies in The history of realization the underground coal
Ukraine. gasification technology in Ukraine can be dividing
Scientific experience allows forecasting, that the on two stages. The first stage was begun from
use of biomass as raw material for the gases produc- 1930 year, when two stations of «Pidzemgaz»
tion is the perspective additional of fuel source. worked in our country: Lisichanska and Gorlivska.
At processing gaseous fuels can be got mainly The enormous reserves of natural gas and oil were
two types: biogas, the basic combustible component discovered in 60th. On a background such enormous
of which is methane, and generator gas. oil reserves which seemed inexhaustible in those
UCG gases is especially attractive in ecological years, underground coal gasification appeared
advantages, as during underground gasification an unnecessary and not perspective. That’s why sta-
113
tions of “Pidzemgaz” were closed. This new modern highly productive setting, owns
The first power crisis in 1973 year stimulates in- a high efficiency, small sizes, does not pass vibra-
terest of underground coal gasification. All country tions on foundation, works reliably with simple
which have a large coal reserves in the world began service. FPG can be set near by boreholes and to
intensively to conduct experimentally industrial generate here electric power and heat power.
experiments on perfection of underground coal The necessity of building of gas pipelines falls off
gasification technology. in this case, and energy (for example, electric) is
In the National mining university (Dnipro- passed to the users on send-offs.
petrovsk, Ukraine), beginning from middle of 60th
for a present time, developed at the level of inven-
tions on principle new technology of borehole
underground coal gasification with preparation
underground gasgenerators from a surface and in
mine terms (Kolokolov 1991).
Basically, an unworked seam of coal in the
ground is accessed by two drilled wells, into one of
which an oxidant is fed, the coal is ignited and part-
combusted, and a product gas flows from the other
well, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2. Scheme of equipment situate and power diagram

of engine with free pistons.
Figure 1. Technological scheme of underground coal For the increase of efficiency of the above-
gasification from a surface: 1 – coal seam; 2 – injection mentioned technology of BUCG developed by us
wells; 3 – production well; 4 – movable ignited devices;
row on principle new technological decisions which
5 – air pipeline; 6 – gas pipeline; 7 – heat – utilization;
8 – combustion face; 9 – goaf; 10 – adjutage of the di- consist in the following.
rected boreholes; 11 – surface. 1. The constructions of underground gasgenera-
tors which provides coal seam gasification with the
This technology can be realized thus. From a sur- controlled retraction injection point and gas dis-
face, to crossing with a coal seam 1, the directed charge are improved.
(oriented) injection wells 2 and production well 3 2. The criteria of BUCG technology fitness are
are bored. Inclined parts of boreholes are fastened extended with providing of technological schemes
by pipes with cementation of annulus space. Hori- adaptation with gasgenerator preparation from
zontal parts of boreholes, bored on coal are not surface or in a mine conditions at economic and
strengthened. Coal seam ignition is conducted by uneconomic coal seams gasification in difficult
the special ignited cartridges which refer by air to mine conditions.
the place of ignition. 3. The process of coal seams gasification is con-
As far as coal seam gasified the serve of blowing ducted without burning out of combustible gases
and gas discharge are carried out from mobile which appeared.
controlled retraction injection point. Coal gas which 4. The germetization of deformed rocks and goaf
appeared is burned in the special free piston genera- due to the artificial injection stowing is provided.
tor (FPG) setting. 5. For goaf germatisation we can use next mate-
Now in the Kharkov city are develop the original rial: coal and rocks dust, clay and ashslags. Thus
constructions of free piston generator, Figure 2. escape of germatisation material from a gasgenera-
114
tor on a surface will not exceed 0.1 g / m3. Insignifi- again in an underground gasgenerator for the in-
cant part of germatisation material which darts out crease of his work efficiency, other – in a steam-
on a surface with the products of gasification will be turbine for the power production.
caught in superficial purification options. 12. Building of such blocks will allow deciding
6. The coal gas calorific value and volume of the followings tasks:
gasification products grows due to burning out of – providing of reliability of electric power and
carbon in the ashslags (on 20-30%), ash (25-35%) heat supplying of adjoining settlements and indus-
and coal-rock dust (30-60%). On the whole taking trial enterprises;
into account all technological decisions, a calorific – organization of cost-effective production, elec-
value grows to 10-15 mJ / m3, that in 4-6 times tric power and heat (as compared to a low cost-
higher than on the former stations of “Pidzemgaz”. effective mine boiler room and necessity of electric
7. The technological schemes of clean coal tech- power purchase from a state grid);
nology are developed on traditional power enter- – complex decision of ecological and social ques-
prises. The ashslags, and extraction rocks from tions;
underground mine enterprise can be used for mak- – creation of afore-mentioned technological com-
ing stowing. After this we can see improve ecologi- plexes satisfy strategic directions of fuel and energy
cal situation. complex of Ukraine development.
8. Using direction drilling we can reduce capital 13. Technology and technician of BUCG becomes
costs. It allows sharply improve a landscape and universal as compared to traditional energy. It is
fertile seam of surface in the district of underground related to that in converting actions (converting of
coal gasification. hard coal into a gaseity) is never used mechanical
9. The technology of gases division is used for mediator (for example, wallface combine); electric
separate some components of gas for a serve them energy becomes a general mediator, and technology –
in a separate kind to the users and, in particular, without machine.
back in an underground gasgenerator (for example, Certainly, it follows to establish, that presently
СО 2 for the receipt of combustible gas for the technology of BUCG in Ukraine is not claimed. Our
reactions СО 2 + С = 2СО). official engineering and scientific idea which is
10. Technology of BUCG foresees a serve in the responsible for a technical process is so conserva-
underground gasgenerator of smoke wastes tradi- tive and convinced, that subsequent development of
tional fuel of power complex. In an underground energy – in the traditional mining by mine and
gasgenerator smoke gases (СО 2 , Н 2 О) are under act opened methods.
of high temperature (1000-1300 оС) at a contact However in the world looks to development of
with an incandescent carbon, pass to combustible energy quite another. In Europe, for example under-
gases (СО, Н 2 , О) on reactions: ground and surface gasification of coal is used all
wider and wider. Technical decisions are developed
2СO2  CO  O2 ; in the National mining university on untraditional
development of hard combustible minerals is neces-
CO2  C  2CO  O ; sary for Europe. We accept more active participat-
ing in an international project, where involved 12
H 2O  C  CO  H 2 .
companies from Germany, Great Britain, Belgium,
It is a new and original decision allows sharply to France, Poland and other countries. The experimen-
intensify the process of underground coal gasifica- tally industrial tests of underground gasification
tion; effectively to contest with a green house effect; technology was conducted on experimental mine
from wastes to get profits at incineration of the “Barbara” in Poland.
additionally got combustible gases; returning of 14. Underground coal gasification is a high-
smoke gases in an underground gasgenerator im- quality jump in development of productive forces,
proves an ecological situation in a region. which allows blocking a raw material and ecological
11. A technological block “underground gasgen- crisis.
erator – heat utilization complex” creates the incor-
porated structure of two productions in the reserved
technological cycle with the use gases and thermal 3 SURFACE GASIFICATION
energy which get from physical heat utilizations of
Modern technical potential of artificial gas production
BUCG gases. The construction of the directed
from coal presented by many industrially mastered
boreholes is changed for this purpose.
technologies, proper names of firms, – producers of
Thus one part of the overheated vapors follows
basic equipment of technological process – gasgen-
115
erators (Lurgi, Koppers – Totcek, Vinkler, Teksako). Ukraine owns the considerable peat reserves, coal
Last years there were 248 gasgenerators units of and biomass which presently practically not utilized
different type in exploitation, in particular in the south for the production of electric and heat power. The
Africa republic – 92, the USA – 18, China – 6, to coal reserve in Ukraine makes 2166 million tons.
Czech and Slovakia – 62, Germany – 32 (Kolokolov Peat is obtained mainly used as a fuel in commun-
2000 & Kreinin 2006). ally – domestic sector. The supplies of subbitumi-
Superficial coal gasification, peat and biomass in nous coal are estimated in 3.5 milliard tons.
the world got considerable development in 50th The basic criteria of the use of surface gasgenera-
years of the twentieth century. In this period made tors presently are their simplicity of making and
more than milliard m3 of power and technological exploitation, reliability and low cost. Such gasgen-
gas (Kreinin 2006). In connection with stormy erators construction was developed, in the institute
development of natural gas industry this direction of of technical physics “National Academy of Science
hard combustible minerals processing was con- of Ukraine”.
stantly abbreviated. A gasgenerator (Figure 3) consists of corps 1 with
In 1990 year considerable development was got the internal diameter of 600 mm, corps 2 with grate,
by coal gasification for the electric power produc- pipes 3 with nozzles 4 for the air blowing serve.
tion, which used of binary cycle at which combusti- Doors which are closed are located in overhead and
ble gas was utilized in a gas turbine, and the prod- lower parts of corps, 5 and 6 accordingly for the
ucts of combustion are used for the vapors genera- load of fuel and delete of ash. As a fuel waste-
tion for a steam-turbine. After 1993 year in different woods are used. A gasgenerator product gas with
countries it was entered in exploitations 18 power- next composition СО – 21%, Н 2 – 17%, СН 2 – 2%,
stations with superficial hard fuel gasification by N 2 – 48%, СО 2 – 12%. A temperature in the burn-
power from 60 to 300 MWh. Presently the use of ing zone makes from 1000 to 10000 оС. An ash
superficial hard fuel gasification is considered the concentration in generator gas makes 2-3 g / m3.
most perspective direction in surface gasifcation. Total potential resources of wood wastes, includ-
Growth of hydrocarbon fuels cost, which takes a ing a cortex in forestry and woodworking industry
place the last years, stipulates considerable interest makes 984 thousand tons in a year (Falshtyns’kyy
in the whole world to the use of alternative energy 2009). Neither forestry nor woodworking and cellu-
sources. lose – paper industry cannot use all of wood wastes
and can or to supply or use for an own energy sup-
ply.
In surface gasgenerators technology the petrol
and diesel wastes utilization is widely used. Ser-
vices enterprises and service centers, transport
companies and build enterprises often throw out
exhaust fuel, or pay a large money for it regenera-
tion or utilization.
Heat generator, that work on exhaust fuel allow to
burn it without an additional regeneration and
cleaning. Transport charges are thus saved at an
export on the place of regeneration, the risk of
environment contamination really diminishes.
The general view of gasgenerator is shown on
Figure 4.
Such fuels as peat, subbituminous coal and bio-
mass are low-caloric – characterized the large vola-
tile escape, that can substantially promote work
efficiency of the offered new gasgenerator enter-
prises. The basic elements of gasgenerator is a steel
cylinder combustion chamber, in which a plate is
situated and filled by exhaust fuel. Air in a combus-
tion chamber is given an axial ventilator tangentially
with the crack ducting in an order to create an
Figure 3. Gasgenerator on the generator gas production: involutes gas stream above the surface which evapo-
1 – metallic corps; 2 – cone; 3 – pipe; 4 – snuffled the air rating.
serve in the burning zone; 5, 6 – air-tight doors. In the developed countries on the last few years
116
technology of biomass gasification got development Technologies of biomass gasification own con-
with the receipt of electric and thermal energy. siderable potential and prospects of development.
Produced gas from gasgenerators burned in a gas They allow to carry out making of electricity and
engine or in a coal cauldron. The examples of reali- heat-energy with high-efficiency to 45%. In addi-
zation the biomass gasification technology and tion, they own the row of ecological advantages.
wastes with subsequent burning of generator gas are
power-stations in Australia, Belgium, Finland,
Netherlands, Great Britain and other countries. 4 BIOGAS PRODUCTION
Nowadays the problem of quality rising and as

result efficiency of biogas using gradually goes out
on the foreground of development of the proper
technology. The basic elements of the biogas setting
are: chamber of зброджування (methane-tank), a
device of stationary temperature support is in meth-
ane-tank, device which provides biomass interfusion
in methane-tank, device of accumulation and biogas
storage (gasholder).
Figure 5. Scheme of setting for the biogas production.
As a result of anaerobic fermentation (bioconver-

Figure 4. Gasgenerator which works on exhaust fuel: 1 – sions) appear: a biogas, which consists of methane
corps; 2 – pipe; 3 – combustion chamber; 4 – mixer; 5 – an (65-80%), carbon dioxide СО 2 (15-25%), carbon
electric motor; 6 – tank with fuel; 7 – pump; 8 – pallet; 9 – monoxide CO (2-3%), nitrogen (N 2 ), oxygen (O 2 ),
bolt; 10 – ventilator; 11 – screen; 12 – place of gas mov- sulphurhydrogen (Н 2 S), and high-efficiency envi-
ing; 13 – lid; 14 – plate.
ronmentally clean disinfected fertilizer. One ton of it
is equivalent 3-4 tons of nitric-phosphoric fertilizers
Therefore, the public policy of Ukraine on an en- which are produced industry. In the process of meth-
ergy supply predict substantial expansion of the use ane fermentation pathogenic microorganisms perish
of untraditional energy sources of volumes. In and the unpleasant smell of wastes is neutralized.
Ukraine in 2010 year must be the economy of The method of biogas reception is widely wide-
traditional energy resources on 8-10% from their spread in a number of countries with a warm cli-
general consumption. According to strategy of mate, a high enough temperature, conditioned
untraditional energy development in the EU coun- natural terms, is needed in which for the effective
tries “White Pape” 2010 year biomass will cover an flowing of bioconversion (India, Brazil, Chinese
about 74% general payment of refurbishable energy Folk Republic and other). Most active activity of
which will make an about 9% general consumption bacteria at temperature 35-45 оС.
of primary power mediums sources (Pivnyak 2002). Fluidizers anaerobic fermentation serve as the
Obviously, biomass will be the most mighty sector effective mean of agricultural and stock-raising
of the use of refurbishable energy sources. wastes processing (leaves, stems of plants, weeds,
Thus, technology of biomass gasification with the straw, sunflower wastes, corn heads, pus of different
purpose of making the cogenerating energy (elec- farms and dung of poultry factories), and also com-
tric, thermal) attained a high level and while does munal wastes on purification buildings and other.
not bring in large payment in world energy. Their application allows to decide three tasks,
117
important from the power, agricultural and ecologi- Formed biogas in reactor 10 selected in it overhead
cal points of view, namely: to get a biogas; to con- part which carries out the role of gas-exchange,
vert wastes into high-showy profits (fertilizers); an (gasholder), from where methane on the pipeline 9
environment impact. send to the main pipeline of productive gas 8, where
In the conditions of Ukrainian continental climate interfuses with generator gas of underground gasifi-
(especially in cold times of year) continuous during cation. As a result of this mixing in eventual produc-
throughout the year exploitation of bio-setting tive gas which sent to user, maintenance of methane
which require a stationary positive temperature (35- which owns the most calorific value of combustion
45 оС) is economic advantageous at heating of from combustible all of the tools is increased, that
methane-tanks due to utilization of warmth of hot makes productive gas. The same substantially the
generator gas at borehole underground coal gasifica- general calorific value of combustion productive gas
tion. The got biogas which contains to a 70-80% rises to 10-15 Mj / m3.Unnecessary heating con-
methane allows at his addition to generator gas of ducter from an interwall cavity 11 methane-tanks 10
underground gasification substantially to rise the by a pump 13 (if heating conducter is water) or by a
heating value of this gas (Figure 6) essence of this ventilator on a pipeline 14 again follows for the
technical decision consists in the following. repeated use in heat-exchange 6, completing a
The area of coal seam 1 is opened by injected 2 technological rotation. Past in a biological reactor
and production 3 boreholes which on a coal seam biomass which does not have a bad smell and disin-
connect between itself by hydraulic fracturing or fected as a result of fermentation process are
filtration connection, forming the gasification chan- unloaded and send to the user as a valuable and
nel which transforms after coal ignition on a com- environmentally clean fertilizer as mash or, powder
bustion face 4. On a borehole 2 to the combustion grainy mass, packed up in the proper container.
face 4 the air blowing are given which here reacts Thus, the station of underground coal gasification
with coal, forming generator gas which is produced due to passing heat utilization of generator gas,
on an earthly surface on a borehole 3. provides support in a biological reactor permanent,
in spite of seasonal changes, temperatures on a
necessity levels. Thus the necessary terms of high-
efficiency process of biomass fermentation and
biogas receipt which is folded to 80% from methane
are created. The station of “Pidzemgaz” becomes a
clean complex of mine power enterprise. Such
enterprise can be as the standard of highly remu-
nerative industrial enterprise of XXI century.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The necessity of alternative energy sources research

is dictated by the rising of natural gas, oil and coal
costs. Due to the mining in deep mine in remote
districts, and also by the worsened geological condi-
tions and increase of distance of their transporting
makes power costs unbelievable high.
Figure 6. Technological scheme of biogas production with
heating of reactors in cold season of year.
BUCG can become an alternative to traditional
energy, successfully working out technological and
social problems, and can become the active ecologi-
On an earthly surface generator gas follows to the
cal hospital attendant of our degrading environment
purification setting 5, where it is purged from coal
as a result of negative influence of existent power
particles and phenols, after this skip through heat-
complex.
exchange 6. In the last hot generator gas gives the
Surface gasification is one of perspective tech-
warmth to water or air which is given in the capac-
nologies of energy reception from biomass. Interest
ity of heat-exchange 6. Cool gas in heat-exchange is
to gasification technologies is more displaced from
sent to the main pipeline 8, and water or air pipeline
a production only of thermal energy to possibility of
7 send to the biological reactors (methane-tanks) 10
the cogeneration production of thermal and electric
in the heating cavity 11 between two reactor walls
energy. Most attractive for the commercial use with
which surrounds the bioconversion reactor 12.
the purpose of making of electric power there are
118
presently technologies of atmospheric gasification REFERENCES
in a circulatory boiling seam.
By the source of biomass as a power medium for Kolokolov, O.V. & Tabachenko, N.M. 1991. Geotech-
the biogas production there can be wastes of plant- nological methods of mineral deposits mining. Kiev:
grower and stock-raising. Technology of biogas 200.
reception is exhaust enough in countries with a Kolokolov, O.V. 2000. Theory and practice of thermo-
warm climate and cannot be realized in a continen- chemical technology of extraction and processing of
tal climate (in Ukraine) without heating of reactor. coal. Monograph. Dnipropetrovs’k: NMU of Ukraine:
Our technology of biogas production allows the 281.
joint (combining) production of BUCG gas and Kreinin, E.V. 2006. Coal as source of substitution of
biogas at thermal support of temperature in meth- natural gas. Ecological systems, 1: 45-49.
Falshtyns’kyy, V.S. 2009. Improvement of technology of
ane-tanks (concrete or metallic) due to the utiliza-
borehole underground coal gasification. Monograph.
tion of thermal energy – BUCG gas has large pros-
Dnipropetrovs’k: National Mining University: 131.
pects. In spite of obvious advantages and benefits of
Pivnyak, G.G., Zemba, A & Dudlya M.A. 2002. Rational
energy production from biomass, bio-power tech- use of energy and environment. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
nologies develop in Ukraine very slowly. tional Mining University: 193.
119
Researches of influence of depth of an in-seam working

on displacement field of rocks in its vicinity
G. Symanovych  K. Ganushevych
V. Chervatyuk
OJSC “Pavlogradugol”, Pavlograd, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Laws of displacements of stratified massif of weak rocks around in-seam working with in-
crease of its depth are presented and degree of influence of strength and deformation characteristics of adja-
cent rock layers on these displacements is presented as well. Sufficient independence of stress field of a rock
layer from condition of the adjacent layers is discovered: reduced strength layers with increase of H trans-
form into limiting (out-of-limit) state virtually regardless of strength characteristics of adjacent harder rock
layers; stress field in rock layers with higher strength characteristics almost does not depend on the adjacent
layer transformation into limiting state; stress field in a coal seam, in the second layer of bottom and the third
layer of roof, is quite stable compared to condition of adjacent rock layer.
1 INTRODUCTION widespread usage and it has the most universal

capabilities. But there is a possibility to use combi-
Modern methods of prognosis of rock pressure nation of FEM and BEM (boundary-element
manifestation are being constantly improved to- method) in order to receive more reliable solution
wards more thorough consideration of features of a during determination of complex geomechanical
support interaction with a rock massif containing a tasks that simultaneously consider many factors of
working and its physical and mechanical character- rocks mechanical characteristics, non-uniformity of
istics. These studies are extremely important for the massif structure and geometrical parameters of the
development of general concepts about interaction object. Basic complexity of application of such
of “massif-support” system and surveys of optimal combination lies in objective reflection of physical
parameters of given interaction, taking into consid- essence of the process at the border of abutment of
eration final aim, which is the control of steadiness the model elements that are being explored by
of the working using low-cost technologies. So, various finite-difference methods.
supporting process should be continuously con- Secondly, many tasks require 3-D formulation of
nected with geomechanics of border zone rock a question for more reliable reflection of geome-
massif. chanical processes, what is being observed on a
During determination of tasks of geomechanics, it modern stage of rock massif condition evaluation.
is constantly required to face a problem of calculation Thirdly, a bigger number of works is dedicated to
of systems that have complex geometrical configura- calculation of non-uniformity of mechanical charac-
tion and irregular physical structure. Rock massif and teristics of massif and its structure that quite essen-
its host rocks have a big number of characteristics, tially influences on the results of calculation of the
computation of which with help of mathematical field of stress and strain state around the workings
modeling is possible only with use of finite-difference and this was determined during research of a wide
computational schemes. At present time, finite ele- sphere of tasks.
ment method (FEM) has become factual standard Fourthly, number of works in which not only plas-
during solution of geomechanical tasks. tic and rheological characteristics of rocks are consid-
Resulting from analysis of works dedicated to ered but also a whole diagram of their deformation
finite-difference modeling of geomechanical proc- (limiting and out-of-limit states) is steadily growing,
esses close to underground workings, following that, in authors opinion, increases reliability of calcu-
tendencies of given research trend is clearly ob- lations and advances geomechanical model to real
served: object. Listed points have made up methodological
First of all, finite-element method is the most basis of the performed investigations.
121
2 GEOMECHANICS OF SYSTEM “MASSIF- variation. That is why on the second stage of the
SUPPORT” research, the geomechanical substantiation of struc-
ture of coal-containing strata of rocks in the vicinity
In the previously executed work (Bondarenko 2006) of an in-seam working is performed and this most
there were stated results dedicated to researches of adequately reflects mining and geological conditions
stress and strain state of the system “stratified mas- of coal seams at Western Donbass mines. Stress and
sif-support of a development working” with linear strain state results of several models of coal-
connection of stresses and strains within its ele- containing strata structure with variable mechanical
ments. characteristics of rock layers and at different mining
At the first stage all basic factors that influence depth have been received. Based upon the stress and
stress and strain state of the system were analyzed strain state calculations, there was given a substantia-
and the evaluation was given to them according to tion to the adequate model of coal-containing strata.
mining-geological and mining-technical conditions, On the third stage, laws of change of stress and
for example, considered for mines of Western strain state system were explored, triggered by varia-
Donbass. tion of deformation characteristics of rock layers with
Geomechanical substantiation of model using a specified interval for Western Donbass.
line of initial parameters and ranges of their variation The fourth stage is dedicated to laws of change of
were performed: stress and strain state system with increase of depth of
– depth of an in-seam working and its location in-seam working. Influence of deformation character-
relatively to a coal seam; istics of adjacent rock layers is simultaneously esti-
– structure of a coal-containing strata of adjacent mated for various depths. Tendencies of occurrence
rock layers, interval of change of their mechanical of limit-state of roof, wall and bottom rocks of the
characteristics and properties of a coal seam; working are determined depending on the above
– mining and technical parameters of in-seam stated geomechanical parameters and also strength
working: shape and dimensions, type and parame- characteristics of rock layers.
ters of the support, supported area and their me- Thereby, conducted researches in quasi-elastic
chanical characteristics; process, using finite-element method, made up first
– research of stress and strain state of the test ge- part of geomechanical processes modeling near in-
omechanical models to substantiate their dimensions seam working. When limiting state occurs, further
based on the conditions of stabilization of stress description of displacement process of coal contain-
components on the borders of the model according ing strata is performed according to full rock massif
to initial non-hydrostatic condition; deformation diagram, that, according to modern
– testing of geomechanical models to determine views, contains stages of softening and “ruining”
qualitative conformity of their stress and strain state breakage (Bondarenko 2007, 2009 & Vinogradov
to modern notions and results of researches of rock 1989).
displacement processes close to a mine working;
– substantiation of contact conditions along strati-
fication planes of rock layers of coal-containing 3 RESULTS
strata.
It is well known that the most applicable numerical Displacement field of rocks that contain the working
methods for solving of complicated geomechanical essentially depends on the condition of surrounding
tasks of similar class, despite their high precision, do coal-containing strata that is defined by correlation of
not possess a generality of this solution. Thus, meth- strength characteristics of rock layers and depth of the
odological approach for solving of the given task is working. Analysis of laws of relation of wall rocks
necessary, the aim of which is the search for the set of displacement field with depth of a working is per-
conditions of the widest application area of research formed, starting from variant of decreased strength
results with a condition of minimal admissible vol- and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock
ume of calculations dedicated to searching of various layers of the system (Figure 1). At H  200 m, some
variants of combination of geometrical, mechanical part of the coal-containing strata is located in prelimit
and load-bearing parameters of system “stratified state, therefore the displacements are quite moderate
massif-support of the development working”. It is (230-480 mm). At H  400 m, biggest part of the
quite hard to execute the second condition though, adjacent rock layers transfers into limit state that
because in order to increase the correspondence of provokes increase of displacements in massif, includ-
solution results to real mining-geological and mining- ing the contour of the working. This change of state
technical conditions, it is necessary to analyze a big of massif’s part triggers clearly expressed non-linear
number of variable parameters in all range of their
122
connection of displacement with stratification depth. – distribution diagram gains more asymmetric look
For example, with increase of H by two times (from relatively to vertical axis of the working: displace-
200 to 400 m), displacements in roof of a working ments of bottom and walls of the drift slightly prevail
increase in 2.7…2.9 times, in wall rocks and bot- from the side of seam rise;
tom – 2.5…2.8 times; in quality sense, distribution – displacements of roof and bottom are so big (up
diagram of displacements distribution along work- to 2.8 m in roof and 1.8 in bottom) that rock practi-
ing’s contour slightly changes with smaller gradient cally fills up entire cavity of the working, that is
of change of displacements in roof and bottom. At explained by process of loosening of a considerable
H  600 m, displacement field changes even more volume of the massif in vicinity around the rock;
both in qualitative and quantitative relations and this – displacements of rocks under props of the frame
is connected with transfer not only into limit but reach 0.7...1.2 m from each side, that also leads to
also into out-of-limit states of overwhelming near- entire loss of support stability and of the working in
to-contour area of coal-containing massif: whole.
(а) (а)
(b) (b)
Figure 1. Distribution diagram of displacements in system Figure 2. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of working” at decreased strength “stratified massif-support of a working” at decreased strength
and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock layers: characteristics and increased deformation characteristics of all
(a) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m. adjacent rock layers: (a) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
123
Listed factors testify about impossibility of exploi- and walls of working (displacements practically do
tation of a working in considered mining and geo- not change in bottom); at H  400 m – in 1.7…2.3
logical situation without application of corresponding times; at H  600 m – in 2.1…2.2 times in roof, in
technical measures for support stability increase. 1.7…1.9 times in walls and in 2.0…2.5 times in
Increase of modulus of deformation of all adja- bottom. Therefore, there is a conclusion follows that
cent rock layers from 0.3 × 104 MPa to 1 × 104 MPa in out-of-limit state of adjacent rock layers, influ-
with their decreased strength leads to the following ence of their deformation characteristics increases,
results (Figure 2). General tendency of increase especially in the working’s bottom. Here the value
influence Eir ,b is such that displacements of a of rock heave makes up 370…650 mm and allows
massif in any point decrease at any depth of the to exploit the working after appropriate recovery
working: at H  200 m – in 1.5…2.3 times in roof operations.
(а) (а)
(b) (b)
Figure 3. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system Figure 4. Distribution diagrams of displacements in system
“stratified massif-support of working” at increased of “stratified massif-support of working” at increased strength
strength and decreased of deformation characteristics of all and deformation characteristics of all adjacent rock:
adjacent rock layers: (а) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m. (а) Н = 200 m; (b) Н = 600 m.
124
Increased strength characteristics of all adjacent 4 CONCLUSIONS
rock layers radically change not only stress but also
strain state of coal-containing strata. Results of conducted researches of tendencies of
At decreased deformation characteristics of all increase of rock massif displacements into a work-
adjacent rock layers, the following features of ing’s cavity with its depth increase, have allowed to
change displacement field with increase of H are formulate a line of conclusions:
established (Figure 3): – various variants of distribution of strength and
– with different depth of working, qualitative dis- deformation characteristics of adjacent rock layers
tribution diagram in massif is virtually constant; cause different level of their influence on displace-
– displacements of rock contour of the working ment of rock contour of the working with increase
even at H  600 m are relatively small (in roof – up of mining depth. The defining factor is the condition
to 490 mm, in bottom – up to 430 m, in walls – up to kind of adjacent rock layers at specific value of
170 mm) that is conditioned by predominantly pre- parameter H: prelimit, limit, out-of-limit;
limit state of coal-containing strata; – at increased strength characteristics of adjacent
– for this reason, almost linear connection of dis- rock layers, their partially prelimit state predetermines
placement value in any point of a massif with depth close to linear connection of displacements with pa-
of a working is observed. rameter H, at which fluctuations of their deformation
Increased deformation characteristics of all rock properties in range Eir ,b  0.3...1 10 4 MPa change
layers (Figure 4) do not change previous conclu- displacement value up to 70…100%;
sions, taking into account that value of displacement – at lowered strength characteristics of rock layers,
of a working’s rock contour decreases in roof and dependence of displacement of a working’s contour
walls in 1.7…2.0 times. on H becomes nonlinear when limit state of any of
Change of deformation characteristics of the layers occurs and intensity of increase of displace-
roof’s second layer changes just a little the dis- ments grows by several times.
placement field with all its features revealed earlier. The established laws will serve as a basis during
In conclusion of this stage of researches, influ- development of prognosis method of exploitation
ence of strength and deformation characteristics of condition of in-seam development workings that are
the second rock layer on tendencies of change of driven within stratified massif of weak rocks.
displacement field with depth increase of a working
is estimated. It is established that influence of de-
formation characteristics of the second layer of roof REFERENCES
with different combinations of strength properties of
adjacent rock layers with increase of parameter H is Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska, I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
analogical to previously described variants. Fomychyov, V.V. 2006. Computer modeling of stress and
As to the strength characteristics of the second strain state of thin-seam rock massif around in-seam work-
layer of roof – their diverse influence depending on ing. Book 1. Prelimit stage of formation of system “rock-
state of first rock layers of roof and bottom are support”. Dnipropetrovs’k: System technologies: 172.
discovered. At increased strength characteristics of Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
Fomychyov, V.V. 2007. Modeling of limit and out-of-
the first layers of roof and bottom, transfer of the limit state of stratified massif around in-seam working.
second rock layer of roof into limit state because of International “Forum of miners”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
its decreased strength contributes to increase of tional Mining University: 56-62.
displacements of rock contour of the working up to Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevska, I.A., Symanovych, G.A. 
20…28%. This is partially conditioned by prelimit Fomychyov, V.V. 2009. Interconnection of stress and
state of rock layers that adjoin the working even at strain components of system “massif-support” with
strength characteristics of wall rocks. ІІІ International
depth of 600 meters. When the first layers of roof
scientific and practical conference “School of Under-
and bottom transfer into limit (out-of-limit) state ground Mining”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Art-Press: 99-105.
with depth increase – increased strength of the Vynogradov, V.V. 1989. Geomechanics of massif condi-
second layer of roof allows to restrict the displace- tion management near mine workings. Kyiv: Naukova
ment of rock contour of the working by 29…56%. dumka: 192.
125
Research of influence of support resistance

of the stope in the immediate roof condition
V. Buzilo., V. Serdyuk & A. Yavorsky

ABSTRACT: The article covers results of studies of support resistance effect on stress-strain state of stope’s
roof rocks. It is shown that modification of support resistance at the face and character of shearing forces,
moments of deflection take place within roof stratum. Increase in support resistance at the face space helps to
avoid tension stresses near the longwall face in the lower part of a roof layer. In turn, it reduces the risk of its
crushing and development of sudden outbursts from coal layer.
1 INTRODUCTION high cost which cannot always be paid while operat-

ing. Practice of mining with the help of powered
As it is known, displacement of rock massif during roof supports that have increased resistance often
underground coal mining takes place as layer-by- leads to emergencies connected with rigid support
layer movement. In this case, each bed is not a caving. Specific literature pays much attention to
rigidly restrained thin plate that has nonuniformity interworking relationship of stopes supports (Kiya-
of basic load from overlying rocks and nonuni- shko 1984). But it is impossible today to answer
formity of normal reaction from underlying rocks. questions connected with bearing force distribution
Maximum value of basic load and reaction is avail- between support legs. Thus, problems concerning
able within massif. They drop down to zero over effect of bearing force of support legs in state of
stripped area gradually rising over stripped area roof rocks are current and well-timed.
where their maximum value becomes equal to
gravity forces. Under all other conditions the char-
acter of distribution of basic load and reaction 2 BASIC PART
depends on coal-overlying unit structure and tech-
nological parameters. It is known that lower layers To determine supposed interaction mechanism of
fall near mined bed. Thus, the two design models roof stone there is modeled stress-strain state of
are formed while mining coal-overlying unit (Pol- rocks while mining coal layer С 7 within mine field
tavets & Savostyanov 1994): thin plates not rigidly of Zapadno-Donbasskaya mine (prospecting bore
restrained from both sides and those not rigidly #8231). There was longwall mining to the rise with
restrained from one side. The latter are layers lo- the longwall’s length being 150 м, roof control is
cated directly above the seam, and called roof stone. defined as cave-in, width of the shearer is 0.8 m,
Under all other conditions basic load on the roof and rate of face advance is 2 m / day. Coal-
stone including technological parameters depends overlying unit was divided into 28 beds according to
on its thickness as well as on thickness of overlying rock types during modeling process. Calculations
rocks. Thus, to determine modification of conditions for each bed were divided into two stages. At first,
of roof stone rocks it is required to determine pa- parameters of load curves depending on varying
rameters of load curve and reaction for all layers of abovementioned technological parameters were
coal-overlying unit from daylight area. determined for each of them. Key parameters of
As it is a known, safe and efficient operation in load curves for beds located nearby mined bed if the
stopes depends on ability to control rock condition rate of face advance is 2 m / day are in Table 1.
within face space. As a rule, powered roof supports Chain of detailed calculations of load curve parame-
consisting of bearing elements (mostly they are two ters and indices required to determine stress-strain
hydraulic legs, a bed, and console with a hood) are state of roof stone rocks is specified in paper
used for that today. Lately, a tendency to increase (Savostyanov & Klochkov 1992).
bearing force of hydraulic legs with similar support
has been initialised. It considerably increases steel
intensity of powered roof supports resulting in their
127
Table 1. Parameters of load curves for lower beds of coal-
L3 3 Bk  k 
overlying unit. Yx    cos x  1 (4)
 f K I
3
1 k3  2L 
Thick- If rate of advance is 2 m / day
ness Physical pa- K  E0 if 0  x  a
of bed Geometrics (m)
rameters (МPа)
(m) f2  x
a d0 S2 ghp K  E0  E n   En if a  x  f 2 (5)
0.7 1.0 0.8 19.1 17.0 b2
2.0 2.9 2.0 24.3 21.1
12.0 12.8 8.5 31.2 15.0 K  En if f 2  x  L
Design of simulation model of interaction be- To determine effect of stope’s support, the stress-
tween main roof and roof stone with 0.7 m thickness strain state of support of roof rocks was calculated.
is shown in Figure 1. Not rigidly restrained console While simulating support, resistance near face and
experiences basic loads from the main roof, normal near border of face space varied from 50 tf / m2 to
reaction from coal layer, and reaction from support. 250 tf / m2, and technological parameters of mining
Central point of overhanging beam (Figure 1) was as well as rate of face advance stayed to be invari-
determined taking into account its thickness and rate able.
of the face advance. Reaction of support is shown as Figure 2 shows lines of behaviour of shearing
trapezium with running values of r1 and r2 . forces within the bed of roof stone depending on
Shearing forces, bending forces of its fault were support resistance of stope. The lines’ data study
calculated on the basis of parameters of basic load shows that the most important modifications of
curve. The calculations took into account below shearing forces take place when support resistance
mentioned expressions (Savostyanov & Klochkov near longwall face is more than that near the goaf.
1992). In the expressions, the f(K) is the modulus of Thus, if support resistance near face is 250 tf / m2
deformation which is modified along the layer then shearing forces of the face increase from 250 tf
length according to the expression (5). to 800 tf. With it, shear stress of shearing forces
increases from 535 tf / m2 to 1700 tf / m2, practi-
cally thrice. Then increase in shear stress will take
place within lower fourth of roof stone layer.
800
600
400
Crosswise forces (tf)
200
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-200
-400
-600
Distance from border of massif (m)
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2

Figure 1. Design model to calculate stress-strain state of

roof stone rocks. Figure 2. Lines of deflection moment modification and
shearing forces of roof.
3 k
Ox    Bk sin x (1)
1 L Over the central part of the face space the shear-
ing forces change sign, and maximum value is
L 3 Bk k within upper fourth of roof thickness. Here maxi-
Mx   sin x (2) mum value of shear stress is 850 tf / m2. The most
 1 k L
favourable conditions from the viewpoint of roof
2 L2 3 Bk k stone continuity take place when support resistance
c   sin x (3) at the goaf is more than support resistance at the
 f K I
2
1 k 2 2L face space.
128
Under standard conditions if support is not avail- lines of behaviour of moments of deflection for the
able the moment of deflection along the length of bed within roof stone depending on support resis-
layer changes sign. Within massif the moment of tance modification.
deflection is negative. Compression stresses origi-
nate in lower fourth of layer, and tensile stresses Table 2. Maximum normal stresses by moment of deflection.
originate in the upper part. If support is available
Normal stresses by moment of
then behavior of moment of deflection varies. Fig- deflection (МPа)
ure 3 shows behavior of stress condition of roof Support At the face At the goaf
stone if there is support with different resistance at resistance
Compression
Compression
the face and the goaf. Thus, if there is support at the (tf / m2)
Tension
Tension
face with important support resistance and small (at the faceat
support resistance at the goaf near the face then the goaf)
tensile stresses take place within upper layer of roof
stone, and compression stresses are within lower
part of layer. It has favorable effect on rock continu- 50-50 51 13 26 7
ity while mining with the help of coal shearer. If 250-50 123 32 28 7.2
support resistance at the face is small, and support 50-250 49 12 43 10
resistance at the goaf is important then character of
stress distribution from moment of deflection varies. Studies of data from Table 2 and lines show that
Near the face tensile stresses take place within increase in support resistance at the face influences
lower part of roof stone layer, and compression significantly both behaviour of moment of deflec-
stresses are available within upper part. It increases tion and its value. If support resistance at the face
the risk of roof stone cave-in while mining with the increases from 50 tf / m2 to 250 tf / m2 then moment
help of coal cutter. Besides, if there is adhesion on of deflection at the face increased from 360 tfm to
the contact between rock and coal seam the over- 839 tfm, more than 2.3 times. Maximum compres-
burden recasting during stress increases the risk of sion stresses by moment of deflection increased
coal and gas outburst during mining. On the con- from 51 МPа to 123 МPа. If rock strength of roof
trary, if we mean goaf, compression stresses origi- stone is 25 МPа at the distance of 1m from the face,
nate within lower part of roof stone as a result of then roof stone crushing in its lower part should
moment of deflection, and tensile stresses originate happen.
within upper part of the layer.
400
200
Moment of deflection (tfm)
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
Distance to border of massif (m)

2
if support resistance at the face and goaf is 50 tf/m
2 2
if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m , and at the goaf is 50 tf/m
Figure 4. Lines of behaviour of moments of deflection

along the length of roof stone.
Figure 3. Behavior of stress condition of roof stone.
As the data from Table 2 show, if support resis-
Moments of deflection and maximum stresses by tance increases at the goaf then moment of deflec-
moment of deflection are estimated for the consid- tion modifies twice. But in this case, at the face it
ered conditions. Normal stresses are estimated for shifted to the face that is this maximum shifted to
distinguished points at the face and the goaf where the face when support resistance increased. Before
moments of deflection have maximum value. Esti- increase in support resistance was at the distance of
mation results for maximum normal stresses by 1m. After increase in support resistance up to
moment of deflection are in Table 2. Figure 4 shows 250 ts / m2, maximum shifted to the face at the
distance of 0.2 m. Thus, if support resistance con-
129
tinuous increasing at the goaf and support resistance Roof stone lowering at the goaf under main roof
continuous decreasing at the face then maximum at sharp lowering helps to avoid rigid support fasten-
the face will shift to massif, and moment of deflec- ing.
tion will change a sign at the face, and tensile
stresses will originate within lower part of roof 200
Stresses (MPa)
stone. Line shown in Figure 3b will appear. Within 100
layers prone to sudden outbursts of coal and gas it 0
may result in dynamic phenomenon development. -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-100
Regular operation in stope requires prescribed
-200
limits for value of roof stone lowering which to
some extent depends on support resistance. Practice -300
of mines shows that roof lowering at the face border -400
is always more than main roof lowering. In other -500

Distance to border of massif (m)
cases when main roof lowering rises to roof rock
lowering then support load at the border of mining if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m22, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2 2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m ,2and at the goaf is 250 tf/m2
will rise sharply. If so support will be fastened if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 250 tf/m2 , and at the goaf is 50 tf/m2
if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m2, and at the goaf is 50 tf/m 2
“rigidly” and then damaged. In mining practice if support resistance at the face is 50 tf/m , and at the goaf is 250 tf/m
value of roof stone lowering at the border of face

space attempts is engaged to be controlled at the
expense of pliability of supports. In this connection, Figure 5. Lines of behaviour of equivalent stresses and
it is required to make preliminary forecasts of both roof stone lowering with 0.7 m thickness.
main roof and roof stone lowering values.
To determine effect of support resistance on value
of roof stone lowering there were estimated both the 5 CONCLUSIONS
lowering and equivalent stresses within lower part
of the bed. The estimation results are in Table 3. The research helps to come to the following conclu-
Typical sections and those along the whole length of sions:
roof stone are shown as lines in Figure 5. 1. Support resistance modification in the stope
effects stress-strain state of main roof rocks;
2. Increase in support resistance at the face space
Table 3. Roof stone lowering and equivalent stresses
helps to avoid tensile stresses at the face within
within typical section.
lower part of roof stone. In turn, it reduces danger of
Lowering (mm) and equivalent its damage and development of sudden outbursts
stresses (МPа) from a coal seam;
Support resis-
(at the face-at

tance (tf / m2)
At 1m dis- 3. Increase resistance at the border of face space

the goaf)
At the goaf in the case of sharp increase in main roof lowering

tance of the face
raises probability of support rigid fastening;
Lowering
Lowering
4. If support resistance increases greatly at the

Stresses Stresses border of face space, tensile stresses originate
within roof stone over the face under the layer by
50-50 51 22 287 16 moment of deflection. It results in increased prob-
250-50 83 51 405 72 ability of sudden outburst development during
50-250 41 18 234 17 shearer’s operation and roof stone failure.
Studies of Table 3 data help to state that within REFERENCES

considered limits of the stope’s support resistance
the most favourable conditions for continuity of bed Savostyanov, A.V. & Klochkov, V.G. 1992. Control of
are in variation two when support resistance is rock massif state. Kiev: NMK VО: 274.
greater at the goaf than at the face space. For all Poltavets, V.I. & Savostyanov, A.V. 1994. Mechanism of
variations, lowering of the face at the distance of 1m roof stone formation and its interaction with overlying
is within accuracy of estimations. But in variation rock mass. Ugol Ukrainy, 3: 24.
three, when support resistance at the goaf higher Kiyashko, I.А. 1984. Processes of underground mining.
compared to face space, insignificant increase in Kiev: Head Publishing of Vyshcha Shkola.
main roof lowering may result in rigid support
fastening at the goaf.
130
Improvement of mining methods with consolidating

stowing of iron-ore deposits on big depths
A. Kuz’menko
A. Furman & V. Usatyy
CJSC “Zaporozhsky irone-ore plant”, Zaporozh’ye, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: the paper contains results of modeling by polarization-optical method of stability of tall rooms
and by mine observations during improvement of mining methods parameters with consolidating stowing on
big depths in difficult mining-geological conditions of South Belozersk deposit of iron ores.
1 INTRODUCTION deposit, the room mining method is applied with use

of goaf stowing with consolidating materials. Min-
One the basic issue of underground mining of ore ing methods are constantly applied at the plant and
deposits is the reliability of rock massif manage- focused on increase of a room’s size and implemen-
ment and selection of ore extraction technology. tation of new mine equipment.
Indispensable condition of any mining method is the
ability of the massif to preserve long-lasting stabil-
ity during mining. Preservation of project parame- 2 PROBLEMS
ters of a room depends on permissible horizontal
spans, vertical and incline outcrop. Physical and Application of mining methods of ore deposits with
mechanical properties of ores and host rocks have consolidation stowing requires unification of the
significant influence under definite mining and geo- rooms in a technological block, having divided them
logical conditions. based on order of their mining at a level and adja-
Zaporozhian iron-ore plant has been processing cent level. This is necessary for safe execution of
ore deposits of South Belozersk deposit for more stoping and stowing operations. Thus, the chambers
than 30 years constantly improving the technology are divided, based on the order of the deposits min-
of mining operations, decreasing dilution of rich ore ing, into primary, secondary and third order.
and increasing its coefficient of extraction. During mining of the deposit “Glavnaya” of
The thickness of the ore deposit “Glavnaya” South Belozersk deposit, room mining method is
changes in range from 10 to 120 meters. The deposit applied with blast-hole drilling of an ore from sub-
is located with angle of 65-700 and dips in north- level openings. Height of the chambers reaches
eastern direction. Coefficient of strength of ore, 100 m with width of 30 meters. After the ore extrac-
according to Protod’yakonov’s scale, varies from tion, the chambers are filled with a consolidating
f  2  5 in south part of the deposit, to f  4  8 stowing. During change of the chambers parame-
in north part. Rocks of the foot and hanging wall are ters, their constructive dimensions and shapes did
presented by ferruginous quartzite, shales of various not correspond at the adjacent levels. In these condi-
compound and sandstones. More than 50% are pre- tions, it was necessary to take the shape of a cham-
sented by rocks with coefficient of strength equal to ber such, that we would not loose the ore deposits,
keeping stability of the roof that consists of a rock
f  8  10 and reaches f  15 in north part of the
conglomerate – left ore, host rocks and backfill
deposit. Near 70% of shales have coefficient of massif.
strength equal to f  4  8. During the improvement of mining method, the
In general, mining operations are carried out on roof of secondary chambers of lower located level
depth of 640-940 m, and the safety roof is devel- had a tent shape that repeated shape of bottom of the
oped on depth of 305-340 m that is left under water- above located level. These chambers are mined after
bearing level. the backfill in the primary chambers gets sufficient
During mining of steeply-falling and quite thick strength against surface exposure of an artificial

131
massif and resistance to seismic influence. shape and dimensions of the chambers that provide
With change of mining method parameters, the stability of the goaf, is impossible without sufficient
roof of the chamber took various shapes depending information concerning stress-strain state of the
on the order of an ore extraction. Selection of physi- undermined different-module massif around cham-
cal and mechanical characteristics of the backfill, ber (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Order of mining of chambers in survey axes of levels 480-580 and 548-640 m.
3 ANALYSIS OF RESEARCHES tion-optical modeling was adopted. It allows to

AND PUBLICATIONS solve private task of the stresses distribution with
observance of geometrical similarity in any place.
Stress and strain state of different-module massif is For given mining-geological conditions with dif-
determined both by analytical and calculation meth- ferent orders of ore deposits mining along the strike,
ods and by physical modeling with application of the most acceptable and efficient method is the po-
polarization-optical method. Analytical methods larization-optical method.
require considerable expenses of time and are hard Researches of stress state of the system “ore mas-
to solve due to interconnection of many factors. sif-consolidating backfill” are performed with con-
Received results do not always correspond to in- secutive reproduction of full history of stoping and
strumental mine measures. Tasks of such kind backfilling at a deposit.
should be resolved using numerical methods, they
forecast the stress and strain state of a massif around
an opening quite reliably. But it is hard to carry out 4 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
for the display of the whole picture of stress forma-
tion in different-module massif that is violated by For reproduction of mining-geological conditions of
mine operations and that was formed from an artifi- mining of South Belozersk deposits and modeling of
cial massif. different-module massif, two models made of igdan-
In connection with high labor intensiveness of a tin were made. Content of igdantin was 20-25%,
mathematical model design for a complex multicon- 30% of glycerin and 40-45% of water. Backfill of a
tour object, in concrete case, method of polariza- goaf was imitated by filling of foam-like igdantin

132
with loaded model, but at this, elasticity module was Elasticity module of different-module material made
5-6 times lower than elasticity module of an ore up E  1.15  1.3 kg / m2, volume weight of igdantin
material in the model. is   1.1 g / m3.
Modeling was performed on a big polarizing unit Consecutive mining and backfill of the chambers
IGD of A.A. Skochyns’kyy and on polarizing unit are carried out in levels of 340-480 m and 480-640
ИМАШ-КБ-2 using white colour. Height of the m with vertical chambers. Below level of 640 m and
model was 580 mm, width 615 mm, thickness above level of 340 m mining was performed accord-
20 mm. Dimension of the goaf did not exceed ing to the project of experimental technology. Area
250 mm of height and 70 mm of width that allowed of an ore deposit above level of 340 m was being
to provide correct limit conditions. Scale determina- mined by low horizontal chambers and below level
tion of the material’s strip was performed using sensi- of 640 m in models – by inclined chambers. Mining
tive colouring on the samples which were cut out of of the low chambers was initialized having ratio of
the model and loaded with their own weight under
elasticity modules of the backfill material ( E3 ) and
conditions of flat stress state. Then the model liber-
ated from horizontal stress was being x-rayed by the massif ( E M ) equal to 1:10 and 1:15. Mining of
polarized light. Stresses in optical models are pre- the levels was performed having ration equal to E3 :
sented by interference colour of predominantly first
E M  1:6 that allowed to approximately express
order. Gauging of the model is performed on the
sensitive paint and when there is no side support interaction of backfill and massif taking into ac-
gauging model was being x-rayed by polarized light. count process of backfill consolidation process.
In order to follow identity of the stress fields in the Colour and order of interference stripes were
model and in natural conditions that is defined by marked according to the height of the model and
equality of side thrust coefficient   0.5  0.6 , some gauging lines were drawn then according to the
pads are injected into the sides that allowing to in- stripes.
crease model’s thrust from   0.44 to   0.55.
Figure 2. Distribution of isochromatic lines of stresses in different-module massif around the chambers with cogged form
of the roof.

133
Models were registering pictures of isochromatic tween chambers #4, 5 and 6, between levels 480-
and isoclinic lines at every stage. Their position 580 m and after consolidation of backfill in cham-
were being registered every 100 from 00 to 900 . bers #4 and #5 – chamber #8.
Tangential stresses  xy ,  x ,  y ,  min ,  max
and coefficient of stresses concentration k max
were determined according to specially developed
program.
Possible variants of chambers configurations,
their disposition in ore deposit and order of the re-
serves extraction were taken into account.
5 RESULTS OF RESEARCHES
Initially, extraction of an ore deposit was simulated

in the boundaries of the levels of 325-480 m and
then extraction of primary chambers were carried
out on the level of 480-580 m. After backfilling of
the chambers #2, 3 and #4, the secondary chamber
#5 were extracted between chambers #3 and #4
which was filled up as well. After that the consecu-
tive extraction and backfill of chambers #6, 7 and
#8 on the level of 548-640 m were performed, and
then the secondary chamber #9 on the level of 480-
580 m between chambers #2 and #3 was extracted
and filled up. Graphics of isochromatic lines,
stresses and their coefficient of concentration are
shown on Figures 2 and 3.
Analyzing of distribution of isochromatic lines of
stresses in different-module around the chambers Figure 3. Distribution of stresses in different-module mas-
with cogged form (Figure 2), it should be men- sif around chambers with cogged shape of the roof.
tioned, that this index has the biggest value at in-
clined planes of an ore massif. Extracted chamber Analysis of isoclinic lines and isostatic lines
practically does not suffer tangential stresses while showed that the backfill of the chambers in limits of
located surrounded by backfill massif. These the mined level does not influence distribution of
stresses are located beyond the limits of filled stresses in massif and constructive elements. The
chambers in massif, especially in ore pillar between backfill accepts the load of hanging wall only after
filled chambers. mining of under and above located levels. Thus,
Ore deposit is located on the contact with a back- transfer of load is carried out on the footwall out of
fill massif in unloaded state and this favourably area of a rock foot-wall drift location. Trajectory of
influences stability of walls of backfilled chambers stresses takes intermediate position between back-
and formation of strong layer along the contact. filled and untouched ore massif. The backfill de-
Confirmation of above stated analysis of creases dimensions of influence zones of worked-
isochromatic lines change in complex configuration out area. Zone of significant influence presents area
of mining operations front in vertical cross-cut of extended along strike and has width equal to triple
ore deposit is the distribution of normal stresses in thickness of the deposit. Intensity of stresses in mas-
different-module massif around the chambers with sif and on the contour of the chamber is quantita-
cogged shape of the roof (Figure 3). tively characterized by picture of isochromatic lines.
Order of the chambers mining using second vari- Considering stresses in ore massif along lines, it
ant, as in the first variant, was simulating mining- can be noticed that there is a tendency to decrease of
geological situation in limits of levels of 340-480 m. component stresses while moving towards the goaf.
Then chamber #1 at level 548-640 m was mined and In operational areas they do not exceed 0.8 H ,
backfilled. After chambers #2 and #3 were mined, decreasing under backfill and backfilled chambers
and with that, chamber #2 had not been backfilled down to 0.4 H and even less. During mining of
until mining of chamber #3. A pillar was left be- chambers at level of 640-740 m by previously cho-

134
sen schemes, maximal stresses relate to hanging cient is f  15  16.
wall. With combination of ore draw points from Fall of the roof and backfill massif happened in
chambers of hanging and foot walls at level of chamber 1/19 of level of 465-580 meters in amount
740 m, their concentration decreases from of 50-70 thousand tons of rock mass (ore, shales,
2.5 H to 1.5 H . In chambers with inclined bot- backfill). The ore in this chamber was composed of
tom, including interchamber pillar, zones of relief hematite and martite with strength coefficient from
prevail, except for area of hanging wall. Backfill on f  3  5 to f  8  10 with separate areas with
all position has a zero f  10  12 . Interburdens of 3-5 meter-thickness of
Comparing received results of stresses and coeffi-
cients of concentration it is not hard to notice that hematite, fractured, unstable ore with strength coef-
these values are higher in second variant than in the ficient being f  3 occur at level of 480 m. Shales
first one. Maximal coefficient of concentration ex- with strength coefficient f  7  9 , middle fractur-
ceeded value 3 in area of transport level. Concentra- ing, stability being from middle till lower than mid-
tion coefficients are equal to 2 in pillars between dle occur in the footwall. Quartzite of middle frac-
chambers #1 and #2. This is 1.5 time higher than in turing and stability with strength coefficient
the first variant. With the second variant the size of f  14  16 occur in hanging wall of the deposit.
the abutment zone is 40 meters in area of draw points
of all chambers at the level. Areas of increased pres-
sure were located at the level of draw points of all
chambers of the level 640 m. Compressive and tan-
gential stresses do not exceed elasticity limit of ores
in chambers’ bottom of level 480-580 m, that is the
result of protective effect of the backfill.
From the above stated it follows that it is safer to
mine the chambers under loaded massif than under
untouched massif.
Thus, order of chambers mining at a level deter-
mines distribution of stresses and formation of
abutment pressure at the bottom and roof of a
chamber. Figure 4. Areas of falls in chambers of level of 480-580 m
Generalizing results of modeling on equivalent in projection on hanging wall of ore deposit.
materials on polarization-optical method it can be
concluded that stress state of different-module mas-
sif has direct dependence both on configuration of a
chamber and front of stope, and also on mining
depth and physical and mechanical properties of
backfill massif and ore.
This found confirmation during analysis of cham-
bers condition at levels of 480-640 meters during
ore breaking by borehole charges. Influence of
technological parameters of mining, physical and
mechanical properties of ore, host rocks and backfill
material on deviation of project geometrical dimen-
sions of chambers is determined by factual indices
of mine documentation. Volume of an ore caving on Figure 5. Areas of falls in chambers of level of 480-580 m
the given level is shown on Figures 4 and 5. in projection on hanging wall of ore deposit.
It is determined that amount and volumes of
chambers cavings depend on the ore strength coeffi- Increase of parameters of a chamber by 20%
cient alteration. Chamber’s ore is hematite-martite thanks to falls are noticed at levels of 480-580 me-
of low fracturing, middle stability with strength ters: chambers 2/15ю, 1/11ю, 1/7ю, 1/4ю, 3/13ю,
coefficient equal to f  2  3. In this place, the ore 1/2ю, 3/15ю, 5/13ю, 1/14ю, 3/1с, 2/8с. Fall of rock
is fractured and unstable. Shales of various middle and bottom of the chamber at the contact with back-
fractured and stability with strength coefficient of fill massif happened in chamber 1/20ю of level of
f  7  9 . Hanging wall is presented by quartzites 465-580 m. Analogical events were observed in
of middle fracturing and stability, strength coeffi- different-module massif and while mining of ore

135
deposits at level of 548-640 m. In general, hanging 1. Areas of the roof, transcending the chamber’s
wall’s rocks were falling – chambers 4/13ю, 2/6ю, walls, have 2 times greater equivalent stresses than
4/5ю, 2/18ю, 4/9ю, 2/14ю, 2/22ю и 4/21ю. in central part of the roof and 1.5 times greater than
As it is seen from the data shown on Figures 4 near the bottom.
and 5, dependence of deviation of chamber’s pa- 2. Maximal values of concentration of normal
rameters on the ore strength along strike of the de- (compressive) stresses are related to haulage level of
posit is clearly observed. In northern part of the 640 m and to left pillars between chambers #1, 2
deposit, where strength coefficient of ore reaches and 3. Areas of increased pressure are located at the
f  15 , there are almost no falls from walls and level of draw points of all chambers of the level of
roof. And on the contrary, in south part, where coef- 640 m. Compressive and tangential stresses do not
ficient of ore strength reaches f  2  3 , consider- exceed ore elasticity limit in chambers roofs of level
of 480-580 m due to protective effect of the backfill.
able amount of falls occurs. It should be added that
3. Order of chambers mining on a level and their
fracturing of massif also contributes to falling even
backfill order determine distribution of stresses and
more than rocks strength. With significant fracturing
formation of abutment pressure near bottom and
of massif, walls and roof of the chambers get bro-
roof of a chamber.
ken, even with considerable strength of an ore.
4. Generalizing results of modeling on equivalent
materials by polarization-optical method, it can be
6 CONCLUSIONS concluded that stress state of different-module mas-
sif has direct dependence both on configuration of a
As a result of performed researches of stress-strain chamber and front of stopes, and on operation depth
state of different-module massif by polarization- and physical-mechanical properties of the backfill
optical method on photo-elastic equivalent materi- and ores.
als, following conclusions can be made:

136
New generation concrete – new approach

in designing of underground structures
P. Czaja & J. Hydzik

Faculty of Mining and Geoengineering, AGH – UST, Kraków, Poland
ABSTRACT: A continuous increase of demand for mineral resources requires the opening up of new depos-
its, which results in the necessity to sink new shafts and dip roads from the surface. The application of new
materials, especially of HPC and SCC, to build new underground constructions in difficult mining and geo-
logical conditions may significantly influence the changes in the construction of lining, increase the durabil-
ity and lower the construction costs. The possibility analysis to make such concrete structures in difficult
shaft conditions was carried out in laboratory tests and in numerical computations. This article was made
according the results of the project #11.11.100.197.
1 INTRODUCTION million tons, which constitutes a 92% growth in the

last 25 years (Coal Fact 2007). Poland, as the 8th
A continuous increase of demand for mineral re- coal producer in the world (Coal fact 2007) with its
sources requires the opening up of new deposits. output of 95 million tons which accounts for 56% of
This results in the necessity to sink new shafts or EU coal production, is the biggest producer in EU.
dip roads from the surface and other underground The same pace of development is visible as regards
workings from which commercial minerals are the production of steel, which is the result of a
mined. Concrete is one of the main building materi- dynamic growth of the building and car industries.
als that is applied both in civil and underground At the same time, there is a growing demand on
engineering. Thanks to recent developments in the world metal market for copper, aluminum, zinc,
building and material chemistry, the production of lead, nickel, titanium and others. Both in the case of
concrete has undergone several changes. The sup- steel and non-ferrous metals, the increase of produc-
plementation of ordinary concrete with suitable tion of steel depends on the mining of metal ores
mineral additives and chemical admixtures im- and (in the case of steel) production of coke. The
proved the quality of both the concrete mix and the demand of the mining construction industry as
hardened concrete. As a result new group of materi- regards the opening up of deposits and the prepara-
als – known as new generation concrete – has ap- tion for further exploitation can be analyzed against
peared, among which the most popular and most the background of these industries.
frequently applied are high-value, self-consolidating In the Polish model of underground mines the
and light high-performance concretes, etc. Concrete opening up of deposits was carried out mainly by
that has extraordinary properties, such as shear vertical shafts. In recent years, due to a more and
strength of 200 MPa, composite concrete, self- more frequent application of belt conveyors to
cleaning or even transparent concretes are still in transport the winning and suspended railway to
experimental phase. transport material and people, there has been a well
The introduction of new generation concretes into justified interest in opening up coal deposits from
underground construction and especially into shaft the surface by means of inclined shafts. Such sys-
sinking which is dominated by ordinary concrete tems are already working in Poland in the Janina,
will result in a complete change in the concepts of Sobieski and Marcel hard coal mines. An inclined
designing and constructing underground linings. shaft is being planned to be applied in the Janina
hard coal mine to open up coal deposits at the depth
of 800 m.
2 POLISH UNDERGROUND ENGINEERING Polish mining construction industry, as the only
AT THE BEGINNING OF 21ST CENTURY one in Europe in the last 5 years, has sunk a shaft
from the surface to the depth of 1250 m for the
The world output of hard coal increased by 8.8% Polish copper mining. At present two more shafts
last year and exceeded the magical figure of 5 000 are being planned to be sunk from the surface for
137
the KGHM Polska Miedź copper company and at The output of 100 million tons of hard coal, 30
least two more for coal mining. In the last five years million tons of copper ore and approx. 5 million
3 shafts have been deepened and several more shafts tons of zinc and lead ore requires an immense con-
are inevitably going to undergo the same operation. struction capacity in the field of underground engi-
The majority of the recent coal output comes from neering. It is estimated that a total of 400 km of
sublevels, which is not a good solution. In order to workings in rock and approx. 2700 km of dog
change the situation many shafts will have to be headings in coal will have to be made in all the
deepened. Moreover, zinc and lead ore mining, companies. What is more 21 new working floors, at
which has been developing recently due to the high least 4 shafts from the surface and the deepening of
price of these metals, will require significant in- 8 existing shafts will have to be completed. The
vestments as regards the construction of vertical or range of tasks for the coal and copper underground
inclined shafts. mining has been presented in tables 1-4.
The number of shafts that have been closed down galleries and 100.8 km of shafts have been liqui-
shows the scale of the restructuring operations in dated. The cost of restructuring and closing down
hard coal mining. According to the Agency of operations in the Polish mining industry has
Industry Development – the Katowice branch, 35 amounted to over 790 million zl in the last 15 years.
mines have been closed down since 1990, including Besides the operations in the Polish mining indus-
the whole of the Wałbrzych Basin and the majority try, the tunneling industry for transportation needs
of mines in the Dąbrowskie Basin. Thus 2785 km of has been recently slowly expanding. Such invest-
138
ments of the recent years should be mentioned as: a generation concrete. It is a multicomponent compos-
traffic artery in Warsaw (900 m), street tunnel ite with specific and selected qualities of both the
(230 m) and tram tunnel (1200 m) under the railway fresh concrete mix and the hardened concrete. High
station in Krakow. In the Żywiec region a road performance concrete with both normal and light-
tunnel Laliki (760 m) together with an emergency weight aggregate and the self-compacting ones is
tunnel is being built. In the nearest future a tunnel the most popular and common.
will be constructed under the St.Bronisława Hill in
Krakow and two tunnels (1930 m each) between the
3.1 High Performance Concrete (HPC)
villages of Milówka and Węgierska Górka. There
are also plans to build: The conventional boarder line between an ordinary
– a tunnel in Mikuszowice, a district of the town and high performance concrete is based on its com-
of Bielsko Biała, pressive strength and equals approx. 50/60 MPa. In
– a tunnel under the Martwa Wisła river near the traditional concrete technological reasons force a
Gdańsk, comparatively high water-cement ratio of about 0.45-
– a tunnel under the Świna river in Świnoujście, 0.6, while already in the case of W/C = 0.4 a 100%
– an underground car park in the centre of Ka- hydration of cement occurs and there is no excess of
towice. water (Aïtcin 2000). A small amount of make-up
With so many tasks of the underground engineer- water and a significantly big contact surface between
ing, attention should be paid to technological and the grains of the components of the fresh concrete
engineering development in material science, and mix result in a rapid increase of initial strength.
particularly to new materials such as new generation High performance concrete is a durable material
concretes. and resistant to destructive environment. Investiga-
tions (Giergiczny et al. 2002) dispelled any doubts
as regards the water resistance of high performance
3 NEW GENERATION MATERIALS – NEW and self compacting concretes. It was proved (Aït-
APPROACH TO THE FUNCTION AND cin 2000) that in the case of concrete with W/C =
CONSTRUCTING OF UNDERGROUND 0.4 the water flow practically stops regardless the
LININGS density of the sample and value of the pressure. A
very low permeability caused by a very tight micro-
Due to the existence of new materials, particularly structure results in the increase of resistance to
highly resistant concretes that are significantly chemical aggression. Generally, HPC with a low
watertight and other that have both low thermal W/C ratio, due to the lack of unbound water is
conductivity and high resistance, the approach must highly frost resistant: F200 or even F500 (Aïtcin
be changed to the role of the linings of underground 2000, Ajdukiewicz 2000, Neville 2000 & Giergic-
workings (shafts and horizontal workings) con- zny et al. 2002). Thanks to these properties high
structed in unusual mining and geological condi- performance concrete constitutes a durable material.
tions. In the case of artificial freezing of the rock Apart from positive qualities high performance
mass, the preliminary lining plays both the role of a concrete has some drawbacks, among which is its
structure-bearing element and an efficient thermal brittleness. It is caused by a high modulus of elastic-
partition that lowers the thermal flow between the ity which increases together with the growth of the
frozen rock mass and the shaft face. The implemen- compression strength. The problem may be solved
tation of a suitable lining structure and adequate by the introduction of fibre to the concrete (Giergic-
materials eliminates completely the necessity to zny et al. 2002). In order to prevent undesired con-
apply treatments aiming at the protection of the traction that is caused by little amount of water and
fresh concrete in the final lining against low tem- significant amount of mineral additions, water
peratures and particularly to increase its thickness curing of concrete is desired in the first few days.
with the aim to rise the amount of heat released at The notion of high performance concrete includes
the initial stage of hydration. Similarly, at signifi- also lightweight concrete with the density of up to
cant depths with very high temperatures of the “in 2000 kg/m3 and self compacting concrete with some
situ” rock the lining of a working may constitute a specific properties of concrete mix.
sufficient thermal partition that protects the working
against overheating. In both cases the key to success
is the use of the new materials and a completely 3.2 Self Compacting Concrete (SCC)
new approach to designing and constructing the The development of superplastificators and the im-
linings of underground workings. plementation of new technologies resulted in the
Recently there has been a growing interest in new technology of self compacting concrete. The term
139
refers to the concrete that, apart from certain strength the aggregate is strengthened and tighter, and the
and durability features, has specific rheological resistance of the aggregate-cement grout contact
properties of the mix which enable the formation of layer is increased (Neville 2000).
concrete without vibrational compacting. The typical
features of this type of concrete are – first of all –
fluidization, homogeneity, almost complete elimina- 4 THE RANGE OF POSSIBLE CHANGES IN
tion of the air from the concrete mix and the ability to SHAFT LINING STRUCTURE
fill tightly the mould and cover completely the rein-
forcement (Giergiczny et al. 2002). The substitution of the previously applied shaft
SCC is particularly useful in the cases when tradi- lining of ordinary concrete with high performance
tional compacting through vibration is troublesome concrete results in several benefits such as: the
or even impossible due to, e.g. the lack of access or decrease of the thickness of the single concrete or
dense reinforcement. It can be successfully applied concrete-panel lining, the possibility to substitute
as the architectonic concrete since it has a smooth the lining combined with insulation layer with a
surface thanks to thorough self compacting. single lining made of watertight concrete, the possi-
bility to replace a tubing-concrete lining with a
concrete-panel lining made of high performance and
3.3 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LWAC)
waterproof concrete and finally, the improvement of
Lightweight concrete has the density ranging from monolithic lining quality by the application of self
800 kg/m3 to 2000 kg/m3 and is made with a full or compacting concrete. The decrease of the lining
partial application of lightweight aggregate. Due to thickness results in diminishing of its volume and
the fact that lightweight aggregate is commonly consequently in the decrease of the breakout volume
accessible and it can be used in the production of (Czaja 1999, 2001, 2002). According to investiga-
high performance concrete, it is more and more tions (Hydzik 2007) the change of the type of con-
commonly applied in the building industry. crete may lower the costs of constructing a shaft by
The density class of lightweight concrete is often as much as 15%.
considered as the equivalent of the compressive Such solutions have already been implemented in
strength and heat conductivity (Domagała 2003). the case of the Leon IV shaft, where in the course of
Generally, the higher the density the higher the shaft deepening a two-layer lining with an insulation
strength and heat conductivity. A low weight of foil in the middle was substituted by a suitably
lightweight concrete is its obvious advantage since – durable and waterproof one-layer concrete lining
depending on the type of the aggregate – the weight (Kostrz et al. 2000) and in a copper ore mine, where
of a structure may be lowered even to 45% (Doma- self-compacting concrete was used to construct
gała 2003 & Siwowski 2005) as compared to ordi- some sections of a shaft (Kapelko & Kapelko 2006).
nary concrete.
High performance light concrete, despite a very
porous aggregate, shows low absorbability and high 5 THE POSSIBILITY TO CONSTRUCT
watertightness and freeze resistance. The investiga- CONCRETE LINING IN DIFFICULT MINING
tions (Kon 1998) proved, also in the case of high CONDITIONS
performance concrete with pollytag aggregate, the
durability assumptions. At present shafts are constructed with the applica-
Heat-insulating properties are characterized tion of the rock mass freezing. Thus the construction
mainly by thermal conductivity λ. Concrete with the of a lining made of new generation concrete re-
density ranging from 1600-1800 kg / m3 has thermal quires the consideration of the fact that the concrete
conductivity of 0.7-0.8 W / (m K). Due to low must set and harden in the temperature above zero
thermal conductivity, together with low expansion degrees while the temperature around the shaft face
and modulus of elasticity, lightweight concrete is is kept under zero degrees and the final lining struc-
more resistant to the stress resulting from the ture must be waterproof and technically feasible to
changes of temperature. be made in the shaft face.
A rough texture of the aggregate grain surface The presented idea (Hydzik 2007) of concrete-
and the penetration of the fresh grout into the pores panel lining structure in shafts sunk with the freez-
of coarse aggregate determine a very good adher- ing method enables the application of high perform-
ence of the cement matrix to the aggregate pile. ance concrete in negative temperatures. The inten-
Moreover, the water absorbed by the aggregate sive heat exchange may be prevented and favorable
grains in the process of mixing in time becomes conditions for curing of the final lining can be
accessible to unhydrated cement grains. As a result achieved by means of fairly simple technological
140
operations, such as: weight concrete lining does not guarantee the re-
– the substitution of panels made of ordinary con- quired heat resistance, it is possible to increase it by
crete with prefabricated segments of high perform- constructing a thin (up to 5 cm) additional warming
ance lightweight concrete with low heat conductiv- layer on the interior surface of the additional panel,
ity  < 1,0 W/(mK) (endurance class LC50/55- made of heat-insulating material such as foam,
LC80/88); mineral wool, etc.
– constructing a filling layer behind the lining with Such a procedure should result in the decrease of
the use of lightweight aggregate concrete with high the heat exchange intensity between the frozen rock
insulating power, heat conductivity  = 0.3 ÷ 0.6 mass and the interior of the shaft. The solution is
W / (mK) and compression strength f c = 6 ÷ 15 MPa; presented in Figure 1.
– if the composition of the preliminary light-
T, O
C I T, O
C
II
l I-3 l II - 3 Heat-insulation
T I- 3 TII - 3
l II -4
l I-2 T II -4
+20
+20 l II - 2
T I- 2 NC T II - 2
+10 +10 T 3 >0
r, m r, m
0 0
- 10 T1 <0 - 10
HPC
l I-1 l II - 1 LC
- 20 - 20
T I- 1 TII -1
Freezing Shaft axis
Freezing Shaft axis
Casing Casing
Figure 1. The concept of shaft lining made of new generation concrete.

(I) previously applied ordinary concrete lining, (II) lining made according to the new concept.
low temperatures of the freezing mantle and it will

protect the frozen rock mass against the warm air
from the shaft face generated mainly during the
hydration of the cement in the concrete in the final
lining layer.
AIRSPACE HPC PRELIMINARY ROCK MASS

LINING
W B3 B1 I1 G3 G2 G1
B4 B2 I2
Figure 2. Structure model of the shaft final lining section (cm).

Figure 3. The distribution of temperature measuring
Key: 1 – freezing box casing; 2 – foamed polystyrene
points.
insulation layer; 3 – airspace; 4 – HPC sample; 5 - insulation
layer R = 2 m2K / W; 6 – stone plate; 7 – wet sand; 8 –
temperature measuring points.
The possibility to construct such layer was inves-
tigated on a laboratory model and then verified in
A correctly designed layer of the preliminary lin- the course of numerical analysis. The subject of the
ing will have a double function. It will protect the investigations was the influence of negative tem-
layer of the high performance concrete against the peratures from the frozen rock mass on the curing of
141
high performance concrete. The model was built in scheme of the laboratory stand is given in Figure 2
a box freezer which was divided for particular and the measuring points in Figure 3.
media: frozen rock mass, light weight concrete The temperatures in the measuring points (Figure
preliminary lining with heat resistance 3) were recorded for 28 days. The results of meas-
R = 2 m2K / W, the layer of final lining made of urements are given in Figure 4.
high performance concrete and the airspace. The
30
G1
G2
20
G3
Temperature, OC
I1
10 I2
B1
0 B2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 B3
B4
-10 W
-20
Time, days
Figure 4. Temperature distribution in the HPC being cured, the heat insulation layer, the frozen rock mass and the air-
space.
The preliminary lightweight concrete lining with liminary lining made of ordinary concrete with
the additional heat-insulation layer with total heat R = 0.16 m2K / W (Figure 2) and for lightweight
resistance R = 2 m2K/W was sufficient to ensure concrete preliminary lining with an additional layer
suitable conditions for curing the concrete in the of insulation foam with the resistance of
final lining. In the first 48 hours there was an in- R = 1.45 m2K / W (Figure 5).
crease of temperature to approx. 30 ºC and then it The results of the numerical experiment con-
stabilized to about +5 ºC despite the fact that the firmed that the higher the resistance of the partition
rock mass temperature was – 10 ºC. between the final lining and the frozen rock mass,
On the basis of numerical reverse analysis of the the higher the increase of the hardening concrete
thermal phenomena that occurred in the laboratory temperature. In the first case (Figure 5) the distribu-
models, a heat function ( qv ) for the concrete being tion of temperatures in the lining was uniform and
cured was worked out: the heat from the hydrating cement caused the
growth of the rock mass temperature. However, in
qv  440  e 0.00005t   25 . (1) Figure 6 a barrier against low temperatures coming
from the frozen rock mass formed by the prelimi-
With the application of (1) a numerical analysis nary lining is clearly visible. Moreover, a higher
was carried out for shaft conditions, which investi- heat resistance of the preliminary lining does not
gated the influence of preliminary lining heat resis- allow for an excessive defreezing of the rock mass.
tance on the temperature distribution in the final Thus, in the case of passive freezing, it is not neces-
lining while curing. sary to keep such low temperatures of the freezing
The figures below present the examples of tem- medium.
perature distribution for the two extreme cases of
shaft linings sunk in a frozen rock mass: for pre-
142
JOB TITLE : Obudowa wstepna z betonu zwyklego (*10^1)
FLAC (Version 5.00)

1.325
LEGEND 7 2 1
19-Feb-07 10:24 1.275

step 17280
Thermal Time 1.7280E+05
2.728E+00 <x< 7.526E+00
1.225
9.002E+00 <y< 1.380E+01
Temperature
-1.50E+01 1.175
-1.00E+01
-5.00E+00
0.00E+00 1.125
5.00E+00
1.00E+01
1.50E+01 1.075
2.00E+01
2.50E+01
3.00E+01
1.025
Contour interval= 5.00E+00 4

6
interface id#'s
0.975
0.925
A5304F82235122
14856
3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 5.500 6.000 6.500 7.000
Figure 5. Temperature map of a final lining section after 12 hours since the assembly.
JOB TITLE : Model numeryczny z obudowa wstepepna z dodatkowa warstwa izolacyjna (*10^1)
1.325
FLAC (Version 5.00)
7 2 1
LEGEND
1.275
19-Feb-07 12:00
step 17280
Thermal Time 1.7280E+05
1.225
2.853E+00 <x< 6.571E+00
9.626E+00 <y< 1.334E+01
Temperature
-1.00E+01 1.175
0.00E+00
1.00E+01
2.00E+01
3.00E+01 1.125
4.00E+01
Contour interval= 5.00E+00
interface id#'s
1.075
1.025
4
6
0.975
A5304F82235122
14856
3.250 3.750 4.250 4.750 5.250 5.750 6.250
Figure 6. Temperature map of a final lining section after 12 hours since the assembly.
143
6 CONCLUSIONS Czaja, P. 1999. Analiza skutków zastosowania betonów
wysokowartościowych w budownictwie szybowym.
The application of – among others -new generation Kraków (not published).
concrete in the shaft sinking and final lining build- Czaja, P. 2001. Beton wysokowartościowy w budownictwie
podziemnym. Conference materials „Przemysł wy-
ing technologies instead of the hitherto applied
dobywczy 2001. Wydawnictwo Scriptum, Kraków.
materials results in: Czaja, P. 2002. High Strength Concrete in Underground
– the increase of the shaft lining durability, Construction. The Conference Proceedings Geotechnika –
– a definite decrease of the breakout and lining Geeotechnics, Slovak Republic.
material volumes, Domagała, L. 2003. Właściwości betonów lekkich z
– the possibility to replace a very expensive tub- kruszyw ze spiekanych popiołów lotnych. Inżynieria
ing lining (made of cast iron) by high performance i Budownictwo, nr 12.
and waterproof concrete lining, Domagała, L. 2005. Problemy projektowania i wykonaw-
– the improvement of working conditions (the stwa betonów lekkich z kruszyw spiekanych. Przegląd
increase of the temperature at the shaft face being budowlany, 12.
frozen). Giergiczny, Z., Małoplepszy J., Szwabowski J., Śliwiński J.
2002. Cementy z dodatkami mineralnymi w technoligii
The research that has been conducted is only the
betonów nowej generacji. Górażdże Cement, Heidelberg
first step in this field. Further investigations, and Cement Group. Opole.
particularly an attempt to implement the new ideas, Hydzik, J. 2007. Zastosowanie betonu wysokowartościo-
may significantly change the attitude to the applica- wego w obudowach wyrobisk podziemnych drążonych w
tion of the rock mass artificial freezing method not sztucznie zamrożonym górotworze. PhD thesis, Krakow
only in the shaft construction but in the generally (not published).
understood underground engineering. Kapelko, A. & Kapelko R. 2006. Doświadczenia ze stoso-
wania betonów samozagęszczalnych SCC do budowy
szybu górniczego. Conference: Dni Betonu, Wisła.
Kon, E. 1998. Wysokowartościowy beton lekki z
PREFERENCES
kruszywem pollytag. Cement – Wapno – Beton, 3.
Kostrz J., Olszewski J., Czaja P., Witosiński J. & Deja J.
Aïtcin, P. 2000. Trwały wysokowartościowy beton – sztuka 2000. Zastosowanie betonów odpornych na silną agresję
i wiedza. Conference Beton na progu nowego milenium.
siarczanowa i magnezową w budownictwie podziemnym.
Polski Cement, Kraków. Budownictwo Górnicze i Tunelowe nr 3.
Ajdukiewicz, A. 2000. Rozwój badań i zastosowań betonów Neville, A. M. 2000. Właściwości betonu. Polski Cement,
wysokowartościowych. Konferencja Beton na progu
Kraków.
nowego milenium. Polski Cement, Kraków.
Siwowski, T. 2005. Przykłady zastosowań betonów niekon-
Coal Fact 2007 Edition – Internetowy serwis World Coal wencjonalnych w polskim mostownictwie. Geoinżynieria.
Institute. www.worldcoal.org.
Drogi, mosty i tunele, 4.
144
Results of the 3-D simulation of the transversely

isotopic rock mass stress state around a longwall
S. Vlasov  A. Sidelnikov
ABSTRACT: The results of the stress researching in the longwall, that were obtained applying three-
dimensional incremental computer model of the stratified transversely isotropic rock mass, are presented in
the article. The incremental simulation of the longwall advance within 3-D computer model of the stratified
transversely isotropic rock mass allows to establish regular occurrence of the stress state formation around
the longwall depending on stope disposition along an extraction pillar. The stress curve along a longwall
depending on a stope disposition along an extraction pillar allows to assess the coal seam’s stress and strain
state ahead of a stope. Parameters and results of the three-dimensional simulation of the rock mass are valid
for Western Donbass conditions.
1 INTRODUCTION 3 PURPOSE OF THE ARTICLE
A priority tendency of Ukraine’s coal mining indus- The purpose of the article is to research the laws of
try development is increase production efficiency at vertical rock pressure distribution in a mined coal
decrease of a general share of capital expenditure seam depending on the stope disposition along an
and operational costs. Therefore in current eco- extraction pillar based on three-dimensional com-
nomical conditions the increase in volumes of a coal puter model results of the stratified transversely
mining output due to adoption of highly effective isotropic rock mass with the incremental longwall
mining technologies and use of a modern highly movement along an extraction pillar.
productive mining technique is expected at the
operating mining enterprises. But the intensification
of the coal extraction technology has defined a wide 4 SIMULATION METHOD
range of the mining problems connected with nega-
tive rock pressure manifestation in development By means of a software package SolidWorks 2009,
openings and stopes. It extremely decreases coal computer model for conditions of longwall #874 at
output and significantly increases production cost the mine “Zapadnodonbaskaya” of OJSC “Pavlo-
and industrial accidents rate. Applications of highly gradugol” has been built. Initial technological and
effective technologies and methods of rock pressure mining-and-geological data are presented in Table 1.
management in the longwalls requires knowledge of
stress distribution laws in a rock mass depending on Table 1. Initial data for modeling.
stope position along an extraction pillar. Parameter Value
Longwall length, m 190
Powered support КД-80
2 ESSENCE OF THE PROBLEM
Angle of dip, degree 0-2
As a result of a stope advance and increase in the Extraction thickness, m 0.95-1.05
size of a goaf, there is a redistribution of the stress Support of the drift КШПУ-13.2
and strain state in a rock massif. The knowledge of Title of the coal seam С8н
distribution law of a vertical rock pressure in a face
Depth of mining, m 460
part of a coal seam allows to estimate the stress state
of the coal mass ahead of the stope that is an impor-
The model’s geometry parameters and rock mass
tant technological parameter that influences process
physical and mechanical parameters were defined
of a deposit extraction.
according to (Sidelnikov 2009). The simulation
parameters are specified in (Vlasov 2010).
145
5 BASIC PART gradugol” makes: P0  11.0 МPа; k  0.15 ; values
of function F z ; L  in the interval z  [–85; +85]
Stress state distribution of the rock mass around the
longwall depends on stope disposition along an are presented in Table 2.
extraction pillar and is in interrelation with the roof
fall mechanism that is stated in (Vlasov 2010). It Table 2. Values of function F z ; L  in the interval z 
means, that stress state distribution picture in the [–85; +85] depending on a stope position.
coal seam along a longwall and along an extraction Stope position,
pillar changes depends on presence and size of the F L  , МPа Dispersion, %
m
rocks’ hanging in a goaf. Generally, the dependence 5 15 ±6.6
of stress change along an extraction pillar is possi-
15 21 ±5.0
ble to present in the following form
25 28 ±10.0
 
 y  F z ; L   P0 e kX  P0 , X  0;  , (1)
35
45
36
40
±10.0
±7.2
where  y – vertical component of the underground 55 42 ±10.0
65 45 ±4.5
pressure, МPа; F z ; L  – function of vertical com- *S = 0 30 ±6.6
ponent of underground pressure distribution on a S=1 40 ±5.0
working face plane along a longwall z depending on S=2
position of a stope along an extraction pillar L , S=3 45 ±10.0
МPа; P0 – vertical component of the underground S=4
pressure in an untouched rock mass on the given
*Value of the parameter S is defined according to
depth of mining, МPа; k – indicator of a stress formula (2).
damping, m-1; X – value in meters on a co-ordinate
axis that is directed along an extraction pillar, L  75  50n
4S  0, (2)
X  0;  , value of X  0 corresponds to a face 10
plane.
Vertical component of the underground pressure where L – any stope position, m, L  [75;  );
in an untouched rock mass on given depth of mining n – any multiplier, which is selected, so that the
is defined according to geostatic underground pres- inequality (2) is carried out, n  0, 1, 2,..., N .
sure theory that is proven by experience of mining Starting from the stope position 75 m, as it was
operations in Western Donbas conditions. already marked in (Vlasov 2010), obviously ex-
pressed periodicity is observed. Therefore, to define
n the stress values on the working face plane in any
P0    i H i , MPa
i 1 stope position along an extraction pillar, it is neces-
sary to take parameter S, which characterizes the
where  i – volume weight of an i rock, МN / m3; stope position within one period irrespective of a
H i – layer thickness of an i rock, m. longwall disposition along an extraction pillar.
Proceeding from the above-stated, this parameter
The function F z ; L  in the interval z  [–85; should satisfy the equation (2).
+85] (the longwall length is in the interval of [–95; However, taking into consideration of a three-
+95] is described by straight line that is parallel to dimensional stress state and coefficient of rock
abscissa axis, value dispersion is not more than massif structural loosening, according to the theory
10%. In the specified interval, the vertical compo- of limiting stress state (More-Kulon’s theory of
nent of the underground pressure practically does failure) transition of a coal seam face to a limiting
not change along a longwall. Therefore, the distribu- state occurs with achievement of the underground
tion function of the underground pressure vertical pressure vertical component F L  of limiting value
component on the working face plane along a long-
wall z depends only on a stope position along an equal  ext
y .
extraction pillar L .
Subject to the condition of F L    lim
y , exten-
Numerical values of the parameters entering into
the formula (1), for conditions of mining seam С8н tion of limiting area X 0 , counting from a working
on the mine “Zapadno-Donbaskay” OJSC “Pavlo- face plane deep into a coal massif along an extrac-
tion pillar, it is possible to find, having expressed
146
from the formula (1) value X and having accepted for about 35 m, the maximum of underground
 y   ext : pressure practically constantly is located in a coal
y
massif at a distance of 1.2-4.5 m from a stope plane.
Exceptions are longwall positions, for which S = 0.
1 F z; L   P0
X0  ln ext , (3) It is necessary to notice, that at transition to position
k  у  P0 when S  0 , the transitive of 3.5-4.5 m long takes
place in which the maximum of a longwall advance
Taking into account (3) formula (1) for case moves to a working face. After passage of this zone,
F L    ext
y will become the stress distribution in a seam corresponds to the
law presented in Figure 3.

 y   ext
y  P0 
k  X  X 0 
 P0 , X  X 0 ;    . (4)
On boundary of transition from area of a limiting

state into the area of permissible loads, there is a
maximum of an abutment underground pressure
ahead of stope. Accordingly, the distance from a
plane of working face to this maximum is defined
by the formula (3), and from the formula (4) it is
evident, that the maximum of an abutment under-
ground pressure ahead of stope cannot exceed a
maximum permissible stress which is possible for
the given rock massif stress and strain state. On a
working face plane, at presence in a face part of a
coal mass of limiting area, the underground pres-
sure’s vertical component will be approximately
equal to ultimoate uniaxial compression strength of Figure 1. Underground pressure’s vertical component
a coal seam in a mass taking into account its fractur- distribution in a coal seam at a withdrawal of longwall
from a face entry: 1 – 5 m; 2 – 15 m; 3 – 25 m.
ing, heterogeneity and partial faulting. According to
(Fisenko 1976) for such zones and strongly frac-
tured massifs, the coefficient of structural loosening
is in limits of 0.1-0.3 (bigger value corresponds to
normal fracturing, smaller – diagonal).
For considered geological conditions, according
to a technique stated in (Alekseenko 1988, 1987),
the strength pattern has been constructed for coal
(seam С8н ). For a range of stresses which occur in a
horizontal plane in a face part of a coal seam, the
limiting underground pressure’s vertical component
value  ext
y is about 30-36 МPа. Ensuring 10%-
accuracy of calculation, value of  lim
y can be ac-
cepted equal to 33 МPа. Then, according to data Figure 2. Underground pressure’s vertical component
given in Table 2 and the formula (1), position of the distribution in a coal seam at a withdrawal of longwall from
abutment pressure’s maximum will change from 0 mounting room: 1 – 35 m; 2 – 45 m; 3 – 55 m; 4 – 65 m.
to 4.5 m from a working face plane deep into a coal
mass depending on position of the stope along an In intervals along a longwall where z  [–95;
extraction pillar. Absolute value of a maximum will –85) and (+85; +95], that is at a distance of up to
make 33 МPа, that is approximately equal to 3 P0 . 10 m from extraction drifts in a seam, there is an-
Graphic dependences of stress distribution along the other picture of the stress distribution. For stope
extraction pillar for longwall sector in the interval of position of 15-25 m from a face entry, the under-
[–85; +85] are presented on Figures 1-4. ground pressure’s vertical component on the work-
From Figures 1-4 it can be seen, that starting from ing face plane changes from the 11.0 to 19.0 MPa.
a position of a longwall advance from a face entry Starting from the position of 25-35 m, the pressure
in the working face plane does not practically de-
147
pend on longwall position along an extraction pillar “pressing-in” of a coal seam in bottom that causes
and makes up 24.0 МPа ± 10%. Exception are considerable bottom heave within a drift’s cross-
working face positions, for which parameter S = 0. section. According to the results of simulation, the
For such cases pressure on working face plane is bottom heave value with a stope withdrawal up to
equal 18.0 МPа ± 10%. Graphics of the stress dis- 45 m makes up 0.05-0.30 m, for the following
tribution in a coal seam at the end 10 m of a long- positions – 0.40-0.50 m. The results received during
wall area, depending on a stope position along the medeling, are well proven by the experience of
extraction pillar, are presented on Figure 5. mining on a seam С8н in the conditions of mine
“Zapadno-Donbaskaya”. In natural conditions,
bottom heave in development workings of 874
longwall was 0.40-0.60 m. As well as in real condi-
tions, in a used model of rock massif each previous
layer of rocks is the elastic basis for each following.
At a certain correlation of these layers deformation
properties, the unloading of longwall’s sides from
an underground pressure can occur in various ways.
So, in considered conditions, the energy reserved by
a side of an elastic deformed coal seam, started
pushing bottom rocks into a development working’s
area. This fact explains the presence of an unloading
zone in a coal seam along drift. The maximum value
of a bottom heave is observed in an alignment with
Figure 3. Underground pressure’s vertical component longwall, minimum – on boundary of combined
distribution in a coal seam with S = 0. influence of stope and development working, that is
on distance 65-70 m from working face plane and
makes 0.05-0.10 m. The influence zone of only a
development working is observed further. Along all
length of drift starting from distance of 65-70 m
from a stope plane with width of up to 10 m on each
side, area of increased stresses are dragging which
are caused by presence of the cavity of a drift itself.
In this area the underground pressure’s vertical
component is in limits of 1.25-1.35 P0 .
Figure 4. Underground pressure’s vertical component

distribution in a coal seam at: 1 – S = 1; 2 – S = 2-4.
From Figure 5 it is clear that at a distance of 6-8

m from a stope plane deep into a coal mass on the
end 10 m of longwall area, there is unloading zone
in which the vertical component of an underground
pressure is in limits of 0.70-0.75 P0 . In extent, this
zone occupies distance equal to 60-65 m. This
phenomenon is explained by combined influence of
the longwall and development working on the
boundary sites of a seam. In a direction of under-
ground pressure’s vertical component, coal’s de- Figure 5. Underground pressure’s vertical component
formation properties surpasses 4 times mustone distribution at the end 10 m of longwall areas: 1 – longwall
properties which lies down in seam’s bottom. withdrawal to 15 м; 2 – for longwall position S = 0;
Therefore, in the specified area there is intensive 3 – longwall withdrawal more than 25 m.
148
At the end area of a longwall at a distance of 4- in case when the face part is in a scope of admissi-
6 m from a drift and at a distance of up to 10 m deep ble stresses, and
into extraction pillar from a working face plane, in a
zone of combined influence of longwall and devel- 
 y   пр
y  P0 e
 kX

 P0 ,
opment working, presence of tangential stresses  1 F z ; L   P
takes place. Absolute values of these tangential X   ln пр
0
;   ,
stresses in a seam and in the seam’s roof presented k   P
 y 0
by siltstone (thickness about 8 m) and are commen-
surable with rock’s shear strength (Figure 6). when in a face part of a coal seam, the limiting state
In the specified range of tangential stresses rock of a coal massif takes place;
rupture is possible. The real life studies conducted  it is defined, that the distance from a working
in 874 longwall, confirm presence of secant frac- face plane to a point of the maximum abutment
tures both in a seam and in a roof. These fractures pressure ahead of a longwall has logarithmic de-
and cutter breaks settled down parallel to an extrac- pendence
tion drift’s axis at a distance of 5-8 m from devel-
opment working, and they obviously emerged in a 1 F ( L )  P0
X  ln ,
rock massif which is located ahead of a stope. k
пр
 у  P0
The results received during simulation, are well
proven in real life researches of stress and strain where X  0 , if X  0 accept X  0 .
state distribution around a longwall.  it is established, that on end 10 m of longwall,
pressure in a plane of working face to a position of a
longwall withdrawal from a mounting room of 25-
35 m increases from Р 0 to 1.8Р 0 , and for the subse-
quent stope positions along an extraction pillar,
pressure practically does not change and makes 2.0
P0  10%;
 the zone of combine influence of development
working and a longwall and law of stress distribu-
tion in this zone are established. Along a longwall,
the zone of combine influence of development
working and a longwall embraces end 10 meter-
areas, along an extraction pillar this zone extends on
distance of 65-70 m from a working face plane. And
in considered geological conditions in this area the
unloading zone in which the underground pressure
Figure 6. Distribution of tangential stresses on the end makes 0.70-0.75 P0 is observed.
areas of a longwall.
It means that the applied model of rock mass ade- REFERENCES

quately and with sufficient accuracy for practical
application describes all processes of stress redistri- Sidelnikov, A.A. 2009. Substantiation parameters of the
bution that occur in a rock massif during mineral rock mass 3-D simulation around the longwalls and
development faces. Dnipropetrovs’k: The geotechnical
extraction.
mechanics, 82: 77-85.
Vlasov, S.F.  Sidelnikov, A.A. 2010. Research of the roof
fall mechanism applying three-dimensional model of the
6 CONCLUSIONS stratified transversely-isotropic rock mass at a longwall
advance. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovii vіsnik, 2: 10-15.
During incremental three-dimensional computer Fisenko, G.L. 1976. Limiting state of rocks round devel-
simulation: opment workings. Moscow: Nedra: 272.
 it is established, that change of a stress’ vertical Alekseenko, S.F. 1988. Physics of rocks. An underground
component in a mined seam along an extraction pressure (the collection of tasks and exercises). Kiev:
Vischa shkola: 248.
pillar, except for 10 m of an end areas of a longwall,
Alekseenko, S.F.  Melejik, V.P. 1987. Physics of rocks.
exponential dependence are described as follows An underground pressure. Kiev: Vischa shkola: 280.
 kX
 y  ( F ( z ; L )  P0 ) e  P0 , X  [ 0;  ),
149
Effect of design of half-mask respirators on their key qualities
V. Golinko, S. Cheberiachko & Y. Cheberiachko

ABSTRACT: An effort was made to show the difference in qualities of half-mask and example of filtering
material used to produce the respirator. There are listed the main reasons resulting in deterioration of protec-
tive value of means of individual protection of respiratory organs. There are recommended ways to improve
efficiency of half-masks. It helps to come to conclusion that the harder filtering layer is the less protective
value it has owing to working area variation. But respirators with hard filtering material can’t give hermitic-
ity along the contact line. Besides they are less comfortable in transit and service. Some manufacturers
produce respirators with rigid frame which excludes the deformation of material and provides adherence of
half-mask to face at the expense of soft filtering layer.
1 INTRODUCTION where  – nearness of fibers; Н – filtering layer

thickness, m;  – cumulative rate of aerosol parti-
Respirators are one of the most reliable means to
cle precipitation resulting from each mechanism;
protect respiratory organs. Their great variety is
aimed at meeting different demands of customer.
 – diameter of filtering material fibers.
The main task of means of individual protection of Performance of all the listed precipitation of
respiratory organs (MIPRO) is to provide high level mechanisms is determined by means of filtering
of air purification with minimal harm. The factor material parameters according to air speed and
that the filter is single-use is the reason for the half- particle sizes of aerosol. For example, the thinner
masks to be both most handy and easy-to-work. diameter of fiber is the bigger probability of precipi-
Their action is based upon precipitation of aerosol tation of smallest particulate solids which are the
particles from environment with the help of filtering most dangerous for a human. The thickness of
layer fibers. There are several precipitation mecha- filtering layer is also very important: its increase
nisms: diffusion precipitation, inertia precipitation, results in efficiency of polluted air filtration.
tangential precipitation, electrostatic precipitation But each obstacle for air flow factors into resis-
etc. The more effective the mechanisms perform is tance increase to its move. The thicker the obstacle
the higher protective efficiency of MIPRO deter- is, the greater pressure losses on it. Each respirator
mined on the expression (Basmanov 2002): is not described only by protective efficiency but
also by breathing resistance value causing extra
1 , (1) energy input to overcome it. Pressure differential
KE 
Kp through MIPRO helps to determine it by means of
specific plant. With it, the formula is used to rate it
where K p is a coefficient of penetration of harmful for filtering material (Petryanov 1984):
substances into the undermask space. 4vH
As a rule, coefficient of penetration for respirators p  , (3)
is determined experimentally with the help of spe- a    0 ,5 ln  
2
cific plants according to the most penetrative parti-

where  – air velocity, m;  is absolute viscosity
cle sizes (for example, spinhaler method of oil spray
with 0.28-0.32 um particle size). For filtering mate- of air N ,·s / m2;  – compensation factor depend-
rials, it can be determined by the following expres- ing on filtering layer formation.
sion (Lee & Mukund 2001)
 2 H  2 TASK DESCRIPTION
К p  ехр   ,
 (2)
 а  Half-mask is made of solid stock of specific filter-
ing material. Its basic features should align with
151
those of material used. But when end products are bridge of nose. Investigations show that its impor-
controlled in a laboratory environment it becomes tance increases depending upon the increase of
apparent that results are lower compared to filtering filtering layer resistance (Golinko 2005). A part of
material patterns which have the same filtering area air flow with aerosol passes filter and enters under-
(Table 1). mask space through leakiness between obturator and
This brings up the question concerning the rea- human face as their resistance is too weak to com-
sons which result in degradation of quality level of pare with filtering mask itself. The problem solution
respirators. is to heighten an effect of obturation line or its
One of possible ways to raise penetration coeffi- weaker parts with the help of extra layers of para-
cient of half-mask is to effect leak-in of polluted air metric material which can smooth over inequalities
along the contact line especially in the area of on human face (Figure 1, Equip 2010).
Table 1. Basic features of end product and filtering material to produce it.
Study filtering Pressure differential Penetration factor of

Type of product under rate,  , (m / s) through product р , (Pa) test-aerosol, K p , (%)
Example of filtering mate-
0.0016 8.1 ± 0.5 1.12 ± 0.05
rial, elephlen
Respirator “Lepestok-40Е”
0.0016 10.9 ± 0.4 2.32 ± 0.05
made of elephlen
Example of filtering material
0.0016 24.7 ± 0.7 0.065 ± 0.004
ФПП15-1,5
Respirator “Lepestok-200”
0.0016 32.6 ± 1.9 0.35 ± 0.05
made of ФПП15-1,5
Example of filtering mate-
0.002 9.3 ± 0.4 1.09 ± 0.06
rial, elephlen
Respirator “Rostok-3” 0.002 11.4 ± 0.5 3.4 ± 0.05
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Design of obturation line: (а) rubber compactor and polyurethane are striped within bridge of nose; (b) polyure-
thane strip along obturator.
examples of filtering materials are performed with
3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS consideration of active area of half-mask at large.
To test the listed assumptions there was determined
But not only interspaces between face and half- area of half-mask activated during filtration process
mask result in graceful degradation of MIPRO. after it had been dusted in special chamber. Several
Table 1 shows results of experiments with filtering samples of single-use respirators “Lepestok” and
respirators made tight by means of obturation line. “Rostok” were taken for the experiment. One-by-one,
To our opinion, we can’t take into consideration the they were placed into test chamber and held on model
fact that surface of half-mask is not activated com- of head 11 with reliable pressurization of obturation
pletely. Part of it is just excluded from filtration line (Figure 2). Definitely concentrated dust-loaded
process when determination of penetration coeffi- air formed within special dust generator 9 was fanned
cient values as well as pressure differential on into the undermask space of the article under study.
152
Hence, air flow with 30 l / min consumption passes taken from general area of half-mask S ger . Measured
through filtering half-mask. In such a way human
data are in Table 2. As Figure 3 shows areas within
respiratory organs functioning was simulated cham-
chin and obturation line completely pressed to face
ber. Aspirator 13 was used to produce exhaustion.
were not active and decreased effective area of half-
mask.
But comparison of values of basic data of respira-
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
tors with similar ones which area is equal to work-
After the tests, dimensions of filtration working area ing area of MIPRO under study shows that differ-
ence between their values is still available. Hence,
S wor were calculated with the help of areas of com-
there are other factors resulting in quality degrada-
paratively live sections determination. They were tion of the respirators.
Figure 2. Diagram of plant to study MIPRO on dust factor: 1 – primary filter; 2 – pressure stabilizer; 3 – manometer; 4, 6,
7 – control valves; 5, 8 – membrane; 9 – dust generator; 10 – micromanometer МКВ-150; 11 – test chamber with model
and respirator on it; 12 – adapter with АFА filter; 13 – aspirator ED-5; 14, 15 – liquid manometers.
Table 2. Results of determination of working area of respirators.
Study Pressure differential within example

Rate of working area of
Respirator filtration of filtering material which area is,
filtration ( k r  S w / S )
area, (m2) S w , (Pa)
“Lepestok-40Е” 0.0314 0.87 9.41 ± 0.8
“Lepestok-200” 0.0314 0.87 29.6 ± 1.1
“Rostok” 0.025 0.94 10.8 ± 0.7
Detailed examination of conditions of different areas of filtering respirator takes place, and it con-
types of masks after dust-spraying shows darker tributes to rate increase of air and deteriorates pro-
zones (especially within nasal region) and lighter tective efficiency.
zones within active area of filtration. It helps to Try to determine decrease of working area of fil-
come to conclusion that design of half-masks also tration at the expense of deformation of filtering
influences the equitability of air load distribution material of respirator. Figure 4 illustrates design
over its surface. Due to lack of rigid frame inside model of half-mask shown as sphere segment. Point
the half-mask in MIPRO under study some part of А is within chin, and point В is within bridge of
material bends by the action of unloading. Depend- nose. In a first approximation, decrease of filtration
ing upon intake of breath it can be excluded from area at the expense of deformation of area of half-
filtration process either completely or partially mask and its adhesion to human face can be consid-
touching cheeks. Hence, reload of some surface ered on the expression
153
S w  2 R  u L  u  , (4) p 2 EH
u , (5)
а 2 1   
where R – radius of sphere segment (of half-mask),
m; u – deformation value, m; L – length of sphere where E – elastic modulus of filter fabric material;
segment (of half-mask), m.  – Poisson's constant (0.5 is taken up).
(a)
5 CONCLUSIONS
Thus, if one can determine potential deformation of

half-mask it is possible to evaluate decrease of its
working area filtration. Taking into account the fact
that peak value of filtering material flexure is lim-
ited by human face (to do that it is necessary to
determine the distance from point С to human face)
(point E in Figure 4) compare it with the value of
estimated value of deformation. If value u is more
that distance СЕ then working area of filtration
should be determined because of the value. Table 3
shows values of estimated amounts of deformation,
(b) working areas of filtration of above-stated respira-
tors as well as values of their hypothesized pressure
differentials.
Figure 3. Half-masks: (а) “Lepestok”; (b) “Rostok-3”.
According to (Kornilov 2002) pressure differen-

tial р is connected with cover deflection within Figure 4. Pattern of variation of half-mask form under the
elastic deformation by means of the law effect of pressure differential.
Table 3. Determination of deformation as well as its working area.

Study design value of Pressure differential for exam-
Specified working
deformation of filter- ple of filtering material which
Respirator area of half-mask,
ing material of half-
(m2) square is S w , (Pa)
mask, (mm)
“Lepestok-40Е” 1.4 0.02657 11.6
“Lepestok-200” 1.7 0.02612 34.7
“Rostok-3” 1.3 0.0236 12.6
Value of specified working area of half-mask of filtering material deformation can’t be real.
turns out to be somewhat underestimated, which is Nevertheless, it helps to come to conclusion that the
confirmed by increased pressure differential in harder filtering layer is the less protective value it
terms of filtering material example. Assumed model has owing to working area variation. But respirators
154
with hard filtering material can’t give hermiticity Lee, K. W. & Mukund, R. 2001. Filter collection. In
along the contact line. Besides they are less com- Baron PA Willeke K, editors. Aerosol measurement.
fortable in transit and service. Some manufacturers principles, tech-niques and applications. New York:
produce respirator with rigid frame excluding de- Wiley-Interscience: 197-229.
formation of material and providing adherence of Petryanov, I.V., Koshchevev, V.S. & Basmanov, P.I. 1984.
half-mask to face at the expense of soft filtering Lepestok (Light respirators). Moskow: Nauka: 218.
layer. Thus, research results show that shaped half- Golinko,V., Cheberyachko, S., Kolesnik, V. & Ishenko, A.
masks with heavy-duty contact line are most useful. 2005. Assessment of protective efficiency of filtering
respirators. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovy Visnyk, 5: 86-
88.
REFERENCES Equip. 2010. www.equipdirect.com/ dustmask_respirators.
aspx.
Basmanov, P.I., Kaminski, S.L., Korobeynikov, A.V. & Kornilov, О.А. 2002. Structural resistance. Кiev: Logos:
Trubitsyna, M.E. 2002. Means of Individual Protection 562.
of Respiratory Organs Manual. Sankt Peterburg: GIPP
Iskusstvo Rossiyi: 399.
155
Modern rescue service as a factor providing a sense

of staff security (on example of coal mining)
P. Hetmańczyk, K. Tausz & A. Krowiak

Social and Economic Department, Central Mining Institute, Katowice, Poland
ABSTRACT: The article contains the results of research carried out among mining rescuers of coal mines.
Security of mine rescue is an important component of policies aimed at removing threats to health and life of
miners. This is also an important factor of social security.
1 INTRODUCTION out at increasingly greater depths, which implies a

growing threat, it would ensure the reliability of the
Aggravating geological conditions in the Polish coal main element of emergency. This is a complex
mining result in grouth of natural hazards. Their problem that stems from the fact that now (see
intensity and scale is sometimes difficult to accu- Verifying the inventory of ..., 2008) 41.8% of rescu-
rately predict, but it can take action to protect the ers are between ages of 41-50, and only 5.1% is in
most of the miners against the dangers that these the age of 30 years. On the other hand, by 2015 60
hazards pose. At this point, one can cite a fragment thousand people will be engaged in the mining
of letter of the President of the Republic of Poland industry. These two factors: the prospect of acquir-
sent to participants came to the XXI World Mining ing pension for nearly half of the most experienced
Congress: “Talking Mining remember the man (...) rescue teams and the huge numbers of generational
Miner deserves respect and dignity and safety must replacement workers in mines, raise the question of
be first on the profits of employers and owners”. directions for the modernization of the mine rescue.
Concern for human being in the work environ- These directions shall appoint three problems:
ment has led to the international dimension in Prin- – motivation to work in rescue, understood as a
ciples of Sustainable Development adopted the complex of factors, ranging from recruitment
Declaration on Environment and Development at through the health status and on the prestige ending;
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 in – the costs and benefits of extending training of
the record: “Man is the subject of sustainable devel- mine rescue;
opment and has the right to a healthy and productive – financial resources and their sources in terms of
life in harmony with nature”. optimizing security emergency.
On 18 October 1961 in Turin was drawn Euro- In this paper we discuss the first issue, and therefore
pean Social Charter, which entered into force in motivation to work in the emergency in light of
1965. Poland has ratified this card in June 1997, current circumstances and needs.
assuming, inter alia, the obligation to “pursue a
policy aimed at removing threats to health arising
from work in order to ensure the safety and health 2 SOME TECHNICAL
work at the legal level and in practice”. Since the AND FORMAL CONDITIONS
values listed here are assigned the highest rank, one
of the best its guarantors is a mine rescue system. Mining enterprises have an ever greater spending on
This follows the fact that mine rescue is the most security, and yet number of accidents at work in-
important and most valuable link in the entire sys- crease. W. Bradecki and J. Dubiński in the study
tem to assist victims. The increase in mining threats titled “Effect of restructuring of the Polish coal-
and the observed increase in accidents at work- mining industry on the level of natural hazards”,
driven increase in demands on emergency services, points out, inter alia, the importance of the concen-
both in terms of their size, efficiency of training and tration of production in the increase of natural
exercises, as well as equipment and technical base. hazards (methane, seismic and bumps). However,
The main element of the rescue system is the man: a the concentration of production is an important
rescuer – a specialist with unique skills and con- feature of modern mining and an important factor in
stantly perfected. Given that the operation is carried improving labour productivity and lower costs of
157
extraction. In this context, the functioning of rescue 4) completed a basic course for candidates for
services becomes even more important. mine rescue workers and passed the examination
In the article 75 paragraph 1 of the Law on Geo- with positive results;
logical and Mining is recorded the commitment of 5) knows Polish language in speech and writing,
the mining business to have a mine rescue, and to the extent necessary to exercise the rescuer of the
organized to ensure the continued opportunity to mining operations.
participate in specialized professional rescue ser- § 29. Rescue equipment mechanic can be a min-
vices of the Central Mining Rescue Station, or other ing rescuer or ex- mining rescuer that:
entity to exercise professionally activities of mine 1) is at least a basic vocational school;
rescue. In the interest of entrepreneur is to provide a 2) has rescue experience of not less than 5 years,
high level of security emergency. This is particu- and in the establishments looking for oil and natural
larly important to the worsening mining – geologi- gas, and mineral-extracting industries through
cal conditions of mines. Interest should include, drilling no less than 3 years;
inter alia, extension activities of the host on duty 3) completed the basic course for candidates for
rescue work directory for preventive work carried life-saving equipment mechanics and passed a test
out in high tolerated risk referred to document of with positive results;
mine safety. Profession of mining rescuer and 4) knows Polish language in speech and writing,
equipment mechanic is included in the Minister of to the extent necessary to serve as mechanical
Home Affairs and Administration of 6 April 2004 equipment.
on the adaptation period and aptitude test in the
proceedings on the recognition of acquired in EU
countries, the qualifications to perform the mining 3 SELECTED SOCIAL
professions (OJ No. 76 pos. 725 dated 23.04.2004). DETERMINANTS
However, Minister of Economy by the regulation of
15.12.2005 has established rules for ascertaining the 3.1 Motivation to work
qualifications of managers and specialists employed
by entities engaged in the exercise of professional From the five factors, that can encourage people to
activities of mining rescue (OJ No. 261 pos. 2168). work in rescue, most often mentioned by the rescu-
The requirements demanded by the regulations to ers, is the possibility of rendering help and desire to
the rescuers are very high. Their execution requires test themselves in difficult situations. The share of
skills and experience. In this situation we refer to the economic factors – salary and converting practice
results of analysis of the employment of specialized ratio – is a bit smaller. Meanwhile, in the opinion of
personnel in the coal mining, from which it follows the mining field management, they are most moti-
that, in all employment categories (except the lower vated to rescue job (Figure 1).
supervision), more than half of employees is 41 years Among other factors that encourage such work, the
old and older. 41.8% of the rescuers are in this age, rescuers exchanged nine, one of which is the domina-
but the share of workers (without a hardware engi- tion of the family traditions in the mining industry.
neer), among them makes more than 50%. It appears Eight other elements have equal importance in the
to be a problem of urgent recruitment of candidates field to encourage work. Operating managers ex-
for rescue services and create conditions in which the change two equally important elements – interesting
work of new, young rescuers will give them satisfac- work and need to accolade.
tion. Meanwhile, a study by GIG among newly The vast majority of rescue workers and manag-
admitted (in 2007 and 2008) to work underground ers of mining fieldconsider that the rescue work
shows that only 6 of 220 young miners, consider (in gives them job satisfaction. Only 1.2% of rescue
the future) taking training in rescue. workers and none of the mining field managers
Minister of Economy in the regulation of 12 June recognize that there is no such satisfaction. The
2002 on the mine rescue (OJ No. 94 of 2002, pos. greatest accolade of the rescuers turns family (which
838, as amended) sets out the requirements to be met implies with previously described stimulant for
by the candidate to work in the service of rescue. work in rescue, as family traditions). The remaining
§ 28. Mining rescuer can be a person who: circle of people – colleagues in the mine, friends
1) younger than 21 years old; and superiors give smaller accolade.
2) worked at least 12 months in the mining indus- In the opinion of mining field managers, the
try in a given specialty; greatest accolade the rescuers give is to their col-
3) has an adequate state of health and appropriate leagues and superiors in the mine. Family is men-
psychological predispositions, as attested by spe- tioned only in third place but the values expressed
cialized research; are quite similar (Figure 2).
158
Rescuers component of rescuer work. Most respondents
0,9%
believe that the time for theoretical training is suffi-
23,8% cient and should not be changed. However, 1/3 of
38,5%
respondents (slightly more is in group of operating
managers) argues that it should be increased. A
difference of opinion occurred when evaluating the
20,1%
time spent on exercise. In this case, 63.0% of rescu-
16,8%
ers believes that it is sufficient and the increase is
Possibility of giving help Converting practice ratio required by 34.1% of rescuers and close to 70.0% of
Salary Desire to test oneself in difficult situations a mining field managers. Changes in the rescue
Other
miners should, according to the operating managers,
include the introduction of a wider range of simula-
Operating managers tion exercises and the regulations of the Labour
Code. Rescuers demand for changes of the main
10,9%
3,6%
16,4% training.
Rescuers
28,4%
30,9%
38,2%
Possibility of giving help Converting practice ratio

Salary Desire to test oneself in difficult situations
Other
71,6%
Figure 1. What encourages the most for working in the

rescue service. Yes No
Rescuers
15,7% 20,1%
Operating managers
17,6% 8,5%
43,5%
38,2% 56,5%
Colleagues Superiors Family Friends Acquaintance
Yes No
Operating managers
15,4%
28,2%
10,3%
Figure 3. Opinions concerning the age of a rescuer (either
21 is sufficient or not).
A candidate qualifying the rescue service must be

20,5%
25,6% at least 21 years of old. 71.6% of rescuers and
56.5% of operating managers consider the age to be
Colleagues Superiors Family Friends Acquaintance
sufficient (Figure 3). These responses can be inter-
preted in two ways. So we should either postpone
the age of 21 to 25 years, or after four years of
Figure 2. Who shows the greatest accolade to a rescuer? working as an rescuer relevant experience and
knowledge will be required. This issue requires
3.2 The personnel training and selection for ser- more thorough explanation in view of the further
vice criteria question that respondents answered – “if the annual
work experience in a particular specialty is suffi-
Theoretical training and exercises is an important cient to become a rescuer” 63.5% of rescuers and
159
78.3% of operating managers for this question have is that the minimum period is three years. An over-
given a negative answer. whelming number of answers indicates a period of
To the question “what should be the practice time three to five years (94.4% – operating managers and
to become a rescuer”, there is no just one answer. 74.1% – rescuers) – Figure 4.
Opinion of both mining field managers and rescuers
Rescuers Operating managers

5,8%
5,3% 10,9% 5,6%
44,4%
34,5% 50,0%
39,6%
3,9%
2 3 5
2 3 4 5 6 and more years lack of answer
Figure 4. Opinions concerning the time of a work practice to be a rescuer (in years).
Presented here the sequence of views on the of work safety in the mine. The determinant of this
length of time necessary to acquire professional place is a crisis that leads to health and life, as a
experience, conditioning for accession to the rescue result of human error, natural causes or defective
service indicates the need for practice as the main equipment. Mastering the crisis is not possible
criterion, and the age will be its derivative. without the participation of “rapid response teams”
which are rescue teams. Hence, the role and rank of
the mine rescue is not only in the tasks they have to
4 CONCLUSIONS comply with but what also essential and perhaps
more important is the psychological condition, i.e.
Rescue Mining holds a special place in the system the internal beliefs of each miner.
160
Analytical determination of parameters of material

and thermal balance and physical parameters
of a coal seam work-out on mine “Barbara”, Poland
V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy

K. Stanczyk & J. Swiadrowski
ABSTRACT: Based upon the mining-geological structure of a site of mine field, hydrological situation and
qualitative characteristics of coal, there has been made a diagram of calculation of material and thermal
balance of parameters of underground gasification process of experimental gasgenerator on mine “Barbara”
(Katowice, Poland). Speed of area work-out is determined as well as volume of received gases. Given article
is written as part of the realization of research project “HUGE – Hydrogen oriented underground gasification
of coal for Europe” and contains results of researches of collective grant of Educational and Scientific Center
of National Mining University “Steadiness of geotechnical systems: processes, phenomena, risks”.
1 INTRODUCTION profitability, therefore today the question of im-

provement of technical and technological decisions,
There are many factors that induce qualitative and also determination of air-blast mixture composi-
change of coal extraction technologies. The basic tion and end products is quite important.
ones among them are: increase of the average min- Important components of researches of under-
ing depth, decrease in seams thickness, presence of ground coal gasification flow process is thedetermi-
tectonic and natural areas of the increased rock nation of balance of physical and chemical proc-
pressure, geodynamic and dynamic manifestations esses, connected with change in chemical composi-
in a massif and so on. Borehole underground coal tion and qualitative properties of coal, and also
gasification (BUCG) is one of the radically new design features of underground gasgenerator. Con-
technologies of exploitation and processing of coal. trollability, safety and processibility of artificial gas
production depend on interaction (balance) of the
system “underground gasgenerator”, chemical
2 COMMON INFORMATION reactions rate and physical processes during coal
seam work-out.
Given technology represents drilling of horizontally Material balance of underground coal gasification
inclined boreholes along the coal seam with inter- shows comparison of income and expenditure of
connection between them. Further an ignition of substances masses or their volume indexes during
coal is carried out and the controlled combustion end-products capture. Qualitative and quantitative
face with balanced maintenance of oxidation and parameters of generator gas are received based on
reduction zones is created. This makes possible to composition of air-blast mixture and coal character-
receive a mix of combustible gases with their sub- istics.
sequent usage as the sources of electric energy and The thermal balance points on heat exchange in
chemical products. underground gasgenerator system (received, used
Closed cycle of underground coal gasification and lost thermal energy). This balance is measured
makes it possible to solve an actual environmental by energy units (joules, calories) or in percentage of
problem of recycling, processing of fuel gases and a total amount of heat, that is presented in unit of
waste of power enterprises. UCG gas does not received gas, time unit or in mass unit of consumed
demand additional preparation and is used as a substance (coal).
power resource for gaining of thermal and electric Based on parameters of material and thermal bal-
energy at station “Pidzemgaz” by means of piston ance it is possible to define numerical values of
units, steam-turbine or gas-turbine units. efficiency, both separate components of gasification
Industrial realization of this technology proves its process and all installation in general. These pa-
161
rameters serve as a basis for choosing of technical Coal seam of a hard structure, of the same steady
and technological maintenance of gasification thickness with dip angle 0-500. General extraction
process, surface complex of refining and processing thickness is 1.4 m. Thickness of rock layer – 0.1 m.
of BUCG products, previous estimation of effi- Coal moisture – 14.7%; ash content – 22.1%; vola-
ciency and profitability of the generator. tile matter content – 32.4%; combustion value –
21.6 mJ / m3 . Copy of mine layout presented on
Figure 1.
3 GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF UNDER-
GROUND GASGENERATOR INSTALLATION
4 DETERMINATION OF MATERIAL
Mining and geological factors play an important BALANCE PARAMETERS OF UCG
role during underground gasification flow process
and may have both positive and negative influence In order to perform coal work-out on the experimen-
on gasification process. During designing and tal mine gasgenerator of test mine site there will be
exploitation of underground gasgenerator it is nec- used a technological scheme of combined air-blast
essary to consider following factors: supply and straight-flow thermal preparation of a
– water content of a seam and country rocks, seam by pressure distribution of a mixture to the
presence of static (dynamic) underground waters in combustion face and removing of BUCG gases by
coal-rock massif; means of absorption in the network of pipes with the
– tectonic faults of a massif; help of smoke sucker. Work-out of a seam is pro-
– chemical composition of a coal seam and rocks; vided simultaneously on full thickness (m = 1.3-1.4)
– mechanical and thermal properties of massif; with a zone of a combustion face having length of
– geomechanical parameters of roof rocks, bottom 0.8 m and square of 1.12 m2.
and seam, their change during work-out; In order to research degree of influence of the men-
– thickness an dip angle of a coal seam, roof rocks tioned factors on process UCG, modeling has been
and bottom, structural composition of a massif.
carried out on a special stand installation with the subse-
A part of the mine field is accepted for research; it
quent transferring of the received results to natural
is outlined by mine openings and has a shape re-
conditions according to the similarity theory.
minding two perpendicular rectangles. Depth of
occurrence fluctuates within 15 m. The lithologic On Table 1, there is a presentation of calculation
difference of a roof is presented by sand, loamy and of material balance of UCG process with the ac-
clay rocks. The water-bearing seam of rocks is count of mining and geological conditions, techno-
presented by static waters and is located under logical parameters of gasification process and prop-
deposits on depth of 0.3 m. Next water-bearing erties of a coal seam for an experimental site of
horizon is located in bottom of a coal seam on depth mine.
of 20-40 m. Epected average water inflow into According to the results of research, combustion
gasification zone equals to 2.55 m3 / min. Coeffi- heat of UCG gas at level of 4.6-10.2 mJ / m3 can be
cient of filtration: for a seam – 2.69 × 10-5 m / min; reached at specific water inflow in the zone of com-
for roof rocks – 6.79 × 10-5 m / min; bottom rocks – bustion face not more than 0.75 kg of water / kg of
4.46 × 10-5 m / min. coal, at the water content in gas less than
252.8 g / m3. Increase of water inflow in the combus-
tion face up to 1.25 kg of water / kg of coal and the
water content in gas 300-400 g / m3 leads to decrease
of gas heat down to 4.0-7.7 mJ / m3.
Principle of change of a chemical compound of
UCG gases depending on specific water inflow in
the combustion zone of the underground gas-
generator is traced at the experimental site and
presence of pair in air-blast mixtures (steam-air,
steam-oxygen) is traced as well. Common flow of
such reactions is going with heat absorption:
Figure 1. Copy of mine layout of experimental part of the H 2O  C  C  H 2  130 kJ / mole

mine: 1 – main haulage working, 2 – mining workings, CO2  C  2CO  173 kJ / mole
that outline gasgenerator, 3 – planned place for combustion
face installation, 4 – collectors of condensate, 5 – gas Flow of the reaction characterizes energy level of
outlet pipe, 6 – outlet of gas through vertical prospecting UCG process, because it explains high concentra-
shaft. tion of carbon in generator gas during usage of
162
oxygen-carbon air-blast. It is connected, first of all, The purpose of the thermal balance calculation is
with high – temperature regime of chemical reac- the determination of end temperature of received
tions flow. UCG gases knowing their volume content, elemen-
With great role of water steam in process of gasi- tary coal composition, temperature of air-blast that
fication, increase of hydrogen concentration takes is being supplied, heat losses for heating of ash and
place as well as decrease of concentration of meth- mud, host rocks, and vapor formation of water and
ane and carbon that is connected with low tempera- external water inflow.
ture conditions of gasification process. Decrease of Basic points of thermal balance of gasification
combustion heat of a gas under such conditions can process are calculated according to the equation
be explained by flow of reaction of conversion: based upon energy conservation law during under-
ground gasification of 1 kg of coal:
C  H 2O  CO2  CO2  H 2  41.8 kJ / mole
Q xy Q fу  Q fу  Qхg  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4 ,
This reaction contributes to increase of steam
amount in zone of gasification. where Q xy – chemical heat of 1 kg of coal; Q fy –
Having insignificant stratification depth of ex- physical heat of 1 kg of coal; Q fу – physical heat of
perimental mine site, even despite low atmospheric air necessary for gasification of 1 kg of coal; Q xg –
precipitations, increase of water content in a coal
physical heat of gas that is gained during gasifica-
seam is possible. Chosen combined method of air-
blast supply and disposal of gasification products tion of 1 kg of coal; Q 1 – losses of heat for heating
contribute to discharging zone formation in gasifica- of ash and mud that are formed during gasification
tion zone and, consequently, surface water intrusion of 1 kg of coal; Q 2 – losses of heat for heating and
into pores and cracks of a massif, that triggers a line evaporation of water of external inflow, that are
of negative consequences. Increase of humidity of presented for 1 kg of coal; Q 3 + Q 4 – loss of heat
generator gas leads to decrease of its combusiton for heating of the rocks with conditioning and
value, complicates its purification and processing. convectional heat exchange.
Output of combustibles (Н 2 , СН 4 , С) during gasifi- Results of the thermal balance calculation of coal
cation of a coal seam, taking into account water seam gasification on experimental mine site are
inflow into combustion face of the gasgenerator (kg presented in Table 2.
of water / kg of coal) with different components of Average temperature of air near external wall of
air-blast mixture is presented on Figure 2. pipeline during transportation of UCG gas at dis-
Thermal balance of underground coal gasification tance of 1 m from borehole, in average will make
process under conditions of experimental mine site. 187.4 0С.
Thermal balance is calculated on a basis of a Determination of time and speed of coal work-
physical heat that is being formed during interaction out. Time of coal seam work-out can be calculated
of the matters and heat of respective chemical according to the following expression:
reactions during underground coal gasification.
A
T , year
Vcomb
where А – amount of worked-out coal.

Based on the previous calculations, it is estimated
to work out 21.34 tons of coal at the given mine
site; V comb – linear speed of work-out process, m / s,
m / h, m / day.
Linear speed of work-out can be determined ac-
cording to the following expression:
Vm
Vcomb  ,m
  Scomb. f
where V m – mass rate of coal gasification, kg / s; γ –
Figure 2. Outlet of combustibles (Н 2 , СН 4 , С, %) during density of coal, kg / m3; S comb.f – overall area of
coal seam gasification of mine, taking into account water combustion face, m2;
inflow into combustion zone of gasgenerator (kg of wa- For given mining – geological conditions:
ter/kg of coal) with different components of air-blast
mixture (1 – air; 2 – steam-air; 3 – oxygen). Scomb. f  m  lw. f  1.4  0.8  1.12 , m2
163
where m – thickness of coal seam, m; l w.f – l ength Results of calculation of physical parameters of
of combustion face, m coal seam work-out, taking into account various
components of air-blast are given in the Table 3.
Table 1. Parameters of material balance of underground coal gasification of experimental site of a mine.
Energy of zone
Type Minimal Moisture Water
Parameters of underground
оf Outlet of UCG gases from gasgenerator in % Effi- combusti of UCG inflow kg
of air-blast gasgenerator,
air- ciency, on heat of gas of
MJ
blast % UCG gas g/m3 water/kg
Oxi- Reco-
m3/t m3/h Н2 СН4 С N2 H2S CO2 O2 m3/h mJ/m3 of coal
dation very
14.8 5.05 12.48 51.48 0.6 13.49 1.8 53.4 4.206 8.412 4.395 205 0.5
Air 202.4 287.4
16.2 6.2 11.7 49.10 0.71 14.03 2.0 589.4 54.9 4.576 9.105 4.761 286 0.75
15.6 5.1 10.63 51.42 0.75 14.5 2.0 52.7 4.083 8.172 4.380 334 1.0
17.3 3.1 8.05 55.30 0.77 13.3 2.2 50.8 3.754 8.080 4.047 369 1.25
270.9 18.64 5.63 14.25 31.45 0.89 26.48 2.66 54.7 4.630 8.164 6.195 229 0.5
О2
56.89 20.50 6.50 15.08 27.42 1.03 25.80 2.72 56.6 5.296 8.320 5.764 298 0.75
N2 190.7 561.6
134.9 21.60 5.34 12.2 28.30 1.08 28.63 2.85 53.8 4.431 8.072 4.816 353 1.0
stream
79.11 22.04 4.03 10.04 29.04 1.1 30.79 2.96 51.2 3.823 7.861 4.450 405 1.25
241.0 32.31 6.18 5.4 20.15 1.05 31.40 2.97 60.1 7.230 9.671 5.853 245 0.5
О2 130.9 27.4 12.48 7.16 20.81 1.15 27.36 3.63 61.7 7.706 9.360 6.014 296 0.75
169.7 690.3
steam 30.06 33.1 5.38 2.12 24.07 1.18 29.85 4.26 59.4 7.343 9.056 5.602 351 1.0
80.0 34.08 3.42 2.1 23.57 1.25 31.05 4.53 57.6 7.045 8.704 5.310 402 1.25
24.12 12.92 23.43 25.10 0.63 10.60 3.20 68.1 9.964 10.790 5.851 187 0.5
264.1
О2 28.54 10.91 21.1 25.02 0.69 10.34 3.40 69.3 10.115 11.093 6.540 201 0.75
186.0 153.2 742.3
N2 29.41 10.4 20.0 24.15 0.7 11.78 3.56 66.4 9.680 10.754 5.675 239 1.0
110.9
29.98 9.32 19.75 25.2 0.73 11.42 3.60 65.7 9.188 10.508 5.491 262 1.25
266.1 26.57 8.49 35.54 0.61 1.05 24.68 3.06 67.7 9.961 15.372 7.616 209 0.5
О2
133.1 25.54 9.91 34.1 0.62 1.09 25.64 3.10 68.2 10.208 15.841 7.893 228 0.75
N2 187.5 758.6
47.91 24.2 5.38 34.4 0.64 1.13 27.78 3.47 65.4 9.536 13.811 7.504 275 1.0
СО2
85.18 23.15 7.33 35.25 0.63 1.22 28.90 3.54 62.4 9.370 12706 7197 304 1.25
Table 2. Thermal balance of process of coal seam gasification with different compositions of air-blast.
Composition of air-blast
Oxygen +
Oxygen + Oxygen +
Readings Air Oxygen Steam +
steam СО 2
СО 2
MJ MJ MJ MJ MJ
kg % kg % kg % kg % kg %
Combustion heat for working fuel 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9 25.669 96.9
Heat content of a massif in the zone of oxidation (com-
0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4 0.636 2.4
bustion)
Heat content of air-blast 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7 0.1801 0.7
Of all volume 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100
Combustion heat of waste gas
4.6389 10.180 8.1310 10.977 8.0975
MJ / m 3 ofgas 71.1 78.75 74.7 78.9 76.1
18.830 22.080 20.730 22.861 20.890
MJ / kgofcoal
Heat losses:
0.0510 0.19 0.0520 0.19 0.0510 0.19 0.0520 0.19 00510 0.19
1. Heating of ash and coal dust
2.Heating and evaporation of moisture (water inflow
0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59 0.1582 0.59
and humidity of coal, rock)
3.Heating of host rocks (roof, bottom) 2.7980 10.6 2.7980 8.5 2.7980 13.6 2.7980 8.2 2.7980 9.21
Heat content of dry waste gas 4.3446 17.5 9.900 11.37 7.4126 10.9 10.100 12.12 7.3682 13.9
Of all volume 26.476 100 6.476 100 26.476 100 26.476 100 6.476 100
Temperature behind reaction area of channel of gasgen-
877 - 1086 - 917 - 1105 - 911
erator, 0С
Temperature of UCG gases at exit from gas exhaust
493 - 607 - 582 - 622 - 574
borehole, 0С
164
Table 3. Physical parameters of coal seam work-out.
Area of Mass rate of coal Volume Linear speed of work-
Type of air- Time of work-out
combustion gasification, weight of out
blast
face, m2 kg / s coal, kg / m3 m/h t/h hour day
Air 1.12 0.014 1270 0.0353 0.0502 420.5 17.3
Oxygen 1.12 0.016 1270 0.0392 0.0701 348.7 14.5
Oxygen-carbon 1.12 0.0165 1270 0.0401 0.0702 345.5 14.4
Table 4. Calculation of aerodynamic parameters of delivery network in order to choose compressor.
P1g Р2 g Q  Tm L dp Pn1.tf Pn2.tf V

MPa MPa
3
m /s kg / m3 K m m MPa MPa m/s
0.18 0.38 0.08 0.975 323 14.5 0.03 0.392 0.483 6.7-9.8
5 AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
UNDERGROUND GASIFICATION SYSTEM
Calculation of pressure loss in aerodynamic network

of underground gasgenerator (flexible pipe – heat-
resisting nozzle – combustion face) using combined
method (air-blast supply under pressure and disposal
of UCG gases during creation of discharging) is
performed according to the equation of polytropic
flow of mixture of gases (air-blast) in thermody- Figure 3. Aerodynamic system of underground gasgenerator:
namic system; R – aerodynamic resistance, kµ; R 1 – narrowing with turning
around 900 (combustion face – gas outlet borehole), 8.5 kµ;
0.03739 Q   R  Tm  L R 11 – common resistance for friction and temperature along
Pn.g  Р1n.ft 2 f  , MPa
dp the length of gas outlet borehole (L = 14.5 m, d = 150 mm),
33.2 kµ; R 2 – widening with turn (gas outlet borehole –
where P n.t – pressure of air-blast at the beginning of pipeline, d = 220 mm), 2.63 kµ; R 3 , R 4 – turns of gas outlet
pipeline, 1.67 kµ, R 5 – widening (gas outlet pipeline –
the pipeline, MPa; Р1n .ft ,2 f – pressure of air-blast in smoke exhauster), 1.31 kµ.
nozzle (nozzle #1 under experimental limiting
conditions P 1g = 0.18 MPa, nozzle #2 under ex-
perimental limiting conditions at P 2g = 0.38 MPa) 6 CONCLUSIONS
with holes for combustion face α = 45-550, MPa; Q
Usage of air, air-blast, oxygen air-blast and oxygen-
– air-blast consumption, m3 / s; ρ – density of air-
carbon air-blast mixtures is proved to be effective
blast mixture (components), kg / m3; R – for air air- and safe for coal seam gasification under conditions
blast mixture 287 kJ / kg.K.); T m – an average of mentioned experimental mine site. Presented
thermodynamic temperature of air-blast, K; L – calculation of material and thermal balances of
length of flexible pipeline, m; d p – diameter of underground coal gasification process is the basis
flexible pipeline, m for choosing necessary equipment for underground
Based upon computation data (Table 4) for ex- gasgenerator.
perimental site of UCG of “Barbara” mine, there Important element of success of gasification
will be required compressor unit with following process is the amount of external water inflow into
characteristics: combustion face. Based on insignificant stratifica-
– consumption Q max = 320 m3 / h; 5.33 m3 / min; tion depth, start-up of gasgenerator on experimental
0.08 m3 / s; mine site must be executed in period of minimal
– pressure ρ max = 0.6 MPa; 6 atm. precipitations.
Aerodynamic system of underground gasgenera-
tor including local resistances and temperatures
Figure 3.
165
The research of stresses around the mine working

relative to a coal seam in the models made
of optical material
P. Ponomarenko
ABSTRACT: Results of experimental researches performed on flat models which are made of optically ac-
tive materials are presented. Rocks of the seam, roof and bottom differed by elasticity module. The models
were studied by method of “freezing”. Pictures of isochromatic lines were deciphered by method of stripes
on a polariscope.
1 INTRODUCTION 1. This material is designed for the operation by

“freezing of stresses”.
If a horizontal mine working is driven along the 2. With change of elasticity module by 8 times,
seam of a deposit with various hypsometry then the the “freezing point” changes from 146° to 122°.
cross-cut of this working can be located along the 3. Polystyrene has high optical sensitivity, insig-
seam, above it or under it. As the strength of the nificant edge effect, high transparency and is almost
seam and host rocks can vary a lot, then stability of colourless.
this working is various. Bottom and roof of the seam presented by clay
For example, for study of stress-strain state of a rocks, were modeled by СД-3 material, and carbon-
rock massif around a working with its different lo- ate seam of a strong manganese ore was simulated
cation relative to a seam, it is required to use 8-10 by СД-10 material.
experimental sites with length being around 20 m Geometric similarity was determined with scale
and install measuring points and carry out the re- being 1:100, and proportionality of physical con-
searches. Even using the theory of rational planning stant – by ration of Young moduluses of natural and
of an experiment, material, labour and time ex- model materials. Elasticity module of the model
penses will be excessive. Thus, the most effective   22 was simulated in the same scale as the
are the methods of physical modeling that received stresses were.
wide application during research of different ques- The model was placed in a mechanical loading
tions of mining mechanics. This is explained by device and pulled out under active load in heat
their clearness and relatively not high material and chamber with temperature of 150 °С during 2 hours.
time expenses needed for their performance. Then, with closed door of the heat chamber, the
temperature was decreasing every hour by 5 °С.
Process of “freezing” was finishing at room tem-
2 METHOD OF THE RESEARCH perature, after that the model was extracted from the
load device and photographed in polarization-
One of the most widespread, accessible and clear optical device РМБ-56 in monochromatic light.
methods based on physical modeling is the polariza- Pictures of isochromatic lines were deciphered by
tion-optical method of research. It is based on fea- method of stripes with help of compensation disks
tures of isotropic materials to gain capability of on a polariscope ПКС-250. The distribution dia-
double refraction under influence of stresses. grams of maximal tangential  max were built by the
Special influence on this method’s development
deciphered pictures of the stripes.
is caused by fundamental researches of such scien-
Method of stripes is much simpler and less time-
tists as Frokht (1950), Feppl and Menkh (1966),
consuming comparatively to method of compensa-
Trumbachev (1962) and others.
tions and much more accurate than method of col-
The models were made of optically active mate-
ours correlation. It allows to receive high accuracy
rial of polystyrene. Use of this material is explained
of stresses determination in any point of interference
by the following:
picture along difference of main stresses.
167
3 RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH any disposition of a working relative to a seam;
– compressive stresses take place in a bottom and
Method of researches considers various variants of a roof (Figure 1a, b, h, k) during drivage of an open-
working location relative to a seam (Figure 1). ing above of under a seam and also along the seam
(Figure 1e);
(a) (b) (c) – tensile stresses take place in bottom during
drivage of an opening along the roof rocks with
undermining of the seam (Figure 1c) and along
seam with undermining of a roof (Figure 1d);
– tensile stresses take place in a roof during
drivage of an opening along a seam with undermin-
(d) (e) (f) ing (Figure 1f) and along bottom rock with partial
seam undermining (Figure g).
Thus, the most unfavorable disposition of an
opening relative to a seam of carbonate manganese
ore occurs when there are tensile stresses act at its
contour that can trigger rock collapses. So, during
drivage of workings it is necessary to install the
(g) (h) (k) support right after the rocks exposure. Tensile
stresses in a bottom can trigger heaving, and in con-
nection with this, it is necessary to consider techni-
cal solutions focused on its prevention.
Analysis of isochromatic lines will allow to also
establish following: during drivage of an opening
Figure 1. Location of a working relative to a seam during along the seam with undermining of a bottom
its drivage: (a) 0.5 R higher than the seam; (b) above the (Figure 3), tangential stresses on the contact with
seam; (c) with undermining of the bottom by 0.5 R; (d) roof are equal to zero. But due to complexity of
with undermining of the roof by R; (e) with undermining manufacturing of model with point contact of an
of bottom and roof by 0.5 R; (f) with undermining of ottom opening and roof, wedge-shaped areas of upper part
by R; (g) with undermining of roof by 1.5 R; (h) under the in the model do not meet, and because of this there
seam; (k) under the seam by 0.5 R.
are insignificant tensile stresses take place in the
bottom(  р  0.006 MPa).
As an example, picture of isochromatic lines during a
working drivage under the seam is shown (Figure 2).
Figure 3. Picture of isochromatic lines during drivage of an

opening along the seam with undermining of a bottom.
Figure 2. Isochromatic lines during drivage of a working
under the seam. With moving from vertical axis to horizontal axis,
compressive stresses in a seam increase and reach
Following from the laboratory researches, the fol- maximal values at the boundary of a seam and bot-
lowing is determined: tom (  comp  0.185 MPa).
– only compressive stresses occur in a working at Insignificant concentration of stresses also takes
168
place at a verge of the seams (  сomp  0.099 MPa). Also increase of horizontal dislocations of the open-
While moving from a horizontal axis, compressive ing’s contour is observed. Dislocations of roof and
stresses decrease and reach zero value at the area of bottom, vice versa, decrease by 17%.
vertical axis.
During drivage of an opening under a seam at a
3 CONCLUSIONS
distance equal to zero (Figure 2), picture of
isochromatic lines in the upper part of contour is
Results of optic modeling allow to conclude that
analogical to the picture of base model. Due to the
during drivage of an opening along a seam with
absence of contact of bottom rocks and a seam in
undermining of a bottom, strong carbonate ore func-
the upper part of the working’s contour in the seam
tions as a block, squeezes out weak rock into the
at the area of vertical axis, insignificant value area
working. Value of stresses in an opening walls is
of tensile stresses takes place (  р  0.013 MPa). In
insufficient for breaking of strong carbonate ore.
bottom rocks, adjoining this area, the stresses are Thus, dislocations of an opening walls are smaller
equal to zero. This shows that at point contact of an than in the second and third models.
opening with roof in the model and insignificant And vice versa. During drivage of the working
exposure of roof in natural conditions, stresses near under the seam, stresses occurring in the seam trans-
vertical axis will be equal to zero. fer into bottom and because the bottom is composed
Stresses in lower part of the opening are absent. of weak rocks, the dislocations of an opening walls
With movement of vertical axis to the horizontal are bigger than in the first model. Insignificant
one, tensile stresses increase and reach maximal stresses in bottom and roof (along vertical axis) do
value (  сomp  0.074 MPa) when approaching hori- not contribute to intensive dislocation of the rocks.
zontal axis. Thus, load on the opening on the walls
of this model is lower by 0.07 MPa than in the pre-
vious model. REFERENCES
During drivage of an opening along bottom at a
Frokht, M.М. 1950. Photoelasticity. Moscw: OTIZ.
distance of 0.5 R under the seam (Seam 2), picture Feppl, L. & Menkh, E. 1966. Practice of practical model-
of isochromatic lines is analogical to the one, that is ing. Novosibirsk: Nauka.
in the model with distance from the seam being Trumbachev, V.F. 1962. Study of stress state of rocks and
equal to zero. mine workings with help of optical method: author’s ab-
Results of the calculation show that when the stract. Moscow.
opening is located under the seam, the dimensions Filatov, N.A. 1975. Development of modeling methods in
of the zones of caved rocks in walls increase by connection with complex researches of rock pressure in
underground workings: author’s abstract. Leningrad.
25% compared to an opening driven along the seam.
169
Formation of gas hydrates while mine methane extracting

and possible methods of the problem solving
L. Shirin, Y. Korovyaka & V. Astakhov

ABSTRACT: The paper supposes that in some cases formation of gas hydrates can become one of the most
important problems while mine methane extracting. On the assumption of studying methods aimed at hy-
drate control there are identified ways of their adaptation while solving the problem during mine methane
extraction. Results of studying conditions under which hydrating takes place will become strategic means
against hydrates during accompanying mine methane extraction.
1 INTRODUCTION 3 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM STATE
Progressively increasing consumption of mineral Probabilities of gas hydrate formation while com-
energy reserves makes Ukrainian scientists and mercial extracting mine methane is quite possible.
manufacturer solve the problem of integrated devel- Many components of mine methane (methane,
opment of alternative energy bearers. Mine methane ethane, propane, isobutene, carbon dioxide, and
is one of the most promising directions for our azote) (Table 1) have similar physicochemical
country. properties of hydrating. All the components form
Despite the direction promising for Ukraine mine hydrates, so called gas hydrates – solid crystalline
methane extraction is performed by some separate substances (looking like compressed snow), which
mining enterprises. Available degasification tech- exist under high pressure if temperature is positive.
nique cannot give ability to have adequately qualita-
tive gas. Lack of efficient ways of poor mine meth- Table 1. Mean Chemical Composition of Mine Methane.
ane utilization as well as complex approach to its Content, % Element Content, %
production result in emissions. It depends on the Element (mol) (mol)
fact that underground coal mining technique can not СН 4 87.2 С 5 Н 12 0.3
stipulate simultaneous mine methane recovery. С2Н6 7.6 N2 0.4
Complex approach to the problem which helps to С3Н8 3.1 СО 2 0.1
integrate coal mining process and methane extrac- n-С 4 Н 10 0.8
tion process will improve profitability of coal mines
izo-С 4 Н 10 0.5
and labour safety. Besides it will guarantee power
independence of our country.
Gas hydrates are formed by means of introduction
of crystalline structures into openings. The crystal-
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION line structures consist of molecules H 2 O and gas
molecules (М). General formula of gas hydrates is
Results of analysis of mine methane commercial МnH 2 O where value n varies from 5.75 to 17 de-
extraction in Donbas’s bring into light a number of pending on gas composition and conditions of gas
the most expectable problems which did not take hydrate formation.
place under degasification. Results of different operation schedules of mine
Expert evaluation of data on mines of Krasnoar- methane extraction, degasification and mine and
meysk mining district shows that gas hydrates for- geological conditions of Krasnoarmeysk coal mining
mation is one of substantive problems while mine district taking into account practice of “Krasnoarmey-
methane extracting. The problem is not new for skaya-Zapadnaya #1”, “Dobropolskaya”, “Krasnoli-
enterprises engaged in commercial exploitation of manskaya”, “Belozerskaya”, and “Almaznaya” help
natural gas. The problem is solved with varying to determine a number of operational districts as well
success. as a range of physical conditions for hydrate forma-
tion.
171
Thus, under mud-pulse action to increase effect of mission network slows down efficiency and mine
degasification operating fluid (most of all light safety sensibly. In some cases it may result in emer-
water) with 1 to 8 MPa pressure and 0.01 to 0.1 s gency.
intervals is delivered into coal seam. As a result
joint systems are formed through which gas gets
into the hole. Then formational pressure of after-
damp is sometimes 8 to 10 MPa. Under such pres-
sure availability of water or aquatic solutions of gas
makes it possible to form hydrates in the hole even
if temperature is positive (Figure 1). Similar physi-
cal conditions are available on application of hy-
draulic fracturing. In some cases high pressure of
gas dependent on mining and dynamic processes as
well as watercut of a hole may result in hydrate
formation. The process is possible even if external
effect is not available.
Figure 2. Curves of Hydrate Decomposition within “Wa-

ter-Methane, Ethane, Propane” Systems.
Figure 1. Conditions of Methane Hydrating.
4 RESULTS
Analyses of conditions of gas hydrate formation and

decomposition (Figures 1-3) help to suggest that is
some cases releasing gas creates high pressure в Figure 3. Curves of KC-I Hydrate Decomposition within
systems of seepage blabs. If water is available it Carbon Dioxide-Water System (■  o are Data from
results in hydrate formation. It factors into plugging Different Sources).
microcavities and fractures. Eventually either gas
production decline or ultimate extinction of gas
release is possible. 5 METHODS OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING
As for the systems of recovery the technogenic
hydrates may be formed in a face zone and in a Majority of components of natural gas extraction
hole, in tails and in-field gathering lines, within system is in operation schedules of mine methane
systems of commercial gas treatment as well as in extraction.
main gas transmission systems. Substructure of transporting pipeline in which gas
Negative development of gas hydrates within the is transported owing to drawdown by vacuum pump
system of mine methane extraction can become is an exception. Underpressure excludes gas hydrate
apparent become apparent in different ways. “Ice formation even temperature is low. The transporta-
plugs” within inby gas lines, holes, gas mains etc. tion method can be considered as one of the possible
may considerably slow down throughput capacity of solutions of hydrate formation problem while mine
gas transmission network, and gas discharge from methane extracting.
holes. In some cases it can completely isolate holes. Such methods are used against hydrates in the
Such a change of physical parameters of gas trans- process of commercial extraction of natural gas:
– Inhibitor method.
172
– Thermal method. detention within production pipelines.
– Method with application of surface-active mate-
rials (SAM) etc.
On the basis of methods aimed at hydrate elimi- 6 CONCLUSIONS
nation there are determined ways of their adaptation
while the problem solving in the process of mine Formation of operation schedules taking into ac-
methane extraction. Dewatering, raise of transported count ability of hydrating will be upcoming trend
gas temperature, transportation pressure reduction, while extraction methane under the conditions of
addition of inhibitors and SAM within the most Donetsk coal basin. Primary methods to solve the
probable areas of gas hydrate formation are among problems of gas hydrate formation within live
them. operating schedules will be the elements performing
Thermal method is one the first methods. The me- the simplest unwatering at the output of gas from
thod principle is to raise gas temperature over hy- holes, more complex dewatering facilities within
drating limit within defined pressure. But more and gas transmission pipeline, adding inhibitors and
more often higher level of power consumption and SAM within areas of probable hydrating.
nonuniformity of positive effect make giving up on Results of studying conditions under which hy-
it. Nevertheless the method may be quite working drating takes place will become strategic means
while underground extracting mine methane when against hydrates during accompanying mine meth-
outdoor temperature variations are completely ane extraction. They will be used while developing
predictable and it is possible to use energy of proc- operating schedules. Adoption of technology which
ess loss (heat rejection from live electrical equip- helps to improve qualitative composition of mined
ment, underground air, rock massif etc.). methane will become one of the most progressive
There are cases when it is technically impossible energy-conservative methods to avoid hydrating
to apply thermal method (if ice plug is formed during transportation and further gas processing.
within the hole’s mouth). Then it is expedient to
apply inhibitor methods or method against hydrating
with the use of SAM. REFERENCES
Inhibitor method is in the use of solutions of non-
electrolytes, lower aliphatic alcohols and glycols Sofiyski, K.K. 1994. Unconventional Methods of Outrush
Prevention and Coal Mining. Moscow: Nedra: 192.
which induce sharp increase of induction period of Istomin, V.A. & Yakushev, V.S. 1992. Gas Hydrates in
gas hydrate formation (mainly, they are low- Nature. Moscow: Nedra: 236.
molecular water-dilutable polymeric compositions). Manakov, А.Y. & Dyadin, Y.A. 2003. Gas Hydrates under
SAM ensures multiphase transport of hydrocar- Higher Pressure. Magazine of Russian Chemical Soci-
bonic systems in mode of hydrating without hydrate ety Named after D.I. Mendeleyev, 3.
173
Prediction of mining-induced seismic activity

with the use of neural networks on displacement field
of rocks in its vicinity
J. Kabiesz
ABSTRACT: In the course of mining hard coal seams under rock burst hazard conditions one of the most
important tasks to prevent the hazard is prediction of the time and place of occurrence of strong (E w ≥ 104J)
eismic tremors. The task is difficult and most often accomplished to an unsatisfactory degree. This contribu-
tion presents an attempt of applying neural networks with this end in view. The time series of seismic energy
emission recorded while advancing a longwall face with caving at one of collieries was investigated. It has
been shown that the GRNN-type neural networks may fulfil such a task with an efficiency of about 50%.
1 INTRODUCTION Gao 1998; Niu & Xing 1999; Rudajev & Čiž 1999;
Kabiesz 2006). But their results are not satisfactory
The extraction of hard coal seams under the condi- particularly relative to the key element in ensuring
tions of the Upper-Silesian Coal Basin is often safety, i.e. predicting the time of tremor occurrence.
accompanied by intensive seismic activity of rock The most enhanced attempts in this field undertaken
mass. This activity is directly connected with the by Kornowski (2003, 2004), Kurzeja (2005) and
rock burst hazard (Dubiński & Konopko, 2000) and Kornowski together with Kurzeja (2008) showed
impact of the dynamic results of seismic waives limited possibilities of predicting such time series.
propagation on the surface infrastructure (Mutke & They showed in an objective way that: … it is im-
Stec 1997). It directly influences the work safety in possible to predict the energy E i in a non-trivial,
the collieries and the so-called public safety. In this linear way based on their previous values and/or
context the capability of reliable predicting the based on previous values of t i , as well as it is
seismic activity becomes an important issue within impossible to predict the time intervals t i between
mining activity and in particular when mining- the tremors based on their previous values and/or
induced tremors possess a high energy. Under the based on the energy E i of previous tremors. They
conditions of the Polish collieries there are known showed at the same time that the possibility of
cases of coal bumps connected with seismic tremors predicting the total energy of seismic energy is
with an energy of the order of 104J (Konopko 1994). limited when the energy of seismoacoustic emission
The circumstances and mechanisms of producing is also taken into account in the data under analysis
the highly energetic seismic tremors are very com- AE – Page 138 (Kornowski & Kurzeja 2008). Dis-
plex and complicated and the so far state of knowl- regarding the problem of noise and interferences
edge on their interconnections does not allow un- such a statement should be understood in the fol-
ambiguous predicting of the time and place of their lowing way: lowering down to the technically
occurrence. The emission of seismic energy (seis- possible limit of recorded tremor energies improves
mic tremors, seismoacoustic activity) makes up a effectiveness of predicting the time series of emitted
series of consecutive events that arrange to a time seismic energy. Thus the following question sur-
series of characteristic specificity. There are known faces whether or not the so far achievements in the
from literature attempts of predicting selected ele- field are sufficient. In the practice of the Polish
ments of such series with the help of the classical mining industry there are in common use methods
statistical analyses (Iwulski 2001, 2007; Lasocki described in the so-called comprehensive method of
1993, 193a; Kornowski 2003; Kornowski & Kur- rock burst hazard assessment (Barański & Drze-
zeja, 2008) as well as some unconventional methods wiecki et al., 2007). Their effectiveness regarding
such as neural networks, fuzzy logic, fractal geome- the tremor occurrence time is insufficient. Other
try etc. (Heping & Pariseau, 1993; Lu, Liang and Lu attempts also must be assessed in a similar way in
1997; Wang, Li, Lee, Tsui & Tham, 1998; Yang & the scope. Such a state of affairs constitutes a suffi-
175
cient reason for seeking new possibilities of improv- and seismoacoustic impulse emission were used to
ing the effectiveness of predicting the seismic activ- learn the network. For the purposes of the presented
ity induced by longwalling. One of these possibili- considerations it was assumed identity of the hourly
ties is to apply neural networks as a prediction tool. emission of seismoacoustic activity in a form of
equivalent seismoacoustic energy with energy
400
emission AE. The assumption is permissible as the
l=192,23 logEw prediction subject includes selected elements of the
series of data (time series) corresponding with the
m.
300 moments of occurrence of the referred to tremors.

max,
l
The character of changes in the seismic emission
results from tremors centers;
between the moments of tremor occurrence is quali-

distance of rockbursts
200
tatively similar – it does fundamentally not depend
on whether we will present them as a total of the
100 energy of tremors and the equivalent seismic energy
AE or the energy of tremors and the quantity of
seismoacoustic impulses. The neural network learns
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
and builds its own structure “by analyzing” fist of
tremors energy; logE w all the qualitative changes in values of the training
data. The prediction also concerns qualitative,
violent changes in the value of a parameter under
Figure 1. Distances from the tremor centres that caused analysis.
rock bursts (Konopko 1994).
The presented analyses were aimed at determin-
ing the most important stages to be performed in the
procedure of predicting the tremors with an energy
2 FORMULATING THE PROBLEM
E ≥ 104J. The assumption fundamentally influences
the shape and form of the training data of the neural
Any rock burst hazard assessment must be based on
network as well as the way of training them.
data accessible in mining practice including infor-
The time series prediction is in fact a regression-
mation on the existing conditions of executing
type problem and it is possible to apply any arbitrar-
mining activities, thereof on the parameters describ-
ily selected neural network of a kind fit for prob-
ing the hazard’s symptoms. Longwalling produces
lems of the type to effectively forecast sequential
emission of a seismic energy EC in the form of
values of such a time series (Bishop 1995). In this
seismic tremors E w emitted in a form distinctly
methodology it is fundamental to determine:
separated in time (pointwise) and not so strongly
– kind and number of data to be analysed;
separated (because of their number) seismoacoustic
– form of input and output data;
impulses AE. In practice the second sort of emission
– kind of neural networks and their structure;
is combined in selected time intervals (equal to e.g.
– time interval of prediction, i.e. horizon of pre-
an hour or work shift) and then they use the notion
diction.
of hourly emission or shift emission. The emissions
The computer programme Statistica Neural Net-
constitute a continuance which within the domain of
time makes up the so-called time series. works developed by StatSoft Inc.  was used to
The state of rock burst hazard is first of all depend- analyse the data sets from a sample longwall ad-
ent on the quantity and energy of the highly energetic vanced in one of the Polish collieries.
seismic tremors. It is obvious that there are also other
circumstances that also decide about the fact of a rock
3 MATERIALS UNDER ANALYSIS
burst occurrence correlated with a given tremor, for
example placement of hypocentre relative to mine
Records of seismic activity (seismic tremors and
workings, character of the so-called near field, state
emission of seismoacoustic energy) covering a
of effort around the working, etc. which in the follow-
selected segment of face advance way of longwall
ing investigations will be omitted.
508 in seam 501 at the colliery KWK “Wesoła –
This contribution presents an attempt to apply
Mysłowice” (Figures 2 and 3) and results of analyti-
neural networks with the object of predicting the
cal predictions of distribution of stresses to occur in
time series of seismic emission with the aim to
the seam’s roof strata within the panel of longwall
foresee the moments of occurrence of single seismic
508 as well as the deformation curvatures k of the
tremors with an energy E w ≥ 104J (Konopko 1994).
The series of data on seismic tremor emissions E w 
Licence No. NNCP1052897830F40
176
sandstone and mudstone strata being a result of unconstrained compression strengths R c of the
underworking them. sandstones amount up to 72 MPa, of the mudstones
Seam 501 in the locality of the longwall panel is up to 50 MPa and of the siltstones up to 24 MPa.
deposited at a depth of 730 m, possesses a thickness On a 140-m long segment of the advance way of
from 4.5 to 5.4 m and a dip ranging from 4º to 6º in longwall 508, starting from the 685th metre of the
the south-western direction. The longwall was longwall’s advance way, 3 tremors with energies of
advanced on the strike and the second after longwall the order of 105J, 39 tremors with energies of the
37, and shortly after starting it was advanced along order of 104J, 213 with energies of 103J and 199
with longwall 509. In the roof there are sandstone with energies of 102J were recorded.
and mudstone strata deposited alternately (Figure 4) Because of the limited volume of this contribution
which build thick, fast and stiff complexes capable only the list of tremors with energies of the order of
of generating highly energetic seismic tremors. The 104J and 105J has been presented in Table 1.
The seismoacoustic activity observations were tially connected with emission of seismic tremors.
also conducted on the longwall and their results An analysis of the stratigraphic structure of longwall
were included into the material under analysis. The 510’s roof showed that it incorporates sandstone and
hourly recordings of the activity in the form of mudstone strata with a thickness of ten and several
equivalent energy values were used. The overall metres or more. Such strata are capable of produc-
cardinality of a set created in such a way amounted ing highly energetic tremors and are, in mining
to 2636 data in each of the categories (energy, practice, referred to as tremor-producing strata. For
longwall advance, time). some selected such strata, situated 30 m, 55 m, 80 m
In the analyses there were additionally utilised and 125 m above the top of seam 501 there were
information items characterising the state of the computed (predicted) distributions of the stress and
rock mass undermined by longwall 508, in particu- curvature k.
lar its structural parameters and parameters poten-
177
Table 1. List of tremors with energies E w of the order of 104J and 105J recorded when longwall 508 was advanced on a
140-m long way.
Advance of longwall
Advance of longwall
Advance of longwall
Advance of longwall
Advance of longwall
Advance of longwall
Tremor energy Ew; J
Tremor energy Ew; J
Tremor energy Ew; J
Tremor energy Ew; J
Tremor energy Ew; J
Tremor energy Ew; J

face; m
face; m
face; m
face; m
face; m
face; m
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
1 5.3 30000 8 41.7 30000 15 85.4 200000 22 112.2 60000 29 124.8 10000 36 130.7 40000
2 17.1 50000 9 44.2 20000 16 90.6 30000 23 113.4 40000 30 125.4 10000 37 131.0 10000
3 25.4 2000 10 56.6 30000 17 91.7 80000 24 114.8 30000 31 126.9 10000 38 131.2 300000
4 26.3 80000 11 68.0 30000 18 106.1 30000 25 115.1 80000 32 127.4 200000 39 132.2 20000
5 27.0 2000 12 72.4 20000 19 107.3 10000 26 116.8 10000 33 128.2 60000 40 136.3 10000
6 35.0 80000 13 80.2 70000 20 111.6 20000 27 118.5 90000 34 128.2 10000 41 138.8 80000
7 37.7 60000 14 83.8 20000 21 112.0 30000 28 121.4 80000 35 130.3 30000 42 139.8 40000
wave;  – absolute increases of stresses; v0 –

velocity of longitudinal seismic wave in coal seam;
seismic wave velocity; v, %
50 H = 500 m
 z0 primary rock pressure (–H); a, b, c and d –
relative increase in
40 empirical coefficients (Table 2).

H = 700 m
30
Table 2. Values of the empirical coefficients in equations
H = 900 m
20 (2) and (3) (Dubiński 1989).
10 Depth
0
100 m 300 m 500 m 700 m 900 m
0 100 200 300 400 Coefficient
relative increase in pressure p, % a 53.72 39.39 36.90 43.36 46.57
b 0.848 0.894 0.854 0.725 0.584
Figure 5. Relationship between relative velocity increases c 0.165 0.255 0.315 0.738 1.273
v in longitudinal seismic wave and relative increases of d 0.850 0.878 0.885 0.692 0.512
stress  (Dubiński 1989).
A sample distribution of stresses in the overlying
The distribution of stress  z values was determined sandstone strata deposited at a distance of 125
by means of a proprietary computer programme metres from the top of seam 501 is presented in
SIGMAZ (Kabiesz & Makówka 2009) where, apart Figure 6. This distribution is a result of the influ-
from the natural deposition conditions of seam 501 ences of mine workings existing in overlying and
(depth, bulk density of overlying strata, dip, etc.) underlying seams 504, 404/5 and 405. For the
influence of old mine workings were also taken into purposes of training neural networks there were
account. The programme is based on empirically taken into account the stresses existing along the
proved relationships between the value of anomaly of section located at the half height of the map present-
seismic wave velocity A n and the stresses  in the ing distribution of the parameter. The map is pre-
medium of its propagation (Figure 5) as well as on sented in Figure 6. Analogously there were per-
spatial distributions the anomaly value in the vicinity formed computations to determine distributions of
of mining edge and in the vicinity of tectonic faults. maximum curvature values k max (Figure 7) based on
(Dubiński 1989). The empirical relationships are in the geometric theory of mining impact on ground
general expressed by the following formula: (i.e. the theory by Budryk – Knothe). In this attitude
the curvature is a derivative of inclinations T, i.e.
v  a b (1) second derivative of subsidence w.
  
d Tx
v  k x  1.65k max  Ay  C x (3)
 c 0  (2) x
0  
vp  z  T y
where v – absolute increase in longitudinal seismic  k y  1.65k max  Ax  C y , (4)
y
178
where k max – maximum curvature of surface in the x  0.5s  p
normal direction to the edge 2  (9)

2
k max  244   wmax (5)  y  0.5l  p
1  (10)

 0.512  0.5 22
Cx 1  e  2  e (6)
x  0.5l  p
2  (11)

 0.5 12  0.5  22
C y  1  e  2  e (7) l , s – extraction field dimensions, p – displace-
ment of mining impact (rim) for virgin rock mass:
 – dimensionless quantity equal to (8),  – dimen-
sionless quantity equal to (9) p  H 0.5 (12)
 x  0. 5 s  p for worked rock mass:
1  (8)

p  1 / 2 H 0.5 (13)
p. 405
p. 404/5
30MPa
25MPa
p. 501
20MPa
16MPa p. 404/5
p. 405
12MPa
10MPa
Figure 6. Distribution of values of stresses 125 m above the top of seam 501.
Like for the parameter of stresses there were se- tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J induced by long-
lected values of k max along the section at half height walling by means of neural networks must be exe-
of the map of distribution of the parameter, see cuted in two stages. At the first stage one should
Figure 7. Of course, it is necessary to keep in mind select the neural network that can best map variabil-
that the illustrations of the distributions of parame- ity of the parameter to be predicted – it is hard to
ters p and k max show differences between each other assume that a network that can only poorly express
for different horizons (i.e. the tremor-producing the complicated character of time series variability
strata) located over the top of seam 501. Different will be capable of predicting its selected elements
intensities of mining influences disturb the primary efficiently. At the second stage the selected type and
state of their deformation and effort. structure of the network should be checked on its
capabilities of predicting the moments of occurrence
of seismic tremors with energies we are interested in
4 MAPPING OF SEISMIC EMISSION (criterion energies).
VARIABILITY
Predicting the time points of occurrence of seismic
179
4.1 Training data 60th) minute, then:
The basic training data that were used included the Ei  ECt  (17)
components of time series of seismic energy emis- n
sion recorded during the aforementioned 140-m
Next there were computed compound sums of
long advance way of longwall 508. They encom-
energy EC within each time interval between mo-
passed 2636 data covering the hourly emissions of
ments of tremor occurrences with energies
mean equivalent seismoacoustic energy EC as well
E w ≥ 104J observing the following rules:
as seismic tremors with energies E w ≥ 102J. As an
– for i  1 :
aid there were also used values of stresses  and
curvature k max corresponding with the longwall face  E1C =  Ewi  AEi  (18)
advance under consideration which were obtained i 1
from numerical computations. Each element of the – for 1 < i ≤ k
i  n 1 i n
 Ei 1 +  Ewi  AEi  ,
time series of seismic energy was ascribed a unique
value of the parameters.  EiC 2 = C
(19)
i 1 i 2
The rules of training neural networks require that
where E wi – energy of an i-numbered seismic tremor;
the training data fulfil two fundamental conditions: AE – hourly energy of seismoacoustic emission
– their values should be normalised so as to be
computed as a mean of indications geophones; EC –
comparable with each corresponding parameter; hourly mean of both seismic tremor and seismoacous-
– the form of the data should well reflect the
tic emission energy; t – hourly period of recording
character of their periodical changes (if such seismoacoustic energy emission; n – number of
changes occur). hourly periods of recording seismoacoustic energy
In this connection the set of seismic energy values
emission between the occurrence moments of sequen-
of tremors was subjected to two sorts of transforma-
tial tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J; t n – time
tion: logE w values were computed and then they
interval of recording seismoacoustic emission in hour
were transformed to pseudonominal values using
n.
the following rules:
0 for E w < 104J (14) 4.2 Mapping a time series – training a network
4
±1 for E w ≥ 10 J (15) Training a network was executed by means of the
At the second stage of finding the logarithms the computer programme Statistica Neural Networks
operation was performed on the set of hourly values developed by StatSoft Inc. testing networks of linear
of equivalent energy of tremors and then the values type, MLP, RBF and GRNN. The following algo-
of the energies were summed taking into account rithms of training were used:
the following rules: – BP – Back Propagation;
– the set of logarithm values for EC = E + AE was – CG – Conjugate Gradient Descent;
determined in the following way: there were com- – SS – sub-Sample, ascribing centres;
puted compound sums of the parameters’ values – KM – K–Means, ascribing centres;
between sequential moments of seismic tremor – KN – K–Nearest Neighbour, ascribing devia-
occurrence with energies E w ≥ 104J. The values of tions;
emitted seismoacoustic energy given in the set – PI – pseudoinversion, linear optimisation of
concern hourly intervals whereas the values of smallest squares.
seismic tremor energies, ascribed to a concrete time For the training there were used various sets of
moment (day, hour, minute), were placed in the time training data (various sets of parameters in different
series at the end of the previous hour if it occurred formal formats – see item 4.1). The parameters of
within a time interval from 0 to 30th minute or at training networks were also optimised as much as
the end of the current hour if it occurred within a possible and according to the requirements set by the
time interval from 31st to 60th minute of the hour: programme applied. In general several hundred cases
– if E i took place in a time interval t n = (0–30th) were tested; results in the form of basic values of the
minute, then: parameters (Table 3) and charts illustrating some of
them are presented in figures 8÷17. In the computa-
Ei  ECt (16) tions the period was assumed as equal to 600 and
k 1  diverse smoothing coefficients (for network GRNN).
– if E i took place in a time interval t n = (31st –
180
Table 3. Parameters of the best networks generated for log(E w + AE) values.
Number of Prediction quality
Set error
neurons for set
Validation set
Validation set
Hidden layer
Hidden layer
Training set
Training set
Type of Kind of
Testing set
Testing set
No.
network Inputs learning
(1)
(2)
1 Linear 1 - - 0.3639099 0.6884013 0.6590744 0.7078979 1.268181 1.22722 PI
MLP
2 (3 layers) 1 2 - 0.4563972 0.5082703 0 0.8765147 0.9640325 0 BP50, CG51b
MLP
3 (4 layers) 1 9 6 0.4850833 0.4688632 0 0.9063654 0.9521778 0 BP50, CG51b
4 RBF 1 63 - 0.4722774 0.5073219 0 0.9180812 0.9409894 0 KM, KN, PI
5 GRNN 1 1400 2 0 0.5117463 0 0 0.996552 0 SS
predicted values
6 real values
4
logE values
2
C
-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases
Figure 8. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best linear network (example 1 in Table 3).
3
logE values
2
C
1 real values
predicted values
-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases
Figure 9. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best 3-layer network (example 2 in Table 3).
2
logE values
0
real values
C
predicted values
-2
-4
-6
-100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
cases
Figure 10. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best 4-layer network (example 3 in Table 3).
181
Figure 11. Dependency graph of the Figure 12. Dependency graph of the 3- Figure 13. Dependency graph of the 4-
linear network in example 1 in Table 3. layer network in example 2 in Table 3. layer network in example 3 in Table 3.
6
real values
predicted values
5
logE values
4
C
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
cases
Figure 14. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best RBF network (Example 4 in Table 3).
4,8
4,2
logE values
3,6
C
3,0
2,4 real values

predicted values
0 200 400 600 800 1000

cases
Figure 15. Diagram with logEC values real and predicted by the best GRNN network (example 5 in Table 3).
Figure 16. Dependency graph of the RBF network in Figure 17. Dependency graph of the GRNN network in
example 4 in Table 3. example 5 in Table 3.
182
An analysis of parameters of the networks pre- pseudonominal values 0 and 1 enriching the training
sented in Table 3 and the state of fitting of predic- data by the geomechanical parameter mentioned in
tions to real values (analysis of unit errors) allow chapter 3. It seems to be an interesting experience to
stating that the results of network learning are bad. train a network in predicting occurrences of tremors
The best representation of the time series under with energies E w ≥ 104J in the pseudonominal form
analysis was obtained by means of the GRNN 0 and 1; parameters logEC and k were included in
network. Therefore this kind of network was the set of the training data. Results of one of such
adopted to perform further analyses. In particular tests are presented in Figure 18.
the were tested the time series of logEC values,
0,2
real values
predicted values
0,0
pseudonominal values
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1,0
-1,2
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
cases
Figure 18. Diagram with pseudonominal values E w real and predicted by the GRNN network (example 1 in Table 4).
The quality of representing this form of time se- that there are not other solutions possible that might
ries is insufficient. The share of correct indications improve this type of representation.
of strong tremors (value-1) directly before or at the The best results in the sphere of representing the
real moment of occurrence of the events amounted time series were obtained in case of the series of
only to 3 of 26 events and 10 indications directly logarithms of sums EC, see Figure 19, Table 4 and
after such an event. The network also gave 2 false Table 5.
indications (“false alarms”). But it is not yet a proof
5
values logEC
3 Real values
Predicted values
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
cases
Figure 19. Diagram of values logEC real and predicted by the best network, i.e. GRNN (example 2 in Table 4).
Table 4. Parameters of the best GRNN networks.

Number of Prediction quality
Set error
neurons for set
network
Type of
Training set
Training set
Kind of
Testing set
Testing set
Validation
Validation
No.
layer (1)
layer (2)
Hidden
Hidden
Inputs
learning
set
set
1 GRNN 3 1400 2 0 0.09692 0 1.11e-16 0.9999179 0 SS

2 GRNN 1 1386 2 0.00975 0.197236 0 0.02124 0.4288579 0 SS
183
In practice the representation quality was found of the ones mentioned in chapter 1 of this contribu-
very good beginning with the 619th case (after the tion the same also indicates the case of longwall 508
declared value of network learning, i.e. the so-called being under analysis here. As a consequence of all
“period”) which truly represents the course of val- that it is necessary for the networks to separately
ues logEC. Pearson’s correlation coefficient learn each case of longwall extraction and it is not
amounted to 0.885. Also its value of the standard excluded that it may be necessary to train a network
deviation ratio is favourable (0.472). The parameter (with modifications of dependency patterns and
was determined as a ratio of standard deviation of parameters) in the course of advancing the longwall
prediction error to standard deviation of output face under consideration in changing conditions.
variable. The lower (closer to zero) value of the Thus the network’s capability of generalising the
measuring indicator indicates a better quality of phenomenon’s model is in this case of secondary
prediction, it is the less the larger is the variance importance. An influence of overtraining on the
explained by the referred to model. network’s capability of predicting the future events
(i.e. tremors to occur) may be another problem. This
Table 5. Statistical parameters of prediction generated by a remark should be treated with reference both to
GRNN network for parameter logEC. long-term and short-term predictions. Some better
prediction results may be expected in case of short-
Set
term predictions which for the question under con-
Training Validating sideration constitutes the sufficient goal.
Mean 5.633741 5.617191
Stand. dev. 0.4593604 0.4602519 4.3 Predicting tremors
Mean error 1.333e-09 -0.001346
Error dev. 7.654e-05 0.2174023 In order to obtain the required condition of practical
utility of predictions of the highly energetic tremors
Mean abs. error 5.671e-06 0.04445
the network must have a capability of signalling
Dev. ratio 0.0001666 0.4723551 them in anticipation. To check the GRNN network
Correlation 1 0.88498 on that (Example 2 in Table 3) 6 tremors with
energies E w ≥ 104J were selected – positions #42,
The problem of overtraining a network constitutes 40, 39, 38, 37 and 35 from among the cases pre-
a separate issue. The notion is connected with the sented in Table 1. Next the network was trained
network capability of unit representing a given case with the use of logEC data sets limited to corre-
without possession of the capability of generalising spond accordingly with each tremor included in the
a built-up model of the referred to event. The pre- training data. At the same time there was assumed a
sented cases of training networks show such fea- prediction horizon exceeding the moment of occur-
tures, as the values of the statistical parameters of rence of each given tremor (with some exceptions)
network training effects computed for the training by several sequential cases. A network was found
and the validating sets differ substantially. How- successful when the network indicated in its predic-
ever, practical observations show that the character tion a drop in logEC value at the moment of tremor
of variability of EC emission , and in particular the occurrence (i.e. outside the scope of the training set)
sequences of occurrences of highly energetic trem- or just before it. Obtained results are presented in
ors, are for each longwall different. It is difficult to Figures 20÷25. The longer line of the diagram is
find a general or the so-called seasonal variability always represents the predicted vale.
trends. The fact is emphasised by numerous authors
Figure 20. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an Figure 21. Prediction of occurrence of a tremor with an
energy E w = 3·104J (position 35 in Table 1). energy E w = 1·104J (position 37 in Table 1).
184
While assessing the forms of diagrams of real and ment of tremor occurrence. From this point of view
predicted values, presented in figures 20 to 25 this prediction was successful.
including all the 6 tremors it is possible to state that: For the six cases of tremor occurrence with
– In case of the tremor with an energy Ew =3·104J E ≥ 104J the attempt to make a prediction by means
(Figure 20) the network did not show a drop in the of a GRNN network it appeared:
value of logEC after the real moment of its occur- – In 3 cases successful – the network signalled the
rence, identical with the end of the line of real value phenomena with a 2 to 4-hour advance,
diagram. It means that the prediction was unsuc- – In 1 case moderately successful – the network
cessful. signalled the phenomenon with a 9-hour advance. It
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w =1·104J is not to exclude a possibility of improving the
(Figure 21) the network showed a drop in the value prediction but it is also not to exclude a random
of logEC 4 positions (hours) before the real mo- character of the network’s indications.
ment of tremor occurrence. Precise “further train- – In 2 cases no indications were performed by the
ing” of the network may shorten the period of network despite tremors took place.
anticipation. It may be assumed that the prediction In general it is possible to assume that in about
in this case was successful. 50% of the analysed cases prediction was success-
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w =3·105J ful. This indicates a high utility level of the neural
(Figure 22) the network showed a drop in the value networks in predicting seismic activity induced by
of logEC before the real moment of tremor occur- mining operations in relation to what one might
rence with an anticipation of 4 positions (hours). expect at this stage and encourages to make further
Also in this case it may be assumed that the predic- efforts in the field.
tion was successful.
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w
= 2·104J (Figure 23) the network showed a drop in 5 CONCLUSIONS
value of logEC 9 positions (hours) before the real
moment of tremor occurrence. This period exceeds This contribution presents results of testing various
the duration of a typical work shift and it is possible neural networks in the function of a tool for predict-
to assume that the prediction in this case was unsuc- ing values of some selected parameters of time
cessful. series characterising seismic activity based on
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w records performed during advancing the longwall
= 1·104J (Figure 24) the network did not show a under consideration. To this end there were used
drop in the value of logEC before the real moment sequences of values of seismic tremor energy E w ,
of the tremor occurrence. This prediction should be seismoacoustic emission AE, distribution parameters
recognised as unsuccessful. of pressure p and deformation k max of sandstone
– In case of the tremor with an energy E w strata present in the roof of the referred to longwall
= 4·104J (Figure 25) the network showed a drop in as well as various combinations of the parameters.
the value of logEC two hours before the real mo- Depending on which of the sets of the parameters
185
were subjected to the analyses, in what form their Prognoza. Zwalczanie. Główny Instytut Górnictwa. Ka-
values were used and which kind of the dependency towice.
patterns of the neural networks were applied there Heping Xie & Pariseau W. 1993. Fractal Character and
were obtained predictions of different quality. In Mechanism of Rock Bursts. Chinese Journal of Rock
particular the following should be emphasised: Mechanics and Engineering, 1.
Iwulski, Z. 2001. Szeregi czasowe a prognoza wystąpienia
1. The object of the presented analyses was to wstrząsu. Prace Naukowe Instytutu Geotechniki i
predict the moments of occurrence of tremors with Hydrotechniki Politechniki Wrocławskiej. Konferencje,
energies E w ≥ 104J. 40. Vol. 73: 225-234.
2. Selection of the kind and dependency pattern of Iwulski, Z. 2007. Prognoza wystąpienia wstrząsu za
neural network as well as testing the network’s pomocą szeregów czasowych. Górnictwo i Geoinżyni-
capability of predicting should be performed in two eria. R. 31, z. 3/1: 227-237.
stages: Kabiesz, J. 2006. Effect of the form of data on the quality
– stage I – selection of a network that best repre- of mine tremors hazard forecasting using neural net-
sents the time series under analysis works. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering.
– stage II – verification of the network’s capabil- (2006) 24. Springer. 1131-1147.
ity of predicting the moments of occurrence of Kabiesz, J. & Makówka, J. 2009. Empirical-analytical
method for evaluating the pressure distribution in the
tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J.
hard coal seams. Mining Science and Technology. For-
3. The data for training the network should be merly Journal of China University of Mining & Tech-
normalised and their form should give the character nology. Vol. 19. No. 5. Elsevier. 556-562.
of the variability between the neighbouring occur- Konopko, W. 1994. Experimrntal basis qualifying mining
rences of tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J. excavations in hard coal mines according to the rock
4. The GRNN-type networks that performed gen- bursts hazard. Katowice. Prace Naukowe Głównego
eralised regression represented the time series under Instytutu Górnictwa, 795.
consideration best of all. Kornowski, J. 2002. Podstawy sejsmoakustycznej oceny i
5. The prediction horizon for the that type of net- prognozy zagrożenia sejsmicznego w górnictwie. GIG.
work for forecasting the moments of occurrence of Katowice.
tremors with energies E w ≥ 104J should not be larger Kornowski, J. 2003. Linear prediction of hourly aggre-
gated AE and tremors energy emitted from a longwall
than 1-2, i.e. it should not reach further into the
and its performance in practice. Arch. Min. Sci. Vol. 48.
future than 1 or 2 sequential events within the time Nr.3: 315-337.
series. Kornowski, J. 2004. Prognoza szeregów czasowych w
6. Effectiveness of prediction of the best perform- geofizyce górniczej. Bezpieczeństwo pracy i ochrona
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subjected to tests relative to the time series under Kornowski, J. & Kurzeja J. 2008. Krótkookresowa
consideration amounted to about 50%. prognoza zagrożenia sejsmicznego w górnictwie.
7. Because of the complexity of the conditions Główny Instytut Górnictwa. Katowice.
producing seismic emission during coal seam ex- Kurzeja, J. 2005. Sekwencyjna prognoza energii
traction it should be assumed that for each case of sejsmicznej generowanej eksploatacją pokładu węgla.
longwalling it will be necessary to individually Prace naukowe GIG. Katowice: Studia – Rozprawy –
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Lasocki, S. 1993. Statistical prediction of strong mine
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Zasady stosowania metody kompleksowej i metod Coal Basin, Poland. Strong regional seismic events. Prc.
szczegółowych oceny stanu zagrożenia tąpaniami w 4th Int. Symp. – Rockbursts and Seismicity in Mines –
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Northern Jiaotong University, 3.
187
The role of natural and technogenic components

in failure of geomechanical stability of the territories
which are in the influence zone of mining objects
V. Timoshuk, J. Demchenko & Y. Sherstuk

ABSTRACT: The analysis of influence of natural and technogenic factors on geomechanical stability forma-
tion of territories is made, and the dominating role of technogenesis in its instability in the influence zone of
mining objects is defined.
1 INTRODUCTION pond-store in beam Svistynovo of government en-

terprise “Krivbasshahtozakrittya” (Figure 1).
In the conditions of intensive technogenic influence Sliding processes of a left-bank slope of Inguletz
the natural-and-technical geosystem “objects of a river are fixed in the specified territory. These proc-
mining complex – the geological environment” can esses have occurred in 1989-1996 of and cover the
be characterized by a complex of the interconnected area about 3.5 hectares. Activization terms of engi-
natural and technogenic elements. Character and neering-geological processes during the period from
intensity of these elements defines directions and 1989 till now coincide with accumulation time of
the main parameters of system functioning. changes in the geological environment under influ-
In these conditions functioning of natural-and- ence of artificial factors - increase water levels over
technical geosystem will be caused by a complex of natural position on 70 metres in hydroconstructions
actions which, on the one hand, change an ecologi- “Voikovo”, “Obiednane” and on 30 m – in a pond-
cal state of mining region, from another – define store in beam Svistunovo, and excess of water min-
corresponding reaction of the geological environ- eralization in these objects over a natural back-
ment to technogenic influence which in turn in- ground in 15 … 20 times.
creases risk of negative engineering-geological
processes occurrence.
3 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM STATE
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION Тhe analysis of major factors is made, considering

their interrelation in development of negative engi-
For the decision of engineering protection problems neering-geological processes for definition of char-
of the disturbed territories from adverse engineer- acter and directions of action of natural and tech-
ing-geological processes it is necessary to define nogenic components in geotechnical stability failure
dominating factors of influence on the geological of investigated territory.
environment. The level regime of river Ingulets is characterised
Action of natural and technogenic factors with by low summer-autumnal low water which is
definition of a role of each of them is considered on changed by short-term liftings from downpours, low
example of development landslides processes within winter low water and high and intensive lifting in a
the territories located in a zone of influence of ob- spring high water according to hydrological super-
jects is mining and steel industry of the Krivo- vision on the water posts located on river Ingulets,
rozhsky basin. The location site of village No- nearest of which to village Novoselovka is water
voselovka of Shirokovsky area of the Dnepropet- post Mogilovka.
rovsk region concerns one of such territories. It is in The maximum annual amplitude of water level
an influence zone of such objects as accumulating fluctuation of the river Ingulets near the village
pound “Voikovo” and “Obiednane”, mine dumps of Mogilovka makes 8.88 m, average – 3.36 m. On
deads “Livoberezjni” of Open Society “PGZK” and supervision in 1962…1999 considerable lifting of
Open Society “Mittal Steel Kriviy Rih”, and also a spring high water levels in the river over the mini-
189
mum horizons occurred in 1970; 1978; 1985 and sphere under the influence of technogenic load ob-
1996. jects (accumulating pound and a pond-store) on in-
Directly in an alignment of the Novoselovka vil- vestigated territory is accompanied by a lifting of
lage water levels in the Ingulets river in the Baltic groundwater levels (up to 12.0 m in the Neogene
system of heights are fixed in 1985: a minimum level aquifer) and growth of groundwater mineralization
of 24.70 m, a maximum level of 29.60 m, the maxi- (up to 8 g / l within Novoselovka village and 20 g / l –
mum amplitude of levels of 4.90 m. on the nearby unbuilt area). Reduction of ground
slope stability in a consequence of decrease in ground
deformation and strength properties in the range of
their additional watering and of weathered limestones
leaching zone with cavern formation and suffosion
processes development can be consequence of it.
Considerable decrease in ground mechanical
properties of crushing zone of carbonate rocks can
be explained by leaching processes development in
the range of their watering as sulphuric acid and a
mechanical suffosion within caverns which were
generated.
In natural karstic conditions of a southern part of
Ukraine the established leaching gradient in the top
hundred-metre thickness of rocks makes from 80 to
320 mg / l on each 100 m of filtration way length. It
Figure 1. The geosystem “Objects of a mining complex – is fair for groundwater filtration conditions with an
the geological environment”. initial mineralization up to 500 mg / l that corre-
sponds to ultrafresh and fresh water.
Essential change of groundwater hydrodynamic Thickness of weathered limestones composes the
mode which can occur in natural conditions is the first terrace above the flood plain in village No-
second factor of possible development of landslips voselovka territory. Their thickness averages within
within the referenced territory. However, other natu- 3.0 m. Taking into account character of limestones
ral factors in the specified territory are not recorded bedding, estimated losses of substance in considera-
during the investigated period except for an action of tion of their leaching in mass expression can make
climatic and hydrological factors. Thus, recurrence of 130…490 kg a year on unit of leaching strip width
the climatic and hydrological phenomena during in weight of an order of 500 tons.
enough long time should generate quite balanced However in technogenesis conditions speed of ac-
geologic-hydrogeological system within territory tive karst formation can reach one and more orders
where Novoselovka village is located, that also concerning time of natural development of carbon-
proves to be true centenary experience of its building. ate rocks leaching processes, and, accordingly, con-
Action of technogenic character factors in the cerning developments of karst formation processes
considered conditions appears more essential. So, which are accompanied by carrying out of a fine-
the technogenic component in a hydrological regime dispersed part of rocks.
of river Ingulets is defined by considerable dumps So, it is established by experimental researches,
of mineralized water surpluses from accumulating that speed of leaching processes by sulphate-chloride
pounds, pond-stores and other capacities during the sodium water with a mineralization up to 5.0 g / l,
winter period. Annual volumes of technogenic water which is similar on structure to chloride calcium-
dump reach 20 million m 3 that provides water level sodium water with a mineralization 2.9…7.8 g / l
lifting in river during dump from 50 to 100% con- which are widespread on an investigated site, can
cerning size of water level growth in a high water. reach sizes of 0.01...0.16 g / l per minute. For chloride
Besides, after spring high water passage in May sodium highly mineralized solutions the same indica-
washing of a river channel by pure water admissions tor makes from 0.0004 to 0.05 g / l.
from Кarachunovskoe water basin is carried out. Concerning the considered conditions it can be
Thus, in the general influence of a hydrological equivalent to scarcely full dissolution of carbonate
component on village territory condition by water rocks which are located within a clastic zone of
level fluctuation in river Ingulets the technogenic limestones residual soil of the Ingulets erosion-
factor has considerable role. accumulative terrace.
On the other part, formation of hydrodynamic and Thereupon it is safe to say about possibility of
hydrogeochemical modes of underground hydro- significant decrease in mechanical properties of
190
limy rocks thickness, and as consequence, about
possibility of deformation processes progress simi-
larly to deformation character established according
to numerical modelling.
4 MODELLING
The numerical model of investigated territory site in

the most dangerous direction from the point of view
of landslips activation has been created for an esti-
mation of ground slope stability (Figure 2).
The modelling technique supposed consideration Figure 3. Shearing strain value in a simulated massif when
of set of numerical solution set which were carried weathered limestone layer is watered.
out proceeding from possible deformation character-
istics and strength properties changes of rocks under It is necessary to notice, that similar changes in
the influence of soil massif watering. The fixed deformation characteristics of ground layers located
growth of groundwater level has reached 5.0 m in above weathered limestones thickness, don’t lead to
Neogene deposits of an erosion-accumulative ter- considerable deterioration of ground massif stress
race during the considered period. state and failure of its stability.
Geomechanical condition calculations of a slope Besides, calculation of stress-strain state of a
area within territory of village arrangement have simulated massif in conditions of possible coastal
shown, that in natural geological-hydrogeological zone undermining by river Ingulets has shown that
conditions the rock massif keeps the stability to in this case in a soil massif also there will be no
what elastic deformation character of numerical considerable deterioration of its geomechanical
model elements testified. state.
Apparently from Figure 4, under the influence of
undermining there is only a zone in immediate prox-
imity to wash-out area which can cause occurrence
of only some rock slides without formation of con-
siderable landslip zones.
Figure 2. The deformation mode of model elements in

conditions when weathered limestone layer is watered:
1 – elastic deformation zone; 2 – plastic deformation zone;
Figure 4. The deformation mode of model elements in
3 – explosive deformation zone.
conditions when coastal zone undermined with river In-
gulets.
Possible changes of the is intense-deformed con-
dition of simulated rock massif are considered and it
is established, that geomechanical stability failure 6 CONCLUSIONS
and activation of sliding in investigated territory is
possible in conditions of considerably lowered Among factors which cause development of land-
ground deformation characteristics and strength slips within investigated territory, it is necessary to
properties in the range of its watering. recognise as the main things decrease deformation
So, ground massif stability failure occurs at con- and strength properties of carbonate rocks within
siderable decrease in the modulus of deformation of their watering consequently groundwater backing in
weathered limestones in Neogene deposit thick- Neogene aquifer, it is established by results of the
ness – from 30 to 3 МPa (Figure 1 and 2). executed researches.
191
The defining role in activation of negative engi- REFERENCES
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192
Technology of support of workings

near to extraction chambers
M. Kononenko & O. Khomenko

ABSTRACT: A range of problems of existing technology of supporting of workings in the conditions of

Closed Joint Company “Zaporizkij iron-ore mining enterprise” is considered. Results of theoretical, labora-
torial and industrial researches of the stress and strain condition of a rock mass around the cameras and
drilling orts are presented. New method of calculation of parameters of the combined support of face head-
ings which considers influence of cameras is offered.General instructions.
1 INTRODUCTION safety decrease of mining operations, the over-

expenditure of supporting materials and increase of
Mining of deposits of iron ores on mines of Ukraine a production cost of ore extraction.
is carried out basically by means of heading-and-
stall methods. By means of these methods from 70%
to 100% of rich iron ores are gained at the large 2 THEORETICAL RESEARCHES
enterprises of Ukraine. Increase of rates of reserves’
work-out is essential for Closed Joint Company There was a method improved that was offered by
“Zaporizkij iron-ore mining enterprise” (CJC authors in work (Lavrynenko & Lysak 1993) for
“ZOME”), where the ore mining is connected with theoretical researches of the stress and strain condi-
backfill of a goaf. The increase in volumes of output tion of rocks. The massif’s state was investigated
and decrease of rates of opening and development according to spreading of isolines of normal stresses
of new horizons leads to parity failure between  р . Studies of influence of depth of location of
stoping and capital mining operations. In order to primary chambers have been executed for existing
resolve the arisen problem, in 2001 the State enter- and new horizons of mine. These studies are pre-
price “Research ore mining institute” (c. Krivoj sented on Figure 1a-c.
Rog) for CJC “ZIOME” developed and introduced a Relations of stresses  р for areas of their concen-
new variant of heading-and-stall method. Its peculi- tration around the primary chambers were defined
arity is the presence of the high inclined bottom in by means of Microsoft Excel 2003, which were
primary chambers. New shape of extraction cham- defined for the purpose of further use in engineering
bers allows to reduce quantity of hauling equipment calculations. For a rock mass near to chambers,
by 20% and to lower length of the development relations of stresses changes with increase in depth
workings by 16%. of location, look like:
Formation of the inclined bottom contributes to a – the maximum tensile stresses in foot wall of the
rock pressure manifestation in a nearby rock mass. deposit
Mining workings which are driven in an ore massif
of the inclined bottom and in the secondary chamber  р  1.262е0.0021Н , МPа
are concentrators of stresses. It is displayed in the
form of cavings, delamination and collapse of ore in where Н – depth of location of the chamber, m;
drilling orts of chambers on mine “Ekspluatatsion- – the maximum tensile stresses in the bottom of
naja”. Questions of mining of deposits by means of chambers
chamber methods and support of mining openings
were studied by S.G. Borisenko, I.S. Zitser,  р  1.726е0.0016 Н , МPа
J.P. Kaplenko, O.V. Kolokolov, V.F. Lavrinenko,
V.S. Nigmatullin, V.V. Tsarikovsky, E.P. Chistja- Researches of behaviour of a massif around the
kov, G.T. Faustov, O.Y. Homenko and others. chambers have allowed to make a conclusion that
Absence of scientific researches in the given area breaking strains acts in areas where normal stresses
with reference to CJC “ZIOME”, contributes to a are more than maximum permissible on tension or
193
shear (Khomenko & Kononenko 2003). To perform Changes of values of breaking strains U к within
these researches, the chambers having similar geo- zones of influence depending on increase of mining
technological conditions of mining were analyzed. depth, are presented on Figure 2a-c.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1. Isolines of normal stresses  р in a massif, that surrounds primary chamber at depth of Н к : (a) 740 m,
(b) 840 m and (c) 940 m.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2. Areas of breaking strains U к around the primary chambers at different depth Н к : (a) 740 m, (b) 840 m and
(c) 940 m.
For a rock mass, surrounding primary chambers around the chambers are developing, and they
– values of breaking strains in footwall of ore extend both towards footwall and hanging wall.
Face headings get into the area of breaking strains
U к  0.0215Н к  36.4 , m of the sublevels 665, 690 and 715 m. Theoretical
researches of breaking strains in drilling orts have
where  – volume weight of rocks, t / m3; Н к – allowed to set following relations:
depth of location of chambers, m; – for a roof of drilling workings of level 665 m,
– value of breaking strains in the inclined bottom from the side of ore footwall:
of the chamber
U  0.0003  L2  0.0231 L  1.6838 , m
U к  0.009Н к  4.6 , m
where L – distance from the chamber towards
– value of breaking strains in hanging wall footwall, m;
U к  0.54Н к  93.73 , m – for a roof of drilling working of level 690 m,
from the side of hanging wall:
From the beginning of stoping, breaking strains
194
U  0.0011  L3  0.0237  L2  where Н – depth of location of sublevel openings, m.
The further researches have allowed to receive
0.1377  L  1.8759 , m relation for hanging wall rocks that defines the sizes
of areas of destroying deformations taking into
where L – distance from the chambers towards account distance from chambers and depth of loca-
hanging wall rocks, m; tion of mining works
– for a roof of drilling workings of level 715 m,
from the side of hanging wall: U  2 10 9 Н 1,8621L2 
U  0.00005 L3  0.002  L2   394.73е  0 ,0151Н L  0.0453Н 0 ,5572 .

Received relations contain a certain error, there-
0.016  L  1.6141 , m fore results of calculations have some deviations in
Development of these researches allowed to es- results according to probability of approximation.
tablish laws of change of values of the destroying This fact stipulates necessity of check of results of
deformation, considering depth of location of cham- theoretical researches by means of laboratorial and
bers and places of drivage of face headings. Rela- industrial researches.
tion considers a location of the openings relatively
to chambers and haulage levels
3 LABORATORIAL RESEARCHES
4 ,5 3,6
 h   h 
U   д  L3   д  L2  The methods of laboratorial researches included a
 234   145.7  choice and preparation of equivalent materials,
, (1)
3,1 formations and preparation of models, carrying out
 h 
 д  L  0.8hд0 ,22 of experiments. Laboratorial researches were carried
 93.1  out on installation of modeling of a rock pressure by
instrumental measurement of values of a material
where hд – distance from ground of a haulage level deformation around the face chambers. For this
to sublevel’s ground, m. purpose, a cavity was formed in an equivalent
Relation, defines the dimensions of areas of de- material that was simulating the primary chamber
stroying deformations in a roof of drilling orts with scale of 1:500 Figure 3а-c.
taking into account distance from chambers and It is established, that on each 100 m of modelled
depths of location of openings depth, the model massif is deformed in hanging wall
on 3 cm, in footwall – 3 cm and in the bottom –
3.77
 H  1...2 cm. Deformation process spreads in a shape of
U    L3  31.9 H 1.3 L2  delamination and roof falls towards hanging and
 72,9  , (2)
foot walls, and formation of cracks in the bottom.
 0 ,37 0 ,38
 0. 7 H L  0.148H
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Character of deformation U к of a massif surrounding primary chambers at modelling of various depth Н к :
(a) 740 m, (b) 840 m and (c) 940 m.
195
Relations of destroying deformations U к with chambers, with increase of mining depth. Industrial
depth of location of chambers Н к look like: researches have allowed to receive empirical relations
of massif’s deformation value U к with depth of
– towards footwall
location of the chambers Н к
U к  0.03Н к  0.533 , mm – in hanging wall rocks
– in the inclined bottom of chambers U к  0.07 Н к  45 , m
U к  0.02 Н к  2.867 , mm – in ore of the hanging wall
– towards hanging wall U к  0.0175Н к  11.033 , m
U к  0.03Н к  8.533 , mm – in the inclined bottom of the chambers
It is established, that on each 100 m of modelled U к  0.0125Н к  4.83 , m
depth, the model massif is deformed in hanging wall
on 3 cm, in footwall – 3 cm and in the bottom – Industrial measurements in drilling orts of levels
1...2 cm. Deformation process spreads in a shape of 665, 690 and 715 m which are adjacent to worked-
delamination and roof falls towards hanging and foot out primary chambers, have allowed to determine
walls, and formation of cracks in the bottom. Rela- dependences of deformations values in the roofs of
tions of destroying deformations U к with depth of the openings at some distance from the chambers:
– for the level of 665 m from the side of footwall
location of chambers Н к look like: of the deposit
– towards footwall
U  0.0001  L2  0.0036  L  1.4786 , m
U к  0.03Н к  0.533 , mm
– for the level of 690 m from the side of hanging wall
– in the inclined bottom of chambers of the deposit
U к  0.02 Н к  2.867 , mm U  0.0005 L3  0.0087  L2 
– towards hanging wall 0.0476  L  1.7057 , m
U к  0.03Н к  8.533 , mm – for the level of 715 m towards hanging wall’s rocks
Divergence of results of laboratory and theoretical
U  0.00007  L3  0.0028  L2 
researches of change of values of massif deforma-
tions depending on depth, has not exceeded 7%. 0.0227  L  1.4616 , m
The methods of industrial researches included ex-
amination of a principle of operation of an electronic The divergence of results of industrial researches
measure tape and an electronic tachometer of series with the laboratory and theoretical was exceeded by
GPT-3000. Order of carrying out of measurements 8%.
in the conditions of the worked-out chambers and
parameters of deformation of support in drilling orts
of levels 665, 690 and 715 m near the chambers. 5 TECHNOLOGY OF SUPPORT OF WORKINGS
The received results of research of the stress and

4 INDUSTRIAL RESEARCHES strain condition of a massif round primary cameras
and drilling mining works has allowed to develop
Industrial researches were carried out in the condi- methods of parameters determination of the com-
tions of mine “Ekspluatatsionnaja” during mining of bined support of drilling workings taking into ac-
ore reserves on levels 640…740 m and 740…840 m. count influence of cameras.
Actual dimensions of primary chambers after the end 1. Size of destroying deformations in a roof of an
of stoping were measured by means of laser devices. opening from the primary camera towards hanging
The obtained data was compared with the design sizes wall rocks
of chambers. The analysis of the design and actual
dimensions has allowed to receive parameters of k 2 L2  k1 L3  k 3 L  0.8hд0.22
U 
changes of values of massif deformations, around the 2
196

0.148 H 0.38
,m

U   L 2  109 Н 1.8621L 
2
4.5 3.77

 394.73е0.0151Н  0.0453Н 0.5572 , m
 h   Н 
k1   д    Other parameters of bolting of a working are de-
 234   72.9  fined according to formulas (3)-(7). Installation
3.6 parameters of a grid of type “Rabica” or other sup-
 h 
k2   д   31.9 Н 1.3 porting means are implemented according to the
 145.7  sizes and the form of areas of deformations. After
3,1 detection of basic parameters, a working support
 h  passport is developed in a zone of influence of
k3   д   0.7 Н 0.37
 93.1  chambers according to the design diagram presented
on Figure 4.
2. Depth of a blasthole for a rockbolt
la  U  l  lп , m (3)
where l – value of the rockbolt’s depth in a steady

massif’s zone, equals to 0.3…0.5, m; ln – length of
a rockbolt protruding from a blasthole which de-
pends on its construction and thickness of the sup-
porting elements, equals to 0.05…0.2, m.
3. Rockbolts installation density
Р  U    kп
na  , pcs. (4)
Ра
where  – volume weight of ore or rocks within the

zone of a possible roof fall, kN /m3; k п – coefficient
of overload, equals 1.2; Pa – bearing capacity of a
rockbolt, kN; P – active perimeter of an opening
with diminished arc, m:
Р  3.18  1.33В , m (5)
Figure 4. The design diagram for support passport devel-
where В – width of a drilling opening in drifting, m. opment.
4. Distance between rockbolts
Ра 6 CONCLUSION
аа  ,m (6)
U    kп The introduction of a rational way of supporting of
face headings taking into account influence of cham-
5. Length of a rockbolt
bers in the conditions of CJC “ZIOME” mines has
l у  l a  sin  , m (7) allowed to lower the cost price of supporting of face
headings to 35%.
where α – deposit dip angle, grade.
Based upon the results of theoretical, laboratorial
and industrial researches, it is established, that REFERENCES
primary chambers have an influence on the support
Khomenko, O.Y. & Konenko, M.M. 2003. Substantiation
of face heading which are located from the side of
of supporting technologies of development workings
hanging wall rocks. It has allowed to develop a under conditions of CSC “Zaporizkiy iron-ore enter-
method to define the parameters of support of drill- prise”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Naukovy visnyk NMU, 7: 15-
ing workings in hanging wall rocks. Value of de- 17.
stroying deformations in a roof of workings from Lavrynenko, V.F. & Lysak, V.I. 1993. Physical processes
primary chambers in rock massif during imbalance. Moscow: Mining
Magazine, 1: 1-6.
197
Bolting for mining workings in clay rocks and ores
V. Nikonets & N. Stupnik

Kryvyi Rih Technical University, Kryvyi Rih, Ukraine
I. Horbatenko
OJSC “Marganets ore-dressing complex”, Ukraine
ABSTRACT: Geomechanical processes research in the Earth’s depth in case of underground manganese ore
recovery allowed us to determine the following dependences of the: roof sinking speed at the conjugation of
stopes on the clay thickness of the ore layer; bolt length on the roof sinking speed at the conjugation of
stopes. On the basis of the carried research, a bolting consisting of bolts made of reinforced steel which are
pressed into the rock and ore with the help of the hydraulic unit was developed and introduced.
1 INTRODUCTION
The largest manganese ore deposit of Europe which

is a horizontal ore layer with the average thickness
of 1.5-2.5 m at the depth of 70-120 m is mined in
Ukraine. The ore deposit is mainly composed of
clay particles and disseminated small-size solid
manganese minerals. Soft bass with the average
thickness of 4-16 m occurs in the ore layer roof and
water-encroached sandy-argillaceous rock occurs in
the floor.
2 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION
The deposit is mined by long narrow rooms, the ore

is broken by small-size combines and is surfaced
with the help of conveyors. The extraction drift Figure 1. The dependence of the roof sinking speed at the
lining by circular hinged movable supports made conjugations of stopes on the clay thickness of the ore
from mine special profile SCP-27 (special concave layer.
profile). The working inner diameter is 3.0 m and
3.3 m, the support density is two frames per 1 m of This research allowed developing, testing and in-
the mining working. troduction of bolting for extraction drifts into pro-
Because of insufficient bearing resistance of the duction. The bolting consists of bolts made of rein-
applied support, extraction drifts and their conjuga- forced steel Ø22 mm the length of which is 1.0-4.0
tion with stopes are repeatedly retimbered leading to m; the fencing (string) made of metal punching and
excessive material and labour costs. stretching plate the thickness of which is 3.5mm and
In order to cut the costs some mine research has the bolt head plates.
been carried out which demonstrated that rock pres- The bolts are pressed into the rock and ore with
sure is affected by the following three factors: 1) clay the help of the hydraulic unit across the whole pe-
thickness of the ore layer roof itself, 2) occurrence rimeter of mining workings. The unit capacity is 10-
depth and 3) ore layer thickness (Nikonets 1989). The 20 bolts per hour.
first factor appeared to be the main one, so the de- During the mine research, about 2500 m of mine
pendence of the roof sinking rate at the conjugations workings were fastened by bolting and combined
of stopes on the thickness of clay occurred above the bolting and frame supports. The transport cross cut
ore layer was determined (Figure 1). condition in Mine #9/10 fastened by the bolting is
199
shown in Figure 2. The condition of the bolting and 2.5 times. The application of the bolting and frame
frame support of extraction drifts in Mine #8 is support makes it possible to cut the frame support
shown in Figure 3. The application of the bolting density by 1.5-2 times and reduce the costs by
allows to cut the material and labour costs by 1.5- 25-30%.
Figure 2. The transport cross cut condition in Mine #9/10. Figure 3. The condition of the bolting and frame support of
extraction drifts in Mine #8.
During the mine research the optimal bolting den- sure makes 25-40 m (Nikonets 2003).
sity of 4 bolts / m2 was defined as well as the de-
pendence of the optimal bolt length on the roof sink-
ing speed at the conjugations of stopes (Figure 4).
Figure 5. The condition of bolting and frame conjugations

of stopes in mined-out area.

Figure 4. The dependence of the bolt length on the roof In this zone a frame support which had lost some
sinking speed at the conjugations of stopes. of its constructive flexibility along with fractured
surrounding rocks intensively deforms and col-
The optimal bolt length was estimated in such lapses. As stoping operations come closer to each
way in order to ensure the integrity of mine work- frame support the velocity of its deformation in-
ings which are beyond the stoping zone impact, and creases and makes 7-18 mm / h at the conjugations
also maintenance of stoping conjugations in the of stopes in most mines. The workers of stoping
stoping zone. In Figure 5 the condition of bolting brigades are drawn away for retimbering entries and
and frame conjugations of stopes in mined-out space their conjugations leading to the reduction of stop-
after the end of stoping operations is shown. ing efficiency.
The research has shown that the length of the The distinctive feature of a bolting is the fact that
zone of stoping impact, where high bearing rock it positively affects geomechanical processes in the
pressure is observed comes to 60-120 m, but the massif around the workings. There are no voids;
length of the zone with the most destructive pres- rock slabbing and its equilibrium state around the
200
workings are not disturbed. A bolting is a means of – prevention of premature rock cleavage and for-
artificial fastening of rocks around workings by mation of rigid deformations;
means of their reinforcement and pressing by bolts – reduction of material and labour costs while fas-
which prevents the appearance of tension in rocks tening the workings and their maintenance.
beyond the rock pressure zone. Cone-shaped The main tasks of the bolting in the workings
pressed rock zones are generated around the bolts in within the zone of stoping impact include:
the rock pressure zone. As the bearing rock pressure – deceleration of rigid deformation zone devel-
increases, these zones are overlaid by each other and opment and velocity of rock contour displacement;
form a single zone of pressed rocks in which the – preservation of workings height and prevention
tension remains in small cones between the bolt of their retimbering;
heads and they are not considerably significant in – ensuring their maintenance.
behavior of the bolting massif (Yakoby 1987). The main directions of the further research in-
Thereby, if in case of applying a frame support, clude:
the geomechanical process of rigid deformation – replacement of working metal fencing from
forming around the working zone starts right after punching and stretching plates by the fencing made
its installation in the stope and in case of bolting of glass cloth of mine production;
application this process starts developing only in – improvement of bolt components the length of
proximity to sloping operation sites and has deceler- which is more than 3 m.
ated character. The exploitation of the workings and
their conjugations is carried out without any dan-
gerous failures of the support and rock. REFERENCES
Nikonets, V.I. 1989. Directions for face supports selec-

3 CONCLUSIONS tions and on mines of Pridneprovs’k manganese ore de-
posit. Krivoy Rog: Research mining institute.
Nikonets, V.I. 2003. Results of industrial tests of a bolt in
The main tasks of the bolting in the workings be-
Nikopol’s basin. Krivoy Rog: Research mining institute.
yond the zone of stoping impact include: Yakoby, O. 1987. Practice of rock pressure management.
– preservation of edge rock massif in its original Moscow: Nedra.
state;
201
The first Ukrainian corporative university
O. Khomenko & D. Rudakov

ABSTRACT: The pre-conditions to establish a corporate university aimed at meeting the uranium industry
needs in Ukraine are analyzed. The university objectives are determined; the available base for its activities
and expected outcome are outlined.
Global trends in uranium industry development. Kazakhstan (817), Russia (545), South Africa (435),
The global crisis has stepped up the change of the Canada (423), USA (342), Brazil (278), Namibia (275),
world energy priorities to nuclear fuel. In addition, Niger (274), Ukraine (200), Jordan (112) and Argentina
the attention to uranium increased on the back- (105). The geography of uranium mining has been
ground of the gas confrontations between Russia changed last years. According to the 2009 outcome,
and Ukraine that affected consumers in Europe in Kazakhstan with 14,000 tons (20% of the world
2009. The majority of nuclear programs have been consumption) left behind Canada (11,500 tons) and
launched last years, which lead to rising prices for Australia (11,200 tons) and became the world leader
nuclear fuel and relevant technologies. The most of in uranium supplies. Russia with 3,900 tons let pass
countries in the world including “old Europe” stand Namibia with 5,000 tons to the fifth place sinking to
at the door of “nuclear Renaissance” being accom- the sixth place.
panied with the boom of building nuclear power The Ukraine’s uranium base. Ukraine possesses
plants. The new energy blocks are currently under at least 12 explored in details endogen uranium
construction in the U.S.A., Canada, Japan, India, deposits concentrated near two centers called Kiro-
Iran, Finland and other countries, with 20 of 53 vograds’ky and Novo-Costiantynivs’ky. These
blocks in the world being built in China. Here are 90 deposits can be exploited only by underground
projects at the feasibility studies today. The inten- mining. Regarding to the current extraction rates
tion to develop the nuclear industry actively have they can provide the domestic nuclear plants for
announced Kazakhstan, U.S.A., Great Britain, more than 100 years. The reserves of 15 sandstone
Slovenia, Austria, Vietnam, India, Turkey, Egypt, deposits suitable for in-situ leaching (ISL) should be
Ukraine, Belarus, Netherlands, Sweden, Morocco. taken into account too. There are four deposits
After some decades of recession the nuclear indus- actually ready for ISL called Sadove, Safonivs’ke,
try became on demand again. Novo-Gurievs’ke, and Surs’ke. The Ukrainian deposits
The number of functioning reactors in the world enable maintaining market attractiveness of produced
reached 439; additionally 136 new ones are projected uranium owing to a number of reasons. Large size of ore
and about 300 reactors are planned for building. This bodies allows companies to use effective extraction
grows will face the exhaustion of nuclear fuel sources systems; high strength properties of rocks and ores make
due to increasing demand on uranium. Nowadays the possible to excavate openings without timbering and
USA and Russia supply about one fifth part of con- mine out large cleaning blocks; low inflows to under-
sumed uranium using nuclear fossils to be utilized, ground workings enable minimizing expenses for mine
with 1,150 tons coming from the USA and almost drainage. Besides, the relatively low content of uranium
9,000 tons from Russia last year. The U.S. Govern- in ores and, respectively, in normally ventilated under-
ment has even limited the uranium quantities to be ground working is favorable for the personnel from the
sold on the market trying to prevent prices from fall viewpoint of radiation safety conditions.
and keep many projects active in uranium mining The current volumes of uranium production in
(Koksharov 2010). Ukraine amount to 800 tons or only 30% of domes-
The estimated reserves of uranium in the world tic needs. These quantities are produced by the
exceed 5 million tons. The countries possessing mines Smolins’ka and Ingul’ska of the State Enter-
greatest amounts (in thousands of tons) are ranged prise “Direktsia” (1-st cascade will produce 1,500
now in the following sequence: Australia (1234), tons/year from 2015 and 2-nd cascade will supply
203
2,500 tons/year from 2019). Hence the projected qualification as well as wide using of advanced geo-
rate of uranium mining here is expected to be technologies in uranium mining. The available
achieved in 7-10 years if the enterprise capacities educational network in Ukraine under clear general
will be increased. After environment remediation coordination can manage with this challenge meet-
near tailing ponds the capacities of the stopped ing the nuclear industry requirements.
hydrometallurgical plants in Zhovty Vody and The economical crisis has affected first of all the
Dniprodzerzhinsk can be exploited too. Simultane- producers of raw materials and revealed personnel
ously the zirconium mining and dressing capacities problems have been accumulated in the Ukrainian
on Vil’nogirsk deposit (Dnipropetrovs’k region) and mining industry last two decades. This time finan-
JSC “Kryms’ky titan” (Crimea) have to be used; cial success has been grounded on extensive factors
this enables producing zirconium rolling of nuclear such as low-earned and qualified personnel, cheap
clearance 0.005%. The uranium production growth and accessible mineral resources, and stable eco-
in the next 10 years is only possible owing to un- nomical links with Russian enterprises and holdings.
derground ISL regarding to minimization of envi- Temporal global lowering of the demand on miner-
ronmental damage and higher safety for the person- als resulted in re-assessment of the development
nel. The first step in short-term development has to plans in the mining and metallurgical industries of
be post-prospecting of ore bodies in geological Ukraine. The worker figures in these branches are
formations on the shallow Ukrainian deposits suit- reducing simultaneously with growing demand on
able for ISL (Khomenko & Dronov 2009). specialists experienced in uranium mining and
Problems of personnel education for the ura- treatment. The considerable part of engineers and
nium industry. Completing these plans requires miners is now ready to change occupation and
systematical education of high-qualified specialists company, which can be used for recruiting them to
for all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle. Personnel work in uranium and nuclear industries. This creates
preparation for the uranium industry in the former one of important pre-conditions for development of
USSR was concentrated in some technical universi- all elements of the nuclear fuel cycle in Ukraine,
ties in Moscow, Leningrad, and Sverdlovsk. There- which is not only a topical economical problem but
fore this became a challenge for independent also the strategically important aim for Ukraine
Ukraine since 1991. Last decades the branches of from the viewpoint of energy sovereignty. Respon-
the State Enterprise “Direktsia” were mostly re- sible authorities have to use the international experi-
cruited with students of technical and chemical ence, particularly, activities of the National Re-
specialities graduated mostly from universities of search Nuclear University (Russia) and Kazakhstan
Dnipropetrovs’k region. They are National Mining Nuclear University. These corporative institutions
University, Ukrainian State Chemical and Techno- combine educational, research and industrial com-
logical University (Dnipropetrovs’k). Sevastopol ponents with establishing cooperative partnership
National University of Energy and Industry (Cri- links (Khomenko 2009).
mea), Kryviy Rig Technical University. Regrettably Ukrainian nuclear university as a corporative educa-
education of these students does not meet properly tional establishment. The main tool of innovation
the growing needs of the uranium industry and activities has to be a corporative educational estab-
branch specifics. lishment specializing in the nuclear fuel complex and
The analysis of teaching programs on special solving systematically the problems in education and
courses in these universities reveals insufficient training of specialists, development and implementation
attention paid to the uranium mining specifics. In of advanced geo-technologies of uranium mining with
fact, the leading producers of the Ukrainian uranium keeping high environmental standards.
industry such as State Enterprises “Tsirkonium”, Development of the Ukrainian Nuclear University
“Smoly” (Dniprodzerzhinsk), the Ukrainian Re- (UNU) would be reasonable on the base of the
search Projecting and Prospecting Institute of Indus- National Mining University (NMU). A number of
trial Technologies (Zhovti Vody) does not cooperate scientific schools in Earth’s sciences and mining
sufficiently with the aforementioned universities. acknowledged around the world have been formed
Although there are a lot of research and educational, in this well known high educational technical estab-
projecting and geological institutions and establish- lishment during its 110 years history. At the same
ments related to the nuclear cycle, their efforts are time the UNU structure is open and can be enlarged
not yet coordinated appropriately to achieve the freely with other institutions and industrial enter-
energy sovereignty of Ukraine. So the planned and prises not depending on kind of their property.
currently doing re-structuring of the energy branch The UNU has to join the efforts of educational
requires active implementation of innovative ap- and industrial partners to solve today problems of
proaches in education, personnel preparation and re- the Ukraine’s nuclear industry such as optimization
204
of personnel preparation and enhancement of its schools at the NMU headed by acknowledged
qualification, recruiting of qualified specialists into specialists are successfully developing on the de-
this branch, scientific support of mining and indus- partments of geology and deposit prospecting, geo-
trial projects with cutting-edge researches, creation information technologies, hydrogeology and engi-
and development of corporative web-resources to neering geology, construction and geo-
provide staff on enterprises, R&D departments in mechanics, open mining, underground mining,
institutes and companies, lecturers and students with mineral dressing etc. There are specializations for
relevant information and data. students potentially meeting the needs of mining
Educational activities of the UNU are intended to enterprises and specifics of iron, manganese, and
be supported by nine Ukrainian educational estab- uranium deposits.
lishments including five universities offering not Last years NMU was cooperating fruitfully in
only available teaching courses in usual forms but education and research support with industrial
also innovative approaches using remote teach- partners including JSC “Zaporizhzhia iron-ore
ing/learning. R&D projects and plans of the UNU plant”, “Kryviy Rig iron-ore plant”, “Marganets
can be fulfilled by the Ukrainian research projecting mining-dressing plant”, “Vil’nogirs’k mining-
and prospecting Institute of industrial technologies dressing plant”, State Enterprises “Shid mining-
(Zhovti Vody) and Research ore mining Institute dressing plant” and “Direktsia” (Dnipropetrovsk
(Kryviy Rig) as well as research teams at the afore- region) etc. This resulted in increasing numbers of
mentioned universities. The leading industrial young peoples wanting be enrolled in mining speci-
stakeholders can be State Enterprise “Shid dressing- alities at the NMU (Khomenko 2009).
ore plant” (Zhovti Vody), “Direction” (Kirovograd Successful innovation activity of NMU has lead
region), and Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant. to creation of Research and Education Center (REC)
UNU educational participants. Nuclear industry “Geotechnical systems stability: processes, phe-
stakeholders, university lecturers and researchers in nomena, risks” founded with the support of Civilian
Ukraine have acknowledged UNU creation as the well- Research and Development Foundation (U.S.A.)
timed and expedient project to take part in. While mak- and Ministry for Education and Science of Ukraine.
ing the UNU structure the National Mining University REC became the first pilot project in Ukraine aimed
can become its coordinator responsible for primary at solving topical problems of effective usage of raw
management and general links. The UNU bodies are to and energy resources as XXI century challenges.
be created in each partner of this corporative institution. Efforts of REC participants including recently
The NMU staff can take part in such important re- involved students and postgraduates with using
search and educational projects as “Geological estima- modern laboratory facilities focus on advanced
tion of uranium, zirconium, and rare-metal deposits”, studies in geophysics, modeling of man-caused
“GIS-technologies for prospecting and estimation of processes in geotechnical systems, GIS-
uranium deposits”, “Technologies of unstable rock technologies, physics and chemistry of rocks, and
timbering and dewatering of openings”, “In-situ under- geo-mechanics.
ground, heap, and block leaching of uranium”, “Ura- Besides, other scientific and technical bodies at the
nium-ore plant construction”, “Underground uranium NMU can take part in UNU creation, first of all, the
mining”, “Ventilation systems minimizing radon im- centers of blasting work problems, IT in mining, auto-
pact”, “Technologies of uranium ore dressing” etc. These mation of technological processes in mining and metal-
activities are planned to be performed in cooperation lurgy, technical protection of information, environ-
with partners from the U.S.A., Russia, Kazakhstan, mental safety, energy saving and management etc.
Uzbekistan, and China. Also NMU has the long-term experience in coopera-
According to the UNU concept, Ukrainian State tion with partners in science, technology and education
Chemical and Technological University (Dnipropet- support through double subordination institutes ac-
rovs’k) as a partner is responsible for education in complishing R&D studies and projects for mining
chemical engineering, Kryviy Rig technical university enterprises, mining and metallurgical energy and power
prepares mining engineers, Sevastopol National Univer- supply, economics of industrial developments.
sity of Nuclear Energy and Industry educates specialists Since 2007 the first scientific and educational
for nuclear power industry, Kirovograd Institute of web portal “Rudana” (http://rudana.in.ua) was
people’s development “Ukraine” is responsible for launched in order to combine the interests of stake-
teaching and training students in economics and laws. holders, lecturers, researchers, and students. It
The UNU system has to include industrial colleges and provides information on mining enterprises, compa-
technical schools in Zaporizhzhia, Dnipropetrovsk and nies, universities, colleges, projecting institutes and
Kirovograd regions (Khomenko 2009). non-government organizations as well as relevant
Available base of UNU creation. The scientific analytical reviews and innovations in mining and
205
technologies. Intended enlargement of this portal web portals like “Rudana” intended for exchange of
can create a network joining all UNU partners [6]. educational, scientific and technical data among
Expected results. Successful implementation of corporative university participants (Khomenko
the proposed UNU concept enables solving the 2009).
mining industry challenges such as
– creation of an inter-university society of R&D
managers, scientists and lecturers ready to jointly REFERENCES
educate future specialists in the nuclear-fuel cycle
and enhance staff qualification meeting the growing Koksharov, A. 2010. http://www.expert.ru/printissues/expert
needs and demands of active, re-structured and new /2010/05/uranovaya_lihoradka/
Khomenko, O.Y. & Dronov, A.P. 2009. Energy sover-
enterprises of the uranium mining industry in post-
eignty of Ukraine and its environmental price. Scientific
crisis time; Bulletin of Kryvyi Rig Technical University: 28-34.
– furtherance of fired personnel re-qualification Khomenko, O.Y. 2009. http://rudana.in.ua/showanalit _23_
through recruiting peoples to new jobs in mining lang.htm
with advanced and environmentally accepted geo- Khomenko, O.Y., Shvyd’ko, P.V. & Rudakov D.V. 2009.
technologies providing relevant guaranties; A corporative nuclear university as the educational
– implementation of the social partnership for base of Ukraine’s energy sovereignty. Proc. of Int. Con-
stakeholders of the nuclear-fuel complex interested ference “Miner’s Forum-2009”. Dnipropetrovs’k: Na-
in high-qualification staff; tional Mining University: 19-24.
– preparation of socially active young citizens Khomenko, O.Y. & Shevchenko, S.V. 2009. Novelties of
able to critically assess information about living the National Mining University in training of research
near nuclear industry plants and sites. and educational staff. Kyiv: Vyscha shkola, # 2: 47-50.
The IT background for the UNU infrastructure Khomenko, O.Y. 2009. http://rudana.in.ua/showanalit_
and simultaneously its uniting element has to be the 30_ lang.htm
206
Influence of the shape of portal support

of working junctions on its stress state
M. Rotkegel
ABSTRACT: Portal support of roadway junctions and crossings, on account of its advantages, became in
recent years a readily applied way of protection of the area of roadway mine working connections. Annually
in Polish coal mines about 30 sets of such support are installed – original, individually designed in order to
connect specific mine workings and expected loads. The Central Mining Institute is the creator of the
majority (about 2/3) of their designs. The current activities of mines related to the quest for savings induce
both the designers and producers to seek more and more cheaper support solutions. The effects of these
activities constitute numerous analyses and investigations conducted in the field of the work of portal
support of junctions and crossings, resulting in the reduction of costs of support and its optimisation. The
article presents selected directions and effects of conducting of these investigations.
1 INTRODUCTION and-mining conditions existing in the place of

installation. Modern CAD systems allow such a
The most frequent connection of roadway mine
solution, both commercial and author’s systems
workings is the one-sided junction at an acute angle.
(Bock 2009 & Prusek 2006). The fundamental tasks
In a specific case the connection takes the shape of a
of such support fulfils the basic construction (portal
somewhat deformed letter Y. Connection of curved
and abutment) thus transferring the prevailing part
mine workings is also possible (Rotkegel 2003 &
of loads originating from the rock mass. The frames,
Stałęga 2001). The support of the junction,
however, constitute an important supplement of the
according to the traditional execution, consists of
construction transferring the loads partly to the
arch large-size yielding frames; their width
abutment, and partly to the floor (Rotkegel 2003).
increases along with the approach to the junction’s
Such support is an efficient way of protection of
corner. Considerable overall dimensions of frames
mine workings in the zone of their connection. A
used in the place of the greatest junction’s width and
properly designed construction in comparison with
connected with it lower value of their load-bearing
the traditional support has many advantages. The
capacities overlaps the widest place of the mine
most important of them are favourable overall
working, in which the highest impact of the rock
dimensions that allow to minimise the values of
mass on the support occurs. Such a situation
breakout in the junction corner and the increased
frequently leads to maximum frame compaction
load-bearing capacity of the support, adapted to
(Rotkegel 2003).
loads resulting from geological-and-mining
An alternative solution constitutes the portal
conditions. An important advantage is the
support, accurately adapted to the overall
possibility to design the construction for practically
dimensions of connecting mine workings. In the
any connection of mine workings. Figure 1 presents
case of a junction it consists of the basic skeleton
an example of the construction described above.
construction as well as temporary and additional
frames. The basic construction forms the portal
stretched above the zone of connection of mine 2 STATE OF JUNCTION’S SUPPORT
workings and connected with it abutment situated in STRESSES
the place of interpenetration of mine working. These
sets consist of I-section or box beams, whereas the The form and shape of junction’s support, resulting
space in front of the portal protect frames called from the geometric parameters of connection of
temporary frames. All these elements are designed protected mine workings are exactly connected with
individually with regard to the shape and overall the state of the construction load and resulting from
dimensions of the connection as well as geological-
207
it state of stresses in individual support elements. distance are selected. Most often for the basic
Generally we can state that along with the growth of construction H-section IPB450, IPB500 or IPB550
load values increase stresses generated in the is used, and in especially difficult geological-and-
construction. In order to transfer the anticipated mining conditions, closed cross-section 550 x 400 is
loads and to ensure safe work of such support in the applied. The frames, however, manufactured most
design and construction process, the geometric form frequently from V32 and V36 sections, rarely V29,
of the skeleton (proportions between the portal and are installed using the clear interval from 0.4÷0.6 m.
abutment), sections for the basic construction In extremely unfavourable cases smaller clear
(Rotkegel 2005) and frames as well as the frame intervals are used, even equal to 0.33 m.
Figure 1. Exemplary support of a connection of roadway mine workings (1 – abutment, 2 – portal, 3 – additional frames,
4 – temporary frames).
additional loads and their effects one can become

convinced when analysing among others the results
of model strength tests of the basic construction of
junction’s support. Figure 2 presents an exemplary
map of reduced stresses and deformed shape of the
model of construction subject to rock mass loads. It
results from the outcomes of the exemplary analysis
that in order to maintain the stability of the entire
support the construction must be modified with
respect to the way of supporting and expansion on
the rock mass and reinforcement of most loaded
beams (Rotkegel 2007 & Rotkegel 2006).
Figure 2. Distribution of stresses and deformed shape of
the model (stresses in Pa, stress range 0  Rm min ,
deformation scale 1).
3 INFLUENCE OF PORTAL’S SHAPE ON THE
CONSTRUCTION STRESS STATE
The load acting on the support, caused directly It results from numerous model tests of portal
through the rock mass, generates internal forces support of junctions that the influence of the
resulting from the form of junction’s support. The abutment on the portal causes considerable
vertical rock mass load acting on the abutment deformations of the entire construction and growth
directly or through the complementary frames of stresses in its elements. The design of a safe
causes the origin of a normal component to the construction in such conditions requires the use of
portal’s plane, acting on the portal in the place of its additional means directed mainly towards full
connection with the abutment. This causes stabilisation of the portal (Rotkegel 2007 &
considerable additional influence on the portal. Rotkegel 2006). However, possible is such
Moreover, the vertical load acting on the modification of the construction that would ensure
construction causes its deformation aiming at the its full stability. A solution can be the application of
increase of its span. About the value of these a portal lying in two mutually inclined planes
208
perpendicular to the floor. In order to assess the additional portal stabilisation, for example by help
efficiency of this solution, a comparison of of bolts (Rotkegel 2007, 2006).
constructions, in which the portal lies in planes
intersecting at the angle of 20° and 40°, was carried
out (Rotkegel & Bock). The investigations were
conducted using the finite element method by help
of the COSMOS/M programme (Cook 2002,
COSMOS/M – User’s Guide 1999 & Rusiński
1994). Two variants of construction were analysed –
the first – with constant abutment length and
increasing span of the entire construction and the
second – with constant construction span and
decreasing abutment length. Additionally, for full
comparison, the analysis of a typical construction –
with the portal lying in one plane – was carried out.
Figure 3 presents projections of analysed solutions
along with basic dimensions for both variants. All
models were built from the same sections; they were
supported and loaded in an identical way (Rotkegel,
Bock & Witek).
As a result of performed calculations among
others the distribution of reduced stresses and
deformed model shapes was obtained. In Figure 4, Figure 3. Analysed schemes of portal junction support
the maps of reduced stresses caused by the assumed with constant abutment length (from the left) and constant
load from the side of the rock mass were compared, span of entire construction (from the right) (a) portal in
one plane; (b), (d) portal bended at the angle of 20°; (c),
in models supported only on the floor – without
(e) portal bended at the angle of 40°.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Comparison of deformation and distribution of reduced stresses in the model (a) with one-plane portal (from the
left) and in the model (b) with a portal lying in two planes crossed at the angle of 40° with maintained span of the entire
construction (from the right) (stresses in Pa, deformation scale 10).
As it can be seen, the change of the shape of in two planes crossed at the angle of 40°.
junction’s support influences the strain state of the Complete results of the analysis carried out were
entire construction. The values of maximum presented in Table 1. Apart from stresses and
reduced stresses obtained during the linear analysis displacements also the summary vertical supporting
decrease from 890 MPa to 571 MPa. The reaction was collected, being the numerical
modification of the shape of junction’s portal equivalent of summary support load and value of
support influences also the decrease of deformation supporting reaction in the place of support
and displacements of the entire construction. These stabilising the portal, required to maintain the portal
displacements decrease from 195 mm in the basic in the initial installation plane.
model to 90 mm in the model with the portal lying As it results from the presented analysis, the use of
209
a “two-plane” portal distinctly influences the and decrease of forces required to maintain the
improvement of the deformation and stress state of portal’s vertical situating. Moreover, attention should
the entire construction. This influence grows along be paid to the fact that the change of portal’s shape in
with the increase of the angle of intersection of portal both analysed variants does not cause the growth of
half planes. The increase of the angle of portal half material costs.
planes causes the decrease of the portal’s roof part
Table 1. Results of comparative analysis of models.
Horizontal
Total Horizontal
Total Maximum reaction
construction portal
load stresses stabilising
Model Model description displacement displacement
the portal
F  RY ,  red , u , mm u x , mm R x , MN
MN MPa
A with a one-plane portal 5.142 890 195 166 2.931
with a portal lying in two
planes crossed at the angle
B of 20°, with maintained 5.400 727 170 140 2.727
abutment span
C of 40°, with maintained 5.571 829 135 104 2.378
abutment span
D of 20°, with maintained 5.253 647 139 114 2.509
span of the entire
construction
E of 40°, with maintained 5.253 571 90 68 2.023
span of the entire
construction
4 INFLUENCE OF PORTAL’S AND portal support sets of the junction was carried out by
ABUTMENT’S SPAN ON THE means of the finite element method using the
CONSTRUCTION STRESS STATE COSMOS/M programme, taking into consideration
physical non-linearity. For this purpose two support
The span of the construction has an obvious impact models were built with distinctly different spans of
on the stress state of its elements. Most frequently abutments, which obtained suitable, identical cross-
the portal and abutment possess an approximate section and material parameters. In both cases the
span, however, in the case of big constructions it reinforcement of most loaded fragments of the
appears that the abutment is considerably abutment in the form of cover sheet metals was
overloaded and the portal is underloaded. This fact applied (Rotkegel, Bock & Witek). The outlines of
leads to the ineffective use of load-bearing capacity tested supports were presented in Figure 5.
parameters. An alternative solution is shortening of The models were supported and loaded in an
the abutment. This is connected with some increase identical way. As a result of calculations among
of portal’s span and decrease of the area of junction other deformations, internal forces and reduced
protected by portal support. From this results also stresses were obtained. A specification of results
the decrease of loads acting on the abutment and was presented in Table 2. In the Figures 6 and 7
necessity of installation of a greater number of maps of reduced stresses in both support models
transient frames. were presented.
The analysis of the impact of the span of basic
210
Figure 5. Outlines of analysed solutions of junction’s portal supports.
Table 2. Results of strength analysis of the tested variant of junction’s support.
Relation of abutment’s Maximum reduced

Span of abutment Span of portal Summary load
span to the portal stresses
mm mm --- MN MPa
9000 9470 0.95 8.91 488.9
7570 9770 0.77 7.84 415.5
Figure 6. Map of reduced stresses in the model with a Figure 7. Map of reduced stresses in the model with a
larger abutment (stresses in Pa). smaller abutment (stresses in Pa).
It results from the presented stress maps that the reduced stresses in both models were presented.
use of a smaller abutment causes the decrease of Using the black colour, the plasticised construction
maximum reduced stresses by 15% (from fragments were denoted, for which  red  Re . As it
488.9 MPa to 415.5 MPa). This effect results also can be seen, in the case of a modified construction
from the decrease of loads acting on a smaller (with a smaller abutment), the plasticisations have a
construction. The loads along with the shortening of local character, whereas in the initial construction
the abutment decreased by 12% (from 8.91 to 7.84 (with a larger abutment) the zones of plasticised
MN). However, the basic effect of these elements comprise a considerable part of the cross-
constructional changes is the decrease of the range section of abutment beams, what creates the danger
of plasticised construction zones. In Figure 8 in an of exhaustion of the load-bearing capacity and
identical scale, the comparison of distributions of damage of the entire construction.
211
REFERENCES
Bock, S., Prusek, S. & Rotkegel M. 2009. Design and

control of working support in Polish coal mines based
on three-dimensional numerical modeling. 28th
International Conference on Ground Control in Mining.
Morgantown, USA.
Cook, R.D., Malkus, D.S., Plesha, M.E. & Witt R.J. 2002.
Concepts and applications of finite element analysis.
Inc. USA. John Wiley & Sons.
COSMOS/M – User’s Guide, Structural Research &
Analysis Corp. Los Angeles, USA, 1999.
Prusek, S., Rotkegel, M. & Skrzyński K. 2006. Computer-
aided design of support of roadway mine workings and
their connections (in Polish). Katowice. Przegląd
Górniczy, 3.
Rotkegel, M., Bock, S. & Witek M. Analysis of selected
ways of full use of load-bearing capacity parameters of
junction’s portal support (in Polish). Scientific Works
of GIG (in printing).
Rotkegel, M. & Daniłowicz R. 2007. Selected ways of
assurance of appropriate stabilisation of skeleton
support of workings junction (in Polish). Budownictwo
Górnicze i Tunelowe, 1. Katowice.
Rotkegel, M. & Daniłowicz R. 2006. Application of bolts
for the stabilisation of junction’s support (in Polish).
Quarterly Scientific Works of the Central Mining
Institute, 2. Katowice.
Figure 8. Comparison of plasticised zones of junction’s Rotkegel, M. 2003. Support of junctions and crossings of
support construction before modification (from the left) roadway mine workings. From assumptions to the final
and after modification (from the right), (stresses in Pa). product (in Polish). Scientific Works of the Central
Mining Institute. Series Conferences, 45. Selected
problems related to the application of steel roadway
5 CONCLUSIONS supports. Katowice.
Rotkegel, M. 2003. Exemplary course of creation of
The presented solutions of modification of the basic support of roadway mine working connections (in
construction of portal support of junctions and Polish). Katowice: Quarterly Scientific Works of the
Central Mining Institute, 4.
crossings allow a better adaptation of the Rotkegel, M. 2005. Influence of the size of sections and
construction to a specific connection of roadway material grade on the strain state of support
mine workings. This is particularly essential in the construction of junctions of roadway mine workings (in
case of large-size constructions, in which the full Polish). Katowice: Quarterly Scientific Works of the
use of cross-section and material parameters is Central Mining Institute, 1.
difficult or impossible. Particularly this takes place Rusiński, E. 1994. Finite element method (in Polish).
in solutions of portal support of junctions based on COSMOS/M systems. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa
identical span of the portal and abutment and on the Komunikacji i Łączności.
Stałęga, S. 2001. Theoretical and research bases of design
portal with beams situated in one plane. In these of skeleton support constructions of crossings and
cases necessary is the use of additional support junctions of development workings (in Polish).
reinforcements and appropriate construction Katowice: Scientific Works of GIG, 845.
expansion in the rock mass and full stabilization of
the portal (Rotkegel, Bock & Witek).
212
Clean energy from hard coal
A. Krowiak
ABSTRACT: Hard coal will become a basic raw material for production of thermal and electric energy in
many countries for several dozen of nearest years. Simultaneously the production and the coal combustion
cause large disturbances in natural environment, starting from degradation of terrain as the result of its ex-
ploration, through the emission of combustion gases to atmosphere, and finalizing on necessity of storing
and farm implementing of large quantity of wastes during its burning. It is obvious that we need to reduce
the diffculty of the burning process of the hard coal to be considered as the fuels of the future. Expression
quoted in the title of the article „clean energy from hard coal” means seeking for such new technologies of
its preparation and new methods of burning in order to minimize effects of its usage for the natural environ-
ment. These methods and technologies are sometimes called „clean coal technologies”. This article presents
the new technical and technological tendencies in range of clean coal technologies.
1 DIRECTIONS FOR REDUCING being processed with additionally leaching in the

THE DIFFICULTIES RESULTING high temperature e.g. with sodium hydroxide, mol-
FROM THE COAL COMBUSTION ten sodium hydroxide or acids. This way of obtain-
ing coal concentrate has the granulation below
Generally speaking, from scientifical point of view – 0.3 mm, contains sparsenesses of sulphur, and ash
research and constructional works are targeting to and it has very high calorific value (Meyers 2004 &
decrease the arduousness resulting from the coal Oki 2004). Energy, processing such a fuel, should
combustion, Please find below the listed areas: be very effective both for energetic, and environ-
Area 1: The production of the carbon with higher mental reasons (Sobczyk 2004).
usable parameters and the smaller quantity of pol- The ecological fuel could be produced for house-
lutants in mines. hold purposes and dispersed power industry. The
More often wet process of separating pollutants in technology of receiving the low-emission ecological
heavy liquids is applied, using the difference of the fuel relies on briquetting mixture of coal with coke
specific gravity of coal and the waste rock, known by the means of eco-friendly adhesive, which could
for decades of years. Improvement of this method be flour and the molasses. Thinned phosphorous
consisted of applying the multistage segregation of acid is added to mixture, which is the hardener of
liquids with different densities. It is obvious that the adhesive. Prepared mixture is being passed to
deeper enriching the carbon is (targeting to obtain- presses in order to get the appropriate briquettes
ment of the cleaner product), the larger losses of under the influence of the pressure and the tempera-
carbon in mine are. ture parameters.
In order to enlarge the output of trade carbon A variety of this variant is production of smoke-
from raw coal, the muds’ flotation process is applied less fuel, produced from the fines of parching and
to enable to return the smallest fraction of carbon energetic carbon. Coal is dried after the selective
coming from wet method processes of enriching the grinding in driers, and sintering coal additionally
carbon. heated to temperature 200 ºC. Energy coal is being
Directions of the modernization of this method directed to the reactor, where it is subjected to the
assume the deeply selective flotation of the whole of pyrolysis. Produced gas is steered to burning in
coal muds, with applying a new generation of collat- power boiler. Degased energetic carbon is mixed
ing – foam-creating reagents (Aleksa 2005). with parching carbon and steered to producing
The Modern technologies of enriching the carbon, briquettes presses.
that are still in research and development stage, are Area 2: Increasing the energy efficiency of energy
based on a deeper demineralization of coal, permit- systems, permitting better utilization of energy con-
ting the content of mineral pieces below 1%. With tained in carbon.
the help of traditional methods the enriched coal is Developing and improving technologies using the
213
supercritical parameters of steam are one of essen- gypsum and the sesquihydrate of calcium sulphate.
tial elements of increasing the energy efficiency of The dehydration of gypsum suspension is processed
the power station heated with coal. It is possible to for further usable subprocessing. The calcareous
get the thermal efficiency above 45% by applying slide is blowed directly into combustion chamber of
supercritical parameters of steam. However it re- the boiler by dry method. The thermal decomposi-
quires using materials for the pressure units made of tion of carbonate of calcium and the bond of oxides
special grades of steel with increased durability of sulphur in sulphides of the calcium which are
(heat resisting, ferrito-martensitic and asthenic removed together with ash are proceeded in the
steels) in construction of power boilers. Works on zone of high temperature 800-1200 ºC. The desulfu-
constructing energy systems for ultracritical pa- rization of exhaust gas by regeneratory method must
rameters, permitting the temperature of 700 degrees be applied. Exhaust gases including sulphur are let
and the pressure of 37.5 MPa, still take place. En- through the active bed consisting of active coke
ergy systems will be able to achieve the energy produced of hard coal, which absorbs the dioxide of
efficiency up to 51%. sulphur. From time to time this bed is regenerated
The next direction of increasing the efficiency of with recovery for usable purposes of dioxide of
energy systems is application of hybrid systems sulphur.
with coal gasification. In this system, coal is proc- There are the configurations of coal combustion
essed into gas, which after dedusting and sulfate and utilization of the chemical loop at the stage of
removal is provided to combustion chamber of gas tests and researches. Coal as well as calcareous slide
turbine, where it is burned, and hot exhaust gases are delivered to reducer, where carbon is oxidised
after their expansion in gas turbine are steered to by oxygen coming from CaSO4. The calcareous
waste-heat boiler producing steam driving turbine slide is delivered to reducer, its role is to catch the
steram coupled with separate generator. The stream sulphur contained in the coal, combine with the
produced in result of delivery of gas exhaust heat production of the sulphide of carbon (CaS). CaS is
from generator is additionally delivered to this produced in the reactor and then it is steered to
turbine. The oxygen is factor of carbons’ gasifica- aeration, where it joins oxygen contained in air in
tion. exothermic process, and afterwards producing
Area 3: Reduction and elimination of pollutants CaSO 4 goes back to the reducer. The exchange of
in the combustion process as well as in the process warmth obtained from cooling of reducer and with
of cleaning of combustion gases emitted to the aeration process of CaS, and then delivery this
atmosphere. warmth to traditional system water – steam is per-
First issue in this area is the minimization of formed in heat exchangers (Rozzuto & Mohn 2004).
emission of flying ash coming of combustion proc- Combustion of the carbon with low content of
esses of the coal to atmosphere. There are several sulphur is the obvious method of decreasing of
applied methods, as the following ones: the electro- emission of sulphurs’ compounds to atmosphere,
filter, separation of particles of dust across utiliza- and it is performed in the processing and enriching
tion the centrifugal force, wet dedusting method as the coal in mines.
well as the fabric filters. The next issue is the elimination of nitrogen ox-
The electrofilters use the phenomenon of settling ides of exhaust gas (NOx). There are the following
down the electrified particles of dust on the elec- methods: selective not catalytic and selective cata-
trodes being under high voltage. This dust is peri- lytic methods of reduction of these oxides. These
odically collected from electrodes. By method of methods depend on washing exhaust gas with am-
separation using of centrifugal force, the exhaust monia. It is required to hold the high temperature of
gas is provided on separators many times. There is a the reaction in not catalytic methods. The use of
separation of the particles of dirts from the air in the catalysts in the form of platinum, rhodium, palla-
separators. dium, titanium dioxide, pentoxide of vanadium,
The exhaust gases are rinsed in scrubber by molybdenum trioxide permits considerable lowering
stream of water in the wet method. Fabric filter of the temperature of reaction nitrogen’s oxides and
consists of section of bags made of suitable fabrics, ammonia. The other method is steering the process
which let exhaust gas go away. Dust settles down on of combustion of carbon by means of special turbu-
external sides of these fabrics, and cleaned air is lent burners delivering the coal dust to combustion
provided to exhaust stack. chamber. Then two-step passing of air is applied,
In reduction of content of sulphur in exhaust gas, that is needed for burning of coal. The burner’s
traditionally, the wet or dry methods of desulfuriza- principle of work is the following: air passes in
tion are already applied. Using wet method leads to stoichiometric quantity, and the remaining air is
absorption of SO 2 and production of suspension of added just after the flame undergoes the defined
214
way of burning. They are applied, among others as: additions dur-
The technology of combusting of clean oxygen in ing the production of concrete, during the produc-
atmosphere is applied as the testing instalaltion. tion of aerated concrete blocks, additions during the
Oxygen with the cleanness level of at the least, 95% production of cements, binders applied in the road
coming from oxygen plant, could be introduces engineering, fulfilment and the seal of floodbanks
instead of air to combustion chamber. Thanks to that and waste dumps, the soil reclamation and the
operation exhaust gas does not in principle contain levelling of lands, during the production of granu-
nitrogen (http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/peer/ lated burnt and not-burned aggregates, filling up of
054.pdf). emptiness after exploitation in the underground
Area 4: The reduction of emission of dioxide car- mining, injection stabilizing the ground, to produc-
bon as well as its reduction without emission into air. tion of the microsphere and mineral – organic com-
The methods of storing of dioxide of carbon sepa- posites.
rated from exhaust gas are already experementally Adding of the fly ashes to concrete causes the
working. It distinguishes here: sequestration of flux of the concrete mixture and improves its bond-
dioxide of carbon in deep rocky levels, its storing in ability, reduces the threat of cracking and improves
the seas and oceans as well as carbonization the waterproofness of concrete (Glinicki &
(http://rg6.polsl.pl/sekwestr/sekwestr.html). Ładyżyński 2001).
The sequestration of the carbon dioxide in deep Fly ashes are used as small aggregate and partly
rock layers, consists of overcrowding CO 2 to the binders as the universal application in construction
rocks in the liquid state after empty resources of and production of aerated concrete blocks. The
hydrocarbons, to deep water-bearing layers and deep binder is obtained as the result of grinding on drily
coal seams. It’s being stored in the seas or oceans mixtures of lime, gypsum and ash. The initial mate-
uses the high dissolubility of dioxide of carbon in the rial is hydrated, saturated with gas and then burnt
water. Pressing CO 2 on depth of 1000 m assumes down in appropriate autoclaves.
dissolution of this gas in water. Its exposure to pres- Adding of ash to cement, apart from increasing
sure on the depth over 3000 m has to cause formation masses of cement, influences the increase of the
of under-water reservoirs of CO 2 , with natural pre- frost resistance and resistance to the effect of ag-
venting protection against the quick melting of gas in gressive factors, reducing the shrinkage of concrete.
water. The carbonization depends on the chemical Addition of ash influences the reduction and even
binding of dioxide of carbon with carbonates. the energy consumption of manufacture of cement.
The basic problems connected with above men- The ashes are applied to stabilize an existing na-
tioned methods of implementation of dioxide of tive ground in the road engeneering. Ashes, ac-
carbon are the following: the possibility of forma- quired from burning in the fluidized beds, with the
tion of secondary emission of dioxide carbon com- reduction of sulphur dioxide by the means of cal-
ing out on surface of the ground, durable souring of cium compounds have special use for this purpose.
the resources of underground waters as well as the Using ash for production of road binders allows
possibility of disturbance in seas and oceans the considerable lowering of the cost of binder, reach-
biological balance. ing the same parameters of stabilization, which are
It would be the most economic and sensible to obtained from the application of clean lime or
utilise dioxide of carbon. Polish scientists from the cement. Ash-cement mixture is applied in case of
University of Maria Curie-Skłodowska drew up and sealing of floodbanks and waste dumps blends.
patented technology of production of liquid fuels of The mixture of ash with little content of cement is
the carbon dioxide. This technology is based on improving endurance properties, moreover, applied
artificial photosynthesis of water and the dioxide of in the corps of the flood bank causes the creation of
carbon which is subjected to the high-energy ultra- aggregates, dedicated to big, clumped pieces which
violet radiation in presence of catalysts. As the are sealing the structure and are granting it very
result of this synthesis, methanol, which can be used good stability (Falaciński, http://iks_pn.sggw.pl/
in processes of more far synthesis to production of z29/art23.pdf).
liquid fuels e.g. to combustion engines, is being The ashes and cinders are applied as the substitu-
created (http://www.focus.pl/newsy/zobacz/ pub- tion of earth mass at the soil reclamation and ground
likacje/zrobimy-paliwo-z-dwutlenku-wegla/). the levelling. The fulfilment of the technical re-
Area 5: Usable waste disposal as the result of coal quirements is condition of their utilization of to
combustion. these aims, established in dependence from the
Fly ash, separated from the exhaust gases coming future utilization of terrain the as well as protection
from the combustion of the hard coal, is valuable before unfavourable influence on environment, by
material to be applied in the different ways. possible plugging the bottom of stockyard and the
215
protection before secondary dusting. ess of desulphuration of flue gases with wet calcifer-
Granulated aggregates are used for production of ous – gypsum process, it is applied as the raw mate-
the lightweight concrete, constituting the substitute rial for production: of gypsum – cardboard panels for
of mineral aggregates in this concrete, it is produced the purposes in the general and industrial construc-
on the basis of cinders and ashes. The mixture of tion, of foamed – gypsumed elements for the pur-
ash, coal dust as well as the bentonite is mixed with poses of construction, of self-levelling floors e.g.
water, and then it is parching on movable agglomer- Afterreactionary gypsum can also be used: as the
ated stocker (Osiecka 2010). adjuster of the time of binding cement – dispatched
Mixtures of ash and water are applied in the deep to the cement plant or gypsum plants; in lines of the
mining for conducting of the fire prevention and granulation with ash, as the element solidifying in
against methan by sealing and filling up of gunises, mixtures for the purposes of engineering work and
that prevents coming into existence of endogenous in the soil reclamation.
fires and it is reducing danger of ejection of meth- Area 6: Coal gasification including underground
ane and other gasses from gunises; separating the coal gasification
fields of mining excavations fire and out of order Achievement of the needed amount of the con-
mining grounds, by performing of isolation extra sumed gas to the drive of turbines in electrical power
backfill stoppers; backfilling and filling emptinesses engineering arrangements or combustion in boilers is
up after exploitation what influences the reduction the target of processes of coal gasification. There are
of the size of deformation area of land (Frączek research works and practical implementations of the
2007). production of liquid fuels of hard coal in the world,
The mixture of fly ashes, water and cement is put but it won’t be the issue of this artcile. Generally
into the soil, when empty spaces between grains of speaking, there is coal gasification in special installa-
soil require the fulfilment, in order to improve the tions and underground coal gasification.
geotechnical properties of the ground: to increase Technologies of coal gasification are based on a
the resistance of ground to cutting, the carrying team of multidirectional thermal and chemical
capacity and the reduction of permeability (Glinicki transformations which are stealing in high tempera-
& Ładyżyński 2001). ture, mainly between the organic part of coal sub-
Microsphere is coming into existence during stance and gasifying factors, mostly between oxy-
burning of solid fuels in energetic boiler, through gen and steam.
the fusion of some mineral elements of ash. The As a result of gasification, synthesis gas is com-
quantity of the microsphere in fly ashes is within 0.5 ing into existence (syngas), which composition
to 5%. Imparting the microsphere from ashes is depends on the technology of gasifying, including
taking place in the water environment, using the reactions of the conversion of the carbon monoxide
difference of the specific gravity (the microsphere is into carbon dioxide, with the simultaneous produc-
secreted from the surface of water). tion of hydrogen (Stańczyk 2008).
Specific properties of the microsphere, but espe- Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) is a
cially a low thermal conduction and the low volume method of conversion of coal into synthesis gas in-
density, found application as follows: for production situ, being an equivalent of processes of gasification
of heat insulating ceramic materials, for producing conducted in surface reactors. During the UCG
light building materials, for making acoustic process coal is reacting in high temperature with the
screens, for production of the moulds, for produc- gasification factors which are air, oxygen, steam or
tion of mould powder, as the filler of plastics, the their mixture. A combination of gases consisting
production of fillers for painting, the production of mainly of H 2 , CO, CO 2 and CH 4 is an end product.
cleaning agents (Pichór & Petri 2003). Creating so-called underground reactor is the first
Fly ashes can be used as the component sanitating stage of leading underground coal gasification.
and improving physical properties of sludges com- Depending on the way of making a coal seam avail-
ing into existence in council sewage treatment able, two preparation techniques of the reactor are
plants. Fly ashes used in the technological process distinguished: the shaft method and the method
of converting sludges are ruining micro-organisms without shaft.
as well as they are eliminating unpleasant smells. Shaft method, the older one, is presently consid-
Produced composites on the basis of sludges and ered as uneconomical and not very perspective one,
ashes contain heavinesses of organic matter and although it is useful in closing the mines. In the
they can be applicable for improving and raclama- method without shaft, preparing of the reactors con-
tion of the soil of the farmlands and degraded sists of performing drilling of delivery and production
ground (Sobczyk 2004). channels and on the surface, and further joining them
The afterreactionary gypsum is created in the proc- with linking ducts (Borkiewicz 2008). There is a
216
problem of isolation of the underground generator in Dyczkowski, R. & Falsztyński, W. 2007. Obliczenia
order to prevent the proliferation of gasses and their parametrów iniekcji skał nad podziemnym gazogenera-
emission on the surface in underground coal gasifica- torem. Buletyn prac naukowych, 3. Dniepropietrowsk.
Falaciński, P., Garbulewski, K., Kledyński, Z., Skutnik, Z. &
tion. As a filling material of rock crevices, clay solu-
Ziarkowska, K. – Badanie barier hydraulicznych z zawiesin
tions are applied on the basis of kaolin, to grout into cementowo – nentonitowych z dodatkiem popiołów
underground rocks, which under the effect of the fluidalnych. http://iks_pn.sggw.pl/z29/art23.pdf.
temperature are increasing its volume, effectively Frączek, R. 2007. Rozpoznanie, profilaktyka i zwalczanie
insulating the underground generator. Except for the pozarów w kopalniach głębinowych. Gliwice: Politech-
gas energy of underground coal gasification, there are nika Ślaska.
a lot of chemical products suitable for an economic Glinicki, M.A. & Ładyżyński, K. 2001. Wpływ dodatku
application (Dyczkowski & Falsztyński 2008). aktywowanych popiołów lotnych ze spalania fluidal-
nego na właściwości betonów konstrukcyjnych. VIII
Międzynarodowa Konferencja Popioły z energetyki,
UPS, Międzyzdroje.
2 CONCLUSIONS Meyers, R., Wan, E. & Hucko R. 2004. Rozwój procesu
ługowania stopioną sodą. XII Międzynarodowy Kon-
Hard coal will still be basic material for production gres Przeróbki Węgla. CPPGMiE PAN. Kraków.
of thermal and electric energy in many countries for Michalski, T. & Krzywkowski P. 2000. Techniki iniekcy-
next several dozen years. However more and more jnego wzmacniania podłoża. Inżynieria i Budownictwo, 6.
restricted protection requirements of natural envi- Oki, T., Harada, T. & Owada S. 2004. Proces rozkładu
ronment are forcing, to limit the nuisances resulting substancji mineralnych w japońskim silnie zasi-
from its burning and seeking other ways of produc- arczonym węglu podczas ługowania w roztworze wod-
tion of the energy of coal, with omitting processes nym i stopionym wodorotlenku sodu. XII Międzynaro-
dowy Kongres Przeróbki Wegla. Kraków: CPPGMiE
of its burning in energetic boilers. There are many
PAN.
applied methods existing in the field of reducing the Osiecka, E. 2010. Materiały budowlane – wykłady.
difficulty for natural environment of the coal com- Politechnika Warszawska Wydział Inżynierii Lądowej,
bustion at present and projected to initiating in publikacja internetowa.
future. So far applied methods should still be im- Pichór, W. & Petri, M. 2003. Właściwości mikrosfer
proved, and scientific centers should still work on pozyskiwanych jako uboczny produkt spalania węgla
the new ways of reduction of the release of pollut- kamiennego. Kraków: Ceramika, vol. 80. PAN.
ants into the environment. Rozzuto, C. & Mohn N. 2004. Environmentally Advanced
It is necessary to use all real technical and eco- Clean Coal Plants (ALSTOM). XIX Word Energy Con-
nomical methods of getting the clean energy for the gress. Sydney, Australia.
mankind, in production lines. Sobczyk, R. 2004. Wykorzystanie popiołow lotnych do
produkcji kompozytów minetalno – organicznych na ba-
zie komunalnych osadów ściekowych. Forum eksploata-
tora. Piła: EKOTOP.
REFERENCES Stańczyk, K. 2008. Czyste technologie użytkowania węgla.
Katowice: GIG.
Aleksa, H. 2005. Stan i kierunki rozwoju technologii http://uregina.ca/ghgt7/PDF/papers/peer/054.pdf
odwadniania koncentratów węglowych. Przegląd http://rg6.polsl.pl/sekwestr/sekwestr.html
Górniczy, 9. Katowice. http://www.focus.pl/newsy/zobacz/publikacje/zrobimy-
Borkiewicz, N. 2008. Czyste technologie węglowe szansą paliwo-z-dwutlenku-wegla/
dla Polsk. Biuletyn Górniczy, 1-2. Katowice: Górnicza
Izba Przemysłowo: Handlowa.
217
Features of selectivity process

of borehole underground coal gasification
Y. Svetkina, V. Falshtyns’kyy & R. Dychkovs’kyy

ABSTRACT: Based Establishment of development of the new selective systems, providing high-speed of
borehole underground coal gasification (BUCG) process selectivity on catalysts, with account of kinetics and
equilibrium of chemical reactions on underground gas generator reactionary channel length are set.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 RESULTS OF THE STUDIES
Kinetics of thermo-chemical reactions and physical Based upon the analysis of “Podzemgaz” stations
speeds of gas-condensate product transfer in an works, experimental underground gas generators,
underground gas generator presents large practical conducted stand and laboratory researches were set
interest from point of view balance of these proc- that the productivity of gas generator depends on a
esses and influence on them of the system which number of parameters both physical and chemical,
they co-operate in. but composition of generator gases (high-quality
It is important to set balance between physical and quantitative indexes) largely depends on an
speeds of reagents transfer and thermo-chemical initial gas agent – blowing.
reactions in the system time-varying and space that During the conducted researches material and
established efficiency and reliability of borehole thermal balance of coal seam gasification processes
underground gasification of coal (BUCG). were made, with the account of features of the system
Borehole underground coal gasification it’s diffi- (water inflow, impermeability), thermodynamics
cult thermodynamics process, consisting of co- processes using different components of reagents
operation time-varying and space of the system (blowing) and elementary coal composition.
(rocks-coal mass) and thermo-chemical process On Figure 3 the dependence between UCG prod-
(chemical reactions and physical processes), which ucts formation and length of reaction channel is
consists in co-operating of carbon (by basic compo- presented. From experimental information it is
nent part of coals) with oxygen, contained in blow- evidently that composition differs. On the basis of
ing mixtures, and also in water steams. results of experiments it is possible with a confi-
As is generally known, full enough basis of dence to talk about selectivity of process and man-
BUCG is studied, however investigation of its agement of this selection.
kinetics is not enough. As a result of coal seam At development of one or another process it is
gasification in under-ground gas generator reaction necessary to take into account following:
channel length there are not even rocks of roof and 1. The change of pressure does not substantially
soil burning in a kind of a non izotermic process influence the equilibrium degrees of reagents trans-
(Figure 1 and 2), that the results in clay matter of formation at chemical transformation in the con-
dehydrating and formation of low-basic aluminates densed phase.
and calcium silicates. 2. The temperature decline of process in the case
The rock’s content of a gasifiable coal seam pos- of exothermic reaction results in diminishing of
sesses high adsorption activity and tripping with reaction speed, and it is unprofitable, because the
organic and polymeric compositions, that allows to degree of transformation of reagents falls and addi-
tional circulation becomes necessary.
present the reactionary channel of gas generator as
3. The increase of temperature in the case of exo-
chemical geo-reactor for the selective coal process-
thermic reaction results in the increase of speed of
ing and other combustible components in a genera-
reaction and are not only basic but also by-reactions,
tor gas, energy and chemical matters with the pur-
here selection of process follows as a rule.
pose of receive of electric and thermal energy, 4. At the small thermal effect of reaction the
syngas and industrial products of chemistry. change of temperature does not substantially influ-
219
ence the equilibrium degree of transformation. reactions, as a catalyst must be entered in a reaction
The transferred factors show that a perspective channel. Hard bearable matter is used as a catalyst,
decision is the development of the new selective the amount of which can be calculated, if the law of
systems, providing high-rate of selection of process. gas motion and difference of partial pressures are
For conduction of this reaction, selective reactions known Р above the oxidation and restoration
application of catalysts is needed, probably these zones of BUCG process.
reactions can be attributed to chemical transport
Figure 1. Parameters of temperatures distribution on underground gas generator reaction channel length.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Parameters of temperatures distribution in the rocks contenting underground gas generator: (a) longitudinal
section of gas generator and (b) cross-section of gas generator.
At comparison of different heterogeneous reaction of matter, which can be presented as moving of
tions it becomes obvious, that the difference of gas between two equilibrium zones, has the special
partial pressures can very much vary, while charac- practical value. In this case the value of Р can be
ter of gas motion suffers less noticeable changes. As accepted as the equal difference of equilibrium
a rule, the transportation of matter takes place in pressures which in same queue expresses reactions
case that the difference of partial pressures is great through basic thermodynamic parameters.
enough. As it was already marked, such transporta- At the set mode of gas motion, partial pressures
220
are the direct measure of amount of the carried under certain conditions: Р = 1 atm, T 1 = 1073°К
matter. We shall analyse now the influence of en- and T 2 = 1273°К.
thalpy and entropy of reaction (Н 0 and S 0 ) on a
value of Р as an example we shall consider the At   В g   С g  ,
reaction of the simplest type which is conducted
Figure 3. Parameters of gasification ifluence on length of underground gas generator reaction channel.
Оn Figure 3 seam thickness – 1.15 m, at enriched type of reaction no from the conditions of its con-
blowing by O 2 (37%, 50%) and water inflow – duction. Dependence of Р on the standard values
6.3 m3 / h: 1 – maintenance of O 2 in blowing and of Н 0 and S 0 , received by a calculation on the
BUCG products; 2 – maintenance of SO 2 in blow- basis of financial and thermal balance of BUCG,
ing and BUCG products; 3 – maintenance of N 2 in presented on a Figure 4.
the BUCG products; 4 – maintenance of CO in the We shall consider a case, when at the transporta-
BUCG products; L – length of reaction channel of tion of initial hard phase endothermic and exother-
underground gas generator, m; % – percentage of mic equilibrium overlaid on each other and a tem-
gases in blowing and in the BUCG products. perature changes at permanent general pressure. The
hypothetical partial pressure Р* determined below
serves as a measure of the matters secreted from a
gas phase.
At the change of temperature pressure passes
through a minimum or maximum value depending
on what reaction prevails at the lowered tempera-
ture: exothermal and endothermal.
On a Figure 3 this process is presented evidently
enough. Motion of curves shows that during the
change of temperature, direction of matter transpor-
tation can change on reverse.
A difference of partial pressures at the tempera-
tures of T 2 and T 1 is determined for a transport,
carried out diffusion or in a stream, and included
here in the proper equation.
Thermodynamics interpretation will be strict only
at presence of the complete mixing of gas, i.e. when
gas flows quickly enough. Deviations from this
ideal case conduce to the change of temperature at
Figure 4. Change of thermodynamic parameters. which the direction of transportation changes to
reverse.
In the case of BUCG pressure of the saturated
Conclusions received during the analysis of such
steam of catalyst assumes the role of a endothermal
reaction, do not depend, however neither from the
221
transport reaction. In the next examples the speech At such pressures of gas phase, when the trans-
goes about clean transport reactions both at exo- portation of matter are conditioned by diffusion and
thermic and endothermic processes. convection, in this case, it is also necessary to set
The transport of carbon through a gas phase by dependence of process of gas moving on pressure
the equilibrium of Boudoir plays an important role by experimental way. Findings can be utilized and
at renewal of metal oxides, for example at the tech- for other transport reactions, if they are conducted in
nical receive of iron and zinc: comparable conditions.
Thus, mineral admixtures in coals and coal will
C  CO2  2CO2 (1) create the catalytic effect of type of transport reac-
tions. Replacing Ме in equation (3) it is possible to
MeO  CO  Me  CO2 (2) regulate composition of appearing gas mixtures.
Application of catalysts during coal seam gasifi-
At a high enough temperature a carbon can be cation will allow to provide dirigibility of selectivity
carried by creation and decomposition of hydrocar- of process, and also efficiency of thermo-chemical
bons, probably mainly methane. Because, from reactions during coal gasification.
other side, methane can react with metals with
formation of carbides, there is possibility to conduct
reactions between hard matters at their spatial divi- REFERENCES
sion. If to heat a metal and carbon in presence of
hydrogen, reactions flow on equation (3) and (4): Kazak, V.N. & Sheynin, V.I. 1963. Research of physical,
mechanical and thermal properties of rocks for the aims
C  2 H 2  CH 4 (3) of underground coal gasification. Science works Pid-
zemgas, 10: 17-21.
Me  CH 4  MeC  2H 2 (4) Kreinin, E.F. & Shirif, E.I. 1993. Mathemetical model of
processes burning and coal gasification in the channel
This equilibrium was utilized for the receiving of of underground gasgenerator. Magazine of Physicist of
carbides ТiС, ZrС, HfС, NbС and ТаС. Thus initial burning and explosion, 2: 21-28.
Falshtynskyy, V.S., Dychkovskyy, R.O., Tabachenko, M.M.
matters (metal or oxide + carbon) are mixed up at
& Lapko, V.V. 2007. Parameters of temperature field
the lack of carbon from 15 to 25%. The missing distribution in the rocks containing underground gasgen-
amount of carbon leads to higher transport reaction. erator. School of underground development: 216-224.
The transportation of carbon stops when all of Fedoseev, S.D. 1963. About research of kinetics reactions
metal passes to the carbide and a carbidic phase is in unisothermal conditions. Lectures of Academy of
satiated by carbon. Thus, composition of products of sciences of the USSR, 3: 638-641.
reaction is regulated itself.
222
Definition of rating of loading in spires

of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable
K. Zabolotny & Y. Panchenko

ABSTRACT: Scientific-research recommendations aiming at development of rating of methods of forcing

factors in spires of multilayer rubber rope cable of bobbin hoist is given here. This method stipulates absence
of longitudinal cable pressure and dependence of characteristics of hard layers upon parameters of multilayer
winding. Algorithms of applying rating methods for purposes of practical projection are elaborated here, too.
Scientific-research resulted in mathematical models of maximum loading and deformation upon which
engineering methods are based. More exact methods of rated forcing factors of multilayer rubber-rope cable
winding and engineering methods laid the foundation of methodical recommendation used in projects by
number of enterprises.
1 NTRODUCTION destruction of cable, the bobbins and other elements

of the mine hosting machine. The definition of the
The projects of Krivbasproekt DPI DP and OJC rational parameters of bobbin hoists was made by
“Ukrgiproruda” laid down the foundation of high K. Zabolotny, M. Polushina and L. Kolosov. Linear
efficiency of skip lifts with carrying capacity more mathematical models elaborated by B. Kovalsky
than 100 tons for deep quarries and mines. They and U. Tarnapolsky were used for establishment of
were elaborated by scientists M. Novozhilov, radial loads. When modeling in the body of winding
A. Drizhenko and other. But the produced bobbin of rubber-rope cable the longitudinal compression
hoisting machines with metal cables do not provide of the ropes cable was supposed and the influence of
such carrying capacity. its interaction with surface of the bobbin on the
The scientific bases of development and applica- diametrical cable hardness was ignored. As a result
tion of rubber-rope cables (RRC) of elevating instal- calculated radial loads of winding and constructive
lations for deep mines are laid down by the founder parameters of winding (the width of the cable, the
of the given direction Professor L. Kolosov. His initial radius of the bobbin) were not defined cor-
research and the works of his disciples confirm the rectly. The analysis of physical experiments showed
RRC use as main and balancing with created on that the problem should be solved by taking into
their basis powerful lifts for deep mines, quarries, account nonlinearity of characteristics of the layer in
and deep-water lifting: bobbin and friction pulleys RRC package.
(Kolosov 1999, Bel’mas 2003, Kolosov 1981 & In connection with this a problem was put to im-
Ill’yin 1980). The experience of maintenance of prove the method of rating of forcing factors in
rubber-ropes cables as balancing proved to be dur- spires of multilayer rubber-rope cable of bobbin
ing 30 years the most reliable and safe and easy to hoists in addition, to take into account constraint
repair. OJC “Krivorozhskij Oremine Enterprise” belt on surface of bobbin and nonlinearity of mate-
since 1996 began manufacturing rubber-rope belts rial of rope under the tension or compression. Loads
and cables with calculated durability for a term of and deformations of RRC at multilayered winding
10 years at 5-multiple margin of safety and buckling are accepted as basic parameters of the method and
load up till 5000 N/mm2 (Kolosov & Safonov the accordance of calculated and experimental
1999). values: rigidity, deformations, radial loads of RRC
In 2005 a project intended for hoisting tip-lorry to in the bobbin is taken as fidelity criteria. The calcu-
the face of the quarry was elaborated for OJC lated diagram of the multilayered RRC winding is
“Ukrgiproruda” at National Mining University, the shown on the Figure 1.
bobbin hoist with RRC-5000 being used as a variant. – bobbin winding is the set of rings of ultimate
The peculiarity of the bobbin lifting is multilay- thickness, adjusted with pretension; while adjusting
ered winding of rubber rope cable, which may cause movement of the rings and pressure is summarized;
223
– stretching of the cable is applied in the middle to those received by Kolosov, longitudinal module
of a ring and is stable within its limits; of elasticity of the cable in the load range was
– the internal surface of the first layer of the tape constant År. z  145,4  5,0GPa , the factor of longi-
is rigidly fixed on the bobbin (border effect); tudinal hardness for RRC-1300 В r = 6,658·103.
– longitudinal hardness when compressing RRC Methods of computer finite-element modeling
is equivalent to that of rubber. were used for the definition of factors of diametrical
hardness and expansion, depending on parameters
of RRC winding. For that purpose finite-element
model of RRS package was elaborated, and its
reliability was estimated too.
Calculation experiment for definition B and K. It
was assumed:
– IDC of material of RRC as plane deformation.
– Â  Âdh  f ; K  K dh  w ,
where B dh , K dh – factors of diametrical hardness

and expansion of a layer of a package respectively
Figure 1. Assumptions are used. without account of border effect; f, w – factors of
constraint of RRC layer in transversal direction,
Due to its complexity the problem is divided into with account for edge effect.
some stages of investigation: Stage 1. Definition of Package of one, two, three and four layers are
characteristics of hardness of the RRC layers in analyzed in a number of experiments. Finite-
multilayered winding. We can see that properties of element model of RRC is designed using of para-
hardness of a RRC layer in winding depend on bolic finite element PLANE 82 of program complex
parameters td  t d , hd  h d ; t is step between of finite-element modeling of ANSYS/ED 6.1.
Boundary conditions: on the left border of the
cables of rope; d is diameter of cable; h is general rectangular symmetry condition must be observed;
thickness of rope, i – number of layers in package; j on the lower border vertical moving must not be
is general quantity of layers; Erub, νrub are module allowed; on ordered pressure P must be provided;
of elasticity and Poisson factor of rubber; Еr z, Еr у, the border effect is modeled in such a way that not
νr z, νr у are module of elasticity and Poisson fac- to let vertical and horizontal moving of the layer of
tors of orthotropic material, modeling cable in the lower border.
directions. Dimensionless integrated characteristics To estimate trustworthiness of the first assump-
of layer of RRC package such as factor of longitu- tion the results of IDC modeling for plane deforma-
dinal and cross diametrical hardness and factor of tion (Figure 2а) were compared with those for IDC
expansion of layer of RRC package, are put into volumetric (Figure 2b). Error of calculation when
operation: using hypothesis of plane deformation is less than
2%.
 År z 1 Pt u h
Âr    ; Â ; K x ,
4 År td  hd u y  Årub uy  b
where P – pressure on the layer of RRC package;

u x – horizontal average expansion of the layer of the
given package; u y is vertical average compression
of the layer; b is width of the rope.
To determine the module of longitudinal hardness
it is necessary to determine the module of signifi-
cance of the cable hardness. L. Kolosov elaborated
diagrams of deformation of cables of various diame-
ters determined in physical experiments. For lack of
statistical estimations in the above mentioned ex-
periments a similar test of RRC-1300 cable was
made. The results showed, that the value of longitu-
dinal module of elasticity of the cable corresponded Figure 2. Finite-element model.
224
To simplify a problem at the certain accuracy of clusion that the error at definition of the value of the
calculation a maximal step of the finite-element net factor of diametrical hardness by means of the
was determined in consecutive order (Figure 2c, d). method of finite-elements did not exceed 11%,
Border effect of the finite-element model was ac- which confirmed adequacy of the model.
complished in border renditions, restricting vertical To simplify the problem and confirm the accuracy
and horizontal moving of the lower border of every of the calculation we used the developed finite-
layer of RRC package (Figure 2e). In numerous element model and assumption to determine minimal
experiment the number of the layers of the tape in number of cables in RRB layer (Figure 2f, g) and
the package was changed and the factors of resulted minimal number of layers in the package (Figure 2h,
diametrical hardness of every RRC package of were i). The following calculation experiments were made:
determined. 1) Definition of B dh , Kdh . Geometrical parameters of
For the purpose of estimation of reliability of fi-
nite-element modeling of the rubber rope cable the cables varied. It was found that in the absence of
following physical experiment was made. Packages constraint K dh slightly depended on geometrical
consisting of 2, 4, 6 and 8 layers were made of the parameters of the cable and was assumed as to equal
RRC-1300 cable, and placed between the plates of 0.951, approximating polynom being obtained for
5 ton testing UM-5А machine (Figure 3); after that definition of factors of diametrical hardness and
they were compressed at the range from 0.4 to expansion of every layer of a package. 2) Definition
3.52 MPa with step of 0.26 MPa which corre- of B, K . The number of the layers on the belt in a
sponded to operating loading of rubber-rope belts. package was changed and then the factors of diamet-
rical hardness and expansion of every layer of the
package was determined. As a result matrixes [В] and
[ K ] were obtained. 3) Definition of f, w. Processing
of the experiment 2 matrixes fi , j и wi , j resulted in
obtained (Figure 4), and their approximating func-
tions as well. Taking into account these values we
definitively obtained the expressions for the factors of
diametrical hardness and expansion of RRB layer in
cross direction of the package with general number of
layers j:

B  Bdh  f  s1  s2  s3  s4 2  s5   s6  2  
Figure 3. Testing of UM-5A machine. 

k3

1 k1  k2i1  1 k4i j  
 k5  k6i1  k4i j  ;
k7

While loading the deformation of the packages
was measured with the help of a dial indicator. The


3
  7 
K  Kdh  1 12i1  14i  j 5  6i1 4i  j  ,

surface of plates of the press remained dry or was
greased with malt, in according with constrained or where   1 hd  1 ;   1 td  1 ;  s  ,  k  ,
non constrained condition of packages.   – coefficient vectors, values are obtained by
In the process of testing l deformation were method of the least squares.
measured and factors of diametrical hardness of
RRC package was calculated It was proved for non-
constrained condition of the package that distribu-
tion of factors of diametrical hardness of a RRC
package in a sample submitted to normal law,
confidential probability of 95% deviation of borders
of confidential interval from mathematical expecta-
tion being 0.9%. It was proved for the constrained
condition of packages that distribution of factors of
diametrical hardness of RRC package in a sample Figure 4. Definition of f, w values.
submitted to the normal law; with confidential
probability of 90% deviation of borders of confiden- Conclusion: the representation of matrix В and K
tial interval from mathematical expectation did not is supposed as the product of vectors B dh and f i , j ,
exceed 2.3%.
K dh and w respectively (error does not exceed 6%).
During physical experiment we come to the con-
225
Stage 2. Definition of loads and deformations of the where  i – radius of the middle line of і-layer,
cable at a multilayer winding. Basic equations: resulted to initial radius of the bobbin;
Rope submits to Hooke’s law under stretching
     2   2 ;  i – initial moving of і-layer
ui , j  U i resulted to the deformation from stretching of the
Ti , j  Br  Årub  h  t  m  ,
ri plumb part of the cable;  i , j – pressure in і-layer of
where ri – radius of the middle line of і-layer; U i – the package with general number of layers j reduced
to the pressure from the plumb part of the cable.
initial moving of i-layer; u i , j – moving of і-layer
With the help of the Gaussian method of elimina-
when winding j-layer; m – general number of ropes. tion for solving the system of equations we received
When putting on the first ring according to the resulted moving of the body of winding i , j .
Hooke’s law the condition is performed executed
Then we consecutively calculated resulted values:
u1, j  Bi , j  Erub tension, pressure and removing in the last layer,
q1, j   . initial moving, expansion of the body of winding;
0.5  t
tension and pressure in і-layer of the package with
For the rest of the rings of the body wining it is general number of the layers j:
ui 1, j  ui , j

 j  F  , j ;  j   
F  , j ;  j1 
j
;
qi , j  Bi , j  Erub  . j
t  j 0,5 f j, j
 j, j   j
The equation of balance for the rings of the body j    j , j ; i , j  K i , j   i , j ;
winding is:   
T j, j i   i
 q j , j  r j  0.5 , where i  j ; if i 1 j 1  i      and
mt i
Ti , j 1, j  2  f1, j 1, j ;
 qi , j  ri  0.5  qi 1, j  ri  0.5 ,
m t
if i  2  j  1 
 i  f i , j   i 1  i , 
where i 1,, j 1.
The equation of balance is presented in the fol- where  – factor of strong length of cable (relation
lowing way of strong length of cable to the depth of lifting);  –
 A      B  , factor of plumb of cable (the relation of length of
plumb of cable to the depth of lifting). At every step
where [А] – matrix of hardness; {В} – load vector, of iteration anisotropic factor was chosen on mark
   – vector of the above-stated moving of the of longitudinal deformation of the given layer:
package layers if Ti , j  0 , then   1 , otherwise   Âr .
Bdh
   , The mathematical models obtained were realized
A1,1  2  f1, j  1  0 .5  f 2 , j  1  0.5 
1 in the languages of ANSYS/ED 6.1, MAHTCAD 11
according to definition of moving of a layer of the
where i  2  j  2 package RRC, factors of diametrical hardness and
   expansion of approximating polynoms, factors of
Ai , i  f i , j  i0.5  f i1, j  i0.5  ; constraint, loads and deformation of layers of the
i
cable with multilayer winding were accepted as
   components of the method of rating developed by
A j1, j1  f j1, j   j10,5  ,
 j1 the author which affords an opportunity to deter-
mine loading and deformation of the rope cable with
where i  1  j  2 Ai ,i1   f i1, j  i0.5 , multilayer winding.
For the purpose of confirmation of objectivity of
Ai1, i   f i1, j  i0.5 ; the above stated method, for better confidence in the
investigation and to avoid errors when reiterating
   ;    investigation, additional testing was made. In accor-
Bi   i  B j 1   j 1    j , j   j 0.5 ,
i  j 1 dance with the given program and methods of
testing a physical experiment was made on the
226
laboratory installation for multilayer RRC-1300 15  j  100, the resulted loading in spires and
winding (Figure 5). Radial deformation of the expansion of cable in winding increased by 1.5
bobbin and deformation of compression of the spire time; d) when the factor of the strong length in-
of friction of the cable on the bobbin itself was creased 2    100, maximal value of the resulted
determined and accepted as the main indices. It was pressure in the first spire increased l to 13%, value
shown that the distribution of the deformation of the of maximal cable expansion in the winding  in-
first RRC layer in a sample submitted the normal creasing to 18%. As a result we developed algo-
law, and at confidential probability of 95% devia- rithm and fulfilled 4-factor three-level calculating
tion of the borders of confidential interval from experiment which gave an opportunity to get mathe-
mathematical expectation did not exceed 3%, confi- matical models in a form of polynoms of the 2-nd
dential probability being 95%. order, describing dependences of maximal forcing
Comparison of the theoretical and experimental loads  1 (, , j, ) and deformations  max (, , j,
curves of distribution of pressure showed that under
confidential probability of 90% the deviation of the ), which are used in basis of engineering technique
calculated values of the deformation of compression by choice of the project parameters of a bobbin with
of the first layer, and as it was stated in the physical RRC:
experiment, was not higher than 8%. Changes of
1  , , j ,    12.221  183.189    988.642   2 
tension of rubber-rope cable in a bobbin determined
by means of methods of U. Tarnopolsky, B. Koval-  0.199   0,001 2  1.127    
sky and the author as to the assumption, both nu-
merical and qualitative are identical (deviation  0.002  j  71.2  105   ;
being less than 3%).
max  , , j ,    76.067  668.140   4588.512  2 
 5.200    1.702  0.012 2  0.086 j 
 0.433103  j 2  5.8 103    18.759105   2 .
Using engineer methods (Figure 7) we showed

the influence of measureless parameters of winding
on the resulted pressure of the first layer and on
maximal expansion of the cable in winding.
Planes (θ = 2,  = 13%) corresponded to maximal
increasing of specific pressure and expansion of the
cable at the multilayer winding, determined by
Kolosov methods. Comparison the results we saw
that when we had 0.008    0.05, according to
Kolosov’s methods, the resulted rating loading
decreased up to 60%; when we had 0.05 
Figure 5. Installation for multilayer RRC-1300 winding.   0.075, the cable on specific pressure failed to
use its capacity completely (to 25-40%). The factor
Elaboration of algorithms of application method of expansion by the procedure of L. Kolosov is
for practical designing showed that tension- underestimated to 10-125%.
deformation condition of the resulted tension , The methods indicated above were used for practi-
pressure θ and expansion  depended on the follow- cal designing. In their project of auxiliary hoist on the
ing parameters: a) the resulted thickness of a layer quarry of “Yuzhyj gorno-obogatitelnyj kombinat” the
was the most essential factor when parameter in- authors estimated what kind of parameters of the
creased (0.008    0.075) the values of resulted bobbin hoisting machine for the RRB-5000 rope must
pressure of the first layer θ 1 (from 4.2 to 1.2) and be used. The project provides a shaft with depth of
maximal expansion of the cable with multilayer 250 m in combination with delivery drift. The hoist is
winding  max (from 15 to 27%) decreased; b) when used to provide lifting of trailer cargo with weight of
we changed the factor of anisotropy ranging from 1500 kN (Figure 8). Expectant annual effect, when
comparing with the variant of using multirope hoist-
50    65, the resulted loading in first layer and
maximal expansion of the cable in the winding ing machine with SHMP 1 – 5  4 tackle purchase
decreased (6-25% and 3-10% respectively); c) when suspension, will make 900.000 UAH at the expense
we changed the general number of spires of capital expenditures.
227
Figure 7. The influence of measureless parameters of winding.
bobbin machines the longitudinal compression of

ropes is unlimited, the characteristics of hardness of
layers of the belt from the number of layers being
accepted as constant. Disregarding these factors can
reduce calculated value of forcing loads by 2-2.5
times and cause the destruction of the cable, bobbin
and other elements of the mining hoist machine.
The improved method of calculation of power
factors includes the number of components and
helps to determine moving of RRC package layer,
factors of diametrical hardness and expansion,
approximating polynoms of factors of constraint,
loads and deformations of layers of the cable.
The novelty of our methods consists of the fol-
lowing: mathematical model of tense-deformed
condition of RRC multilayer winding takes into
account two essential factors: 1) compression of a
cable in the longitudinal direction is limited with
rubber matrix, 2) hardness characteristics of rings of
the rubber-rope cable depend on their total number
and arrangement in the winding.
Reliability of the offered method is based on high
degree of affinity of calculated parameters of its
Figure 8. Hoist usage. main values to those values, which are received by
means of measurement in the process of physical
experiment. An error of the definition of the defor-
2 CONCLUSIONS mation, comparing with the physical experiment, is
not higher than 11%, confidential probability being
In the well known models of tense-deformed condi- 90%.
tion of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable of The results of scientifically proved four factored
228
three-level calculation experiment on modeling REFERENCES
power processes of the multilayer winding of the
cable show that: Kolosov, L.V. & Safonov, Y.L. 1999. Perspectives and
 tensely-deformed condition depends on the technical possibilities of rubber-rope cables for deep
water delivery. Mining Mechanics, 11 &12: 67-71.
parameters: resulted layer thickness, anisotropic
Bel’mas, I.V. & Saburova, I.T. 2003. Model of stress-
coefficient, the total number of turns spires, factor strain state of rubber-rope cable at a transition section.
of strong length of cable; Hoist technique, 3: 93-99.
 account of complementary factors increases the Kolosov, L.V. & Ropay. 1999. New perspective construci-
accuracy of definition of calculated loads up to tons of mine ropes. Mining magazine, 6: 38-42.
30-60% and expansion of the cable up to 10-100%; Kolosov, L.V. & Obukhov, A.N. 1981. Analysis of stress
 mathematical models for the maximal load on and strain state with damage of rope basis. Mine and
quarry transport. Мoscow: Nedra: 37-48.
the bobbin and for the deformation can be presented Ill’yin, S.R. 1980. Research of dynamic of mine multirope
in the form of polynoms of the second order and can hoist as an elastic mechanical system. Dnipropetrovs’k:
be used in engineering methods, which will cut National Mining University:170.
down the time of calculation of loads with high
precision (error does not exceed 12%).
229
Design principles of the control systems

considering diversity of automation objects
N. Stadnik
Research institute of mines mechanization “Dongiprouglemash”, Donetsk, Ukraine
V. Tkachev
ABSTRACT: As it is generally known that mining and geological conditions of coal production are signifi-
cant for extraordinary variety that entails application of large manifold of mining machines. At the same time
control systems of mining machines, intended for automation of technological processes in mines, are cre-
ated, mainly, on the basis of common initial requirements, therefore they frequently have considerable re-
dundancy.
1 INTRODUCTION  
T  t y , t к , t b , t c , tu ,... , (2)
For creation and practical application of the automa- where t y , tк , tb , tc , tu – subsets of require-
tion systems of new generation the new method of
projecting was introduced. It allows synthesizing of ments, grouped in accordance with the orientation:
optimal functional structures, taking into account all correspondingly requirements on a management,
manifold of mining machines. It is offered to con- control, blockings, alarm system and information:
sider mining machines not as single devices, but as
a set of homogeneous according to their purpose 
t1y   y1 ,..., yf ,
t1к   к1 ,..., kg ,
control objects (HCO), with variable composition of
(3)
functional requirements, laid to automatic control
system of these objects. tu1   u1 ,..., ub ,
where  y1 – single functional operator (  i  1 , if a

2 IDEAS OF THE METHODS
requirement from the side of the object is laid and
The idea of the first method is that set of HCO and  i  0 , if a requirement is not laid).
set of functional requirements are subjected to de- Matrix of the general functional vector for all set
composition correspondingly to subsets: of HCO ( j is a number of hierarchy levels of
N  N1 , N 2 ,..., N m  , T  T1 , T2 ,...,Tm  and each automation objects):
subset of objects is characterized by integral reper-
tory of requirements N i Ti , that takes into account  1y ... 1y  y2 ... 2y ...  yj ... yj
1 z1 z` 1 z``
quantitative composition of subset objects and func- 1 1 2 2 j j
 к ... к  к ... к ...  к ... к
tional requirements to them. Integral composition of 1 y 1 у` 1 y```
HCO is equal to the sum of integral compositions of
 b1 ... b1  b2 ... b2 ...  bj ... bj ``
separate subsets. It enables to synthesize the initial T 1 x 1 x` 1 x RN. (4)
generalized functional structure of the automation
 c1 ... c1  c2 ... c2 ` ...  cj ... cj ```
system. 1 l 1 l 1 l
N iTi   n , Ti  n  N i  . (1)
1
 u ... u 1
 u ... u ...  u ... nj
2 2 j
1 n 1 n` 1 n`
...
Complete repertory of functional requirements
(CRF) to automation of homogeneous objects may The analysis of functional requirements shows that
be presented as a functional vector: part of them are general (universal) for all set of HCO
231
and can serve as a basis for the construction of the us – difference between useful (minimum suffi-
base functional modules. Some functional require- cient for coverage of CRF requirements) and surplus
ments are special and can serve as a basis for the integral repertory of functional requirements:
construction of the specialized functional modules. us  И int  И sur .
t 1o  t1o' t 1o' The optimal structure of ACS homogenous objects
1 2 m is a structure that provides the coverage of integral
1
t ê t1ê 1
t ê repertory of requirements of HCO by the complete
1 2 m least expenses S P on automation, which include a
1 1 1
ta t a' t a' functionally-integral value (FIV) S f and expenses
M 11  1 ; M 12  2 , M 1m  m (5)
t 1n~ t1n~ t 1n~ on maintenance of FIV S 0 : S P  S f  S 0 .
1 2 m
t`1e t`1e t`1e S f  T nC f (12)
1 2 m
... ... ...
where С f – cost of realization of one function
Decomposing of CRF HCO gives three types of (costs on production of automation facilities for one
the system functional structure: function), UAH/function, and has inversely propor-
– flexible on the basis of the base module and a tional dependence on the volume of the modules
number of additional M ia  (FSA):
 output  . The type of function on the basis of sta-
tistical researches can be determined with the help
M a' R N1 , of this formula: C f  A    k ( A – coefficient,
M a' UM 2a  R N 2 , conditioned by the level of technology, qualification

(6)
of personnel and unification of items etc in terms of
M a' UM 2a U ...UM ma  R N m . particular manufacturer).
 
Mathematical models of optimization task for the
structure of FSS and FSA:
– flexible on the basis of the specialized modules
(FSS): S P  T1  n1  C f1  T2  n2  C f 2 
FSS: (13)
M 1 R N1 , ...  Tm  nm  C f m  S 0 .
M 2 R N2 , It is necessary to find min S ( n1 , n2 ,…, nm ) or

(7) D
...
m
M m R Nm . min  A  Ti  nik on a set D consisting of ( 2m  2 )
D 1
– hard on the basis of a single functional module limitations:
on a hierarchical level (HS):
nm  N m
M m R N1UN 2U ...UN m . (8) nm  nm 1  N m  N m 1
nm  nm 1  nm  2  N m  N m 1  N m  2
Integral repertory of requirements of HCO D  ...
TИ  T  n  for the structures: nm  nm 1  ...  n2  N , ni  0i  1,2 ,...,m  2
m
m N  N1  ...  N m   N i
FSA: TИ  Т1  nm   Ti nm  ni 1  ; (9) 1
2
m FSA:
FSS: TИ   Ti ni  ni 1  ; (10)
1 S P  T1  N  C f1  T2  T1 N  n1 C f 2  ...
(14)
HS: TИ  Т m  nm . (11)  Tm  Tm 1 N  n1  n2  ,...,nm 1 C fm  S 0 .
Selection of basic functional structure is carried Objective function:
out on the basis of functional structure type criterion
232
k us  0 , then HS structure is appropriate for such
m 1  i 
min  ATi 1  Ti  N   n  .
 set of HCO;
D 1    – if a criterion of functional structure type is
The comparison of models shows that for the
us  0 , then a functional structure must be flexible
same set minimum expenses in the FSA model are (FSS or FSA) or hard HS. A particular type is de-
termined by means of hereinbefore explained meth-
less than in the FSS model: let's assume that n1* , n*2
ods of optimization.
is an optimal set in the FSS model ( m  2 ), then Organization of the “dialogue” “center” – “pe-
riphery” is very important by the construction of
1
S opt  
n1* , n*2  A  T1 n1*   k
 A  T2 n*2  .k
control systems. There are two construction princi-
ples of automated control system in this plan: on the
For the FSA structure expenses are: basis of the centralized and decentralized control.
Traditionally automated control systems of techno-
     A  T  T n  ;
S 2 n1* , n*2  A  T1 n1*  n*2
k
2 1
* k
2
logical processes were constructed and continue to be
constructed on the basis of the centralized control. In
S opt n ,n  S n ,n  S n ,n  .
*
1
*
2
2 *
1
*
2
1
opt
*
1
*
2
such systems the information flows from information
providers are sent to the center. There they are proc-
essed, analyzed and sent back on the object as control
For the FSS structure expenses are: signals.
S n1 , n2 ,...nm   S n2 ,...,nm   In such systems a “center” per se is absent.

A  T1 N  n2  ...nm k  T2  n2k  ...Tm  nm
k
. Achievement of system targets is carried out as a
result of coordinated actions of separate control
devices which are guided by local criteria and solve
Solving the system of equations: local control tasks. All devices together solve a
 n2 1 
 S  A  kT N  n  ...  n k 1  kT n k 1
3 m 2 2  general system task.
On Figure 1a structure of the decentralized control
system is shown: a control object consists of n ma-
 

 S  A  kT1 N  n3  ...  nm k 1  kT3 n3k 1 chines ( M 1 , M 2 ,…, M n ), which participate in one
 n3
... technological process; the object has n entrances

 
( X 1 , X 2 ,…, X n ) on which different influences are
 S  A  kT1 N  n3  ...  nm k 1  kTm nm k 1
 nm given; X i – input flow (material energy flow, time of
and other), Yi – output product. The decentralized
1
k 1 system consists of “collective” of microprocessor
N  Ti
we get: n*i  1
, i  2 ,3,...,m . comptrollers MPCi that control separate machines.
m Final product of the technological process Y :
 Tj k  1
j 2 n
Y   Yi . (15)
i 1
The optimum will be attained at the limit of range
D , and not on the planes of polyhedron of limita-
tions D , but on its apexes.
n 2  0 Y1
 X1
n3  0
МПК
MPC 1
1
... Technological
Технологический Y2
 МПК
X2 object
объект
D : n m  N m MPC 2
2 (process)
(процесс)
n  n
 m m 1  N m  N m 1
... Xn Yn
 МПК
MPC n
nm  nm 1  ...  n2  N
n
The cited analysis of mathematical models of two Информационная магистраль

Infobahn
structures demonstrates:
– if a criterion of functional structure type is Figure 1. Structure of decentralized control system.
233
Such notion of the object allows bringing the solving tained and all resource X i will be allocated. By a
of control problem to resource allocation problem of resource we will mean: energy, raw materials, trans-
n fer, time, control action etc. Distribution of the re-
input actions X   X i , so that the output product Y
i 1 source between the comptrollers in a network may
has defined indices (productivity, quality, time). The be carried out by a transmission of requests for the
technological processes of mining practice always have X i resource in the line by every comptroller, and
limitations (conveyors throughput capacity, skip wind- also value of output product Yi  f i  X i  at every
ing, limited volume of accumulating vessels etc.). It is stage of iterative process of problem solving. Each
necessary to distribute available resource of input ac- controller, receiving this information from the line,
tions X between consumers into parts X i so that to n n
provide minimum rejection of output quantity of the accumulates  Yi and  X i , and then calculates
i 1 i 1
final product Y from the given quantity Y3 .
deviation of I i from 0.
I  Y  Y3 2  min ; This information can be used for forming of be-
havior rule of each comptroller in the group of
n
Y   Yi ; comptrollers, i.e. rule of alteration of X i requests
i 1 with the view of achievement of a zero value of
Yi  f i  X i  ; (16) local target function. By using of the traditional
n approach of solving the control tasks the system
X   X i  0 ; ( i  1 , 2, 3,…, n ) (18) is solved and as a result we can find the values
i 1
X 1 , X 2 ,…, X n and  , at which I i  0 and
n
where I – control criterion, X   X i . In the case of organization of the comp-
i 1
n
X   X i  0 – limits. trollers group there is not a necessity to compute the
i 1 exact values of all variables beforehand. Main thing
is to define the tendency of X i alteration by each
Solving the assigned problem is done with the use
of cooperative behavior principle (MPC is used as comptroller so that the direction of X i alteration
control devices). As a rule, all computational capa- provides approximation of I i to 0, and by achieve-
bility of a comptroller is not fully used; therefore,
ment of I i  0 the X i alteration ends.
having merged the comptrollers in an integrated
network, application of spare computational capa- n
In the case when  f i  X i  is more then Y3 , it is
bility for solving of control tasks of all technologi- i 1
cal process is possible.
necessary to decrease the fi  X i  values for each
For this purpose it is necessary to define the be-
havior rules of each of local comptrollers that en- comptroller. Function fi  X i  determines direction
sure the concerted actions of all MPC for achieve- of X i alteration for diminishing (or increasing) of
ment of global (for this process) target function. fi  X i  value. Then the rule of changing the re-
Functioning of MPC collective must be link through quests by each comptroller takes the form
limitations, formulated from the control tasks of the
whole object (process).   n 
X k 1,i  X k ,i  C  1    f i  X i   Y3  
 f i  X i   Y3  df i  X i     0;   i 1 
(19)
dX i   
 f iX k ,i    2   X   X k ,i     ,
n
(17)
n
 X i  X ; i  1,2,3,..., n .  i 1  
t 1
where k – stage number; C – stage iteration coef-
The first equation of the system (17) can be ex- ficient (hereinafter stage coefficient). Coefficients
amined as a local criterion for i -comptroller. In the 1 and  2 in the equation (19) are worked in for
n
case, when all I i will be equal to 0, at  X i  X providing of dimensionless of the result obtained,
i 1 that cover the argument by consideration of models
the extremum of global target function will be at- of the different physical nature objects. Basic ad-
vantage of such a decentralized control is that each
234
MPC determines only one X i value on the basis of scientific organizations control systems for the
its own behavior rule, moreover independence of whole family of mining machines of new generation
control task solving from the amount of comptrol- are created, including cutter-loaders, tunneling ma-
lers in the system is provided. chines, conveyor transport etc, which by rights can
Another feature must be noted, which should be be attributed to the mechatronic objects. The most
taken into account by generation of mining ma- striking representatives of such machines are cutter-
chines control systems of new generation. The mod- loaders UKD300, UKD400, KDK500, KDK600,
ern level of functional and parametric requirements computer conveyor transport control system,
resulted in transformation of mining machines from SAUKL, etc, equipped by the variable-frequency
the electromechanical systems into mechatronical, drive feed, computer system of control, diagnostic
characterized by the fact that machines organically and monitoring. The noted coal mining combines
contain an “intellectual” component. The last cir- and other equipment successfully work on the mines
cumstance plays a very essential role by forming of of Ukraine and Russia.
functional repertory of requirements of the automa-
tion systems.
REFERENCES
Pivnyak, G.G., Stadnik, N.I. & Tkachev V.V. 2007. Automa-

3 CONCLUSIONS tion of homogeneous control objects. Dnіpropetrovs’k,
NMU: 160.
On the basis of offered and designed with the par- Pivnyak, G.G., Protsenko, S.M., Stadnik, M.I. & Tkachev,
ticipation of scientists of Dongiprouglemash insti- V.V. 2007. Decentralised control. Dnipropetrovs’k,
tute and National Mining University theoretical NMU: 108.
foundations in collaboration with the a number of
235
Increase of stability of development openings using

combined mining system for flat coal seams on big depths
V. Medyanyk & Y. Medyanyk

ABSTRACT: Parameters of improving safety methods of protection of repeatedly used development work-
ings by strips of variable rigidity while using combined system of flat seams mining on large depths are con-
sidered.
1 INTRODUCTION in forming of coal production cost and, accordingly,

its cost price. A decrease of expenses is probably
The further mining of flat coal seams at the transition only due to rational planning and a reuse of working
to incline part of mine fields has led to substantial headings. Correctly chosen way of protection of
growth of mining depth. For last 10 years average developments, and their duly qualitative repair cre-
depth of mining in such part of Ukraine as Donbass ate a potential opportunity for use onboard footways
area has reached 870 m. Preservation of the reached repeatedly.
level will lead to increase of average depth of mining Thus, a choice of the scientifically-proved way of
up to 1000 m and working depths up to 1500-1600 m. protection of developments on big depths as well as
In such conditions the deterioration of mining-and- parameters of its technology is an actual scientifi-
geological conditions and mining conditions are pre- cally-practical problem. Many proceedings of em-
dicted and expected even to a big degree of prelimi- ployees of institutes engaged in mining, workers of
nary contouring of reserves of functioning workings. mines and associations, etc. are devoted to the ques-
It entails change of ways of preparation and mining tion of protection of functioning workings in a zone
methods, schemes of transport and ventilation. of an extraction influence. At solving the questions
For struggle against a negative rock pressure mani- of development protection on big depths there are
festation on deep mines of the Central area of Don- inconsistent sights concerning the character of de-
bass the tendency of transition to the combined and formation and stability of functioning workings that
continuous mining methods is observed. In a greater demands statement of researches in concrete geo-
degree long-pillar systems are subjected to negative logical conditions.
influence of mining depth. The long-pillar system For certain conditions of flat seams exploitation
which earlier was applied everywhere, at transition by the continuous, combined and long-pillar mining
of mining operations to big depths has started to lose methods to protect drifts from a rock pressure it is
the advantages owing to significant break of time acceptable to use not only one method, but using
between the end of working of panels and the prepa- them in various combination or combinations of
ration of new ones, that appreciably influences stabil- various elements. Thus, the combined methods of
ity of functioning workings and violates normal op- protection the developments deserve the special
eration of stopes. It leads to significant material and attention. Thus, the primary goal should be solved: a
labour expenses, increase of a traumatism and non- decrease of the general stress of the rocks containing
observance of operations of safety and deterioration a mine working to a minimum to provide stability of
of technical and economic parameters of exploited development working for the period of operation.
sites. Despite the great volumes of repair works and The adverse condition of drift can be explained
their high labour input, extent of developments with by getting an adjacent strata and a support in a zone
an unsatisfactory condition remains significant. of a high abutting pressure. The author offers to
locate elements of protection of development work-
ing in such way that adjacent strata around it will be
2 SUBSTANTIATION OF THE RESEARCHES relieved from stresses. Therefore, for maintenance
of the most effective protection onboard footway
Protection of mine workings takes a significant part (drift) on a site, where on the one side there is a
237
massif of coal and on the other – a pack, it is neces- maintain the openings in the massif unloaded from
sary to relieve the raised abutting pressure from a the raised support pressure. The insignificant rock
massif of coal on some distance from drift deep into pressure, which arises from weight of the overlying
a massif, and also to remove a pack concentrating a rocks located inside of a contour of a natural bal-
stress in a drift into the goaf. ance canopy, will be stably perceived by applied
In a basis of work the invention (Novikova 2003) constructions of a support of a working and near the
was made up where the technical task of improve- drift yielding stripes. In this case, necessity of repair
ment of a development working's protection way by work and erection of support with high loading abil-
formation a dome of natural equilibrium above a ity decreases.
working is solved. As the face advances, demanded For an opportunity of reuse of the development
redistribution and a decrease of stresses concentra- working, which was driven at combined mining
tion in a stratum of rocks above a working inside of method after an advance of longwall, it is necessary
a crest are reached and due to this stability mainte- to provide its operational stability with the way
nance of a working during the service raises. As- described above. The task is the definition of pack's
signed task is solved by the way of protection of the rational parameters with the variable rigidity, that
development working, containing erection behind protect a working from the side of a goaf, and the
longwall on a berm of a working a constant quarry- yielding support created by a drilling-out of the coal
stone abutting strip from rock. As the face advances, from a massif side.
combined pack between the face and the goaf near Such sizes of rigid and yielding parts of a pack
the opening and the goaf is formed, and at that, from and such width of a yielding support under which
the side of the coal massif – yieldable and rigid the deformation of a working's contour do not sur-
supports in it are formed, and they provide forma- pass admissible values are considered as rational.
tion of natural balance canopy above the opening of In terms of safety requirement rules, the height of
rock strata. Above mentioned technical solution working can decrease with cross section of 11.2 m2
provides achievement of result due to creation of a from 3130 mm up to 2102 mm, and width – from
zone of low concentration of stresses inside of natu- 4180 mm up to 2468 mm.
ral balance canopy above a working that permits to The design scheme is resulted on Figure 1.

Y
mudstone

L1 L2 В L3 siltstone Х
sandstone

Figure 1. The design scheme for definition of the stress-strain state: L1 – a rigid security strip; L2 – yielding, m; L3 – the
unloaded coal massif; I n – width of a working.
Stress and strain state was defined using a method segment in infinite elastic area (Medyanik 2002).
of finite elements in the shape of fictitious loadings The task was solved using additional stresses.
with use of an analytical solution of a known Calvin's Complete stresses were considered to be equal to the
formula regarding the influence of the normal and sum of original stresses, which are caused by weight
tangential forces, which are evenly distributed on a of rocks, and additional, arising in a massif as a
238
result of formation of a working. By the data of task,
usil   u si k   0 , unil   uni k   0 .
* *
total stresses on a contour of a working are equal to (3)
zero. It means that additional stresses on it are equal
The initial system of the equations of a solved
to H in vertical and to H in horizontal direc- task is formed using of finite-element approxima-
tions (l = n/(1-n) – lateral thrust coefficient, n – tion boundaries of observable area, which is shown
Poisson's factor). On contacts of cooperating ele- on Figure 2.
ments of investigated object (roof-rigid part of back- It includes seven areas: C1 – a rock mass in seam
fill-ground; roof-coal seam-ground; support-rock)
conditions of compatibility of deformations were roof, C2 – a coal seam, C3 – a yielding support,
set. C4 – yielding backfilling strip, C5 – rigid backfill-
Boundary conditions on a free contour: ing strip, C6 – a goaf, C7 – a rock mass in seam
 n0   'n 0,  s0   's 0. (1) floor. Boundaries of areas Сk (k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
are approximated according to N k elements which
On contacts of interacting elements of system:
quantity depends on length of considered bounda-
 sik    si l   0 ,  nik    ni l   0 .
* *
(2) ries L1 , L2 , L3 .
 y
C1

C3 С2
x
C7

Figure 2. The scheme of boundary conditions.
Generally, the initial system of the algebraic Solving received system 2 N linear algebraic
equations with 2 N unknown fictitious forces which
equations, we find forces Psi and Pni , and then,
describes the set boundary conditions on free con-
tours of studied area and conditions of compatibility according to a principle of superposition subject to
of deformations – on adjacent ones, looks like: formulas of a base analytical solution, we calculate
displacement and stresses in any point of studied
N
ij j
N
ij j i 
area.
 Css Ps   Csn Pn  bs  The support of a working was considered as two-
j 1 j 1  layer construction – a metal part and the part of a
N N
, (4)
ij j ij j i rock mass attached to it. Thus by L.V. Novikova's
 Cns Ps   Cnn Pn  bn
 technique the valid form of a surface of steel sup-
j 1 j 1 
port was replaced with cylindrical one. Thickness of
i  1, 2 , 3,..., N . cylindrical surface d was considered equal to
height of a structure h , made the support, and the
The right parts of the equations bsi , bni and fac-
module of elasticity was replaced with resulted one.
ij ij ij ij The value of module was such that the cylindrical
tors Css , Csn , Cns , Cnn , are defined by formulas
of a base analytical solution. support was equivalent to rigidity of a real support
239
on a site which length is equal to a step of support varied sizes in the attitude L1 / L2 in calculations
setting l0 , i.e. that the condition was satisfied: accepted value [1,6; 1,8; 2,0; 2,2; 2,25; 2,4; 2,5; 2,6;
2,75; 3,0; 3,3; 3,6; 4,0; 4,5; 5,0; 5,5; 6,0; 8,0; 9,0;
Est I st  Eпрl0 3 / 12 , (5) 10,0; 11,0; 12,0], and attitude L3 / L2 belonged to
area [1/5; 1/4 1/3; 2/5; 1/2; 3/5; 2/3; 3/4; 4/5; 1; 5/4;
where Est , I st , – the modulus of elasticity of steel 4/3; 3/2; 5/3; 2; 5/2; 3; 4; 5].
and the moment of inertia of a support structure. 125 calculations have been executed in total. Re-
In considered concrete case the support КМП- sults of calculations in the form of the maximal
А3-22/11.2 is used for which d  0.0112 m, change of support's contour height ( u y ) max and
Est  2  105 MPa, I st  0.566  105 m, l0  0.85 m. width ( u x ) max for all considered variants are ad-
The resulted module of elasticity defined on this duced in the table of appendix A. The specified sizes
data has made 1.2 × 104 МPа. ( u y ) max and ( u x ) max are caused only by defor-
Calculations were carried out at various values of
mation of the support.
parameters rigidity L1 and yielding L2 parts of a
The analysis of the received data has shown that de-
pack. Width L3 of a yielding support from a massif formations of a support's contour are in close interrela-
varied also. tion with attitudes L1 / L2 and L3 / L2 (Table 1).
On the basis of possible boundaries of change of
Table 1. Results of the correlation analysis.

(u х ) max (u у ) max K 2 = L 3 /L 2 K 21 = L 2 /L 1 K 31 = L 3 /L 1
(u х ) max 1.00 0.97 -0.28 0.71 0.81
(u у ) max 0.97 1.00 -0.25 0.77 0.82
K 2 = L 3 /L 2 -0.28 -0.25 1.00 -0.65 0.27
K 21 = L 2 /L 1 0.71 0.77 -0.65 1.00 0.30
K 31 = L 3 /L 1 0.81 0.82 0.27 0.30 1.00
On the basis of the multi-linear correlated analy- For confirmation of the formulated conclusion
sis of results of performed calculation correlation concerning the rational parameters of strips of vari-
for relational, maximal, vertical and horizontal de- able rigidity providing a stability of protected de-
formations of support's contour are found (6, 7): velopment working, we will result diagram of calcu-
lated stresses  yy in studied area of a massif.
u x max  21.18  2.02K 2 
On Figure 3 the stresses  yy are shown in vari-
5.38K 21  35.37 K 31 (6) ous sections of seam roof and on Figure 4 seam
u y max  197.60  4.44K 2  floors are shown.
It is important, that above support zone of “natu-
60.41K 21  157.43K 31 (7) ral equilibrium's dome” – a zone of unloading is
formed. Distribution diagram of stresses  yy are
Correlation factors of the established dependences symmetric concerning a vertical axis of a support.
have values accordingly r2  0.931 and r2  0.990. One should note, that at other values of these parame-
Calculation under formulas has shown, that at ters a symmetry of stresses distribution is violated and
L1  8 m, L2  5 m, L3  3 m deformations of a dislocations of contour's points increase.
support's contour in unsafe section of a working make For the solution of task an imitating mathematical
modelling (Finite-Element Method) is used. The
( u y ) max = 36.4 mm, and ( u x ) max = 357.6 mm.
experimental-analytical approach was applied.
The calculated values do not exceed the values Loading ( P ) on a pack in mine was gauged and
supposed “Safety rules in coal and shale mines”. the parameters of interacting elements of rigid sys-
From this point of view parameters L1  8 m, tems were selected which provide loading at the
L2  5 m, L3  3 m can be assumed as rational for appropriate level. Additional loading ( P ) allows
considering the time factor and distance to a stope.
considered geological conditions. A number of assumptions are corrected by empirical
240
factors (they are achieved by results of mine tool practical application of stresses distribution around
measurements). By that the reception of enough development working was achieved.
simple, convenient and suitable dependences for
Y Y
(а) (b)
Х
 уу , М Pа Х
уу MPa
75
70
70 65
60
55
60 50
45
Х, m
50
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 Х, m -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
(в) У=2 m
У =4m
 уу,М P а  уу, М P а
75 75
70 70
65
65
60
60
55
55
50 Х, m
Х, m 50
-1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15
-1 5 -1 0 -5 0 5 10 15 У = 15 m
У = 9 m
Figure 3. Stress in seam roof: Y = 2 m; Y = 4 m; Y = 9 m; Y = 15 m.
Y models are received. This is the same idea, as in a

Illushin's method, so a task of plasticity is solved,
Х and a Erzhanov's Method (programs of a solution of
physically nonlinear tasks).
 уу , М Pа Thus, we solve an elastic task with additional
loading, measured in mine conditions. It allows to
80
obtain real data of loading which are responded to
70 concrete conditions of displacement of rocks in
development workings.
60
For check of correctness of the basic theoretical
50 positions and reception of actual parameters of de-
velopment workings protection at various mining
40
methods on mine “Progress” SC “Torezantracit” a
Х, m
number of natural researches (Medyanik 2002,
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
У = -1 m Medyanik 2007 & Kolokolov 2004) was conducted.
Besides, the purpose of mine investigations was to
Figure 4. Stress in seam bottom.
check availability of offered technology and to es-
tablish the basic technical and economic parameters
(Medyanik 2008).
On free surfaces the conditions of equality to zero Researches were carried out in the 7th southern
of dislocations stresses are set, and displacements and the 16-th western longwalls of the southern
are defined from a condition of task solution. On a panel #1, seams h 8 “Fominskogo”, mines “Pro-
contacting surface there is condition of deformation gress” SC “Torezantracit”. These longwalls were
compatibility; Taking advantage of measurement mined to the rise using combined mining method.
results and using P , real displacement on elastic For comparison of results the investigations were
241
carried out also in the 2nd longwall of the southern resulted on Figure 5. For determination of physical-
panel 3, mining a seam h8 “Fominskogo” using mechanical properties of stowing material labora-
long-pillar mining method. For obtainment of the tory some researches were carried out.
authentic and objective information about character On the basis of the analysis of a condition of mine
and laws of stresses distribution, “Working method” workings on horizon 1213-1340 m of mine “Pro-
was developed according to which natural re- gress” a way of protection and development of the
searches were carried out. Also the selection of the 8th footway of seam h8 “Fominskogo” as object for
equipment was made for erection of strips of vari- statement and carrying out of experimental re-
able rigidity and was directly approved in mine searches is proved. Application of the offered way
conditions. Parts of interface of the 7th experimen- of footway protection with strips of variable rigidity
tal-industrial longwall of Southern Panel #3 (UP has confirmed its reliability and efficiency on an
#3), seam h8 with the 8th southern footway are experimental site.
Figure 5. The 7th trial longwall of Southern Panel #3 (UP#3), seam h 8 with the 8th southern footway.
242
3 CONCLUSIONS is solved, also decrease of amount of development
and repair operations in workings while retaining high
Values of displacement of adjoining rocks are ex- output of a stope.
perimentally established, loadings in various sites of
protective elements around a mine working pro-
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combined mining method of flat seams at big depths
243
The concept of automation and monitoring

of the production process in an underground mine
J. Kicki & A. Dyczko

Polish Academy of Sciences - Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Krakow, Poland
ABSTRACT: The paper outlines the evolution of production monitoring systems used in the Polish mining
industry, focusing in particular on control systems. A concept to put together a mine production management
decision-aid system utilizing IT solutions and production monitoring is discussed. The solution consists in
integrating within a Production Reporting Center, proposed by the authors, series of data supplied from a
monitored area and technological process visualization.
1 INTRODUCTION and geological conditions and inherent natural haz-

ards (Kicki 2007).
The paper outlines the concept of creating a system The safe and efficient managing of an underground
integrating current control center solutions with a mine demands appropriate work organization and
number of production systems utilized in mines, constant supply of current and objective information
which encompass the most essential infrastructure on the status of the technological process and work-
of an underground mine. In future, control systems, force safety. The information is made available by
apart from providing for communication, control monitoring and visualization systems comprising
and monitoring will have to incorporate most of the sensors located in underground workings, which
control functions, securing the safety and continuity provide for monitoring of the technological processes,
of production and so becoming a basic part of a and command executing units allow to influence the
Manufacturing and Execution System (MES), ie. a course of the process (Boroń 2007; Mironowicz &
computer system for monitoring, maintaining and Wasilewski 2006; www.siemens.com/mining).
controlling mine production (Krzystanek 2004 & Monitoring and visualizing of the technological
Wojciechowsk 2004). process and mine safety which in the classic ap-
The practice so far shows that most of advanced proach is done by a mine control center is aimed at
IT systems implemented at Polish mines are the fulfilling the requirements with respect to the duties
spectacular and „easy” Enterprise Resource Plan- of the Mine Manager as stipulated in the mining and
ning (ERP) systems – in particular the financial, geological law and related regulations (Prawo ge-
fixed asset management and consumables account- ologiczne i górnicze Ustaw 1994; Rozporządzenia
ing modules. Modules which are more complex, Ministra Gospodarki 2006 & Rozporządzenia Rady
such as production management, material consump- Ministrów 2004).
tion planning – as more difficult – are usually left The volumes of data collected at a mine, which
out (Kicki & Dyczko 2008). constantly grows following the advent of new
The ultimate objective of the proposed solution is measuring methods and techniques, markedly sur-
to fill the information gap which in the authors' passes the analytical capability of a human being.
opinion exists between the financial-accounting Systems that are to be designed not only have to
systems that are already used by mining companies provide clear information about a technological
and systems aiding monitoring, maintaining and process but have to, by appropriate selection and
managing of mine production. adequate level of detail, provide help to specific,
Mine management is in fact, just as in any other specialized mine services, particularly controllers,
company, a continuous decision-making process officials and machine operators, in their decision-
whereby all current problems are attended to and making processes (Dec 1999; Isakow 2005;
solved just as they appear. It is important to note Krzystanek 2004, Mironowicz 2000; Skoczynski
that in the case of mining companies production is 1974 & Wojtas 2004).
done in high-risk environment of changing mining
245
2 DEVELOPMENT OF MONITORING are detailed in a governmental instruction (Rozpor-
AND VIZUALIZATION SYSTEMS IN ządzenia Rady Ministrów 2004). The installation of
UNDERGROUND MINES the equipment is subject to, among others, the ap-
proval procedure in the course of which an approval
Formally the organization of the services of an un- has to be obtained from the Director of the National
derground mine is regulated by the mining and geo- Mining Authority for the particular piece of equip-
logical law (Prawo geologiczne i górnicze Ustaw ment to be used at mines (Cuber 2008).
1994), which are detailed in the instructions by the According to the quoted regulations the main du-
Minister of Economy on work safety, mine opera- ties of a Controller are (Rozporządzenia Rady Min-
tion and fire hazard provisions in underground istrów 2004):
mines (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospodarki 2006) – monitoring the production process in order to
and the governmental instructions with respect to detect abnormalities and deviations from plan;
material and equipment approved for use in mines – monitoring the status of safety at the mine for
(Rozporządzenia Rady Ministrów 2004). the purpose of hazard prevention;
The regulations named above require the mine op- – initiating and coordinating rescue operations
erator to establish a mine control center. Paragraph 8 and repair operations in case of breakdowns;
specifies: (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospodarki – recording the statistics with respect to on-the-
2006): job personnel per workplace, production volumes,
1. An adequately equipped and manned control breakdowns and technological downtime;
center shall be established at each mining opera- – recording safety-related parameters and their
tions. analysis in order to assess the current state and
2. The duty of the control center personnel is on- trends of mine safety and to forecast possible occur-
going control of the status of the mining operations rence of hazards;
and work safety. – recording and analyzing mining machinery and
3. The control center is to be manned in particular equipment working time in order to improve their
by controllers who have approved higher mining utilization and work organization.
management qualifications. In practice two controller positions are main-
4. Details of the scope of responsibilities of the tained – an operations controller (principal) and a
mine control center and its work organization are safety controller.
specified by the Mine Manager. Mine operations control is done from the main
The quoted regulation formalizes the method of mine control room equipped with adequate technical
managing a mining operations and tasks the Con- means which should provide for (Mironowicz &
troller with specific duties with respect to produc- Wasilewski 2005):
tion process control that he performs on behalf of – communications, in order for the personnel to
the Mine Manager. In order for the Controller to report to the controller, for the controller to alarm
efficiently perform his function the Regulator re- endangered workings and for communication with
quires he is equipped with appropriate technical personnel employed in underground workings by
means, as specified in paragraph 64 of the regula- means of a loudspeaker communication system;
tion, which states that the control center should be – remote monitoring of work safety parameters;
provided with (Rozporządzenia Ministra Gospo- – direct PBX telephone communication;
darki 2006): – external telephone communication.
1. External communication provided by at least During the past few decades a remarkable devel-
two independent operators. opment of the communications equipment used in
2. Direct PBX internal telephone communication. control centers was observed, starting from analog
3. Emergency lines independent from the PBX telephone exchanges through specialized relay tech-
system allowing to: nology based systems to currently used state-of-the-
a) inform the control center of a hazardous situa- art digital equipment (Cuber 2008).
tion in an underground working, In the 1950s to 70s control rooms were equipped
b) set an alarm in endangered underground work- comprehensively, fulfilling all the legal require-
ings from the control center, ments. Among the equipment undergoing most fre-
c) communicate with personnel employed in un- quent modifications one has to name the alarm-and-
derground workings by means of a loudspeaker communication system, which evolved from CSG-
communication system. 58 system through AUD-80 to the currently used
4. Remote monitoring of work safety parameters. STAR and SAT systems (Cuber 2008; Wojaczek &
The requirements regarding the quality, operation Cuber 2004).
and powering of a mine control center equipment The problem which is given particular attention in
246
the coal mining industry was measuring of parame- the undoubted weaknesses of the currently used
ters related to the safety of the operations, particu- systems, among which the following can be named
larly underground environment rock mass parame- (Cuber 2008 & Krzystanek 2004):
ters. Technical advancement resulted in developing – no potential for truly efficient operation;
new systems and telemetry equipment which found – no ergonomics in operating individual stations;
their way into mine control centers in way of ex- – no synchronization between the individual sys-
panding the existing or building new ones, com- tems registering various parameters;
monly called methane control centers and mine – high maintenance cost of the whole control sys-
geophysics stations. Very often they were located tem mainly due to the necessity to:
outside the main control room, connected with it a) maintain a large number of rooms to locate the
merely by telephone (Wojaczek & Cuber 2003). station equipment;
The concept of an integrated control center in b) employ a relatively large number of personnel;
Polish mining operations which motivated the de- c) install a large number of data transfer lines to
signers of the systems named earlier – as well as the the end units.
authors – has not so far had many supporters despite
Figure 1. An integrated control system's structure – after (Boroń 1998).
The limitations listed above were noted by control (Mironowicz & Wasilewski 2000) may serve as an
system designers as early as in the late 1970s and illustration of a comprehensive approach to the
were the reason for the then used electronic and problem of a mine control center. As the main com-
electromagnetic relay systems being replaced by the ponents of the system “intelligent” telephones and a
first computer systems (Boroń & Mironowicz central unit were used. The central unit and the tele-
2007): phones were connected by a single coaxial cable.
The following can be used to illustrate the solu- The cable was laid in a way allowing to close the
tions and systems used (Mironowicz & Wasilewski whole circuit in a loop in order to secure communi-
2006): cation in the case it was damaged; at the same time
– MINOS systems used in English mines; the cable was used as a source of radio waves
– MCM-101 system used in American mines. (“leaking feeder”) providing for multi-channel
In particular MCM system (Mine Communica- communication between the units comprising the
tions and Monitoring System) implemented in 1975 system. The system comprised 298 analog channels
247
and a 3 MHz wide digital channel hosting several solving this problem was the advent of IT equip-
hundred independent time channels for telemetric ment and systems that allowed to archive and visu-
data transfer (Cuber 2008). alize measuring data on carriers other than paper
In the 1970s a number of automatic methane tape which is prone to damage and does not provide
measurement systems became available in the mar- for easy data access, both current and historical
ket. This has caused the necessity to arrange for the (Cuber 2008).
position of a methane controller (by law in excess of The control software most common in the market
20 detectors) whose job it was to oversee the today is ZEFIR (NT). Some mining operations use
equipment comprising the system and report to the SD 2000 system, some use other software (WIZ-
operations controller. With the increase in methane CON, PARAGON, SW/iP-3NT). An example of
hazard and a growing number of telemetric central technological process visualizations with the use of
units in mines it turned out that it was impossible SD2000 system's NEO application is shown in
for one person to man all the units. It was necessary Figure 2 (Wójcik 2008).
to employ additional personnel. Very helpful in
Figure 2. Examples of technological process visualizations using SD2000 system's NEO application – after (Wójcik
2008).
3 A CONCEPT DECISION-AID SYSTEM levels of management;

FOR MANAGEMENT UTILIZING I.T. – complete integration of data within one system;
SOLUTIONS AND PRODUCTION – ready-made forms and reports;
MONITORING – current inventory of events in places of their oc-
currence;
The concept decision-aid system used in the process – elimination of multiple entering the same data.
of managing a mine, which utilizes IT solutions and Monitoring and electromechanical equipment
production monitoring presented below is to ulti- management systems are fundamental tools ena-
mately enable the following (Dyczko 2004): bling to gather information about work status of
– direct and uniform access to information at all machinery and equipment.
248
Technological processes related to mining a min- – mineral resource management,
eral resource rely on efficient equipment and ma- – scheduling of development and production,
chines that are controlled by appropriate technical – production resource management,
personnel. The systems are linked directly with – production process monitoring,
remote monitoring technologies, communicate with – company asset registry coordinated with pur-
the automation units installed on the machinery and chasing strategy.
transmit their work parameters to a central data These areas aid production processes which are
collection unit. Management systems form a techno- carried out according to the business segment model
logical data transfer network. and links (interactions) between the segments. The
The authors propose that at the initial stage of in- segment structure is outlined in Figure 3 (Kicki
tegration the decision-aid system encompassed the 2001).
following areas:
Figure 3. A way of describing business segments and their interactions. Source: own research.
The core of the system will be formed by a plan- a consistent and uniform IT platform allowing for
ning and production scheduling module which will full identification of individual asset units, far-
enable automation of computation of the most es- reaching ordering of data and production process
sential component elements of the Technical and monitoring (Kicki & Dyczko 2007; Kicki, Dyczko
Economic Plan of a mine. Ultimately the system & Stopkowicz 2007).
will enable flexible modifications of the created The most important element of the proposed con-
schedules and their export to reports prepared for cept is creating a competent and empowered Pro-
various levels of management. At the same time a duction Reporting Center, which would be tasked to
visualization platform will be created by integrating manage the production processes and monitor effec-
the planning and scheduling module with a digital tiveness of production resource utilization, ie. de-
mine map and linking it to a database containing cide about who, when, what and by what means.
mining and geological parameters of the deposit Such Production Reporting Center will utilize
mined (Dyczko & Kłos; Kicki & Dyczko 2008). state-of-the-art technology, among others wireless
The database will provide for storing and managing tracking systems for personnel, material and other
qualitative and quantitative models of the deposit essential moving objects. This is very important
and will be the principal source of data used when from the point of view of human resource manage-
scheduling development and production. The idea of ment. It is also important due to the requirements of
shearing the most important data within the system the mining and geological law and worker safety.
is presented in Figure 4. Apart from that monitoring of work of essential
As far as asset and operation management is con- electromechanical machinery along the technologi-
cerned the proposed solution will enable integration cal chain (production faces, horizontal and vertical
of data related to the assets owned by the company haulage) is envisaged. Similar solutions are already
and to the adopted maintenance strategy. In result in place around the world resulting in measurable
this will lead to organizing the existing information business benefits. Figure 5 presents CATS (Central-
on production assets and creating mechanisms for ized Asset Tracking System) manufactured by
central asset management at different data aggrega- Becker Elektrotechnika used in South African mines
tion levels. Such approach will enable optimizing which allows to track both people and machines,
stock and purchases management and will form a providing information as to their location and direc-
base for designing optimal production budgets. On tion of movement.
the operational level this will lead to implementing
249
Figure 4. The idea of mine production management decision-aid system data sharing based on IT solutions and production
monitoring. Source: own research.
Material logistics system will encompass fixed Integration of the underground personnel and ma-
assets used in the production process in order to chinery tracking systems will be done using the
enable continuous monitoring of actual production, RFID technology and a fiber-optic network, to
downtime and their causes, breakdowns and person- which a visual monitoring and technological data
nel work hours. Of equal importance is access to transfer system will be connected.
data which bypasses reports that are currently com- Such means of communication, combined with
piled manually by production and stores personnel. the mine's Ethernet, will help consolidating the
A full set of data will be obtained from reporting technological and safety systems with surface sys-
and data transfer network based on fiber-optic tech- tems such as SCADA, ERP or MES. In addition it
nology as well as monitoring and visualization sys- will enable constructing an unlimited communica-
tems. tions network underground based on wireless com-
The critical condition for the proposed concept is puter technology whereby maps, analysis reports,
the assumption that at each stage management deci- manuals etc could be sent from the control center on
sions are made based on more than one source of the surface to handheld computers (PDA) under-
information. This concerns measurement and con- ground (Wojciechowski 2004).
trol functions, where it is critically important to be In the presented concept we assumed that com-
sure that the invoked function was actually carried munication between moving objects would be real-
out. As an example here registry, locating and track- ized based on the leaking feeder technology,
ing of personnel underground can be given. Redun- whereas material logistics and personnel identifica-
dancy in the area of measurements, data transfers, tion would be based on RFID technology combined
processing and reporting is in this respect necessary with a fiber-optic network. At the same time techno-
(Kicki 2008 & Wojciechowski 2001). logical data transfer system encompassing visual
250
monitoring would be based on a fiber-optic network accessed from computer workstations located un-
comprising central units collecting information from derground.
electromechanical units, where the data could be
Figure 5. Examples of ID transmitters and Tag readers, and visualization and data display in CATS tracking system – after
(www.becker-elektrotechnika.pl).
In order for the described concept to be realized it – development and production scheduling;
is necessary to equip all machines and equipment in – production resource management;
automation systems connected to the central control – production process monitoring;
unit, providing for integration of individual ele- – company asset registry linked to a coordinated
ments comprising transport, safety, water supply, purchasing strategy.
ventilation and energy supply systems. The design At the same time designers of the solution were
of the whole setup must consider variability of min- obliged to provide for specific needs of the mines
ing and geological conditions and natural hazards were the system was to be implemented, and to
inherent to underground mines as well as effects choose such component elements of the system that
human mining activity has on the environment would ultimately guarantee:
(Wojciechowski 2001). – flexible expansion of the system;
– integration with the existing solutions;
– possibility of integration with current and future
4 CONCLUSIONS financial-accounting system;
As a measure of success of the implementation
The concept of a decision-aid system for production the achievement of the following business benefits
processes based on IT solutions and production were chosen:
monitoring described in this paper was presented for – standardization of all reports generated by the
implementation to a large mining company compris- control center;
ing several operations in Poland and was met with – direct and full monitoring of production proc-
great interest. esses at the Board of Directors' level;
Taking this into account the basic assumptions for – increased level of production process monitor-
the system were worked out, where the following ing – decreased risk of breakdowns;
areas were highlighted as most important: – increased availability of machinery and equip-
– mineral resource management; ment resulting in increased production and sales
251
volumes; Hung, J., Gerhart, D., Pix, A. & Hackwood, J. Mine man-
– decreased reaction times in case of breakdowns. agement system development in underground mines. 6th
Finally it must be stressed that the most important International Symposium on Mine Mechanization and
Automation, South African Institute of Mining and
element of the proposed system is not at all the pos-
Metallurgy.
sibility to integrate various systems and technical Isakow, Z., Wojciechowski, J. & Wojtas, P. 2005. Systemy
solutions – this, as was shown in this paper – is dyspozytorskie EMAG wczoraj, dziś i jutro.
already a fact thanks to quick development of the Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Górnictwa.
communications technology. In our opinion it is Kicki, J. 2001. Systemy wspomagania decyzji w procesie
most important from the point of view of managing wydobycia rudy w kopalniach LGOM. Górnictwo i
a modern mine to create and adequately empower a Geoinżynieria, Kwartalnik AGH, zeszyt 4/1.
Production Reporting Center in which the essential Kicki, J. & Dyczko, A. 2007. Portal górniczy jako ważny
element zarządzania informacją w kopalniach pod-
information regarding production obtained from
ziemnych na przykładzie polskich kopalń rud miedzi.
monitoring and visualization systems will be ana- Materiały Szkoły Eksploatacji Podziemnej, Kraków:
lyzed and reported in real time. Wyd. IGSMiE PAN.
We are certain that the possibility to have imme- Kicki, J. & Tadeusiewicz, R. 2007. Informatyka w
diate access to feedback reporting on actual produc- górnictwie i nie tylko – gdzie jesteśmy i dokąd
tion and its relation to plan, making crucial produc- zmierzamy? Kraków: Wydawnictwo IGSMiE PAN,
tion decisions and reacting in real time to abnor- Tom 23 – Zeszyt specjalny, Materiały Polskiego
malities and deviations in the production process Kongresu Górniczego.
Kicki, J., Dyczko, A. & Stopkowicz, A. 2007. Integrirowan-
will allow to obtain a real picture of the utilization
naja informacjonnaja sistema codejctwija prinjatija
of the available production capacity and will also reszenij na primierie podgotowki zapasow na ygolnoj
have a positive effect on work safety. szachtie „Bogdanka”. Dniepropietrowsk: Materiały
Międzynarodowej Konferencji Naukowo-Technicznej,
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253
Methods of calculation of pressing

value of frame support’s props
A. Mamaykin, V. Lapko & L. Tokar

ABSTRACT: Method of calculation of support’s props pressing is presented. The method is conditioned by
joint influence of vertical load on a support and loosening weak rocks of a working’s buttom.
1 INTRODUCTION bottom breaking. Typical cross-sections of the

workings are performed having real geometrical
Cost saving for mine support of mine workings that parameters of supports YMS-А3 and PYSEP made
are being exploited is one of the most current prob- of special profile, interframe shield with reinforced
lems for mining enterprises of Western Donbass. It concrete or wooden lagging and backfilled support
depends on depth increase of coal seams as well as space.
deterioration of mining and geological conditions. It While calculating value of impression of sup-
results in decrease of stability of primary workings port’s props and estimation of its operation condi-
(Bondarenko 2006, Kovalevskaya 2008). tion, the main source data are: previously marked
Today support erection is the key method to en- mechanical data of adjacent rock seams of roof and
sure stability of workings and maintenance of them x
in proper exploitation state. Impressing of props of bottom; H – calculation stratification depth; –

arc supports takes place with increase of mining
operations conditions of soft weakly- rheological index and geometrical parameters of a
metamorphosed rocks. Foot bearing is useful to mine working’s cross-section.
minimize impressing value. Calculation stratification depth H is calculated
The paper’s main objective is to develop calcula- according to the following formula:
tion methodology of props impression value with H  H pr  K , (1)
foot bearings.
where H pr – designed factual stratification depth
2 GEOMECHANICS OF SYSTEM of or its part from the surface, m; K – stress con-
“MASSIF-SUPPORT” centration coefficient that considers difference of
rock massif’s stress state from nonhydrostatic state
Geomechanical processes modeling in the vicinity conditioned only by its own weight of rock stratum.
of in-seam working is performed taking into account Rated true depth of working distribution varied
five parameters:  com
R ,B
– ultimate uniaxial compres- within H  200...600 m, taking into account ending
mining of higher levels of mines of JSC “Pavlo-
sion strength; (  com ) /  com
R ,B 0 R ,B
– relative retained gradugol”.
Mechanical data of neighboring rock seams are
strength at a stage of loosening; ( E R ,B ) c.i – condi-
chosen on the data of geotechnical investigation
tionally-instantaneous modulus of deformation;
within specific area of mine field. In the absence of
M R ,B / E R ,B – relative drop modulus at the stage some data concerning rock characteristics (espe-
of softening (indices “ R ” and “ B ” stand for roof cially under the out-of-limit conditions) guide val-
and bottom; L – reduced area of support’s prop. ues of mechanical data of rocks of Western Donbass
Geomechanical processes modeling within in- are taken on data of Table 1 compiled on the re-
seam working is performed taking into considera- search by IGIM of NAS of Ukraine and NMU.
tion cohesion losses along bedding plane of adjacent Design strength of neighboring rock seams to com-
rock layers. Dislocation of a mine working relative pression R1R,2,B is determined by the equation (CD
to a coal seam is carried out with combined roof and
1998):
255
R1R,2,B   com
R ,B
 Kc  K w  Kt , (2) neighboring rock seams (  com ) /  com
R ,B 0 R ,B
and
1,2 1 1
M 1R,2,B / E1R,2,B are chosen depending on rock type

where  com
R ,B
– value of rock strength to uniaxial
1,2 according to the Table 1 data.
compression in a pattern, MPa; K c – factor that Geometrics of typical cross-sections of workings
takes into account extra fault of rock mass by means with YMS-АЗ and PYSEP props are determined on
of unfastening surfaces without adhesion or if little the data from papers.
y
adhesion is available; K w – factor that takes into Forcing value U prop of supports into the rocks is
account flooded rocks loosening due to earth leak- determined on the formula
age on water mass of water-bearing formations;
K t – factor that takes into account decrease in rock y
U prop y

 U prop 
typ
 K1  K 2  K 3  L , (6)
strength as for uniaxial compression under steady
loading; it is determined by the following formula: 
y
where U prop 
typ
– value of support forcing into sill
Kt  1 
x
, (3) under standard conditions; K1 – influence factor of

design strength R1B,2 on contraction of roof; K 2 –
x influence factor of mechanical data E1B and
where – rheological index; it is determined ac-

cording to research by IGIM of NAS of Ukraine on (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
of the first rock joint; K 3 – influ-
1
the equation ence factor of standard drift size and a type of the
x
 0.8  0.326 log10  com
R ,B
. (4)
y
prop used. U prop 
typ
value is determined by the
 1,2
lines in the Figure 1 depending on designed depth
H of working distribution and design strength to
Design modulus of deformation of neighboring
rock seams is determined by the formula compressing R1B of the first rock joint under stan-
dard conditions of working maintenance: standard

E1R,2,B  E1R,2,B  
c .i 
x
1   ,

(5) drift size YMS-А3-13.8; design strength to roof
 
rocks compression R1B  R2B  10 MPa; relative
where ( E1R,2,B ) c.i – conventionally instantaneous value of residual strength of the first rock joint
modulus of rock deformation; it is determined on the (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
 0.15 ; design modulus of the
1
data of geotechnical investigation from the Table 1.
Mechanical data of out-of-limit deformation of first rock joint deformation E1B  0.6 10 4 MPa.
Table 1. Guide values of mechanical data of complete diagram of rock deformation.

Parameters
Rock Type
 com
R ,B
, MPa (  com
R ,B 0
) /  com
R ,B
EiR ,B 10 4 , MPa M iR ,B / Ei
R ,B
1 1 1
Shale 8…25 0.10…0.25 0.2…1.0 0.5…1.7
Sandy Shale 15…45 0.08…0.20 0.4…1.5 1.0…3.0
Sandy Shale,
25…55 0.05…0.15 0.8…2.0 2.0…5.0
Arenite
K1 – factor is determined by lines in the Figure 2 design modulus of deformation E1B and relative
depending on design strength to compressing R1B,2 of value (  com
B
1
)0 /  com
B
; and residual strength of the
1
the first and second rock joints of roof. K 2 – factor first rock joint. K 3 – factor is determined on the
is determined by lines in the Figure 3 depending on Table 2 depending on standard size of working as
256
well as a type of prop used. Reduced area of support S0
of working that is necessary for calculations is de- where S  – relation of chosen area of frame
S max
termined on the rule:
support to maximum possible design area of frame
S 1.35   support in mm2.
L  2 tg  S  , (7)
S2 4 
Figure 1. Lines to determine forcing Figure 2. Lines to determine of Figure 3. Lines to determine influ-
 y
U prop 
typ
of frame supports into sill influence factor K1 of design ence factor K 2 of the first rock
strenth effect to roof rocks forcing. joint mechanical data effect.
under standard conditions.
Table 2. Values of factor depending on standard drift size and a type of prop.
Type of Prop Area of drift size in clear up to support sit ( S clear , m2) and K 3 value
YMS-А3 7.9 9.2 11.2 13.8 15.5 18.3
K3 0.78 0.83 0.91 1.00 1.05 1.13
PYSEP 9.5 10.5 11.7 12.1 14.4 17.7
K3 0.96 1.01 1.08 1.10 1.21 1.35
(а) (b)
)
Figure 4. Actual state of working: (a) without support; (b) with supports.
257
3 RESULTS REFERENCES
Results of developed calculation procedure are con- Bondarenko, V.I., Kovalevskaya, I.A., Simanovich, G.А.
firmed by effect of field survey performed in mines & Fomichov, V.V. 2006. Computerized modeling of
of Western Donbass. stress strain behavior of fine-grained rock mass in the
vivinity of in-seam working. Dnipropetrovs’k: System
Thus, prediction estimate of in-seam working op-
technologies: 172.
erating condition for mining and geological setting Kovalevskaya, I.А., Mamaykin, А.R. & Fomichov, V.V.
used for estimates shows its acceptable state by the 2008. The study of influence of geomechanical parame-
factor of frame legs forcing into rock seams. With it, ters of coal block of soft rocks on sill heaving. Learned
demands concerning safe use of rail haulage, pas- Messenger of NMU: 32-35.
sages of workers and maintenance of ventilation run CD 12.01.01.201-98. 1998. Distribution, protection and
of area are satisfied. Besides calculation of value of maintenance of mine workings during mining of coal in
frame legs forcing, it is necessary to determine lat- mines. Methodological instructive regulations. Kiev:
UkrSRMI: 149.
eral reaction of support and a component under
estimation of loss of working cross-section if rock
heaving is available.
258

Volodymyr Bondarenko_ Roman Dychkovs'Kyy_ Iryna Kovalevs'Ka - New Techniques and Technologies in Mining _ Proceedings of the School of Underground Mining, Dnipropetrovsʹk_Yalta, Ukraine, 12-18 Septemb

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NEW TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MINING

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New Techniques and

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-09335-1 (eBook - PDF)

Efficiency of water supply regulation principles 1

Substantiation of design and installation technology of tubular rock bolts

Improvement of the methodology of managerial solutions substantiation

Review of support systems and methods for prediction of gateroads

Influence of advance rate of high-output longwalls on methane abundance

Strength calculations of block elements of room-and-pillar mining under

Dependence of effectiveness of development of mining operations on processibility

Safe electric power transmission for explosive underground mines 57

Analysis of hydrogeodynamics in a mining region during exploitation till closure

Bifurcational model of rock bottom heaving in mine workings 71

Calculation substantiation of the yield lock model of the polygonal yieldable

Design of mine workings network on the basis of their functional-structural 89

Conditions for safe underground gasification of lignite in Poland 97

Possibility of production complex of sufficient gasses in Ukraine 113

Researches of influence of depth of an in-seam working on displacement field

Research of influence of support resistance of the stope in the immediate roof

Improvement of mining methods with consolidating stowing of iron-ore deposits

New generation concrete – new approach in designing of underground structures 137

Effect of design of half-mask respirators on their key qualities 151

Modern rescue service as a factor providing a sense of staff security

Analytical determination of parameters of material and thermal balance and physical

Prediction of mining-induced seismic activity with the use of neural networks

The role of natural and technogenic components in failure of geomechanical

Technology of support of workings near to extraction chambers 193

Bolting for mining workings in clay rocks and ores 199

The first Ukrainian corporative university 203

Clean energy from hard coal 213

Features of selectivity process of borehole underground coal gasification 219

Definition of rating loading of multilayer winding of rubber-rope cable 223

Increase of stability of development openings using combined mining system

The concept of automation and monitoring of the production process

Methods of calculation of pressing value of frame support’s props 255

Efficiency of water supply regulation principles

G. Pivnyak, A. Beshta & A. Balakhontsev

1 INTRODUCTION specific performances of equipment installed and its

PUMP back Filter

Figure 1. Simplified water supply scheme.

The head pressure H C and flow consumption H C  H1 . Thus

2 REGULATION UNDER CONSTANT H  A  2  B   Q  C  Q2 , (4)

Q2 Q1 Formula (15) shows that speed regulation effi-

Figure 2. Regulation under constant pressure.

Table 1. Pumps characteristics.

Q-H curve equation

CSP* 38-44-220, 2950 rpm,

CSP 850-240-960, 1450 rpm,

0,04 3. When operating at Q-H curve shifts to lower

The analysis of this section shows the following. H

H *  H *0  R1*  Q* , (17) on C1* value. The B1* value represents stiffness of

From (16) and (19) we determine 0

These results can be transferred to the case when REFERENCES

Substantiation of design and installation technology

V. Bondarenko & I. Kovalevs’ka

1 INTRODUCTION mines of Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Norway and

The property of carbon steels to deform without

Y. Romaschin & I. Saleev

H *  H 0  R1  Q* , (17) on C1* value. The B1* value represents stiffness of

V rL2 ln 2 rL  2  0. (3)