Learning theory (education)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing,
or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004;
Ormrod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes
place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an
attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the
inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according
to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for
interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to
look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do
direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories
fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to
explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the
learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

Merriam and Caffarella (1991) highlight four approaches or orientations to learning:

Behaviouist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve
contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that
educators may take.[1]

Contents
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 1 Behaviorism
 2 Cognitivism
 3 Constructivism
 4 Informal and post-modern theories
 5 Transformative Learning Theory
 6 Other learning theories
 7 Criticism
 8 Other interests
 9 See also
 10 References
 11 Further reading
 12 External links

[edit] Behaviorism
Main article: Behaviorism
Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses
the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes
these investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence,
three basic assumptions are held to be true.[original research?] First, learning is manifested by a
change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of
contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement
(any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to
explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior
through conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning:

1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs
drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled.
It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food,
the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food
was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to
figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs
were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to
associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they
responded by drooling.

2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a

punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known
as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on
the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be
applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment
and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework,
behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.

Since behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators arrange the
environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral objectives,
competency -based education, and skill development and training.[1]

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement,

and direct instruction have emerged from this model.[2]

[edit] Cognitivism
Main article: Cognitivism (psychology)

The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt
psychologist[3] . He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to
explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated
events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled
cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the
memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge
plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-
based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For
example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into
short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the
cognitive theory[4] . The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of
control over the learning activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the
environment that behaviorists emphasize.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model[5] and Baddeley's working
memory model[6] were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,
researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.
These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.[7] Aspects of
cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence,
learning, and memory as related to age.

Educators employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as internal

mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception) where in
order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the educator structures
content of learning activities to focus on building intelligence and cognitive and meta-
cognitive development.[1]

[edit] Constructivism
Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

The learning theories of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and John Dewey serve as
the foundation of constructivist learning theory.[8] Constructivism views learning as a process
in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current
and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own
knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal
endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be
applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see
social constructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when
individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is
seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled
members".[9] Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery
learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a
student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.[10] The teacher acts as a
facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct
knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in
self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and
reflective practice and religious practice.