-------- -·----- -- -·

Powt
454 !Art. 8.61 r l:'.ltq
d itR harmonic content are not affected ''ir., ~
(') Output voltr,g~vcformlla~ through th e adjustment of de input vo =~Preciahly
i iuf hartc is contro c . get<, t . a~~ I
rov'crter oufpu ,J5!. ~ - t 1 however, suffers from the following disad • <~triv~ • C11
--- d f voltage con ro, vantag 11,~ b
Thjs metho O erters used for the control of inverter out ~· d
b f power conv . t 1 . Put Volt ~lfl.e:
. ft The num er o_ 7 More power-handling s ages resu t m ...rriore los . age\ IV
1'rom two to three, ~ig. 8·2 · ~ r,:<l~:i~ I
. f the entire scheme. . . . . _ ~½i
efficiency O . • . le content of de voltage input to the inverter fi ~¢
_W) For reducing thehn pps shown in Fig. 8.27. Fi] ter cir cuit increases the' ilter <:i1cu· f
'- . _11 types of sc E:me d k th t . ~ t . w,.; it , r
required u: 'l1 . d ces effici ency an ma es e rans1ent resnonse -i~Eht 1
. d t the same time re u . . ~~ s u~sh ar,,
size an a . . d reased the commutating capacitor volbae also d tlli5
(iii ) AB the dc~ nput is ec __:, . V ~ ecreases. J~f
a t f educing the circuit turn-off time
This has the euec o r
(t
= C 1 ) for the SCR fi
or a con
¼·
!3, co
~ ~ r a large variation of output voltage for a constant~ ~ fif
load current. _Therte orleta'g~ is not conducive. This difficulty can, however be ovoa current f
trol ofac mpu VO . . b ' er-corn b
con dd rce for charging the commutatmg capacitor, ut this makes th e Y:
separate fixe c sou e sch~
costly and complicated. ~
8.5.3. Internal Control of Inverter p
Output voltage from an inverter can also b_e adju_st~d by exercisi_ng a control within ~}(
. t ·tself The most efficient method of domg this 1s by pulse-width modulatio U,i J, ,
invcr er 1 • . • fl . h t fi ll n contrr
used within an inverter. This is ruscussed bne Y m w a o ows : ~
____...,,.pulse width modulation control. In this method, a fixed de input voltage is gi
the inverter and a controlled a~ o~tput voltage is obtained by adjusting _the on and off
qitbe inverter components. Thls 1s the_most popula~ method of controllmg~
p:~
01~"1 .r
and this method is termed as pulse-width modulatwn (PWM) control.
\1
The advantages possessed by PWM technique are as under :
(i ) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any additioru. ~p
components.
(ii ) With this method, lower order harmonics can be eliminated or minimised along Y.l~
its output voltage control. As higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filterin; f,
requirements are minimised. f,q (i
The main disadvantage of tliis method is that th e SCRs are expensive..as...th~ ~st pos~
low turn-on and turn-ofLtime,s.
PWM inverters are quite popular in industrial applications, these are therefore disc~
in detail in the next section.

8.6. PULSE-WIDTH MODULATED INVERTERS

PWM in~erters are gradually t aking over other types of inverters in industrial applications
~WM techniques are characterised by constant amplitude- pulses. The width o_Dnese pulses
1s• howcve~, modulated to obtain inverter output ·,,oltage tontrol and to reduce its harrnQll 1
content. Different PWM techniques are as under :
'-- (al Single-p
. . ulse mod u1at·10n .
---r6) 'Multiple-pulse modulat10n
<c) Sinusoidal-pulse modulation.
In PWM inverters d · es lislt'3
abo\re differ f h • rce com utation is essential. The three PWM techruQU Thu.~
choite of a P;:t:~~cr ; ~ m t ~ armomc content in their respective outpu~ voltat!:·in the
inverter output voltage. technique depends upon the permissible harmonic con
,........,. (Art. Khl ~5"
IP"
~~
. PWM . . . .
--
._;a] applications, ~ve rter is s upplied from a diode bn d r1r- n •<·t1 1·1 . . l .
. dusi.,• . tr ,tn< "'1
111 in . verter topoIogy remain s, th e same a s in
. F"' . ,.,
ig. 8 .2 <a> for a s in I h
The in h • rt B . · g e-p ust• I1I vt•rt1 ·r
LC filte\ 8.19 for a three-p ase inve er. ut now the dev1c_e s are switch(•d on a nd off ~H:v1·m l
arid in ~o ·. each half cycle to control the output voltage which has low h a rmoni c rnntl'n l
- w1 t1UD b · . . I f PWM ·
;i!lle:i e folloYling lines, the as1c pnnc~p .es o techrnques for s ing lc-phatw in vr rt ,• rs an·
In th d and then the methods of obtammg such output voltages a re conside red .
st
iJlu ;.~ Single-pulse Mod~lation . _--. __ .
8 output voltage fro~ single-phase fu!l-bndge mve~ is shown in Fig 8 28 (a ) Wlw 11
. f~~·eform is modulated, tbe outp~t voltage ts dfthc form shown in Fig. 8.28 ( b ). It con s ist ~
tbJS\\a Ofwi·dth 2d located s~metncally about n/ 2 and anoth er pulse locat<'d symm Ptri ca lly
0fa.P
0 Jse 1 · from Oto n ; i.e
·d t h 2d vanes · . O < '2d < n. The output voltai~c•
2 The range ofpu s e Wl
~~:ied b~ ying th~ pulse-width 2d. This shape of the output voltage wave> shown i11
1~con~ro (b) is called quasi-square _wave.
fi" 8-28 analysis
0
·
- •
. 8 .28 (b.) 1s
of F 1g. . as un d er :
Founer 2 rn/2 + d) 4V [ l
bn = Tt (rc/ 2 -
d Vs sin noot · d (rot)'= -nn" sin rm
2 sin nd J ... (8 .fJ) J
Positive and nega~ive half 9'cles o~ v~ ~n Fig. 8 .28 (b) arc _symmetrical abou t n/ 2 and
_ 2~ spectively. In addition, thes e half cycles are also identical. As u result, coe ffi cic·nt
~ ::0. Thus the waveform of Fig. 8 .28 ( b ) can be described by ! ourier Serie~ as
4 Vs . ,, n . d .
uo = I - - sm - smn smnwt
nn 2
... (8.62)
n = l , 3. 5
4
or [sm
· d sm
· wt - I sm
v0 = · 3 wt+ 1 sm
· 3 d smVs
~ . 5 wt...... I .. .(8 .6.'1 >
. 5 d· sm
3 5
When pulse width 2d is equal to its maximum value of 7t r a dians , then th e fund a menta l
component of output voltage, from Eq . (8.63), has a peak value of -- -
4 vs
VOlm =----;- ...(8 .64)

For pulse width other than 2 d = 1t ,!'.adians, the peak value of fundam ental component, from
4
Eq.(8.63), is Vs sin d . ,, <..Y ,
7t

I. 0
Yo

Vs
t 0.75
TT 2TT Vonm
wt Vo!m
0.50
- Vs
Yo I :3:'
7T (a) I ..,'
vs ... ..2 +di I
I 0.25 -s :'
I
2d
3'1'1' 2TT 7
.,.,.'2 1T
(, 7T 2d
wt
(2 -d) 45• 90 • 180"
-Vs
Pulse width ( 2d) in degrees -

Fig 8 28 (b) (~) · SPI\1

· · · (a), (b) Single-pulse modulation (SPM ) (c) Harmomc content m ·
 '
-----
Power Elect
(Arc. K,hl - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - . . . : ~
21t
. rt l e width is made equal to 2d = - , Eq. (8.62 J ~-
f
I I 11d ,,. 111 1Hh· l'ttLnll to n or d ; -n or• pu s n S,u,w.,o
rt.er output voltage For example, for eli.rn
lilt 11 th IHtrnwn,e 1:; l' hmmatt•d from t h l' mve Utatu1g
'J· ' t be enual to Zn = 1200.
11nl h :1 r111on1 r , pult-P w1dt h o f UJ mus "1 3
'
T ht· pt•nk vu lul' of 11th harmonic, from Eq. (8.62), is

u
4
=-
v• sin
. nd
onm nn (8 651

u unm = sin nd
From Jt: qK (8 64 ) tmd (8 .65 ), .. '8.661
\ uoim n ~

In Eq (~ 66), note that u01m is the peak val~ of tJle fundamental component of squarE-
·olt n~l' wavefrom of width '1i1 = n.~The r a"°tio as given by E~. (8.66 ) is plott~ in Fig_. 8.28 {cJ for
: = 1 (plot of sin d). ,. = 3 (plot of sin 3d/ 3), n = 5, 7 for different pulse widths. It u; sef:n from
hl'Sl' r urvl's thnt wtwn fundamental component is reduced to 0.5 for 2d = 60°, the amplitudE- of
:lunl hnrnwn,r it- ~ sin 90 = 0.33. When fundam ental component is reduced to about 0.143, all
:tw thn•e ha rmonics (3 , 5, 7 ) become almost comparable to the fundamental This shows that in
:his rm·thod of volt uge control, a great deal of harmonic content is introduced in the output
,olt ngt' , pnrticulnrly nt low output voltage leve!~- _;, ':-v,
Ttw rms vnlue of output voltag~, from Fig. 8.28 (b), is r ./ '
- (0. 2d]l/2 2d 1/2 ..J,. -j
VM = • =v, [.-] \,- .1 8 6i

8.6.2. Multiple.pulse Modulation ~ ~ JCV cl 1 ,.,y.,.--c. t:

Thi s met hod of pul se modulation is an.J, extension of sing le-pul se modulatiop In
n~ulti~l.e-pulse modulatio~ (MPM( severa.l equidistant pulses !)er hal! cycle are ~ For
sun phc1ty, the effect of us mg two symmetrically spaced pulses per half cycle, Ffg. 8.29 (a), is
investigated h er e. In this figure, pulse width is taken half of that in Fig. 8.28 (b), but their
amplitudes are the same. This means that rms values of pulses in Figs . 8 28 (b) and 8.29 (al arr
equal to that given in Eq. (8.67). For the waveform of Fig. 8.29 (a ), Fourier constants are a~
under : ,. ~

bn =;2 Jl0t u0 sin nwt · d(wt )

z J(y ♦ dl 2J
=; 11
_d
121
V , · sin nwt d(wt ) . 2

The use of factor 2 in the above expression accounts for the two pulses from 0 t{) rt in fig
8.29 (a )
(.!.=M)
Vo Vo N+1
)'+11 \-r-2:-1
Vs ---- - - - v,
d
311/2 wt e, 2~ e,
.,, 2,r
d
- Vs
.., --;
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.29. Symmetrical two-pulse modulation pertaining to MPM.
 l A rt. ~tf\J -'57

b = 4- \T' cos l 11 wt ly- d-2 = - .• sm

8\' . . 11({
ny sm -- . .tB t,~ )
n ll 1J y • d .!
1l7t 2
. Fig 8.28 tb ), an = 0 in Fig. 8.29 (a) also.
l~ 111 ' -
Therefore, the waveform of Fig. 8 .29 (o) can bl' described by Fourit'r st'rit's ns
,.,, 8 \Ts . . nd .
, - - sm nysm - sm nrnt
vo = ,t.,,,, nn 2
I 11 :: 1. 3. 5

ur
l 8 Vs [ .
Vo= -
n
. d . 1 . . 3d .
2
1
,l

The amplitude of the nth harmonic of the two-pulse wavef~rm of Fig. 8 .29
Sc/
sm Y sin 2 s in mt+ 3 sm 3 Y · sm - sm 3 ml+ ;c sin 5y sin -:; sin 5hll + ...
..,
]

(a ).
... (~ . 7 0)
from Eq.
\8.69), is
8 Vs . . 11d
v = - - smny - sm - - ... (8.71 )
" mt 2
Eq. (8.71) shows that magnitude of vn depends upon y and d . This l'Xpression also shows
2
that when y = 7tn or d = n7t, nth
_ harmonic can
·- . be eliminated from ~e output voltage. But this
has the effect of reducing the fundamental component of output voltage. For example, take
pulse width 2d = 72° for single-pulse modulation of Fig. 8.28 (b). Then, from Eq. (8.65), the pl'ak
value of fundamental voltage component is

v 01 m
4 vs
= - n- sin 36° = 0.7484 Vs .
For two-pulse modulation and pulse width d = 36°, yin Fig. 8.29 (a), is

1,,/''_ d'
7
~ ,...
Y= 18°a- 72 + 7 2 = 54,

7t - '2d
4
2d 1t - 2d d
or in general. d:l " y- +- - +-
v' J - N +1 2N- N + 1 N
Eq. (8.72) is valid in case pulses of equal width are symmetrically spacer\. Here N is the
·-
number of pulses per half cycle.
Eq. (8.72) can also be obtained by referring to Fig. 8.29 (b). For N pulses per half cycle,
there are (N + 1) intervening equidistant spaces, each of width 8 1 as shown in Fig. 8.29 (b ).
Note that for these equidistant spaces, v 0 = 0. Total width of these (N + 1) equidistant spaces
::: (N + 1) 81 = (7t - width of N pulses)= (n - 2d) . ...,_
or '2d
7t -
:I 01 = N + 1 ~ "'! '~

Fig. 8.29 (b) shows that 92 = half of the pulse width = t- This figure also reveals that

y= 81 + 82
or 2d d 7t -
... (8 .72)
p y=N+l+N
eak value of fundamental voltage component, from Eq. (8.71), is

u 01 m =
8
sin 54 sin 18° = 0 .637 :s Vs.
 Power El "'
~-'5~8!___l(A~rt:_·!8-~6l_J_________________~ - - - - - ~
cntal component of output voltage is lower (0_637
It is seen from above that funda~ . 1, dulation (0.7484 V )t'lt can b ·h v. )fcir
. h ·t . for smgle-pu se mo h ·---.. es ow
two-pulse modulatwn t an i is l't d , oflower order harmo-·:-· - _n that
.. h If cycle the amp l u es . . mes are r d
for more number of pu Ises per a ', - d significantly But this 1s no d~~ Uced
but:°t hosc of some higfier harmonics are mcrea_se · v;intage aa
higher order harmonics can be filtered out easily. ·.
, ,h wn in Fig. 8.29 (a) can be generated by c
The symmetrical modi ulated wav~ so; frequ ency w with a triangular carrier w:inparing
an adjustable square vo tage wave ,. . . . Ve V (Jf 1
. F' 8 30 (b) This comparison 1s done m a comp~rator Fig 8 30
frequency lt>r as shown m ig. . . . I b t . F ' 8 30 ( b , . . (uJ
In Fig. 8.29 (a), there are only two pulses per half-eye e u m ig. . ), there are four
Carrier signal Ve.freq we
Triangular Reference signal Vr
wave 1+-..\-H-1--t-+-~ freq. W '
I 17 11/tc r
I
wt
Trigger Trigger x~ x ~ : r- T "1 ;
pulse 1T I I I I I C :
Comparator _.,.. , I

generator pulses to 4 I : :
SCRs I •
:
I
I
• I' • I
'I
(a)
•
. . 1 . : ,..I: .
I
I I
I

I ,
I I
f
I
I
I
I
I

·. -2f . . ..
I I
I I
I
Square I • I I

-
I

- - .
I

wave Vs -
I
I
I

I
I

I .. .
I
I
I
I

:
I

I
I
'
I
I
I
I

. '
I I
I I
I
'I I
I I
I
I ! I
I
; ;2,r
I
'IT I I
I
wt-
2d/Ni/f- I. :' :
I
.!.. ~
I

2f
.... - -.
I

1
-
- I

''

(c) (b)
Fig. 8.30. (a ) Pertaining to multiple-pulse modulation (MPM) (b) Output voltage waveform
with MPM (c) Ve and V, shown on a larger scale.
pulses per half cycle. The triggering pulses for thyristors are generated at the points of
intersection of the carrier and reference signal waves. The firing pulses so generated tum-on
the SCRs so that output voltage v0 is available during the interval triangular voltage wave
exceeds the square modulating wave shown in Fig. 8.30 (b ). In this figure, f, and fare the
frequencies in Hz for the carrier signal and reference signal respectively. This figure re·,eals
1 7t I 4 7t h ber of
that r = and = 1t and the number of trigger pulses is - x - = 4. In general, t e num
le 4 21 1t 1
pulses generatt d per half cycle can be determined from Fig. 8.30 (b) as under :

For triangular carrier wave, pulse width=.! .

fc
For square reference wave, width of half-cycle = l. .
2(
Number of pu)ses per ha)f-cycle,
N = Number of hill-tops per half-cycle,
N = Length of half-cycle of square reference \~
Width of one cycle of triangular carrier wave
 I / 'J. / /, ,,,,
N - - - I I! I ~,
II /, ~~/ ~ 1,,

or
h•lt Nin Eq (H 7:l, 11111 111- 111 1 1111 l 11 11iµ,, ,r 'l 'lui ,,,il ttt,
11111µ,h l ,,I 1111 , , 1'11 ·1, ,, , ,. ,, ,
Nott' t ' ~/

I
JO
'
()llu Ia

t}lr range
ung, Rig

N
O <'.
. ,nu l can tH~n,11t.n,ll11tl wit h111 l.tw r11111~1, o ..

. .
V, .. V,, 11 ;,d 1,,,11:i, 1 wJdl J, ·' .1111 1t:d 11 ,

,y_ <'. ~ uy 11dj,1t1 tlflf.{ lh 11 • 1111 v. 11 1t.11d,, V, ,,, 1.1111 rnf1 1ttHll'I : li'flllll/ 1 'I/IP/ti
'Jj:]! N on tht• moHHllpt.HHI ,,f 111111u: 1111H v11ll.1tg, , 11 ;s 1, ,,i,, gln 1,uJ ,-. 1: 1ti1,du l1iu,,,
/I

' J'J ,1 ,,ul~,-

1 1

,;dt.h •;,g _ (b), pulHe width '1AI I N 111 g1v,1n by

8 30
ln ~ = ( ~ _ i, j
al expression for ltw pul H,: wadt.h c 1111 IH~ ,,t,1.1,1,,,:d by t1kc-t.d,11,v. U,,: ,,, iii 1 1, it• ,,t
l. gener . • ,
· . al c,n a targt.~r f!ca 1e Uli Ila 1•1v. H.,HJ ( l' J Fn,111 U1i h fiV,tiH·, ptJ h:,i vndt.1 1, 111 v,1·11<tt » I, u,
cJITler sign
g,ven by

defined in Fig . 8 .30 (c ), iii

~=(i-~J ( i~ ' /1 )

.-ht-re x' V V
r
--- C

Tt l 2N
- x
7t v,
Cf X = 2N Vr.
f rom Eq. <8 74 ), the pulse width iH

r
r
~=(~-~ ~J+ -~J~
In ~1P!,1 method, lower ordE=r h armonicH can tm climin:1t,.1 :d by ~ J,ff1J>'~, dv,iJ;,~ ,,t ui ;,rid f
B:: ili£: rms voltage in Figs. 8 .28 U-J 8 .30 iR tht H~ rw:, i.e.

vr,r = v. [-;-
2d]l/2
:bis means that if lower urdf!r harmnoi cH ar,: climinau:.d, th,: m ;,w,nit1J1fo ,,f h,v,.t,,!r ,,,dv.r
.r.a.~ r;ri.1cs would go up. But this is not a diaadvantai{f:, ,1tt hif,{h,~r <JrrJ,~r harm1m1..1; ~ ,.~n t~
E:tr-c-1 out by th£:~ of filters at the output terminal H (Jf th,: inv 1:rt..1:rH
f a.R,:J. SinWJ-Oidal-puJse Modulation <SPWMJ
lr. this mHhvd rJ f m odulation , seve r a l pulRf!R p (;r half cycl,~ ar6! •J~ :tJ ;,~ Jf1 th,; r;;J~: r,f
:-j..c~J~ modulation r ~PM ). 1; MPM, t_b,.; puJJK; width •~ ,;,JIJ~I t,,r ;,.II th,_; I/1...Jtf';"\ ~ ,;t ir
-?l,.,f ¼€= pul.SE: wid th is a i:;in u.soidal functi<Jn ,,f
the a n1-.:u l:,r fh1'it,,,fl ;1f tf,,; J,ufcv.: .,, ,J eye~
• 1&.r.n Ul Pig. ij. 3 1.
,.,

;.;:•:4. -
. ' ',: realizing SPWM, a high-frequency triangula r ca rrie r WtJ.V': tJ,_ i;; t<Frnpar4'd Wlth ;,,
- ---
- - -
reft::r~net wa·~e ur of the des ired frequency, Th!; in...U--ri;E;(:tifJn ,,f u'- and u, wavct~
__;;:;- . .. - --
~~--: the .swi~hing i.rurt.ant.s and ClJmmuta tic,n {J f [hi: rt}()(~UJ~wd ,,u~ ln Fig. fi..,3 1. c b Y _

""
-~
- ~ <tf tnanguJar carrjer ..w..aw: and V-4._that
,- ~
t ...... ~/! : "'=r
.
-
c,f t~lk rd1:r 1::ru&: , ,,r
•
and r<:fo re nce wavts arc mi~esJ_.in._i com_pa rati,r
m,Jdu.J.atuut
_;:- · -.q
, JHiP>ol
aJt 111
.
ij 4'J ' a > WhP.o
fl•K
~ '•a'I': ha:, magn1tudf: higher th ;_m th,: t ria ngu la r t ht:- compar ator "Ut.f)UJ. IJI
------- w;,,v,:,
. -
460 [Art. 8.6]

Reference wave, freq . f

Carrier wave, freq. fc

cut
1T
21"

(a)

Carrier wave . freq. fc

Referen ce wave , freq . f

wt
'TT 27T

(b)
Fig. 8.31. Output voltage waveforms with sinusoidal pulse modulation.
high, otherwise it is low. The comparator output is processed in a trigger pulse genel]itor in
such a manner that the output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse wi_dth in agreement v.ith
the comparator output pulse widt~. £~, - -;3£r
When t_:iangular cartier wave has its peak coin£_ident with zero of the reference sinusoid,
fc ~~ · Jar
there are N = pulses per half cycle; Fig. 8 .31 (a) ~as five pulses. In case zero oqhe tnangu
21
wave coincides with zero of the reference sinusoid, there are (N - pulses per half cycle ; Fig

l
1)

8 .3 I (b) has (;,- I i.e. !our, pulses per half cycle.

The ratio of V/Vc is called the modulation index (MI) and it controls the harmoni~n~
- f t t voltage13
-
of -the output
• -
vo l tage waveform. The magnitude of fundamental
~2=:...:.=:=.=:...=:..:..==
component _E._..- - o- o_u pu_
:.:=:.::..=.::==:=....::.=.::.::::J · ontro']Jed
15
proport1.9n ~ to ~I, but MI can never fie more than unity. Thus the output voltage c
by varying MI. . - the
Harmonic analysis of the output modulated voltage wave reveals that SPWM has
folJowing important features : iated
l ,nt> are as~
.__--tl ) For MI less than OQ.e, l~rgest harmonic amplitudes in the output vo t a ~ e. TnUS·
with harmonics of or@r fc l f ± 1 or 2N ± 1, where N is the number of pulses per h~frequencY
..--increasing the num b er of P ul ses per half cycle,
by - the order of d om_Etan · t harmonic
 ,trcrrs (ArL 8.6 ) 461
11
~
be raised, which can th~n ~ filte~d out easily. In Fig. 8 .31 (a ), N = 5 , therefore harmonics
,g11 rder 9 and 11 become s •~ificant in the output voltage. It may be noted that the high ~t
of O 0 f significant harmonic of a modulated voltage wave is centred around the carrier
order cy , !in Fig. 8.31 (a), fc = 10].
{re<tuen Jc
It is observed fro°:1 above that as N is increased, the order of significant harmonic increases
d the filtering requirements are accordingly minimised. But higher value of N entails higher
an ·tching frequency of thyristors. This amounts to more switching losses and therefore an
s\\'l aired inverter efficiency. Thus a compromise between the filtering requirem ents and
:~er efficiency should be made.
~ F_!!!_M_l gre~ter than _one, lower order har~ onics appear, since for MI> 1, pulse wi~)s
no longer a smus01dal function 9f tpe angular position of the pulse.
r- -
In addition to the three PWM techniques discussed above, th,ere is another PWM technigue
called multi le- ulse modulation with selective reduction <MPMSR). In this technique, the
oumber of M pulse positions in each quarter eye e ate so selected as to reduce or eliminate M
hartDOnics from the output voltage waveform (61. This PWM technique will, however, not be
discussed here.
8.6.4. Realization of PWM in Single-phase Bridge Inverters
The output voltage waveforms shown in Figs. 8.28 to 8.31 reveal that output voltage from
ill inverter is V 8 , zero or - V,. Such waveforms can be realized in single-phase inverters as

!lllder :
(a) Single-phase full-bridge inverter. In the inverter of Fig. 8.2 (a ), when+ Vs is to be
ibtained in the positive half cycle, thyristors Tl, T2 are turned on. For obtaining - V 5 in the
1egative half cycle, thyristors T3, T4 should be turned on. For zero output voltage, i.e. if the load
s to be short-circ, "l-ien Tl, D3 or T3, DI from positive group ; or T4, D2 or T2, D4 from
1egative group sJ uct depending upon the direction of load current. This means that
or obtaining ze ltage at the end of each pulse, one of the two conducting SCRs
hould only be U nder this strategy, only one thyristor need be turned on for
~taining the n ~ - pulse. Switching on and commutation of thyristors should be so
trranged as to yristors symmetrically. Let us illustrate this with an example.
Suppose ou of pulse wi \ radians is to be obtained in each half cycle. This
,uJsP width j , ly placed '\11 Fig. 8 .32. The waveform of load CUFrent io is

F G
21T w

wt
'l
.. :T3,01:,--T3, T4 ~T'4,02iT~
I ' I I I

2,DlcT4p2:--- T3,T4 ;13.01 :T1.()3L.-

/ ponents for single-phase bridge inverter of Fig. 8.2 (aJ.

 ... ~, ,.,,, _11A1tMON 1cl-l IN 'I' I11•:
II, 7, 111-:uuc·r,&WW.,IM- ~ i ,I1NV J,:tt'l'lo:lt
,nuy ullow u hurnwulc f!(,ot,._,ut, r r1
II uonA w,1 C1 . .• II "%" j
I indutttrlf,al opP en lnvc•rtA)fH ttro uttoo . Ac-tuu y, UuJ ll• VJJr'lt! ' I~
'f'horo oro Movor~:ont of input vottogo whhot1l1 t "/tht,tn ()YA, of ll" fund1t1111,mt.al ~"flJ>11t '''-'lt,rlt
1
vo hormonic conton t ,nuch
f1Jnd11111onlul coinpo U "'
< nnblo ..+ ) ao<J la, u, lm1'-rt
lirnit of, fY1o, on,., l(l(h, f I,,
111:r,t
v,1 tol{ll muy II I to t to o roos J .,. " Ille
I
o1rdur to brh1K t.hl•
' harmonic con ~If ti ' Inverter output voltauu contulrrn fil v.1, ''"'I "
lwtwoon tho loud ond invortor. I '1 w-Hi:,W mu,r. Jfor tbu aiwnuatH,r1
educed by a () , rrt._ k lf ft l
,,r
I,w, fre IH:t11,
ljlrtrt,,
hnrmonicH, thoHO con b-e r 'ntH incr,,a,wH. i ut H rn u on j (j 1 ter clrr;ult '
th izo of filter compon , f "' 1 - r.r,~u/
hurmonicR, however, e H - . I< n tho traflHi onl r eKpontW o t,w MYH A,m t,C;(;<Jth ~li •lu , 1,
bulky nncl woighty ond in addtl > '. frc rn th~ invortor output voltage tthoulrJ bu rbdt gg tr, ar,rl
°
. HIH>WH ti111 t I wor <Jrdcr hurmon1CH
'J"l w• S b > t to thltt high frequon c.;y (;(lrtapunen~ f - 11·1:a 1'1 'f'l
somo moom1 othor than tho filter. u lscqu~n. I0 w-co~t f1ltor Th~ object fJf UaiH R ;11rta tlue
voltogo cnn oa•ilY ho attenuated by a ow-•izo, , oc 11n, "~
•tudy tho•c method• of reducing low-order harmonics from tho output voltage ,,f "" l1oVon,,
8.7.J. Harmonic Reduction by PWM
It hol'I olready been diecuesed that when there arc sovcral puhwH JJHr half' cyclu, lr,w(jr-i,rdtr
harmonics aro eliminated . Fig. 8.34 lllustrateH output voltag.-! wavuforrn tl1E1t can be r,bt1uncd
from a single-phase full -bridge inve rter. This waveform can alsu bu obtained f'r om •
singlo-phnso half-bridge inverter, but then the amplitudt, of voltage wave w0uld t,,, V/ ~ Tilt 111

waveform of Fig. 8.34 needs ten commutationH per cycle (a 360')) jnat<,ad of twc, mar1 1th. ~I
unmodulated wave. The voltage waveform of Fig. 8 .34 iH Hymmotrical t1bout 7t as w1ifl &1 'v.;rl'i
Thi: a
rt/ 2. fun~~I
10
rtduct
1 2 3 7 8 9 I
hbl tt1
In thfi I

... 2 .,., 3Tr/2 wt

ex. 1 (Ju
(hl II n,
a2_J ,1 that

. Fig. 8.34 . Harmonic red uct'10n by PWM in aingle-pha,w invt1rter. h,nc,,

frn1
As this voltage waveform h 9

~ v, {' sin :u~::rv:i:~:c:~~::r~z ~~f:nI

o\ltp1a
b. = n~ sin n~ d (oot1]
n, ,
· 4V 1 [J.,'
= -~• 2 cos na~ + 2 cos n<¼}
 ,,,,,--
Jn l'erte rs {Art. 8.7J 465

If third and fifth harmonics are to be eliminated, then from Eq. (8 .76),
4 VN[ 1 - 2 coi; 3 a 1 + 2 cos 3
b3 = - 7t 3
a.]
2 -0
-

b = 4 V11 [ 1 - 2 cos 5a 1 + 2 cos 5(¼]-

and s 1t 5 -0
or 1- 2 3a 1 + 2 COS 3(¼ = 0
COS

and 1 - 2 cos 5a 1 + 2 cos 5(¼ = o

The above two. s.imultaneous equations can be solved numerically to calculate a 1 and C¼
under the condition th at O < a1 < 900 and a1 < <¼ < 90°. This gives a 1 = 23.62° and
I o2 = 33.304°.
With these values of 0 1, <¼, the amplitudes of 7th, 9th and 11th harmonics, from Eq. (8.76),
are as under :
4Vs I
b7 = 71t [ 1 - 2 cos 7 x 23.62 + 2 cos 7 x 33 .304) = 0.31555 vs
4V,
b9 = 9n- [1 - 2 cos 9 x 23.62 + 2 cos 9 x 33.304) = 0.5202 vs
4Vs
and b11 = ll7t [1 - 2 cos 11 x 23.62 + 2 cos 11 x 33.304) = 0.3867 v,

The amplitude of the fundamental component for these values of a 1 and C¼ is

4V, •
b• = r1 - 2 cos 23.62 + 2 cos 33.3041 = 1.0684 vs
7
The amplitude of the fundamental component of unmodulated output voltage wave is
4V5
b1 n = -
7t
= 1.27324 Vs
In terms of the fundamental component of unmodulated voltage wave, the amplitude of
.i 7th, 9th and 11th harmonics are respectively 24.78% (= 0.31555 x 100/ 1.27324), 40.86% and
30.37% but third and fifth harmonics are eliminated from the inverter output voltage wave.
The amplitude of the fundamental voltage is 83.91 % or 0.8391 times the amplitude of
fundamental component of unmodulated voltage wave. Thus, with this method of harmonic
reduction, inverter is derated by (100-83.91) 16.09%. Another disadvantage of this method is
~at there are additional eight commutations per cycle and this leads to more switching losses
m the thyristors.
8.7.2. Harmonic Reduction by Transformer Connections
Output voltage from two or more inverters can be combined by means of transformers to
~et a net output voltage with reduced harmonic content. The essential condition of this scheme
15 that the output voltage waveforms from the inverters must be similar but phase-shifted

from each other. Fig. 8.35 (a) illustrates two transformers in series. Their output voltag~,
Uo1 from inverter 1 and u from inverter 2, are shown in Fig. 8.34 (b ). Here v02 waveform~ s
02
taken to have a phase shift of n/3 radians with respect to u01 waveform as shown. The resultant
i output voltage Vo is obtained by adding the vertical ordinates of Vo1 and Vo2 It is seen that Vo

hai; an amplitude of 2 v from 7t to TC

4n to 2n and so on. Note that shape of the output voltage
Wave u .18
s 3 ' 3
0 a quasi-square wave .
 [Art. 8.7) p
466 o,ver l
"01
'~ci t 1i~
l:
Vs
Tr

1:1 -Vs
"02
Vs
Inverter
I t"•' 'TT
3
L t -Vs
DC ,. "o
0
D
I Vo I
Input I

-t2Vs
I
I
I 4fr
lnvertu
II l"•2 -~
TT : Tr
'
2TT
3
lllt
1:1 -2Vs
~) . ~)
F. r.:
8 3 ;J . (a) Harmonic reduction by transformer connections (b) Elimination 0 f .
ig. · and other triplen harmonics. third

The Fourier analysis of waveforms Voi and Vo2 gives

4V. [ sin wt+ 1 sin

voi = ~ • 3 wt+ 1 sin
• 5 , .vl
u.,c. + 1 sin
• 7 wt+ ... ]
3 5 7

v 02 = 4Vs [ sin
7
. ( wt - 1t)
3 3
· 3 ( wt - 1t) + l sin
+ 1 sin
3 5
· 5 ( wt - rt)
3
)
+7 . 7 (wt - J!l+ .
1 sm
3
The resultant voltage v 0 is = v01 + v 02

= :•
4
~ [ sin ( oot - ; )+ ! sin ( 5oot + ; ) + ; sin ( 7 OX - ~)+ ] .18.0
The expression for resultant voltage v 0 as given above can be obtained from u01 and L~
analytically or graphically. The summation by graphical method is carried out as under :
An exam ination of the expressions for v 01 and v 02 reveals that for the fundamental
frequency ; V 02 lags VO1 by 60°, this is shown in Fig. 8 .36 (a). The resultant ofV01 and Vo-imust
be -13 times V Oi (or V O2) and at the same time, the resultant lags VO1 by 30°. Net valueii
fundamental frequency voltage must, therefore, be associated with -13 sin (wt - 1t/ 6). ForthirO
Vol
Vo

Vo2 Vo1
• ••
Vo1
Freq . <.o Freq. 3w Freq. 5w Fre~- ?w
. (a) . . (b) (c) ~{c -voltages.
Fig . 8.36 . Pertammg to the summation of first ) third I fifth and seventh harmo
 I :\n . X.7 j .tf,7
- I HiO' Fig . H.:!h (h) , tlwir n· s ult. ;1111. i :-. 1111 r, -1, ,r,• .
Id
. V1, 1
1:1i', H
iY ) . l'it.•(• I'• 1g H.:lf i ,,. J . ll t-i r,, 11 I z,. -r, , l·,ir f lf 1li
,,ocr' or V O:L I t,: :l(1.h V (JI I >y f()··
"' Vot V by ·' ~ Lint t h ·,
oJljC, l:-i~li ol V l,y :W ·. Thu :; , the.· n• 1·HJ ILi111 CJf f iftl1 li:i , llllilli c \ r . . .. , 1t11 1v --
Vo'/. .-,d~ 111 ,. . . dt.q1,- 1,11, ~t I11
~/ 011 1c, d 1t 1'- · >I -t ,t / GJ S1rn1 1ar 1Y, n·s u 1t.11nt ,,f s1:ven t1 1 11. irlliuni c v, . ·
►I
, r \ 1,t
,, : 111 11 :-;1n ( <1 . ,,.
t1, ,. . < ., _ rc / f,) , 1 1g . ., , 8 '}(j ,J J
.
ilt.,g,-
·
11, 11:- t 111 •
• 'J
I I It'
d wt 'J :"'·111 o,, J. d .I l . I
·..,.:13 d \,,ith \ • . (8 77 J tha t t 1lf allu ol ll'r tnp <' 11 harm11n11 =-- :,r,· , ·li 111rn ·1t , 1I
y· tt
, 1J
J•q
fr• Jlfl '
j
' m1>lit1H (' ()
t· t·unu. 1 ~Hl1 t•11la I Cl 1l11fHIII C. 1ll or( ' I · tr, ,11 1 1,,. I
y;'• cell . Tht· .J ,, :-.
ll ,-~1t,1~ 1.w;1v t 4V
\,' '
t ,·v ,J 1,,, = ..s
-~d
J'r
n

t vollag C8 L'• r, 1• t ·''-., frn rn 111v1 · r ll' t s I and ~ lt ;1s 1u, Jik.ts«·
·
ti li,· f·t , lll <·n :,mp 11tu c,,, ,,j
•
.. eoutPUI voltag~... -c:1vt· 1:-; 8 \ '_/ re . Tl11 :-. s l11JW :-i tha~ with ph:l:-i<· st11 ft th t·,,I m p IJl tj l Il ,, f t,~u.,
1ric•P Y• •

I . 1,J1:1f11C,nt:l 4V ,- 7t
'•)
'v.) . l . .
j 1d ·s -- f!. \3 >' - =-= - :l ltni PS l l l! aniplttude: ( Jf fundam e ntal volta"t• w it} nr
, "olta~e 1. rc 8 V,, M . 1 i
t 11
3Jllen '
::.d . h this method of harmonic r eduction , thl·rt! i:-; thus ; 1 dt:rating of

it#
. ,hift. Wit
~I-
4_ V.1 . \~3 /
rc
rt
,

l 00 -= l
l ✓3 1 I 00 = l.3. 4 (/,
.
- - -2
8V I J ~
)
7t

tput powe r so far a8 fundam e ntal component is conct:rn ed Th e: d c·grc:c· of

r net uu . l l .
i!l thci , h this method 1:-, , how<•vt>r, ess than t mt outainl·d m PWM harmoni c n·ducti on
i raung I\ it
c,etho<l. • .
The disadvantage of th1 !-_ IT!f't_h o<l of harmonic n •ductio n is th (• O l'l'd for m or e numlx- r r,f
. ·ind transform c•rs o f ;-; 1n11l a r ratmg s .
.:ifvrters ,
' R.7.3. Harmonic Re duction by Stepped-wave Inverters
In thi~ m<:tho<l , r,ulsP:-- o f diffr: n.·nt width c..; a nd h e ights art: s upt:nmposcd tu produc£.: a
rc:~lttnt ~tepped wave with r e duced h a rm o nic content . Fig . 8 .37 illus trates two stc:pped -wave
::.n:rtcrs fed fr<Jm a common de supply. The two transformer s u :sed havL• diff! ·r cnt turn s ra tio
'. 'C::tpnmary·to ::-econd a ry. In this fi 6rure , the tu ··ns r a t.io f n,rn prim ary to :-;e condary is assumed
f.n-t furtransformer land unity for tra nsform e r 2 .
V
0 .
, J.

,:3 3 Vs
I
L
Tl /2
,,, wt" (a )
Inverter
I t vol

DC
t
VO
L
0
A
D

Inverter
• I I
I
I
I
,
:--Tl
t
r--
l ;
II vo2 :I 4V,
.J._ I

Vs - ~ t-~=========-~!..:;=:=-----;;~.L.-mt
wt (c l ~
f ~ 8.3, , :1 Tc /2 7T
· Harrnonic 3d · fig . 8 .38. Waveforms for stepped -wave
. re uct1on by stepped
wave inverters. inverters

~
468 lArt. 8.81 -- --·""'-'ronics
~

8 38
Thl' in ver1:L'r / is su gntt'd thut its output voltage is Uo1 as shown in Fig. - (a). During th
lir,;t-half cycle, output voltugl' ll'vel is C>itlwr zero or positive. During second half cycle fnoe
shown in the figure), the output voltage would be either Zl•ro or negalive. This output volta t
wavl'form is given the name two-leuel mnJ11/utio11. ge
For invcrtl'r 11 , the triggl•ring is su arranged as to give output v_oltag~ ~02 as shown in Fig. i
8 ~18 ( h) l t is se('n fron1 u wavcfonn that the level of output voltage 1s positive, negative or zer
01
l
dun111c: tlw first half rycll', this inverll'r has thl•n•for~ee-_leueLmDduJation . T_h e resultan: ,
o utput voltagP fro1n a sPrit.~s cornhination of invPrt Prs I and II 1s obta1nPd by supennlJ)()sing th . I
wavl•~iirms of Fi~s 8 .38 l a ) and (b ). Th 1s summation dl•picted in Fig. _8 .38 le l shows that th:
arnplttudl' of output voltage is 4 V~ and waveforn1 has four steps. Fourier analysis of Fig. s.38 I
(c) wuulJ g-ive hannonics whose .unplitude~ would depend upon the values of d1 , d 2 _d 3, d" and I~
~,n1plit udl· of v 0 . By :J proper choict> of these paramPters ; third, fifth and seventh harmonics can IE
bl) l'lirninatL>d or attL' nunted considerably anu thP fundan1cntal co1nponent opti1nised.
I'
Noll\ that it is the thrl>l'-ll•ve l 1nodulation of second inverter that helps in achieving th
I
n >qu1red wavP-st~pµing of the resultant output voltage waveforn1 . It is seen from the waver e
. F. . . . . 1orm
Ll f 1g b .38 (c ) that tlus waveshape is rnore nearer to sinusoidal wave. .I curr,
~ I