Pesticide Educational Manual U Maine

PESTICIDE
EDUCATION
MANUAL
A guide to proper use and handling
2006
Revision
PESTICIDE
EDUCATION
MANUAL
A guide to proper use and handling
Edited by Don Barry and Gary Fish

University of Maine Cooperative Extension
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS PREFACE
This manual is an adaptation of the Pesticide Education This manual is intended to help you understand Fed-
Manual, Pennsylvania State University, edited by W. K. Hock eral and State pesticide laws and regulations, and the prac-
and C. L. Brown, 1992. Much of the material was originally tices that are necessary for the proper and effective use of
published in 1974 through the Cornell University Chemi- pesticides. Both the commercial and private pesticide app-
cals-Pesticides Program led by J. Dewey, S. McDonald, R. licator core examinations, administered by the Maine Board
Pendleton, and W. Smith. of Pesticides Control, are based on information contained in
Other valuable sources of information and material in- this manual.
clude the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and De- After reading each chapter, try to answer the review ques-
partment of Agriculture, as well as Cooperative Extension tions; correct answers are given at the end of the manual. The
publications from Iowa State University, University of Wis- appendix of mathematical conversions and pesticide calcu-
consin, Michigan State University, North Carolina State Uni- lations will be helpful when calibrating equipment, or deter-
versity, Cornell University, Virginia Polytechnic and State mining the quantity of pesticide to purchase or apply to a
University, Colorado State University, Purdue University, given area. A glossary is also included to define the termi-
University of Illinois Extension and the University of Dela- nology used in the text.
ware.
Published and distributed in furtherance of Acts of Congress of

May 8 and June 30, 1914, by the University of Maine Cooperative
Extension, the Land Grant University of the state of Maine and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Cooperative Exten-
sion and other agencies of the U.S.D.A. provide equal opportuni-
ties in programs and employment. 1/03
A Member of the University of Maine System
In complying with the letter and spirit of applicable laws and in

pursuing its own goals of diversity, the University of Maine Sys-
tem shall not discriminate on the grounds of race, color, religion,
sex, sexual orientation, national origin or citizenship status, age,
disability, or veterans status in employment, education, and all
other areas of the University. The University provides reasonable
accommodations to qualified individuals with disabilities upon
request. Questions and complaints about discrimination in any
area of the University should be directed to the Director of Equal
Employment Opportunity, 101 North Stevens, Orono campus (207)
581-1226.
Where trade names are used, no discrimination is intended and

no endorsement by Cooperative Extension is implied.
Revise and print Feb, 2002

Minor revision and reprint Jan, 2003
Revise and reprint Dec, 2005
Minor revision, add Chapter 14 Feb, 2006
Previous edition published Fall, 1989

Reprinted 1993, 1997, 1999
ii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 8
PESTS AND PEST MANAGEMENT ................... 1 THE PESTICIDE LABEL .................................... 67
Pest control over the years ............................................ 2 Parts of the label ............................................................ 6 8
Historical lessons .............................................................. 3 Review questions ............................................................ 7 5
Pest management tactics ................................................. 4 Sample label .................................................................... 7 6
Integrated pest management .......................................... 8 Sample MSDS ................................................................. 7 8
Technique of IPM ............................................................ 9
Review questions ............................................................ 1 0
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 2 USING PESTICIDES PROPERLY .................... 83
MANAGING INSECTS AND MITES ................ 11 Protect yourself from pesticides ................................. 8 3
Insects ............................................................................... 1 1 Mix and load pesticides properly ............................... 9 0
Other arthropods ............................................................ 1 3 Apply pesticides properly ............................................ 9 1
Damage caused by insects and arthropod pests ...... 1 4 Store pesticides properly .............................................. 9 3
Managing insects and arthropod pests ...................... 1 6 Dispose of pesticides properly .................................... 9 5
Sweet corn IPM program ............................................. 1 7 Transport pesticides properly ..................................... 9 6
Problems associated with insecticide use .................. 1 8 Pesticide fire safety ....................................................... 9 6
Review questions ............................................................ 1 9 Pesticide spills ................................................................. 9 6
Record keeping ............................................................... 9 9
CHAPTER 3
Review questions ......................................................... 1 0 1
WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL ....................... 20
Weed types ....................................................................... 2 0 CHAPTER 10
General weed control strategies .................................. 2 3 PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT ... 103
Herbicide resistance ....................................................... 2 5 Pesticide fate ................................................................ 1 0 3
Herbicide use .................................................................. 2 5 Reducing hazards to groundwater .......................... 1 0 6
Herbicide characteristics .............................................. 2 6 Reducing hazards to plants ....................................... 1 0 8
Review questions ............................................................ 2 7 Reducing hazards to pollinating insects ................ 1 0 9
Reducing hazards to beneficials ................................. 1 0 9
CHAPTER 4
Reducing hazards to fish and other wildlife ......... 1 1 0
PLANT DISEASES AND PLANT HEALTH .... 28 Reducing hazards in Maine ...................................... 1 1 0
Plant pathogens .............................................................. 2 9
The nature of plant disease .......................................... 3 1
Disease management ..................................................... 3 1
CHAPTER 11
Chemical effectiveness ................................................. 3 2
PESTICIDE APPLICATION EQUIPMENT .. 112
Disease diagnosis ............................................................ 3 3
Equipment maintenance ............................................ 1 1 7
Apple IPM ....................................................................... 3 6
Equipment calibration ............................................... 1 1 9
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 12
VERTEBRATE PEST MANAGEMENT ............ 38
PUBLIC RELATIONS ........................................ 122
Principles of vertebrate pest damage control .......... 3 9
Talking to your customers ........................................ 1 2 2
Legal considerations ...................................................... 3 9 Environmentally sound management ..................... 1 2 3
Diagnosing the problem and preventing damage .. 4 0 Liability ......................................................................... 1 2 4
Vertebrate pest control methods ................................. 4 1 Review questions ......................................................... 1 2 6
Wildlife stewardship ...................................................... 4 2
Review questions ............................................................ 4 3 CHAPTER 13
PESTICIDE LAWS .............................................. 127
CHAPTER 6 Federal laws .................................................................. 1 2 7
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS .......................... 44 State pesticide laws ..................................................... 1 3 0
Selecting a pesticide ...................................................... 4 7 Certification and licensing ........................................ 1 3 6
Pesticide mixtures .......................................................... 4 8 Review questions ......................................................... 1 4 1
Adjuvants ......................................................................... 4 8
Synergists ......................................................................... 4 8 CHAPTER 14
Review questions ............................................................ 4 9 WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD ......... 142
CHAPTER 7 Review questions ......................................................... 1 6 5
TOXICITY AND HEALTH .................................. 50
APPENCIES
Exposure: How pesticides enter the body ................ 5 1
CONVERSIONS AND CALCULATIONS ...... 166
Toxicity and potential health effects of pesticides . 5 2
Pesticide risk assessment .............................................. 5 4
PESTICIDE SAFETY AND SITE SECURITY .. 174
Risk management ........................................................... 5 5
How pesticides poison .................................................. 5 6 GLOSSARY ........................................................... 176
First aid for pesticide poisoning ................................. 6 1
Heat stress ........................................................................ 6 3 ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS ......... 184
iii
CHAPTER 1
Pests and
Pest Management
WHAT IS A PEST?
H UMANS have been combating
pests throughout history. Their
impact on civilization comes as mosqui-
We can easily see the enormous
scope and complexity of pest problems.
But what is a pest? The dictionary defines “...an injurious plant or
toes and malaria, swarms of locusts, pest as “an injurious plant or animal, es- animal, especially one
hordes of rats, and more. Perhaps the most pecially one harmful to humanity.” Pests harmful to humanity...”
infamous example is the Black Death of impact human health; compete for our
fourteenth century Europe when nearly 24 food, forage and fiber crops; attack our
million people died from bubonic plague. livestock and our pets; damage buildings
What caused the Black Death? What is and other structures; and reduce the aes- Pests represent a wide
plague? The answer remained a mystery thetic value of the landscape. Pests may range of organisms:
until the world’s last major plague epi- be insects or other arthropods, disease
demic at the turn of the 19th century. In causing organisms, weeds, molluscs, fish, Arthropods
Hong Kong where 100,000 died, doctors birds, snakes, and a variety of mammals insects
discovered plague was a bacterial disease from rats to bears. arachnids
spread from rats to humans by fleas. Rat
crustaceans
fleas became infected with the bacteria
while feeding on diseased rats. When rats centipedes
were unavailable as a food source or millipedes
killed, the fleas sought other warm Molluscs
blooded hosts, often humans. Bubonic slugs
plague is still with us today but is suc-
snails
cessfully treated with antibiotics. Better
still, it can be prevented by controlling Microorganisms
rats and fleas. algae
Another pest that changed the course bacteria
of history was a plant disease. In the sum- fungi
mer of 1846, a fungus known as late blight
viruses
destroyed the Irish potato crop. Potatoes
that were not killed in the field rotted in nematodes
winter storage. Famine struck the popu- Weeds
lation killing perhaps one million people. broadleaves
More than a million survivors left for the grasses
United States and Canada. On board the
sedges
emigrant ships and in quarantine camps,
outbreaks of typhus, a human bacterial Vertebrates
disease carried by rats and lice, claimed fish
thousands more. birds
Today typhus is treated with antibiot- mammals
ics, sanitation, hygiene, and pest control.
reptiles
Late blight of potatoes remains a problem
but is controlled using integrated pest man- The Irish Potato Famine
agement which incorporates field scouting,
resistant cultivars, sanitation, and well
timed fungicide applications.
Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 1

PEST CONTROL OVER THE YEARS
As competition between humans and Until the rise of synthetic chemicals
pests evolves, our management methods during World War II, pest control mate-
become more sophisticated. For many cen- rial came from toxic plants or from inor-
turies mystery surrounded crop failures and ganic compounds like arsenic and lead.
human and animal diseases. The first pest During the war, DDT emerged as an im-
control measures were crude and direct; portant factor in saving allied soldiers DDT
weeds were hand-pulled, rats were from typhus and other insect transmitted dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
clubbed, and insects were plucked from disease. DDT was found to be equally ef- Although banned in 1972, most
North American adults still retain
foliage. These methods work to a certain fective in controlling virtually all insect
about 3 ppm (parts-per-million)
extent but they can be overwhelmed by pests. It was hailed as the insecticide to DDT in their body fat.
exploding pest populations. The earliest solve all insect problems and had become
use of chemical pesticides dates back to the most widely used pesticide in the
2500 B.C. when sulfur was burned to con- world. The synthesis of countless other
trol insects and mites. Early insecticides organic pesticides quickly followed.
derived from plants include hellebore, a These products launched the modern
toxic plant used by Romans to control body chemical industry and began a new era in
lice; nicotine from tobacco, used in the 17th pest control. Synthetic pesticides soon
century to control aphids; and pyrethrum became a fixture in American life. They
from chrysanthemum flowers used by Per- offered significant success at relatively
Lindane
sians in the 18th century to control fleas low cost, DDT, for example, was cheap, γ-hexachlorocyclohexane
and other human pests. had low toxicity to mammals, was active Like DDT, this is a chlorinated hy-
Through the years, experimentation over a very broad range of insects, and drocarbon. Lindane is a limited use
and good fortune led to the recognition remained active for months or even years. pesticide in the state of Maine.
of additional chemicals with pesticidal ac-
tivity. In the Bordeaux district of France
during the late nineteenth century, a mix-
ture of lime and copper sulfate was com- The success of modern pesticides, particularly in
monly sprayed on grapevines to deter tres- agriculture, encouraged widespread acceptance
passers from picking the grapes. It was
discovered that the mixture also con-
and eventual reliance on them.
trolled downy mildew, a serious fungal
disease. Later named Bordeaux mixture,
it remains one of the world’s most widely
used fungicides.
2 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

HISTORICAL LESSONS
Pesticide use continues to be signifi- sistence allowed them to accumulate in lation of pesticides and shifts in the types of
cant in food, fiber, and livestock produc- animal tissue without breaking down. This pesticides available. In 1970 the U.S. En-
tion, forestry, and public health. But the led to biomagnification and the develop- vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) was
drawbacks of heavily depending on pes- ment of resistance. created by Congress to protect the environ-
ticides is becoming increasingly apparent. To understand biomagnification we ment and the health of humans and other
Since the San Jose scale became resistant need to see the natural world as an ecosys- animals. The EPA banned the use of DDT
to lime-sulfur in 1908, at least 557 spe- tem—a community of living things. Within in the United States in 1972 and, since then,
cies of insects worldwide have become this community organisms feed on a lim- regulatory actions have been taken against
resistant to one or more pesticides. A dra- ited number of other organisms; eagles may many chemicals, including pesticides,
matic example is the Colorado potato feed on fish which feed on smaller aquatic thought to pose significant environmental
beetle in the eastern United States which animals, which, in turn, feed on micro- and health hazards.
has developed resistance to nearly every scopic algae. This is a food chain—a se- Banning DDT and other similar in-
major group of insecticides for the past quence of animals feeding in an ecosys- secticides accelerated development and
150 years. Pesticide resistance is also tem. At each feeding level, an animal in- increased the use of another group of in-
measurable in more than 50 weeds and gests the toxins held in the bodies of or- secticides known as organophosphates
hundreds of organisms causing human and ganisms at a lower level. Biomagnification (OPs). Although generally more acutely
plant disease. occurs when an organism accumulates toxic to mammals and more expensive
Rising concern about the environ- chemical residues in their body from the than the chlorinated hydrocarbons, OPs
mental and health hazards associated with organisms they consume. The animals at do not persist in the environment but, be-
pesticides has now become a significant the top of a food chain accumulates the cause of the Food Quality Protection Act
factor challenging pesticide use. In 1962 highest concentration of pesticide residues. of 1996, they are under review by EPA..
Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, a In the illustration below, DDT concentra- Many OPs may be restricted and some
book which examined pesticides and their tions magnify ten million times as they ac- uses may be discontinued. Today’s pest
effects on the environment. DDT and cumulate in predatory birds. management programs include more em-
other chlorinated hydrocarbons (aldrin, Since the publication of Silent Spring, phasis on naturally occurring compounds,
chlordane, dieldrin, and heptachlor, etc.) the United States has experienced a high growth regulators, and growth inhibitors.
were her primary concern because of their level of environmental awareness second to These chemicals offer a more selective
stability and persistence in the environ- no other period in history. The public real- spectrum of control and are more com-
ment. Their long residual life made them izes health and safety depends on a healthy patible with the environment.
more effective as insecticides, but this per- environment. This has led to stringent regu-
Biomagnification of DDT in the food chain
DDT enters the food chain at

the very lowest level when
runoff from spray treatments
accumulates in the bodies of
microscopic plants. Animals
feeding on these plants ab-
sorb DDT and pass it up the
food chain.

PEST MANAGEMENT TACTICS
Effective pest control emphasizes the use of many tactics. The principle is pest management rather than pest eradication.
The goal is to prevent pests from causing unacceptable damage. Developing a management strategy for any pest requires
knowing the control tactics that are available and how they are used. To begin our discussion we need to distinguish the two
broad areas of control that influence pest populations: natural and applied controls.
Natural Controls
Natural controls check or destroy pests without human intervention. In fact, we are unable to influence most forms of
natural control at all. Natural controls derive from climatic factors such as wind, temperature, sunshine, and rain; topographic
features such as rivers, lakes, and mountains; and naturally occurring predators, parasites, and pathogens.
Climate. Weather can effectively Topography. Maine’s physical

limit pest populations but to have a sig- geography influences pest populations.
nificant effect it must be severe, at least Surface waters limit the dispersal of
occasionally. Extreme weather restricts many species while encouraging others.
available habitat which increases com- Fast flowing, pristine streams are ideal
petition and decreases survival. For ex- breeding grounds for black flies but
ample, dry spring weather limits mos- they survive poorly in slow flowing riv-
quito populations (for a time) by ers with less dissolved oxygen. Cer-
reducing egg laying sites. Maine’s tain weeds, insects and plant dis-
winter temperatures of -5 to -40°F eases might exist throughout the
also eliminates or restricts many state but they lack the ability to
pests. For example corn earworm move over mountains and large
can not overwinter but must migrate tracts of forest unless we move them
into Maine each summer; and the sub- ourselves.
terranean termite may never survive far
from the coast.
Predators. Predators may be gen- Parasites. Most insect parasites are Pathogens. Pests can succumb to
eral feeders with a large and varied appe- species of either wasps or flies. They may disease just like other organisms. The num-
tite for prey or they may be specific, feed- have a very restricted host range often lim- ber of fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and vi-
ing on a limited selection of other animals. ited to a single species. Some are bred for ruses that attack insects and weeds is small
For example, spiders and ground beetles applied biological control but their num- compared to predators and parasites but
are general predators feeding on both pest ber is small compared to naturally occur- disease organisms usually have a broader
and beneficial insects. In contrast ring parasites. Adult parasites require a host range. Pathogens are sensitive to cli-
ladybeetles feed mainly on insect eggs and source of carbohydrates to maintain a large mate. Temperature and humidity often
soft bodied prey like aphids making them population. They are encouraged by leav- limit their effect although properly timed
more efficient at pest reduction. ing wildflowers in crop borders. irrigation may enhance infection.
Spiders are general predators that Parasitic wasp larvae emerge from their A naturally occurring soil fungus
provide significant natural control. caterpillar host and spin cocoons. attacks a Colorado potato beetle.

Applied Controls
These are methods under our control. Their use is necessary when harmful pests are not held in check by natural controls.
Applied controls include mechanical control, physical control, cultural control, legal control, genetic control, biological control,
and chemical control. Combine these tactics in their widest possible combination to achieve the most efficient and sustainable
pest management
Mechanical controls are devices that prevent the spread or Physical controls are widely used in pest management in-
reduce the infestation of pests, primarily insects and vertebrates. cluding manipulation of water, humidity, or temperature, and
Mechanical control includes traps and hand destruction, and the use of sound, electric shock and light or other radiant en-
exclusionary devices such as screens, nets, and fences. Me- ergy. Physical control methods kill pests, disrupt their life cycles,
chanical equipment to crush, drag, or grind insects to death or make the environment unfavorable for pest existence. These
was commonly used in the earlier days of pest control. methods are used primarily to control insects and plant diseases.
A boxtrap provides mechanical control for A propane gas exploder uses loud noise to scare
small vertebrate pests. birds - an example of physical control.
Cultural controls are routine management practices that can Legal controls limit the development of pest populations by
prevent pests from developing. These include rotating crops, restricting human activities. A series of laws at both federal
tilling the soil, varying the time of planting, destroying crop and state levels establish a framework of inspections and quar-
residues, pruning, thinning, and fertilizing. These practices dis- antines to prevent the introduction of new pests into the United
rupt the normal association between a pest and its host, making States or the spread of pests within the country. The laws are
the environment less favorable. They give the pest control spe- implemented by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Ser-
cialist many tools. Fortunately many of the practices are car- vice (APHIS), the Maine Department of Agriculture and the
ried out as part of the normal crop production. Maine Division of Plant Industry.

Genetic controls involve the development of strains of plants and ani-
mals that resist pest attack through of their genetic makeup. Genes are
found in DNA, a molecule present in all living things. Each species has its
own unique pattern of genes encoded within DNA; that pattern determines
growth and form as well as resistance to pests. Changes to the genes in
DNA, whether it is achieved through traditional breeding programs, chemi-
cal or radiation treatments, or molecular manipulation, constitutes gentic
control.
Pest populations may also be genetically manipulated. The screwworm
fly, an important pest of cattle in some areas, was controlled by releasing
large numbers of males that were exposed to gamma radiation. The radia-
tion destroyed a gene needed for reproduction. These sterile males mated
with normal females that laid sterile eggs and their population crashed.
Genetic control has been widely used in the past and offers great prom-
ise in the future. Traditional breeding techniques coupled with contempo-
rary gene manipulation has been used successfully to develop plants and
animals resistant to insects, ticks, and diseases.
The genes that control an

organism’s growth are located
on the DNA molecule.
Biological control involves the introduction, encouragement, or ar-

tificial increase of plants and animals that are parasites or predators
of pest species. More than 50 different insect predators and para-
sites are commercially available. They are used mostly to control
other insects and weeds. Biological controls that are single celled
organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoans, or viruses are de-
fined as microbial pesticides by EPA and subject to the same
level of regulation as chemical pesticides. The United States gov-
ernment imports and studies hundreds of species of natural enemies
to limit serious crop and forest pests. Because importing and releas-
ing exotic organisms can result in new pest problems, importation is re-
stricted to government controlled programs.
The life cycle of an aphid parasite Lysiphlebus

testaceipes. This wasp is bred for biological control of
greenhouse aphids.
Chemical controls involve the use of naturally derived or synthetic chemi-

cals called pesticides that kill, attract, repel, or otherwise control the growth
of pest plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Pesticides vary in their selectivity. Some pesticides, like biocides or
fumigants, are nonselective, controlling a wide variety of pests. Other pes-
ticides are selective and kill only certain types of pests, or a certain stage in
a pest’s development. Ovicides, for example, kill only the eggs of certain
insects and related arthropods.
Pesticides also vary in their mobility once in contact with a host. Sys-
temic pesticides are absorbed by the leaves or roots and then translocated
1997 U.S. conventional pesticide use totaled about 975
million pounds of active ingredients. This includes
20,700 pesticide products made from 890 different
active ingredients.

throughout the treated plant. Similarly, livestock can be injected or fed
systemic insecticides to control blood feeding pests. In contrast, contact
pesticides are neither absorbed, nor translocated within plants or ani-
mals. The pest must contact the treated area to be affected.
Some pesticides can be classified according to their route of entry into
a pest. Insecticides and certain avicides are often categorized as either con-
tact or stomach poisons, or both. Most rodenticides are also stomach poi-
sons. Stomach poisons must be ingested by the pest to be effective; contact
poisons need only to touch the pest.
The production, sale, use, and disposal of all pesticides is regulated
at the federal and state levels. The pesticide laws are the amended Fed-
eral Insecticide Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the amended
Maine Pesticide Control Act and the amended Maine Board of Pesti-
cides Control Statute, administered by the EPA and the Maine Board of
Pesticides Control, respectively. These laws were written to protect the
general public, the user, and the environment from possible negative ef-
fects of pesticides.
What is a pesticide?
Pesticide Organism controlled
Acaricide - mites
Algicide - algae
Adulticide - adult insects
Antifouling agent - marine fouling organisms
Avicide - pest birds
Bactericide - bacteria
Biocide - microorganisms
Disinfectant - bacteria, fungi
Fumigant - insects, weeds, pathogens
Fungicide - fungi
Herbicide - weeds
Insecticide - insects and arthropods
Larvacide - larval (immature) insects
Mildewcide - mildew fungus
Systemic pesticides are absorbed and
Microbial - insects, microorganisms translocated within a treated plant.
Miticide - mites
Molluscicide - snails and slugs
Nematicide - nematodes
Ovacide - insect eggs
Pheromone - insects
Piscicide - fish
Repellant - insects, birds
Rodenticide - rodents
Sterilant - bacteria, fungi
Wood Preservative - fungi and insects
Although not considered pesticides by definition, the fol-
lowing three classes of chemicals are regulated under both
federal and state pesticide law:
Defoliants - chemicals that cause leaves or foliage

to drop from a plant
Dessicants - chemicals that promote drying or loss
of moisture in plant tissues
Growth Regulators - substances (other than fertil-
Contact pesticides remain on
izers or food) that alter the growth the surface of a treated plant.
development of a plant or animal.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
After World War II, the enormous National IPM Initiative announced a
exploitation of synthetic pesticides led commitment to increase IPM in U. S. crops
many to believe that modern society and included an educational outreach
would totally eradicate insect pests. How- program to hasten broad accep-
ever, scientists soon discovered that cer- tance of proven IPM strategies
tain insects developed resistance to insec- on farms, forests, homes,
ticides—the adaptation of a pest popula- parks, industrial or pub-
tion allowing it to resist the toxic effects lic buildings, and
of pesticides. In other cases insect popu- range lands.
lations that were not ordinarily pests In 1996, Con-
surged to damaging levels because the ingress unanimous-
secticide treatments wiped out the native ly passed the
predators and parasites that had kept them Food Quality
in control. IPM grew in the 1950s and ‘60s Protection Act
from academic research that focused on (FQPA). This law,
these issues as well as on minimizing the 70 pages in length,
impact of insecticides in the environment. combines the in-
In 1971, the first federal IPM pro- tent of several regu-
grams were demonstrated in field crops. latory acts and rep-
Natural control was encouraged and en- resents a national
hanced. Insecticides were used only when commitment to the
pest populations reached action thresh- health of all Americans,
olds. The programs produced quality particularly children. FQPA
crops with fewer costs than conventional mandates a single, health-based
controls and were widely accepted by standard for all pesticides on foods,
growers. In addition, fewer pesticides providing special protection for infants Any method that discourages pests,
were required—a fact that attracted in- and children. It expedites approval of low- can be incorporated into IPM.
creased federal funding. risk pesticides, requires the re-evaluation
Since then, IPM programs have ex- of all existing pesticide registrations, and
panded to include weeds, plant diseases supports the adoption of IPM:
and vertebrate pests. The general concept
of IPM now refers to a system-wide ap- The Secretary of Agriculture, in coopera-
tion with the Administrator [of EPA],
proach that integrates a variety of man-
shall implement research, demonstration,
agement tools including biological, cul- and education programs to support adop-
tural, genetic, physical, and chemical tion of Integrated Pest Management. In-
methods. tegrated Pest Management is a sustainable
approach to managing pests by combin-
Federal policy ing biological, cultural, physical, and
Over the past 20 years, the federal chemical tools in a way that minimizes
government has funded multi-agency re- economic, health, and environmental
search, training, and implementation pro- risks. The Secretary of Agriculture and the
grams that attracted broad interest in IPM Administrator shall make information on
among the states. Following a 1979 report Integrated Pest Management widely avail-
able to pesticide users, including Federal
by the Council on Environmental Qual-
agencies. Federal agencies shall use Inte-
ity, IPM was adopted as a standard for all grated Pest Management techniques in
federally managed property including 70 carrying out pest management activities
million acres of forests and parks. Reduc- and shall promote Integrated Pest Man-
tions in pesticide use of up to 70% were agement through procurement and regu-
reported within five years. In 1993, the latory policies, and other activities.

THE TECHNIQUE 0F IPM
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the use of all available tactics or strategies
to manage pests. IPM does not eradicate pests but seeks to reduce and maintain pest
populations at levels where public health concerns and aesthetic and economic losses
are tolerable. IPM offers the possibility of improving the efficiency of pest control
programs while reducing their risk to people and the environment.
IPM systems vary with each situation. Differences in pests, available controls
(natural and applied), weather conditions, and economic circumstances all contribute
IPM ....is defined as
the use of all available
to this variability. The University of Maine’s sweet corn and apple IPM programs
provide two examples (see pages 16 and 34). Five steps are considered when devel- tactics or strategies to
oping any integrated pest management program: manage pests....
1. Identify the pest - An organism should not be classified or treated as a pest until it really is one. A species may be a pest
in some situations and not in others. Pests include severe species which are always present at populations above the economic
injury level in the absence of control; occasional or secondary pests that can cause damage above economic injury levels only
at certain times; potential pests that cause no apparent economic damage under normal circumstances; and migratory pests that
may cause serious damage on a periodic basis.
The more that is known about a pest and the factors that influence its behavior, the easier and more successful pest
management becomes. Identification of a pest gives us access to its biology and life cycle. Knowing a pest’s life cycle is
essential. For example a pesticide application should target a susceptible life stage. Generally, the younger the life stage, the
more susceptible an organism is to pesticides, but there are many exceptions to this rule.
2. Define the management system - The management system is the specific area where pests must be kept at acceptable
levels. The limits of the management system, whether it is a barn, an animal, a thousand acre field, a machine, a home, or a lawn,
are determined by the characteristics of the site and the habits of the key pests involved.
3. Develop the management strategy - The strategy is to coordinate the use of multiple tactics into a single integrated
system. The goal is to maintain pest numbers and the resultant damage at healthful, safe, economically or aesthetically acceptable
levels. IPM is a management approach rather than an eradication program.
4. Develop reliable monitoring techniques - Monitoring pest populations before they become a problem provides the
basis for decisions on immediate pest suppression activities and are useful for pest management decisions in future production
seasons. Monitoring involves the measurement of pest populations and the resulting damage or loss. Scouting and trapping sys-
tems are commonly used to monitor pests and their activity. Weather conditions can also be monitored to predict an outbreak of
certain insects and diseases. Temperature data used to accumulate degree-day information or soil temperature are helpful in
following weed development or an insect’s life cycle. Models have been developed, such as Blitecast for late blight of potato,
which use weather data to predict the need for pesticides.
5. Use thresholds - Public health, aesthetics and economics are

primary considerations in pest control. The threshold is the level or
density of a pest population where control measures are needed to
prevent the pest from reaching its injury level. The injury level is the
pest population density that causes loss equal to the cost of control
measures - whether this loss is economic, aesthetic, or related to
public health. Pest control should only be used when that control
method will prevent the pest from causing more damage than is ac-
ceptable. Pesticide applications should be avoided when their cost
is greater than the ultimate damage caused by the pest.
Thresholds are not static but vary within a system. For example,
factors influencing the economic threshold include the current value
of the product, its stage of development, the degree of damage caused
under various environmental conditions, the cost and effectiveness
of control measures, and the anticipated yield.

REVIEW QUESTIONS - answers in Appendix D
1. All insects are pests. 11. The goal of a pest management program is to eradi-
(True or False) cate the pest.
(True or False)
2. One of the earliest uses of chemicals as pesticides was
the burning of sulfur. 12. What do you call pest control that involves the use of
(True or False) numerous tactics? ___________________________.
3. A major concern surrounding the use of pesticides is the 13 The first step in a pest management program should
development of resistance. be to identify the pest(s).
(True or False) (True or False)
4. What is the process in which organisms in a food chain 14. Monitoring weather conditions can be extremely
accumulate progressively greater residues of pesticides useful in predicting an outbreak of certain insects and
in their bodies? _______________________. diseases.
(True or False)
5. Persistence in the environment is always a desirable
pesticide characteristic. 15. What is the term used to describe the point at which pest
(True or False) management procedures should be applied to prevent a
pest from reaching damaging populations?__________.
6. The responsibility of the U.S. EPA is to protect
human and environmental health. 16. For effective control, it is not essential to know a pest’s
(True or False) life cycle.
(True or False)
7. Which is not considered a natural pest control method?
a. wind 17. Contact pesticides are translocated within plants and
b. rain animals.
c. cultivation (True or False)
d. sunshine
e. topographic features 18. As the cost of control increases, spray applications
become appropriate at lower levels of damage.
8. Which is a cultural control method? (True or False)
a. fertilization 19. What type of control method incorporates the use of

b. planting time pest resistant crop plants? _____________________.
c. crop rotation
d. pruning
e. all of the above
9. All pesticides kill only the target pest.

(True or False)
10. The use of crop plants that are inherently resistant to

pests represents what type of control?
a. cultural
b. biological
c. legal
d. physical
e. genetic

CHAPTER 2
Managing Insects
and Mites
T HIS chapter introduces the in-
sects. We discuss the scientific
system for naming them, their relationship
INSECTS
Adult insects have a body composed Chewing
Insect Mouthparts
to a larger group of organisms known as of three regions (head, thorax, and abdo-
arthropods, the types of damage they men) and three pairs of jointed legs.
cause, and the methods available for man- Head. The head contains one pair of
agement. antennae, mouthparts, and two compound
Scientific names are given to each eyes. Simple eyes, known as ocelli, may
Mandibles
species of plant and animal on earth. Al- also be present. Antennae vary in size and
though many organisms have common shape but contain many receptors for sens-
names that are used locally, the scientificing direction, smell, wind, and tempera-
names are universal. This naming system ture. The compound eyes are made up of
categorizes living things based on their many small facets which allow insects to
Sponging
similarities; animals with common char- see images. Ocelli (simple eyes) detect
acteristics are placed into a large group motion rather than actual images. The four
(known as a phylum), then subdivided into general types of insect mouthparts are
smaller groups (classes or families), and chewing, piercing-sucking, sponging, and
finally given unique names (species). siphoning. Chewing mouthparts have
Insects and related animal, such as toothed mandibles that bite and tear food.
mites and ticks, belong to the phylum Cockroaches, grasshoppers, ants, and
Arthropoda. Arthropods have a hard ex- beetles have chewing mouthparts. Spong-
oskeleton (outside). Their bodies are seg- ing mouthparts have a tubular, tongue- Sponge
mented and include segmented legs, like structure with a sponge-tip to suck
mouthparts, and antennae. up liquids. Many flies, including the com- Siphoning
On the basis of common characteris- mon housefly, have these mouthparts. Si-
tics, arthropods are separated into smallerphoning mouthparts are formed into a
groups or classes. The common arthro- long tube for sucking nectar. Butterflies
pod classes are Insecta (insects), Arach- and moths have siphoning mouthparts.
nida (spiders, mites, ticks), Crustacea Piercing-sucking mouthparts have a long
Beak
(lobsters, crabs), Chilopoda (centipedes), slender tube which penetrates plant or ani-
and Diplopoda (millipedes). mal tissue to suck out fluids or blood. True
bugs, aphids, mosquitoes,
Head Thorax Abdomen and sucking lice have this
type of mouthparts.
Piercing-sucking
Piercing
stylets
An insect’s body is divided

into three distinct regions.
Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 11

Thorax. The thorax consists of three Development and Metamorphosis
segments with one pair of jointed legs per
segment. If one pair of wings is present The series of events passing from egg The degree of change varies widely. In
they attach to the second segment. Two to adult makes up the insect life cycle. It some insects it is slight and gradual; in oth-
pairs of wings attach to segments two and may vary for each insect species, but ers it is rather abrupt and complete. These
three and are named forewings and hind knowing the life cycle is absolutely es- variations distinguish three types of meta-
wings, respectively. sential for an effective control strategies. morphosis. Primitive, wingless insects,
The wings are modified in different in- Most insect reproduction is sexual, such as Collembola (springtails) and
sect groups. Beetles have forewings that are that is, an egg cell from the female devel- Thysanura (silverfish) have no metamor-
hard and shell-like; the hind wings are thin ops only after union with a sperm cell phosis. The immature insects have body
and made for flight. Flies have thin forew- from the male. The number of eggs pro- proportions and internal organs that remain
ings for flight but their hind wings are reduced by females varies from one to many similar, though larger, after each molt.
duced to tiny knobs. Both the forewings and thousands for some social insects (ants, Gradual metamorphosis features develop-
hind wings of moths and butterflies are usu- bees, termites). The females of most in- mental changes that are slight and gradual.
ally large and covered with scales. sect species lay eggs and are said to be The young (nymphs) resemble adults but
Abdomen. The abdomen has as oviparous. Some insects have special without wings and feed in the same habi-
many as eleven segments, although eight modes of reproduction, for example par- tat. Wing development is external. The ma-
or fewer is common. The abdomen houses thenogenesis, which is the asexual devel- jority of insect species undergo complete
a large portion of the digestive tract, the opment of an insect from an unfertilized metamorphosis, a more drastic develop-
reproductive system, and other vital or- egg, common in aphids and scales. ment including a larval stage that feeds in
gans including the external genitalia. Ex- A newly hatched insect often differs a different habitat than the adult, and a pu-
ternal reproductive structures are often in form from the adults. The changes that pal stage, or resting stage, that does not
highly specialized and complicated, par- take place before the young insect assumes feed at all, where internal wing develop-
ticularly in male insects. the adult form is called metamorphosis. ment is completed.
No metamorphosis
Egg < Immatures > Adult
Gradual metamorphosis
Egg < Nymphs > Adult
Complete metamorphosis
Egg < Larvae > Pupa Adult
12 - Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites

OTHER ARTHROPODS
There are four arthropod classes closely related to insects: arachnids, crustaceans, centipedes, and millipedes. Although
certain members of these classes are often called insects, they are not. They do, however, contain species that can become pests.
Arachnids
Included in this class are the spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, pseudoscorpions,
whipscorpions, sun spiders and harvestmen (daddy longlegs). The physical charac-
Tick
teristics of arachnids include four pairs of legs as adults (immatures may have only
three pairs), and two body segments, the cephalothorax and the abdomen. Arachnids
do not have antennae or wings. Arachnid life cycles are quite variable. The tick, for
example, has a complex life cycle with each stage requiring a different host. Some
ticks require three different hosts and may take up to three years to mature.
Except for certain mites, arachnids are carnivorous and terrestrial and many are Mite
considered beneficial. Mites are the only arachnid plant pests. Many species attack a
wide range of hosts; they feed by sucking plant juices and generally damage chloro- Spider
phyll-producing tissues.
All spiders and many other arachnids have poison glands that produce toxins to kill prey. Bites or stings from these
arachnids are painful and sometimes dangerous to humans. The black widow spider, brown recluse spider, and some scorpions,
for example, produce toxins that are very virulent. Fortunately these species are not native to Maine although unusual circum-
stances may bring them to our state.
Crustaceans
This large class consists of approximately 50,000 species. Crustaceans have a head, tho-
rax, and abdomen. They also possess mandibles, two pairs of antennae, and five or more pairs
of legs. Most crustaceans are aquatic (for example, lobsters, crabs, barnacles). One common
terrestrial species, the sow bug or pill bug, is commonly found in damp decaying wood or
Sow Bugs under objects such as bales of hay that are beginning to decay. Sow bugs are not harmful but
may be nuisance pests if present in large numbers.
Centipedes
Centipedes have a long body divided into a head and a multisegmented trunk.
The head has a pair of moderately long antennae, a pair of mandibles, and two
pairs of maxilla (additional jaws). They usually have 15 to 30 pairs of legs; one
pair of legs is attached to each body segment. The first pair of legs behind the
head is modified to function as poison jaws. Although efficient for killing prey,
their bite is rarely dangerous to humans. Centipedes usually hide during the day
becoming active at night. Their food consists of other arthropods, earthworms,
and slugs.
Centipedes
Millipedes
Like centipedes, the millipedes have a body separated into a head and trunk. The
head contains a pair of short antennae, a pair of mandibles, and a pair of fused maxilla.
Unlike the centipedes, millipedes have 30 or more pairs of legs with two pairs of
legs on every body segment.
Most millipedes are found in rotting logs, leaf litter, and under stems where they
feed mainly on decaying vegetative materials and fungi. When disturbed, they often
protect themselves by rolling into tight coils. Many have specialized glands that
Millipedes secrete noxious fluids, such as hydrogen cyanide, to repel predators.

Colorado Potato Beetle Aphid Mosquito
DAMAGE CAUSED BY INSECTS AND ARTHROPOD PESTS
Plant Pests by the blockage of conducting tissue, and destroys tissues, weakening the stalk and
dead areas caused by the injection of tox- preventing adequate translocation of wa-
Defoliators. Insects that feed on ins during feeding. Aphids, as well as the ter and nutrients. As a result, weakened
plants are called herbivores. Dense popu- other homopterans, also excrete honey- plants may blow over or wilt. Examples
lations of herbivores may completely de- dew that drips onto lower parts of the include the European corn borer, squash
foliate plants. The most economically im- plant. This sticky material makes an ex- vine borer, and white pine weevil.
portant group of defoliators is the cater- cellent place for black sooty mold fungus Cut off at ground level. Cut-
pillars—the larval form of butterflies and to grow. Sooty mold may limit plant worms, the caterpillars of night-flying
moths (Lepidoptera). Examples include growth and damage objects. moths (Lepidoptera), sever plants at
the gypsy moth that feeds on many types In addition to the feeding damage, an ground level. They remain underground
of trees and the imported cabbage worm important economic effect of plant suck- during the day coming out to feed only at
that feeds on cabbage leaves. There are ing pests is vectoring (transferring) plant night. This makes them hard to find and
defoliators in other orders such as the pathogens (disease causing organisms), difficult to control.
beetles (Coleoptera), for example the see Chapter 4, Plant Disease and Plant Forest pests. This large group of
Colorado potato beetle and the Mexican Health. pests attack trees at the leaves, stems,
bean beetle. Internal feeders are larvae that wood, bark, or roots. They are commonly
Plant sucking pests. Certain ar- feed and develop (even pupate) inside described by their feeding damage includ-
thropod groups have mouthparts adapted leaves, fruit, grain, or seeds. Internally ing needle tiers, twig girdlers, skeleton-
for sucking plant juices. They include one feeding insects often cause loss that is not izers, twig borers, root borers, leaf min-
group of arachnids (mites) and two large easily detected until the damage is exten- ers, defoliators, leaf rollers, etc. Common
groups of insects: plant bugs, squashbugs, sive. Some examples are the apple mag- forest pests include gypsy moth, spruce
etc. (Hemiptera), and the aphids, leafhop- got, plum curculio, birch leaf miner, and budworm, adelgids, and tent caterpillars.
pers, whiteflies and scales (Homoptera). codling moth. Subterranean feeders. Many in-
Symptoms of plant damage include curled Stalk or stem borers. Many lar- sects cause damage by feeding on the
and stunted leaves and stems, wilt caused val insects bore into stalks or stems. This roots of plants. They are usually very dif-
White Grubs Cutworms Carpenter Ant

Wasp Larder Beetle Gypsy Moth Caterpillar
ficult to identify because they cannot (cattle grubs, ox warble of cows, bot fly) cluding paste and glue, paper products,
even be seen without uprooting the or they may be external pests (hen mites, and human food.
plants. Root feeding can lead to dead scabies mites, ear mites, ticks, fleas).
spots in lawns, goose necking in corn, or Other animal pests annoy and cause dis- Food Pests
plants with poor color and reduced vigor. comfort (face flies, houseflies, gnats).
Some examples include white grubs, wire- Pests on or near food. These fa-
worms, black vine weevil, and many types Structural Pests miliar insects commonly enter buildings
of maggots (larval flies). where they crawl on shelves, countertops,
Insects attacking wood. Several and sinks. This habit brings them in con-
Human and Animal Pests insect species attack and destroy wooden tact with food. The three most important
structures. The most serious structural food pests are cockroaches, ants, and flies.
These pests bite, sting, spread dis- pest in Maine is the carpenter ant. This In addition to spoiling foods, flies and
ease, cause allergies, or merely pester. social insect normally develops large cockroaches are known to carry salmo-
Some feed on blood and inject venom in colonies in wet or rotting trees. When ac- nella bacteria which causes food poison-
their saliva (mosquitoes, biting flies, bed- cess is available to buildings, their exca- ing.
bugs). Many others inject venom with vation can cause damage. Pests of stored foods. These pests
fangs or stingers (wasps, bees, spiders, Other structural pests are internal annually destroy about ten percent of the
ants) but only in defense. Some cause al- feeders including the larvae of powder world’s food supply. They consume or
lergic reactions (brown tail moth, blister post beetles, termites, and old house bor- contaminate virtually every type of dried
beetles), others vector dangerous viral or ers. food. In homes they become pantry pests.
bacterial diseases (lice, ticks, fleas). In Insects attacking fabrics and Most stored food pests are beetles or
the U.S., mosquitoes vector encephalitis; paper. The larvae of carpet beetles and moths, for example, flour beetles, Medi-
ticks carry Lyme disease and Rocky clothes moths feed on wool and other terranean flour moths, mealworms, grain
Mountain spotted fever. natural fabrics in furniture, carpets, and beetles, Indian meal moths, larder beetles,
Animal pests may feed internally clothing. Silverfish consume starches in- and spider beetles.
Silverfish Face Fly Cockroach

MANAGING INSECT AND ARTHROPOD PESTS
The general tactics for managing pests include biological do, and what control tactics are available. Identifying arthropod
control, host plant resistance, genetic control, cultural control, pests can be difficult. For help, contact the UMaine Insect and
physical and mechanical control, and chemical control. First, Plant Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (see below) or the Maine
identify the pest and evaluate the available tactics, then de- Forest Service ID Lab (207-287-2432).
velop a management system that best suits the situation. Cer- The next step is to measure the pest population level to
tain tactics for agricultural pests, such as variety selection or see if it warrants control. Some pest populations may be evalu-
cultural control methods, must be considered at planting time ated against an established threshold. Action is recommended
or prior to the occurrence of the pest. when the pest level is high enough to cause economic, aes-
Certain principles are required of any successful manage- thetic, health, or environmental damage greater than the cost of
ment program. A step rarely discussed in textbooks is that one implementing controls.
must regularly visit areas subject to pest damage to monitor pest The steps outlined above provide the basis for a simpli-
activity. Correct pest identification is extremely important; know fied management program. Keep in mind that established inte-
the pest or risk ineffective, even detrimental treatments. Once a grated pest management programs are based on extensive re-
pest is recognized, learn its biology, what kind of damage it can search and are not available for every situation.
UMCE Insect and Plant Disease Diagnostic Lab

There are thousands of species of insects in Maine. Thank-
fully only a small percentage ever become pests. Identifying
an insect as a beetle or a butterfly is easy but identifying a
particular insect species can be very difficult. Knowing how to
control a particular insect is often just as challenging. The Uni-
versity of Maine Cooperative Extension Insect and Plant Dis-
ease Diagnostic Laboratory (IPDDL) identifies insects for
Maine citizens as a free service. Specimens are either mailed
or dropped off at the Laboratory. Once the problem is identi- Properly packaged specimens are essential to accurately
fied appropriate control measures are suggested. identify insects and suggest management strategies. Insects
For more information call the Diagnostic Clinic at 207- (except butterflies and moths) should be placed in small leak-
581-3880 or, in Maine, 800-287-0279. Office hours are 8:00am proof containers with rubbing alcohol for preservation. But-
to 4:30pm, Monday through Friday. On the world wide web, terflies and moths should be packed in tissue or cotton. Send
the clinic is found at http://pmo.umext.maine.edu/ipddl/ samples to:
ipddl.htm
Insect Diagnostic Lab
UMCE Pest Management Office
491 College Avenue
Orono, ME 04473-1295
When sending an insect sample, you are encouraged to
give as much information as possible; please include:
• Your name and address

• Date
• Phone number
• Where was the insect found?
(kitchen, yard, tree, ground, etc.)
• What was the insect on?
(animal, lawn, tomato, rug, etc.)
• Approximately how many insects were found?
1-5-10-25-50-100.....
• Describe damage, if any. How severe was it?
• What form of control would you like to use?
• Do you have children or pets at home?
• Any other comments?

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH INSECTICIDE USE
Insecticides often have a significant of resistance development. Some of these Hazards to Nontarget
role in pest management programs, how- compounds affect only certain insects. Organisms
ever, their use involves certain inherent Other new compounds modify the mat-
problems beyond applicator safety. Care- ing or feeding behavior of insects. Another problem associated with in-
ful planning will avoid or minimize most Insecticide use patterns. The secticide usage is injury to nontarget or-
problems, particularly the development of way resistance develops is linked to the ganisms. Great care must be taken in the
resistant pest populations and injury to way pesticides are applied. When insec- selection and use of insecticides in order
nontarget species. ticide dosages are reduced, fewer pests to minimize injury to pesticide handlers
die, so the tendency to develop resistance and others who may come in contact with
Pest Resistance is decreased. Rotation of compounds with pesticide residues. This same level of care
different modes of action and altering the must also extend to bees, birds, fish and
Some form of pesticide resistance has timing and placement of pesticides may other wildlife, and nontarget plants. These
been documented for every major group also limit resistance. topics are discussed in greater detail in
of insecticides. Resistance is measurable Applying pesticides over limited ar- later chapters.
in more than 500 insect and mite species eas (spot treatment) and treating alternate Information on pesticides and their
of which 56% are crop pests, 39% are generations of pests reduces the propor- use is available on the label, the UMCE
medical or veterinary pests, and 5% are tion of the pest population exposed. These Pest Management Office, the man-
beneficial species. Insecticide resistance tactics limit the development of a resis- ufacturer’s technical service representa-
is most common in: tant population by keeping a greater pro- tive, or the Board of Pesticides Control.
portion of susceptible genes in the popu- These sources can provide the best infor-
• insects that produce several genera- lation.
tions per year, mation on pesticides, their potential ad-
Ecological tactics. Many biologi- verse effects, and how to integrate insec-
• pests exposed to several sprays each cal factors are related to resistance. For
season, ticide usage into a total pest management
example, the greater the number of gen- program.
• herbivorous (plant eating) pests erations per year and offspring per gen-
rather than predators or parasites. eration, the greater the chance that insec-
Two forms of resistance are becom- ticide resistance will appear in a pest
ing more common: cross resistance and population. Thus resistance management
multiple resistance. Cross resistance oc- requires different tactics for different
curs when a pest develops resistance to pests.
two or more compounds, usually chemi- Similarly, behavioral fac-
cally related, with a similar mode of ac- tors such as insect mobility
tion. Multiple resistance occurs when a and migration influence in-
pest can tolerate insecticides from differ- secticide management
ent classes of compounds with different strategies. The frequency
modes of action. Managing a resistance of resistant genes in a
problem involves using new or altered in- population is diluted
secticides, changing insecticide use pat- when insecticide suscep-
terns, and applying ecological tactics. tible individuals move
New or altered insecticides. into an area and inter-
Single compounds or mixtures of com- breed with the resistant
pounds that have more than one mode of population. This tends to
action provide better resistance manage- slow the pace of resistance
ment than compounds that attack a single development in the pest
chemical site. Synergists applied with in- population.
secticides may reduce resistance develop- Managing resistance is an im-
ment by interfering with detoxifying en- portant component of integrated pest
zymes. These enzymes are controlled by management. If we are to extend the use-
an insect’s genes and allow pests to sur- ful life of current insecticides, resistance
vive insecticide treatment. must be detected at a very low level, and Most of the serious human and
New compounds with different then controlled by using all the available animal pesticide poisonings are
modes of action also lessen the likelihood techniques. caused by insecticides.

SWEET CORN INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Several moth species cause serious Thirty-one European and Oriental para-
economic damage to the commercial sitic insect have been released as biologi-
sweet corn crop in Maine. To illustrate cal control agents but only six species are
the principles of Integrated Pest Manage- established. They provide limited control,
ment (IPM) we will examine one of these, about five percent, but it is permanent,
the European corn borer. IPM reduces natural control.
damage to an acceptable level by using a In Maine, the European corn borer
variety of methods. Accurate timing is overwinters as larvae in corn stalks and
necessary to control different pests at their stubble left in fields. Pupation occurs in The economic threshold. Many
most vulnerable stage, and before dam- the spring, and the inch long adult moths factors must be considered when determin-
age is severe. Monitoring for the presence emerge from late May to late June. Adults ing the economic threshold for European
of pests and estimating population size spend daylight hours hiding in grassy ar- corn borer.
helps to determine when control methods eas. On warm nights, females lay over-
1. The number of pests present in a field.
are necessary. lapping masses of eggs on the underside
A sample consists of 100 plants sur-
The European Corn Borer is an ex- of corn leaves. The eggs hatch in seven
veyed for evidence of fresh feeding.
otic pest. It is not native to North America to nine days.
2. The growth stage of the corn when the
but was introduced into Medford, Mas- Flesh colored larvae begin feeding on
fields are monitored. Early damage to
sachusetts from Europe in 1917. The moth young leaves, producing a distinctive
leaves does not represent the same
easily expanded its range in New England “shot-hole” damage. The growing larvae
profit loss as damaged ears. Through
where it found a familiar climate and no also tunnel into tassels and stalks, often
the pre-tassel stage, control measures
natural predators, parasites, or pathogens. causing these to break. Control at this
are not needed unless 15 percent of
stage is difficult since the pests are pro-
plants are infested. Once tassels have
tected within the stalks. Larvae cause the
emerged and until maturity, the eco-
most economic damage when they en-
nomic threshold is 12 percent fresh
ter the base, side or tip of the devel-
damage to scouted plants.
oping ears.
3. Value of the crop. As the crop value
Sampling for European
increases, the amount of damage that
corn borers. Sampling methods
can be tolerated decreases.
detect both adult moths and lar-
4. Cost of application. As costs of con-
val feeding injury. Pheromone
trol measures increase, losses from a
traps are set up in fields during
pest can go higher before a spray
late May. These traps attract
application is cost effective.
male moths as they emerge in
the spring. Field scouting be- When the economic threshold is ex-
gins after moths are present ceeded, spray applications are made ev-
and corn plants are about 18 ery five to seven days. Control continues
inches tall. until the rate of new infestation falls be-
Feeding damage to the low the action level.
youngest leaves is usually the Other control methods. Popula-
first sign of infestation. Ran- tions of European com borers are influ-
domly selected plants are exam- enced by the type of crop grown in fields
ined in five areas of each field during the previous season. For produc-
unit for actively feeding young ers growing several market crops, rota-
and “shothole” damage. Weekly tion planting is a simple means of reduc-
scouting for European corn boring the recurrence of insect problems.
ers is adequate from mid-June to Where corn is continuously planted, plow-
early July. After the formation ing under the corn stalks and stubble at
of tassels, more frequent scout- the end of a growing season is an effec-
ing detects early damage to tive and important cultural control for the
stems and ears. European corn borer.
Above, a larva has outgrown the tassel and

broken it by boring an exit hole. Damage is
usually marked by frass.

1. The body of an adult insect has three regions- the head, 7. An aphid is what type of insect feeder?
thorax, and abdomen.
a. defoliator
(True or False)
b. subterranean feeder
2. Which characteristic(s) distinguish mites from insects? c. structural pest
a. number of legs d. plant sucking pest
b. number of body regions e. stem borer
c. type of mouthpart 8. Honeydew is a fungus that covers the leaves of aphid
d. a and b infested plants.
e. all of these (True or False)
3. The four general types of mouthparts found on insects 9. Symptoms of plant damage caused by sucking pests can
and insect-like pests include: sponging, siphoning, include wilt, dead areas and _____________________.
___________________, and __________________.
10. All mites found on plants are plant pests.
(True or False)
4. Why is it important to know the stages in the life cycle of
11. The first step in a pest control program is to learn what
a pest?
control tactics are available.
a. not all stages cause damage or warrant control (True or False)
b. stages vary in their susceptibility to control strategies
12. If the damage level or insect pest numbers are below the
c. not all stages look alike
economic threshold, control measures generally are not
d. not all stages can be found at any one time
warranted.
e. all of these
(True or False)
5. What are the types of plant damage caused by insects
13. Insecticides with short residual are usually less likely to
and insect-like pests?
kill beneficial insects than are long residual insecticides.
a. defoliation (True or False)
b. internal feeding of fruit and seed
14. Repeated use of the same compound for long periods will
c. stem boring
help to prevent the development of insecticide-resistant
d. root feeding
pest populations.
e. all of these
(True or False)
6. The four life stages of an insect that undergoes complete
15. Those insects or insect-like pests that have many gen-
metamorphosis are shown in the illustration below.
erations per year and produce many offspring per year
Identify each by name.
are more likely to develop resistance to an insecticide
a. than those pests reproducing less frequently and with
b. fewer offspring.
c. (True or False)
d.
16. Gypsy moth, cabbage worm, Colorado potato beetle, and
Can you list their developmental sequence?
the Mexican bean beetle are examples of ___________.
a. internal feeders
b. plant sucking pests
c. stalk borers
d. defoliators
e. subterranean feeders
17. The change that must take place before the young insect
assumes the adult form is called __________________.
a. viviparous
b. parthenogenesis
c. oviparous
d. metamorphosis

Chapter 3
Weeds and
Weed Control
A WEED might be any plant
growing where it is un-
wanted—a dandelion in a suburban lawn;
commonly known in Maine but in other
areas of the country they may have dif-
ferent names. To avoid confusion, all
germinate the next spring. In the same
way, planting a crop in early spring be-
fore annual weeds germinate reduces the
quackgrass in a corn field, or volunteer plants are categorized and given a scien- potential for weed problems.
corn in a potato field. Weeds adversely tific name that identifies them anywhere A crop rotation including perennial
affect the use and value of the land they in the world. crops, such as alfalfa, greatly reduces
infest, reduce the yield and quality of Weeds are also classified by their life summer annual weed problems. Since
crops, and increase the costs of produc- cycle—how they grow, how long they these plantings are usually grazed or cut
tion and harvest. live. There are four major life cycle for hay, weeds that do germinate are never
In addition to competing with other groups: summer annuals, winter annuals, allowed to produce seed. With small
plants, weeds may threaten the health and biennials, and perennials. Successful grains or forages as part of the rotation,
safety of humans and domestic animals. weed management is based on an under- most summer annual weeds that were a
Medical problems caused by weeds in- standing of various control strategies and problem are controlled naturally as the
clude pollen induced hay fever and al- how they are tailored to each life cycle or crop outcompetes them in an unprepared
lergy, skin irritation from toxic chemicals species. seedbed.
in weed sap, and serious illness or death Problems are common with annual
from ingesting toxic plants. Livestock ail- Summer Annuals weeds because their life cycle is synchro-
ments range from skin irritations and abra- nized with annual crops such as corn and
sions from thorns and woody stems, to fe- Summer annual weeds germinate, soybeans. Herbicides are often needed for
tal abnormalities and death. Finally, some
mature, produce seed, and die in one those weeds which escape normal cultural
weeds present a hazard by obstructing vis-
growing season. Crabgrass and pigweed practices.
ibility along roadways, impeding flow in are troublesome summer annuals. Preplant or preemergence herbi-
waterways, and accelerating the deterio- The life cycle of summer annuals be- cides are the most commonly used herbi-
ration of outdoor recreational areas, park-
gins at the start of the growing season. cides for summer annual weeds. The terms
ing lots, buildings, and equipment. Seed germinates during a two month pe- “preplant” and “preemergence” can refer
Weed seed is produced in astronomi-riod—late May and June in Maine. Dis- to either the weed or the crop. The weeds
cal numbers; lamb’s quarters produces turbing the soil for spring plantings brings are killed in the seedling stage before or
72,500 seeds per plant; mullein makes buried seed to the surface where it can soon after they emerge through the soil
223,000; purple loosestrife can produce germinate. Nongerminated seed lies dor- surface. Most preemergence and preplant
2.7 million seeds per plant. Yet only about
mant until the next spring. Some annual herbicides have little effect on established
5 percent germinates in any one growing species germinate during summer or fall weeds. These herbicides have been known
season. Most remain buried in the soil and
but their numbers seldom equal the spring to leach into groundwater.
stay dormant until the right conditions ap-
flush. Postemergence herbicides are ap-
pear. Avoiding the conditions that pro- Control methods for summer plied after weeds have emerged. Weeds
mote seed germination and spread en- annuals include planting the crop at the should be treated within two to three
hances successful weed control programs. right time, crop rotation, flaming clean weeks after emergence. Because larger or
tillage, and herbicides. Carefully timing more mature annual weeds are difficult
WEED TYPES the planting date can avoid problems with to control, late postemergence treatments
summer annuals. For example, fall plant- often require a higher rate or a more toxic
Every successful weed management ing avoids the spring flush of summer an- herbicide. This often increases the chance
program begins with identification. Pig- nuals, and can establish a good popula- of injury to the desired plants. For this
weed, lambsquarter, and crabgrass are tion of competitive plants before weeds reason, postemergence treatments are of-
20 - Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control

ten used only to clean up those summer Biennial weeds are relatively few in
annuals not controlled by previous con- number; wild carrot and bull thistle are Crabgrass
trol methods. two of the more common in Maine. A true
Spraying summer annual weeds in biennial never produces flowers or seeds
late summer is unnecessary. Ripe seed is the first year. These weeds are well
probably already produced and the re- adapted to lawns, pastures, hay fields, and
maining vegetation will usually die after orchards where grazing or mowing re-
the first killing frost. moves very few of the rosette leaves grow-
ing close to the soil. Consequently, growth
Winter Annuals and energy storage in the roots or crown
continue until a killing frost. The large
Winter annual weeds germinate in amount of stored energy initiates spring
late summer or fall, mature, produce seed, growth well ahead of desirable species.
and then die the following spring or sum- Unless the weed flower stalks are mowed
mer. Common chickweed, annual blue- off or plowed under, they will flower and
grass, and field pepperweed are winter produce mature seed before the plant dies.
annuals. Control methods for biennials, Summer annual weeds germinate,
Seed of most winter annual weeds are is most effective at the seedling stage. This mature, produce seed, and die in
dormant in the spring and germinate in is also when desirable plants can out-com- one growing season.
the late summer or fall. Common chick- pete and hopefully crowd out weeds. Once
weed is an exception; it can germinate un- established, the only practical means of Henbit
der snow cover to resume growth at the controlling biennial weeds is herbicide
first sign of spring, then bloom and pro- application.
duce ripe seed by mid-May or June. This Soil-applied herbicides leach into the
means it can reseed itself even before soil root zone where they are absorbed and kill
is prepared for spring plantings. the plant. They are usually ineffective
The life cycle of winter annuals is against biennials because the pesticide does
synchronized with fall-planted small not leach deep enough. Therefore only a
grains, such as winter wheat or barley. small portion of the weed’s large root sys-
Several weeds, such as field pepperweed, tem is affected and not enough herbicide
are so closely synchronized that the weed is absorbed to kill the weed.
produces ripe seed at the same time the Foliar-applied herbicides, such as
grain matures. The weed seed is thrashed 2,4-D or dicamba, are absorbed through
along with the grain and, unless the grain the foliage and translocated to the root sys-
is cleaned, the weed seed is fed to cattle tem, killing the whole plant. These two
Winter annuals germinate in late
and spread back on the field in manure. materials are also selective herbicides; they
summer or fall, mature, produce
Uncleaned grain used for seed also poses control most broadleaf species without
seed, and die the following spring
an immediate weed problem. damaging grassy species. This limits their
or summer.
Control methods for winter an- usefulness but they effectively control
nuals include competition from healthy broadleaf weeds in pure grass areas such Mullein
crop plants, tillage, flaming, and herbi- as lawns, orchards, and some pastures.
cides. Competition from desired plants
should be the first weed control weapon. Perennials
Select optimum seeding rates and plant-
ing dates to give a good stand; fertilize Perennial weeds become established
plants to promote maximum competition. by seed or vegetative parts, such as root-
Weeds not controlled by good manage- stocks or rhizomes. Once established they
ment practices may require herbicides. live for more than two years. Dandelions,
plantains, and quackgrass are perennial
Biennials weeds.
Because perennial weeds live indefi-
Biennial weeds grow from seed any- nitely, their life cycle is not as dependent
time during the growing season. They nor- on seed germination as the other weed
mally produce a rosette of leaves close to groups. However seed is still the primary Biennial weeds grow from seed
the soil surface the first year; then flower, way these weeds move into new areas. Pe- anytime during the growing
mature, and die during the second year. rennial weeds with rhizomes or rootstocks season then flower, mature, and
die during the second year.
Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control - 21

propagate in patches if left undisturbed. Photosynthetic-inhibiting herbicides
Perennial weeds are often spread during such as atrazine prevent the use of sunlight,
soil preparation and cultivation. In cropped even if the leaves and stems are left on the
fields, patches of quackgrass, Canada plant. These pesticides have the same ef-
thistle, and johnsongrass spread in oblong fect as mowing or grazing; they starve the
patches in the direction the field is worked. plant forcing it to use its energy reserves.
Control methods for perennial They can be used anytime during the grow-
weed seedlings are no more difficult ing season. Repeated applications may be
than any other kind of weed, but once es- required if the first treatment does not kill
tablished, perennial weeds are the most the weed. Timing is important to prevent
difficult to control. Two control strategies the weed from recovering. These herbi-
are used. The first is to starve the weed to cides are not effective when weeds natu-
death through mechanical and/or chemi- rally interrupt photosynthesis for winter;
cal methods. The second is to use herbi- do not apply later than six to eight weeks
cides which “shut down” the metabolic before a killing frost.
functions of the plant. Perennial weed control continues into
During summer and fall, perennial the next season. Only the strongest plants
weeds store energy in underground parts survive the winter and the spring flush
including roots, stems, bulbs, and crowns. uses their limited underground energy re-
If these weeds are prevented from storing serves. Grazing or mowing is used again
energy, they will be weakened and may to defoliate weeds and deplete the energy
not survive the winter (winterkill). Sev- reserves. This should be delayed until
eral methods are used to reduce energy weeds have 8 to 12 inches of new growth.
Dandelion and other perennials storage: mowing on a regular schedule, At heights beyond this, the weeds start
often have a very deep tap root. Soil heavy grazing with animals, defoliation replacing energy reserves through photo-
applied herbicides may not leach with contact herbicides. If weed leaves synthesis and become more resistant to
deep enough for effective control. and stems are continually removed or de- control.
stroyed, no sugar is produced through The starvation method using herbi-
photosynthesis, and there is no buildup cide is used to control quackgrass in corn.
of energy. Grazing or mowing should be A photosynthetic-inhibiting herbicide ap-
continued right up until frost to prevent plied in early spring (March or April)
recovery. This is seldom sufficient to con- forces the quackgrass to use reserve en-
trol perennials weed but it is a good first ergy for growth. For conventional tillage,
step toward improving later treatments. the quackgrass should be plowed under
More mature perennial broad-leaved after it has used up enough energy re-
weeds and woody species have deep root serves to make 6 to 8 inches of new stem
systems. Soil-applied herbicides that growth. Unfortunately, tillage or a single
leach only 4 to 6 inches are often ineffec- herbicide treatment will only hold the
tive. The application contacts less than 5 quackgrass back for six to eight weeks. If
percent of the total root system and not nothing else is done, it will recover by fall.
enough herbicide is absorbed for control. To prevent this, another application of a
Foliar-applied herbicides are more ef- photosynthetic-inhibiting herbicide at the
fective on perennial weeds such as dande- time of planting prevents the quackgrass
lion, Canada thistle, hedge bindweed, from utilizing sunlight for another six to
horsenettle, and hemp dogbane. These her- eight weeks. Corn plants tolerate these
bicides shut down energy production in one herbicides and will compete well. Crop
way or another, and work as well on weeds shading will further limit the growth of
with large energy reserves as they do on the surviving weeds during the growing
those with low energy reserves. The best season.
time to apply these herbicides is six to eight The discussion above illustrates the
weeks before a killing frost or in the spring difficulty of perennial weed control and
after the weed is growing actively and has the importance of proper timing. Like
Perennial weeds become estab- sufficient foliage to intercept and absorb quackgrass, many perennial weeds require
lished by seed or by vegetative adequate amounts of the herbicide. At this a series of treatments for effective con-
parts, such as rootstocks or rhi- time of year, actively growing plants will trol. A combination of both chemical and
zomes. Once established they live more efficiently translocate herbicides nonchemical control methods helps avoid
for more than two years. down to the root systems. strict reliance on herbicides.

GENERAL WEED CONTROL STRATEGIES
Mechanical Control Cultural Control
z Hand pulling/hoeing. Best for z Use weed free seed. In commer-

seedlings and young annuals or cial seed, the weed species and
biennials in small plantings. percentage of seeds present should be
on the bag.
z Mulch. Smother weeds with nonliv-
ing materials. Hay, manure, grass z Crop rotation. Certain weeds tend
clippings, wood chips, and plastic to plague particular crops. Rotation
film are examples of materials that should include a crop with growth
exclude light from weed seedlings. and cultural characteristics that are
Used in various ornamental and very different from both the previous
vegetable crops. crop and the established weeds.
z Mowing. Reduces seed production. z Planting schedule. When pos-

Used primarily in lawns, meadows sible, establish the crop before weeds
and pastures, along roadsides, and in emerge.
waste areas.
z Proper cultural practices. Keep
z Machine cultivation or tillage. plants vigorous. Insect and disease
Cultivation buries small weeds and control creates healthy plants that can
disrupts the soil relationship. Tillage compete more successfully with
desiccates plants and depletes energy weeds for the available light, water,
reserves in perennials. and nutrients.
Biological Control Chemical Control
Biological weed control involves the Herbicides are chemicals capable of

use of other living organisms such as in- killing plants; or more importantly, killing
sects and plant diseases to control weeds. certain plants without injuring others.
Many imported weeds are not a prob- Herbicides are used more than any
lem in their original habitat where they other class of pesticide. In 1996, the EPA
are checked by natural control. By import- reported 578 million pounds of herbicides
ing a plant’s specific natural enemies, it were used in the United States compared
may be possible to suppress their growth to 431 million pounds of all other con-
without further consequence to the envi- ventional pesticides combined.
ronment. However, this process involves Herbicides can be characterized in
extensive research and is not without risk. various ways. These include the method
Several successful programs have of application, the mode of action, the
demonstrated the usefulness of biologi- chemical characteristics of the active in-
cal weed control. At least three species gredient, the pathway by which the herbi-
of fungus show promising results in con- cide enters a plant, movement of the her-
trolling pigweed, nutsedge and water hya- bicide within a plant, herbicide persistence
cinth. In the southern states, a species of in the soil, and selective activity against
plant eating fish, a flea beetle, and a snout grasses, broadleaved plants, or both.
moth have been very successful in con- In the following Herbicide Charac-
trolling aquatic weeds which formerly teristics section, herbicides are contrasted
clogged over 90,000 acres of waterway. as foliar or soil applied, contact or sys-
In Maine, a pilot program is evaluating temic, short- or long-residual, and selec-
the effectiveness of herbivorous beetles tive or nonselective. A grass plant is illus-
to control purple loosestrife. trated on the left, a broadleaf on the right.

HERBICIDE CHARACTERISTICS
Foliar-Contact-Nonselective Foliar-Contact-Selective
These herbicides kill all the foliage covered (nonselective), These herbicides kill weeds with a contact-burning effect
with little or no translocation (contact) to underground parts of on the foliage. They control only seedling weeds. Biennial and
the weed. Since biennial and perennial weeds normally have perennial weeds with dormant buds will regrow after the foliage
dormant and protected buds in the crown or root systems that is killed. Generally, these are contact herbicides (not translo-
produce new growth, these weeds will recover after treatment. cated), but some may have a short residual effect in the soil.
Small annual weeds are completely and permanently controlled. Differences between certain crops and weeds make these herbi-
For example, paraquat, applied before no-tillage corn planting, cides selective. Acifluorfen, for example, controls annual morn-
or used as a directed spray underneath fruit trees, will control ing glory in soybeans. Soybeans are not killed because leaf hairs
seedling annual weeds. Diquat is used as a pre-harvest aid to protect the surface—morning glory, with smooth leaves, allows
kill potato vines making harvest easier. more herbicide contact. Bromoxynil is selective in part from dif-
Since contact herbicides normally have no residual activ- ferences in the leaf orientation of grasses and broadleaf weeds.
ity beyond the time of treatment, they are commonly mixed Bentazone offers selective control by inhibiting photosynthe-
with a residual herbicide to control the regrowth of the biennial sis in many weeds while crop plants quickly metabolize the
and perennial weeds and any newly germinating seeds. herbicide.
Foliar-Systemic Nonselective Foliar-Systemic-Selective

These herbicides are applied to the foliage, absorbed, and This group includes some of the oldest and most widely
translocated throughout the plant (systemic). Movement into used herbicides. They are applied to foliage and translocate
the plant root system enables these compounds to control pe- throughout the plant (systemic action). Because they are also
rennial weeds. Since they are nonselective, they can only be selective, they may be applied to weeds with little or no injury
applied as directed sprays when a crop is present but are more to desirable plants that are present. For example 2,4-D takes
often used before planting or after harvest. They are, however, dandelions out of lawns or broadleaved weeds out of corn and
tolerated by some perennials when dormant. Glyphosate is a small grain crops. Dicamba is used for tough-to-control weeds
well known foliar-systemic, nonselective herbicide registered such as thistle, common milkweed, horsenettle, and hedge or
for many uses. It is often used by foresters to release conifers field bindweed in corn; it is also used in grass pastures, small
from rapidly growing hardwoods. Glyphosphate has no soil re- grains, and rangelands. Other herbicides in this group are
sidual activity, so it does not control dormant weeds or weeds triclopyr and 2,4-DP. These herbicides are used for brush con-
germinating from seed after herbicide application. A residual trol along highways, forest conifer release, railroad tracks, fence
herbicide is commonly applied after the nonselective herbicide lines, and waste areas. By selectively removing brush without
to give continued weed control for the rest of the season. killing the grass, less bare ground remains once the brush dies.

Soil-Short Residual-Nonselective Soil-Short Residual-Selective
Only a few herbicides belong to this group. The best known This group includes herbicides that have residual activity
material, methyl bromide, is no longer used and has been re- of less than one year and are applied to soil before planting or
placed by other fumigants such as chloropicrin, metham, and immediately after planting. Although some herbicide may be
dazomet. Fumigation only controls weed seed and underground absorbed through foliage present at the time of application,
plant parts that are present in the soil at the time of fumigation. they are primarily root or shoot absorbed. Almost all the her-
Once applied, fumigants have no residual activity and will not bicides used for weed control in vegetable and agronomic crops
control subsequent infestations. Fumigants are usually applied as well as for other specialized crops such as flowers and orna-
as a liquid, they turn into a gas at normal air temperature and mentals belong here. Because the crop is present at the time
rapidly dissipate through the soil. Treated areas should be cul- the herbicide is applied, or is planted soon after application,
tivated to a uniform loose texture and covered with a sheet of the herbicide must be selective and should not cause injury to
plastic or other gas-tight cover for up to a week. Before plant- the crop. These herbicides are often referred to as preplant or
ing, the soil must be aerated for 10 to 30 days. preemergence-type herbicides.
Soil-Long Residual-Nonselective Soil-Long Residual-Selective

Herbicides to control all vegetation for as long as possible These herbicides are used to control weeds in deep rooted
are useful around parking lots, buildings, oil storage areas, and crops, such as fruit trees, nut trees, cane fruits, and grapes.
warehouses. Bromacil and simazine at high rates (10 to 25 They may be applied to foliage, although most of the herbicide
pounds active ingredient per acre) remain active for three to is eventually absorbed through the root system. These herbi-
five years. Bromacil will kill any plant that absorbs it—even cides have a low solubility in water and do not leach readily;
brush and trees. Simazine may not kill deep-rooted trees since therefore, they seldom get down to the root systems of the
it does not leach into the root zone as readily as bromacil. deeper rooted crop. They have residual activity and will give
weed control for more than one year. For example, simazine
applied at rates of about 5 pounds per acre will control shallow
rooted weeds without injuring deeper rooted crops. At higher
rates, more will leach, selectivity is lost, and simizine becomes
nonselective.

USING HERBICIDES z Should an adjuvant be added to the susceptible. This genetic selection takes
spray mix to improve performance? about twenty generations at one generation
The perfect herbicide does not exist. z Can the herbicide injure plants in a year. The following conditions seem to
Because every herbicide has advantages adjacent areas? Exercise caution to be necessary for rapid buildup of a resistant
and disadvantages, selecting the right her- avoid drift, runoff, leaching to weed population (twenty years or less).
bicide is crucial. Consider these points be- groundwater, and cross-contamination
z A few resistant plants have to exist
fore you choose or apply a herbicide: of other materials. Be especially alert
from the beginning, although possibly
to potential for residues in equipment.
z Is it registered for use on the site you in very small numbers.
z For more information, contact your
want to treat? Check the label for use z The same herbicide or family of
county Cooperative Extension office,
and application rate. herbicides must be used repeatedly for
the Pest Management Office, BPC,
z Will it control the weeds that are about twenty years on the same land.
chemical dealer, or technical repre-
causing the biggest problem? Many z Mechanical tillage or other
sentative.
weed control measures fail because nonchemical methods of weed control
the wrong herbicide is used. HERBICIDE RESISTANCE are used at a minimum.
z Can it be used at the current stage of z The same crop, the same herbicide,
crop or weed growth? Very few Weeds that are resistant to one or more on the same land, year after year.
herbicides can be applied at every herbicides are becoming increasingly com-
stage of plant growth. Alachlor, for mon. The most notable resistance has been Precautions
example, works well on annual grass to triazine herbicides. Triazine herbicides
when applied before they emerge. have been widely used for weed control in To reduce the rate at which resistant
However, it is useless if applied after corn and sorghum since the early sixties. weed populations develop, one or more
emergence. Atrazine is still the most widely used herbi- of the above conditions must be elimi-
z Are there restrictions on crop use cide for weed control in corn. Two other nated. The following precautions will not
after treatment? For example, residue triazine herbicides, cyanazine and si- prevent herbicide resistance, but they will
from paraquat used to desiccate dry mazine, are also very common. After years slow the process.
beans, red clover, or crownvetch of repeated use, over forty weed species z Do not use the same type of herbicide
before seed harvest will make the are triazine resistant. The most common year after year. At least use tank
forage illegal for feed. are smooth pigweed and common mixtures of herbicides representing
z Will the herbicide leave a residue that lambsquarters. Common ragweed, velvet- two or more families.
might affect the crop you want to leaf, yellow foxtail, and wild turnip also z Mechanical tillage and other
plant next in rotation? Certain long exhibit some resistance. nonchemical methods of weed control
residual herbicides can injure or kill In any sufficiently large population of affect both resistant and nonresistant
sensitive crops that follow in rotation; weeds, a few plants will have enough toler- weeds, and slow the increase of the
this is often referred to on labels as a ance to survive any herbicide. Because only resistant population.
plant back restriction. these survivors will produce seed, resistant z Crop rotations allow the use of
z What is the best method of applica- plants increase and it is just a matter of different herbicides and may even
tion—broadcast, band, directed? time until resistant weeds outnumber the require their use.
Resistant plant
Some plants in a pest population have

genetic traits that allow them to survive
herbicide applications.
Some of the survivors’ offspring inherit

the resistance traits. These resistant
plants survive and multiply.
If the same herbicides are repeatedly, the

population will eventually consist mostly of
resistant plants.

1. Weeds may be grass-like or broadleaved. 10. What type of herbicide can be applied to weeds without
(True or False) injury to the established crop, and is absorbed by weed
roots and translocated throughout the plant?
2. Weeds are known by the same common name everywhere a. soil-contact-selective
in the U.S. b. soil-systemic-nonselective
(True or False) c. foliage-contact-selective
d. soil-systemic-selective
3. Rotating crops from year to year has no effect on reduc- e. foliage-systemic-nonselective
ing weed populations because all weeds grow equally
well in all crops. 11. Biennial and perennial weeds will usually recover
(True or False) following treatment by which type of herbicide?
4. Why are established perennial weeds are more difficult a. foliage-contact-nonselective
to control? b. foliage-translocated-nonselective
c. soil-short residual-nonselective
a. perennial weeds start growth earlier in the spring than d. soil-long residual-nonselective
annual weeds e. soil-long residual-selective
b. perennial weeds are not sensitive to most herbicides
c. perennial weeds are much bigger than annual weeds 12. To delay or avoid the development of weed resistance
d. perennial weeds have stored energy reserves which problems, employ nonchemical means of weed control
can support the plant when under stress whenever possible and avoid use of the same herbicide
e. most perennial weeds are grasses and not broadleaved or family of herbicides every year.
(True or False)
5. Photosynthetic-inhibiting herbicides prevent treated
plants from using sunlight. 13. The fewest weed resistance problems have been found
(True or False) with the triazine herbicides.
(True or False)
6. The best times to treat established perennial weeds are in
the early fall or spring. 14. Which of the following is the least important in selecting
(True or False) a herbicide?
7. Which weed control method includes keeping the crop a. Is the herbicide registered for use on the crop you want
or desired plants vigorous, healthy and competitive to treat?
with weeds? b. Will the herbicide control the weeds that are the great-
est problem?
a. mechanical c. Does the herbicide have the lowest cost per acre?
b. chemical d. How long will the residue last and will it affect crops
c. biological you may want to plant next in rotation?
d. cultural e. Can the herbicide be used safely at the present stage of
e. none of the above growth of the crop?
8. Chemical control of weeds germinating from seed is most 15. Which are hazards associated with the use of
effective: herbicides?
a. in the seedling stage a. drift to nontarget species
b. after 6 inches of topgrowth is produced b. herbicide residues in application equipment
c. after 12 inches of topgrowth is produced c. cross contamination of other agrichemicals in
d. during flowering storage
e. once weeds are mature d. leaching to the root zone of nontarget species
e. all of the above
9. When selecting a herbicide you must know what weed is
to be controlled and what crop is being grown.
(True or False)

Chapter 4
Plant Disease
and Plant Health
P LANT disease management is a
complex problem; curing plant
disease is often next to impossible. Con-
crossings rapid enough to import potatoes
still infected with living fungus. A particu-
lar strain of late blight fungus, now known
axyl, the primary fungicide used for con-
trol. This started a second worldwide epi-
demic. US-8 escaped Mexico and spread
trol measures focus on preventing disease as US-1, first showed up in America in through Europe, the Middle East, and Far
and minimizing the effects by understand- 1843 near Philadelphia. By 1845 it had East. It was found in Pennsylvania in 1987
ing the causal organisms, the conditions spread across New England into the Great and the seed producing areas of Maine in
for culture of the crop, and cultural man- Lakes region and across the Atlantic to Bel- 1993. By 1995 it was in 23 states and
agement tactics. gium. Potato late blight reached epidemic Canada. In addition to being resistant to
Plants are diseased when their ap- proportions in Ireland and most of Europe fungicides, US-8 is more aggressive than
pearance or function is not normal. The that summer. US-1, and it is the opposite mating type.
cause may be a genetic defect, an abiotic Late blight strain US-1 has been with Two mating types infecting the same field
effect, or a pathogen. Plant disease influ- us now for more than 150 years. It is con- can produce specialized overwintering
ences maintenance costs and ultimately trolled using disease-free seed, resistant structures that survive in the soil. When a
the cost of goods and services to the con- varieties, destroying disease inocula in single mating type is present, the fungus
sumer. Disease reduces the quantity and cull piles and volunteer plants, and using can still survive but only in infected po-
quality of food, fiber, turf, and ornamen- well timed protective fungicides. How- tatoes. Due to the resurgence of late blight,
tal products from the time of planting ever, in the 1980s a new strain of late potatoes now generally receive more fun-
through harvest, sale, and usage. blight, US-8, became resistant to metal- gicide applications than any other crop.
Plant disease can have significant eco-
nomic impact. Entire golf course greens
can be lost to disease costing thousands of
dollars to renovate. In the 1970s Southern
corn leaf blight moved through corn fields
at an alarming rate. Yields were drastically
reduced in the Corn Belt states where more
than a billion dollars worth of corn was
destroyed in a single year.
Plant disease can also have signifi-
cant social impact. We’ve already men-
tioned the Irish Potato Famine (1845-
1850). This was, in fact, part of a world-
wide potato blight epidemic. Ireland suf-
fered more than most because potato was
the primary food crop.
Potatoes are native to South America.
They were brought to Europe in the 1500s,
became a major crop in the 1700s. By the
1800s they were a staple crop in many ar-
eas. Late blight was unknown in Europe
and New England for these three centu-
ries. It was contained to its original range,
in Mexico, until steamships allowed ocean
Potato late blight disease cycle
28 - Chapter 4 - Plant Disease and Plant Health

PLANT PATHOGENS
Certain fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes cause plant disease. These disease organisms are called pathogens and
spread from diseased to healthy plants. A plant invaded by a pathogen is called the host. Spotted leaves, wilting, stem
cankers, and rots are examples of symptoms that may appear on a host as a result of disease.
Fungi Bacteria
Fungi are the most common plant saprophytes feeding on decaying organic Bacteria are microscopic organisms
pathogens. They lack chlorophyll and matter. Fungal disease produces a vari- that rapidly increase in number, especially
cannot use photosynthesis to manufacture ety of symptoms. Any part of a plant’s in wet, humid weather. They cause fewer
their own food. Instead they obtain food roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, or plant diseases than fungi but bacterial dis-
as parasites of living plants or as seeds may be infected. Fungi also attack eases, like potato ring rot or fire blight of
harvested products, such as grain, bulbs, pear and apple, can cause significant dam-
and wood, while they are in transit or in age.
storage. Bacteria cannot penetrate intact plant
The body of a fungus is made of surfaces but easily enter natural openings
thread-like, branching filaments called and wounds; fire blight, for example,
mycelium. Fungi reproduce chiefly by spreads on pruning tools. Insects may also
spores which need water or high humid- introduce bacteria through feeding
ity to germinate and grow. Certain fungi wounds. Foliar diseases caused by bacte-
also produce survival structures such as ria often spread by wind-driven or splash-
sclerotia, pycnia, or cleistothecia. ing rain.
Fungi spread from healthy to dis- Bacterial disease is important in
eased plants by wind, rain or irrigation wa- postharvest decay and the spoilage of
ter, soil, machinery, humans, and animals. fresh fruits and vegetables enroute to, or
Some species penetrate healthy tissue di- at the market, and even in the home re-
rectly; others enter through wounds. For frigerator.
Zinnia leaves affected by powdery
example Dutch elm disease enters a tree
mildew fungus. Individual infections are through wounds caused by elm bark
apparent on the top leaf; the center leaf beetles. These beetles breed in elm trees
is severely affected; the bottom leaf is and emerge as adults that can carry the fun-
Rod-shaped
uninfected. gal spores to healthy trees.
Filamentous
Most plant pathogenic bacteria occur
as rod-shaped or filamentous cells;
magnified 1,000X.
Cross section of an infected leaf from the photo above. The A potato tuber infected with bacterial ring rot.
fungus spreads as a mycelial mat on the leaf surface Bacteria invades the vascular ring causing decay.
producing powdery spores. The cleistothecium is an Characteristic surface cracks are often evident
overwintering structure that also produces infective spores. although some infected tubers appear healthy.
Chapter 4 - Plant Disease and Plant Health - 29

Viruses Nematodes
Viruses are smaller than bacteria and Certain microscopic nematodes can
reproduce only when associated with living cause plant disease. Symptoms include
tissues; they use the host’s DNA to repro- wilting, stunting, and reduced plant vigor.
duce themselves. Symptoms of viral dis- These tiny, unsegmented, round worms
ease commonly include mosiacs or stunts feed by sucking the contents of plant cells
that may not kill the host but frequently through their hypodermic-like mouth.
reduce yield and quality. Practically all They attack plants either near root tips, or
plants are susceptible to one or more vi- by entering the plant to feed from within.
ruses. Diagnosing a nematode disease is often
Viruses enter healthy plants only difficult and requires both root examina-
through wounds or during pollination. tion and soil analysis.
Sucking insects (aphids, leafhoppers, and The most commonly encountered Nematodes inject saliva through
whiteflies), as well as chewing insects nematodes are root feeders. As they destroy needle-like mouthparts and suck cell
(beetles, grasshoppers) can transport vi- the root system, the plant suffers from re- fluids from plants. Plant tissue often
distorts in reaction to their feeding.
rus-laden sap from one plant to the next. duced uptake of water and minerals. Root
Other viruses are spread by nematodes and feeding nematodes may also introduce
fungi. Viruses can be carried in cuttings, other pathogens into feeding wounds.
tubers, grafted rootstocks or scions, and The foliar nematode of chrysanthe-
buds that are vegetatively propagated from mum feeds on the foliage causing triangles
a virus-infected plant. of brown, dried tissue on the leaves late in
A small group of plant diseases the season. One nematode species infect-
thought to be caused by viruses are now ing cereal grains turns what was once a seed
attributed to mycoplasma-like organisms. into a mass of weather-resistant nematodes
They induce yellowing in many plants, for capable of remaining dormant for twenty
example, aster yellows. years or more.
Nematodes are extremely numerous.

A viral disease is indicated by the They can exist in any environment that
streaked color pattern on the provides adequate moisture, including
petals of this normally red tulip. moist soil, lake bottoms, and plant or
animal tissues; magnified 300X
An aphid vectors virus particles into Viruses are non-cellular and come in The roots of a tomato plant infected by
plant tissue; magnified 13,000X. In- many shapes and sizes. In their the root-knot nematode. Roots swell at
sects are known to vector over 200 simplest form, they are genetic the point of invasion. Several infections
viral plant diseases. material enclosed in a protein capsule. along the same root develop into galls.

THE NATURE OF PLANT DISEASE DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Details of plant disease can be over- diseased by Stewart’s Wilt shows signs The mere presence of a pathogen
whelming. Plant diseases are caused by only inside the plant. When the stem of a does not always mean that disease will de-
many pathogens, and are significantly in- diseased corn plant is cut, the knife edge velop. The development of an infectious
fluenced by plant varieties, cultural prac- often has a stringy thread of bacteria stuck disease requires the presence of:
tices, and weather. One view of plant dis- to the blade. z A susceptible host plant.
ease integrating many of these factors is z Presence of a disease-producing
the disease cycle. Once the disease cycle Pathogen Life Cycle agent.
is understood, plant disease management z An environment favorable for
becomes clearer. The characteristics of disease devel-
infection and development of the
opment depend on the life cycle of the
disease.
The Disease Cycle pathogen. A detailed understanding of the
life cycle and the factors that affect de- Together these factors form the dis-
The disease cycle is circular, with velopment, reproduction, spread, and sur- ease triangle. Disease control tactics are
neither beginning nor end. A source of in- vival of a pathogen are often essential for an attempt to eliminate one of these com-
oculum begins the first phase of the cycle. successful disease management. For ex- ponents.
Inoculum is any part of the pathogen (a ample, extended periods of cool, wet Once a pathogen has infected a plant,
fungal spore, a single bacterium, or a weather enhance early spring infection of further development of disease and the
nematode) that can cause infection. When young apple leaves by the apple scab fun- production of visible symptoms depends
moisture and temperature conditions are gus. However studying the life cycle of on the activities of the pathogen in the
favorable for development, infection oc- the fungus reveals that infections occur plant, the reaction of the host plant, and
curs as the pathogen enters the host. A only with the proper combination of leaf the environmental conditions. Environ-
passerby will not know a plant is being wetness and temperature. mental factors such as rainfall, duration and
infected because it occurs as a micro- frequency of dew, air and soil tempera-
scopic phenomenon. tures, and soil moisture greatly influence
Infection leads to colonization - a pe- pathogen activity and disease development.
riod during which the pathogen grows For example, some diseases are worse dur-
within the host. Disease symptoms usu- ing hot, wet weather while others are most
ally develop during or following this pe- severe during cool periods.
riod. Once the pathogen is established in
the host, reproduction usually occurs.
Fungi produce spores; nematodes produce
eggs. Most plant pathogenic bacteria do
not form spores but divide into more bac-
teria. Viruses increase by genetically in-
ducing a host to make more virus par-
ticles. Reproduction produces enormous
amounts of inoculum. This inoculum may
reinfect the host; spread by wind, rain, or
equipment to other host plants; or remain
in the soil to infect a plant at a later date.
Pathogens vary in reproductive rates,
as well as when they can infect a host. Lesion nematode
For some, inoculum is produced only once disease cycle
during a short period in the season. Other
pathogens, such as apple scab and late
blight of potatoes, produce new inoculum
many times during the season.
Signs are evidence that absolutely
verifies the presence of a pathogen. Symp-
toms show up sooner or later but not all
diseased plants develop signs. A sign of
powdery mildew on lilac or turfgrass is
the white, fuzzy mycelium on the infected
leaves. The “green stuff” on moldy bread
is a sign of a mold fungus. Sweet corn

The Disease Triangle
Co
The development of plant disease
e
nc
nd
depends on three factors: the
En s favo
da
n
itio
presence of a pathogen, a susceptible
ge
vir
un
n
host, and a favorable environment. In
ab
tho
on ing di
the diagram, the effect of each
me sea
an
Pa
component is relative to the length of
Amount
r
ce
its side of the triangle. The area within
nt
len
of the triangle represents the total

u
Disease amount of disease present as the

Vir
se
three factors interact. A reduction in
any factor shortens that leg of the
triangle and reduces the possible
Factors contributing to susceptibility amount of disease.
Plant Host
Plant diseases are usually incurable, Use disease-free planting stock. is difficult to diagnose diseases early
so management aims at preventing or re- Disease-free stock provides one of the enough to make a quarantine effective.
ducing the occurrence or severity of dis- most effective means of disease manage- But, if properly timed, quarantines are ef-
ease. A single procedure may reduce the ment for seed, tuber, or plant-borne patho- fective providing the natural movement
likelihood of disease, but sustained con- gens. This stock is grown in disease free of a pathogen by wind or rain is unlikely.
trol requires an integration of methods. A conditions and “certified” disease free at Eliminate insect vectors. Many
well conceived disease management pro- purchase. Grass, potato, other crops are plant pathogens are carried by insects. If
gram should accommodate the cultural available as certified disease free seed. the insect (vector) population is effec-
and climatic requirements of the crop, tively reduced, the threat of the pathogen
while minimizing the likelihood that a Exclude the Pathogen is also reduced.
pathogen will established itself and
spread. Common methods to exclude patho- Eliminate the Pathogen
gens from crop production areas include
Avoid the Pathogen disinfecting plant materials and equip- Several methods can be used to elimi-
ment, eliminating insect vectors, inspect- nate a pathogen in a planting area. Crop
Avoid pathogens as much as posing materials before planting, and quar- rotation, sanitation, eradication of an al-
sible by carefully selecting the planting antining (restricting) diseased plants to ar- ternate host, and a variety of physical or
site, planting date, and planting materi- eas where they can be managed without chemical treatments either interrupt the
als. By avoiding pathogens, infection and threatening other crops. pathogen life cycle, create conditions un-
disease development are prevented. Disinfect plant materials. Seeds, favorable for pathogen growth, or directly
Choose the planting site. Avoid tubers, corms, and other plant parts can kill the organism.
fields that have a history of plant disease be disinfected by heat, gas, or chemicals. Crop rotation. A three to five year
or where crop residues provide a source For example, farmers often wash har- crop rotation can sometimes reduce the
of inoculum. No-till and minimum-till vested potatoes in chlorinated water be- threat of soilborne pathogens. A success-
cropping may leave crop residues that can fore storage to eliminate the organisms ful rotation requires planting a less sus-
harbor pathogens from season to season. that cause rots. ceptible crop. Pathogens that do not in-
However, they can still achieve satisfac- It may be necessary to disinfect tools, fect these subsequent crops may not grow
tory disease control. equipment, and clothing to prevent and reproduce. This reduces the amount
Choose the best planting date. spreading pathogens from infected areas. of inoculum in the field and lessens the
Plant when temperature and moisture con- Disinfection and sanitation are particu- likelihood of disease occurrence. Crop ro-
ditions are more favorable for the crop larly important when conditions allow tation has worked well with many field,
than for its pathogens. Remember seed- soil, plant parts, and weeds to stick to forage, and cereal crops.
lings are more susceptible to certain equipment. Sanitation. Sanitation is the roguing
pathogens than mature plants. Damping- Exclude or restrict by plant (removal) or destruction of diseased plants
off and seedling root rots thrive when soil quarantine. Plant quarantines restrict or plant parts. Potato cull piles, fallen
temperatures are below 65°F. Beans, for the movement of potentially harmful leaves or pruned branches from diseased
example, planted just before cool, wet pathogens. All diseased plants in a quar- plants, and even grass clippings can har-
weather produce a thinner stand than oth- antined area are destroyed. In addition, bor disease inoculum. Their removal or de-
ers planted in advance of warm, moist plant material may be restricted from ei- struction can aide in plant disease control.
conditions. ther coming in or going out of an area. It Sanitation prevents or slows disease in-

crease by eliminating sources of the or tulip bulbs planted too deeply are ex- tion, or they may prevent germinated
pathogen. Sanitation is critical when pro- amples of poor planting techniques. Both spores from penetrating the plant. Effec-
ducing certified disease-free plantings. hinder growth and may render the plants tive protection requires that a protectant
Alternate hosts. Some pathogens more susceptible to disease. be in place before the pathogen infects
require more than one host to complete Thrifty, well-kept plants tend to have the plant.
their development. Eradicating the alter- a better chance of withstanding disease Fungistatic action. Most protec-
nate host can break the pathogen’s life than poorly cared for plants. Fertilization, tant fungicides are fungistatic; they pre-
cycle. For example, in many areas the pruning, mowing, and irrigation can each vent or inhibit fungal growth for a speci-
eradication of gooseberry plants within a influence disease occurrence and sever- fied time. If there is not enough fungicide
quarter of a mile of white pine trees has ity. Choosing cultural practices best for on the plant surface, fungistatic action
effectively controlled white pine blister the crop (and hopefully worst for the ceases. Thus, the fungicide must be ap-
rust. Similarly, the eradication of barberry pathogen) is essential to avoid or mini- plied at regular intervals to inhibit patho-
plants has reduced the incidence of new mize the effects of plant diseases. gen infection and inoculum production.
outbreaks of black stem rust of wheat in Frequent applications are common in the
the Eastern United States. Resistant Plants production of fruit and vegetable crops
Physical treatments. Treatments because a variety of disease threats occur
Using disease resistant plants can be
to reduce pathogens in the soil are also throughout the growing season. On the
one of the most effective, long-lasting, and
useful. Soilborne pathogens are killed by other hand, if a disease has a limited time
economical ways to control plant disease.
chemicals, heat, flooding, fallowing, period during which infection occurs, a
Disease resistant plants tend to have some
composting, or by the sun’s energy. single application of a fungistatic mate-
disease, but in contrast to susceptible
Heat treating soil works well in rial may suffice. For example, controlling
plants, disease resistant plants usually tol-
greenhouses, mushroom houses, or in lim- snow mold on turf may require only a
erate the amount of disease that occurs.
ited ground bed operations. Burning crop single fungicide application before the
In addition, the impact from disease on
residues destroys infected plant parts on first snowfall.
product quality and quantity is usually
or near the soil surface. Compliance with Effective dosage. An effective
acceptable to the farmer and consumer.
local and state regulations is necessary dosage of a fungicide must be applied to
For certain crops the only reasonable
before starting a controlled burn. prevent infection. Insects moving over a
method of reducing plant disease is using
treated surface come into repeated con-
resistant varieties. Planting a disease re-
Cultural Practices sistant cultivar may be one of the few op-
tact with insecticides. In contrast, few fun-
gal pathogens migrate once they land on
tions to control disease for those crops
Effective cultural practices can in- a host plant and evenly distributed fungi-
where chemical controls are too costly,
crease the success of disease control pro- cide deposits are necessary for effective
or where there is no effective chemical
grams. For example, improved air circu- plant disease control. Maintaining an ef-
available for disease control.
lation in a greenhouse reduces the humid- fective dosage usually requires regularly
The effectiveness of genetically
ity around plants and the likelihood of repeated applications. For example, treat-
based disease resistance may vary with
infection by fungi and bacteria. ments for late blight of potato must be ap-
the amount of disease pressure. Environ-
Storage diseases are prevented or plied every few days when cool, moist
mental conditions that favor the growth
minimized when environmental condi- conditions favor infection.
of the pathogen and the development of
tions favor healing wounds on stored fruits Seed treatment. Seeds are often
disease over the vigor of the host will re-
and vegetables. Stored produce and grain treated with a fungicide to control fungi
sult in disease pressure likely to cause
should not get too dry; the relative hu- in or on the seeds. Chemical seed treat-
some crop loss.
midity must be high enough to prevent ex- ment may also protect plants from seed
cessive drying, yet low enough to inhibit Chemical Pesticides or seedling rots, and damping-off fungi
fungal and bacterial growth. Each crop in the soil.
has unique environmental requirements Chemical pesticides are often the Soil applications. In-row or spot
for storage, curing, and maintenance of quickest, most effective, and sometimes applications of soil fungicides protect
quality. These requirements are compared the only means of plant disease control. young seedlings from many soil fungi.
to conditions favorable for disease devel- Bacteria are controlled using bactericides, Soil fungicides may also be used to pro-
opment and a choice is made to ensure more commonly known as, antibiotics; vi- tect the roots of established plants from
high quality of the stored product. ruses are treated with viricides; and infection. These pesticides are applied as
Proper planting techniques and site nematicides control nematodes but the drenches and must penetrate the soil into
preparation help assure thrifty growth. majority of pesticides available for dis- the root zone in concentrations high
Corn planted with a tractor moving at 5.5 ease control are fungicides. enough to inhibit fungal growth.
mph rather than 6.5 mph leads to more Most fungicides are protectants. Pro- Eradicants. Eradicant fungicides
uniform plant stands. Azaleas planted in tectant fungicides may prevent spore ger- are less common than protectant fungi-
the plastic wrap they were transported in mination, cause abnormal spore germina- cides. Eradicants have therapeutic action

and may be applied after infection has oc- CHEMICAL EFFECTIVENESS
curred. They kill the pathogen on contact,
or prevent reproduction and further The effectiveness of chemical disease determine if and when a chemical is
growth of the pathogen within the host. control depends on using the correct needed, and how it should be applied.
This is in contrast to protectant fungicides amount of an effective pesticide at the cor- Laws at federal, state, and local lev-
that prevent only new infections. rect time with equipment suited for the els regulate pesticide usage. Legal restric-
Systemics. Systemic pesticides job. Yet even with this careful approach, tions to consider before an application
translocate within the plant away from the many factors can reduce the effectiveness include residue tolerance levels, interval
point of absorption. Benomyl for ex- of chemical pesticides. to harvest, and applicator certification re-
ample, is a root and leaf absorbed fungi- Choosing the proper chemical quirements.
cide that is translocated to the foliage. is impossible unless the disease is accu- Pathogen resistance can result
Some systemic fungicides have both rately identified. Diagnosis should pre- from repeated use of certain pesticides.
eradicant and protectant properties. cede any pesticide selection. This means the chemical will no longer
Fumigants. Most fumigants kill all Weather conditions encourage or control the disease, and another pesticide
organisms in the soil and must be used inhibit disease development; they also in- is needed for disease control. Pesticide re-
before a crop is planted. Because disease fluence the effectiveness of pesticides. For sistance has led to the pesticide treadmill
organisms must be eliminated from the example, rain following a spray applica- where a Continuing series of new pesti-
root zone of the crop, a large volume of tion can wash pesticides off the treated cides are required to combat pests resis-
soil must be fumigated. A great quantity surface; ultraviolet radiation in sunlight tant to previously effective chemicals.
of a fumigant is needed to treat an acre can degrade certain pesticides and reduce Read the pesticide label to see if the manu-
when compared to the amount of insecti- their activity. facturer recommends techniques such as
cide or herbicide used to control insects Pathogen characteristics such as fungicide combinations and rotations to
or weeds on the same acre. Fumigants are life cycle, the size and source of inocula, avoid resistance problems.
also used to destroy pests in grain silos, and the methods of pathogen movement Application Equipment must be
in cargo bays of ships, in railroad cars, (insects, wind, pruning) determine which matched to the pesticide material as well
and other storage areas. control methods are appropriate. as the size and type of job. To make an
Biological fungicides. Biological Host characteristics, such as the effective, safe, and efficient application,
fungicides are beneficial microorganisms stage of growth that is most susceptible, the equipment must also be properly op-
(fungi, bacteria, or actinomycetes) that or the parts of a plant requiring treatment, erated, calibrated, and maintained.
naturally suppress plant diseases. The wa-
ter extract of compost, known as compost
tea, also offers biological disease control.
In contrast to chemical pesticides that at-
tack a single aspect of the disease pro-
cess, biological fungicides enhance natu-
ral disease resistance, increase nutrient
uptake, and suppress pathogens through
antagonism and competition. Biological
fungicides require shorter re-entry inter-
vals, decreased residue worries, and less
consumer concern. There is also less
chance of resistance developing in the
pathogen population.
Other pesticides. Insecticides and
acaricides control insects and mites which
may transmit pathogens or render some
plants more susceptible to disease through
injury. Herbicides eliminate weeds which
may harbor plant pathogens, or they may
kill alternate hosts of pathogens and in-
terrupt the disease cycle.
Applying chemical pesticides with a mist blower.

DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
Successful disease control begins ease is caused by nonliving effects such Disease symptoms are usually easy
with accurate diagnosis. Diseased plants as frost, mechanical injury, and improper to see, but the questions important for dis-
are compared to healthy ones, symptoms fertilizer or pesticide applications. Accu- ease management are “can the disease
are examined, and any signs of pathogens rate diagnosis is further hindered when a cause economic loss?” and “does it war-
are noted. These procedures aid diagno- plant is affected by a number of simulta- rant chemical control?” Some diseases
sis, but they do not always ensure accu- neous problems (insects, disease, adverse cause alarming symptoms yet cause little
rate disease identification. Symptoms of conditions). In addition, the part of the damage. Conversely, other diseases ap-
abiotic disease are frequently confused plant showing symptoms may not be the pear innocuous but are responsible for sig-
with pathogenic conditions. Abiotic dis- primary site of the problem. nificant loss.
UMCE Insect and Plant Disease Diagnostic Lab
Positive identification through clini-

cal analysis is required to diagnose many
diseases. If this is beyond your means you
can seek assistance from the University
of Maine Cooperative Extension. Samples
of symptomatic plants may be sent to:
Plant Disease Diagnostic Lab

UMCE Pest Management Office
491 College Avenue in a plastic bag and tie it so the soil will For further information call the Plant
Orono, Maine 04473-1295 not contaminate the foliage. Then place Disease Diagnostic Clinic at 207-581-
the entire plant in a second bag and ship 3880 or, in Maine, 1-800-287-0279. Of-
Submitting a Sample the sample as quickly as possible. If the fice hours are 8:00am to 4:30pm, Mon-
plant is too large to make this practical, day through Friday. On the world wide
When submitting a sample, please include carefully examine all parts of the plant to web, the clinic is found at http://
the following: determine those which you believe are dis- pmo.umext.maine.edu/ipddl/ipddl.htm
eased. Remember that diseased roots can The website includes a gallery of plant
z Name, address, and phone number
cause wilted leaves. disease photographs as well as plant dis-
z Plant name (be as specific as pos-
Various plant samples should be sub- ease and insect pest fact sheets.
sible)
mitted using these guidelines:
z Size of planting
z Extent of injury z Place dry leaves in a plastic bag. In-
z Is this a commercial planting? clude both healthy and diseased

z What symptoms are of concern? leaves.
z Is the disease spreading? Rapidly? z Wrap cut stems in barely damp pa-
z Describe the types of fertilizers and per towels and place in a plastic bag.
pesticides used. z Shake roots free of soil, wrap in a
z Are you aware of any recent events barely damp towel and place in plas-
which might cause the problem? tic bag.
z Describe the soil drainage. z Many woody samples may simply be
z Please note any other information placed in a plastic bag.

which you feel may be relevant.
It is best if samples are hand-carried
Remember the diagnosis can be only into the clinic. If you must use the mail,
as good as the quality of the specimen and package and send samples as quickly as pos-
the descriptive information received. Ide- sible. If the sample cannot be sent the same
ally the whole plant should be sent al- day, it should be kept refrigerated. In addi-
though this may only be possible with tion, try to mail early in the week so samples
small plants or seedlings. If you intend to will not sit over the weekend. Remember
send the entire plant, place the root ball that sample quality is important!

APPLE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
There are many disease and insect tion is greatly reduced. Control efforts are
pests that affect the New England apple then directed at preventing the spread of
crop. One of the most serious is the apple secondary infections.
scab fungus. Apple Integrated Pest Man- In addition to efficient and accurate
agement includes scab management as pesticide application, IPM integrates
just one facet of a program designed to other methods of scab control:
protect the apple crop in a way that is eco- z Using apple varieties bred for
nomically sound and environmentally resistance to scab and other diseases.
friendly. When compared to traditional z Removing fallen leaves and fruit
disease control methods, apple scab IPM from the orchard to reduce the
can reduce fungicide use, allow more ef- number of over wintering spores.
ficient use of orchard equipment and z Pruning trees to provide an open
lower production costs while maintaining canopy allows faster drying of wet
fruit quality. leaves and improves spray penetra-
The apple scab fungus overwinters tion when applications are necessary.
on dead, fallen leaves that were infected
during the growing season. The follow-
ing spring begins the primary scab sea-
son with an extended release of fungal
spores from the infected leaves. Primary
spores can infect sepals, young leaves and
young fruit from April to early June. Scab
lesions appear in two to three weeks, de-
pending on weather conditions. Addi-
tional, or secondary, infections occur
throughout the growing season by spores
produced from primary lesions.
An understanding of the apple scab
disease cycle indicates that spores are re-
leased only during wet conditions. More-
over, new tissue becomes infected only if
the proper combination of wetness and
temperature are reached and maintained
for given time. These factors are ignored
by traditional control methods which rely
on repeated fungicide applications to pro-
vide a continuous protective layer on early
growth. The traditional control system is
labor intensive and requires large chemi-
cal input, even if infectious conditions are
absent.
The apple IPM program collects
spore release data from field monitoring
stations as well as local weather condi-
tions from satellites to accurately predict
primary infection periods. Growers are
alerted to apply protective fungicides only
when conditions are favorable for the
spread of primary scab infections. By mid-
June, the primary scab season ends.
Nearly all the overwintering spores are re-
leased and the chance of primary infec-
Apple scab disease cycle

1. Plant pathogens can be spread from diseased plants to 11. Fungicide resistance may result when one fungicide is
healthy plants. used repeatedly to control a fungal pathogen.
2. Most fungi reproduce by forming: 12. Cultivars advertised as “disease resistant” will never be
a. seeds infected by a pathogen.
b. rootless (True or False)
c. spores
d. branches 13. Chemical pesticides are always needed for plant disease
e. pupae control.
(True or False)
3. Virus particles are large enough to be seen when magni-
fied to two or three times their normal size. 14. Systemic fungicides are translocated within a treated
(True or False) plant.
(True or False)
4. Insect feeding is a method of virus spread.
(True or False) 15. Protectant fungicides must be applied before infection
occurs.
5. Nematode diseases can be easily diagnosed by visual in- (True or False)
spection of the diseased plant.
(True or False) 16. Thorough leaf coverage is essential when using protec-
tant fungicides.
6. Plant disease symptoms are caused only by pathogenic (True or False)
organisms.
(True or False) 17. Which factor(s) reduce(s) the effectiveness of a
chemical disease control program?
7. Which is the first step in developing a disease control a. disease resistance
program? b. rain following the application of a fungicide
a. selecting the appropriate control strategy c. a large source of innoculum
b. selecting the proper application equipment d. all of these
c. controlling the insects that could transport a pathogen
d. diagnosing the problem 18. Which is evidence that verifies the presence of a disease
e. all of the above agent ?
a. mold
8. All plant diseases must be controlled when the first symp- b. symptom
toms appear. c. sign
(True or False) d. mildew
9. Which methods reduce the amount of disease inoculum? 19. Which method(s) help(s) reduce the chances of plant
a. destroy or remove plant residues left in a field infection by diseases?
b. rotate crops a. proper pruning techniques
c. control insect vectors b. growing resistant varieties
d. use disease-free plant materials c. using certified disease-free planting stock
e. all of the above d. roguing
e. all of these
10. Disinfecting equipment before moving to another field
can prevent the introduction of bacteria, fungi, and nema-
todes into a noninfected area.
(True or False)

CHAPTER 5
Vertebrate Pest Management
V ERTEBRATES include fish,

amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals; all share a common character-
ten due to excessive wildlife populations.
It may also result from ecological compe-
tition, or the struggle of a species to sur-
are often predictable and the conflict
should be evaluated on this basis.
Controlling wildlife damage is fur-
istic—a backbone. Each vertebrate spe- vive in a changing environment. ther complicated by differing social
cies has evolved a set of unique charac- Conflict is created when human ac- views. A growing number of people see
teristics that are specific to its environ- tivities encroach on the natural environ- the positive value of wild species, and
ment. Fish, amphibians, and reptiles are ment. This may be a corn field adjacent some question the need for control pro-
cold-blooded; their body temperature ap- to a forest frequented by deer, crops grams at all. Others, who experience eco-
proximates their surrounding environ- planted on bottomland adjacent to a marsh nomic and ecological damage, are quick
ment. Birds and mammals are warm- roost of red-winged blackbirds, or a cabin to recognize the need to prevent these
blooded with relatively stable body tem- built in prime forest habitat of the white- losses. A wildlife damage control program
peratures independent of their environ- footed mouse. Ecological consequences should recognize these different views.
ment.
Warmblooded vertebrates often oc-
cupy a dominant role in natural ecosys-
tems, and are closely allied with humans
in an ecological sense. Wild vertebrates,
often referred to as “wildlife,” require
food and shelter just as we do. The same
environment furnishes these necessities to
both humans and wildlife.
Wildlife species are important to hu-
mans because of their economic, social,
recreational, and ecological values. But,
in different times and places, these val-
ues may change. In colonial America, wild
animals were valued as a source of food
and clothing. However bounties were paid
for squirrels because they destroyed
crops. Today, squirrels are protected as a
game species. English colonists also
bountied wolves from the beginning. To-
day wolves are protected as an endan-
gered species.
Controlling wildlife damage is one of
the more complex and controversial as-
pects of wildlife management. In certain
circumstances some species may cause sig-
nificant damage to surrounding natural re-
sources, including other wild species; for-
est and agricultural crops; and livestock.
Or they may endanger the health or safety
of humans. Although such damage is of-
38 - Chapter 5 - Vertebrate Pest Management

PRINCIPLES OF VERTEBRATE PEST DAMAGE CONTROL
z Wildlife has both positive and negative social and economic values. Certain species adversely
affect other wildlife or interfere with human interests, necessitating prevention or control.
z Useful techniques to counteract vertebrate damage include:
z exclusion or mechanical protection;
z use of repellent chemicals or devices;
z environmental or biological control;
z and reduction of the offending population by transfer or by lethal methods.
z Lethal control methods must be socially and economically acceptable and should be the minimum
necessary to bring damage within tolerable limits.
z Control methods must be efficient, safe, economical, humane, and as selective as possible; they must
conform to local, state, and federal laws and regulations.
z Do not conduct control programs that might present a hazard to any endangered species.
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
Wildlife occupies a unique position The Migratory Bird Treaty Act may specify control methods and proce-
as a renewable natural resource—public clearly defines when migratory birds can dures to be used for wildlife control. As a
property held in trust for all people in be controlled by lethal methods. State matter of policy, the Inland Fisheries and
accordance to state and federal laws. agencies, rather than federal agencies, Wildlife District Wildlife Biologist or the
Some of the federal laws enacted to pro- have the primary responsibility and regu- Maine Warden Service should be con-
tect wildlife include the Lacy Act which latory authority to enforce the laws that tacted before any lethal methods are used
prohibits the movement between states protect and manage most wildlife. The to control pest wildlife.
of illegally taken wildlife; the Bald Eagle authority includes enforcement of both When choosing wildlife depredation
Act which protects eagles; and the Ma- federal and state laws. All states have des- control methods, be aware of local ordi-
rine Mammal Act which protects aquatic ignated wildlife agencies although their nances or regulations. For example, dis-
mammals. The federal Endangered Spe- laws may vary. In Maine, the Department charging firearms in urban areas may be
cies Act legally protects endangered and of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife is the prohibited by a local ordinance. The use
threatened species and their habitats from wildlife management and regulatory of scare devices based on noise may con-
adverse or detrimental effects that could agency. Complex legal codes, known as flict with ordinances prohibiting unrea-
threaten their survival. Pesticides must be the Fish and Game Laws guide the agen- sonable noise and/or disturbing the peace.
screened for their potential impact on cies in their wildlife management pro-
these endangered species. Some pesti- grams. State laws define and regulate the
cides may be prohibited from use in ar- taking of certain wildlife species not pro-
eas inhabited by these plants and animals. tected by federal laws. Although in cer-
House
The federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act tain situations, such as when a protected
Sparrow
offers protection to all migratory birds species becomes a pest, any protection
except house (English) sparrows, Euro- may be removed by the state. State laws
pean starlings, and feral pigeons. This
regulation:
“...requires a permit to be obtained be-
fore any person may kill, possess, or
transport migratory birds that are caus-
ing or about to cause serious damage
to crops, property, or other interests.
All species of blackbirds, cowbirds,
and grackles may be killed without
permit when such birds are commit-
ting or about to commit depredations
on ornamental trees, shade trees, ag-
Pigeon
ricultural crops, or livestock, or when
such birds become a health hazard or European Starling
a nuisance.”
Chapter 5 - Vertebrate Pest Management - 39

DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM AND PREVENTING DAMAGE
A primary considerations in verte- before undertaking pest control, espe- the time of year; nature and extent of dam-
brate pest control is determining the need cially when protected species are in- age; size of species involved as indicated
for control at all. Individuals may differ volved. However, in most instances legal by tracks, teeth marks, and droppings; and
in their attitudes toward vertebrate pests; restraints limit available options. location of damage.
some people can accept animal damage Fortunately vertebrate control does Once the species has been identified,
which is intolerable by others. not always require lethal means. Most ver- it should be correctly named. Generally
Control seems justifiable if wildlife tebrate pests can be controlled using non- accepted common names are adequate but
pests are destroying agricultural crops or lethal forms of environmental or mechani- colloquial names should not be used. They
facilities or when wildlife is endangering cal control. These tactics avoid clashing often lead to confusion, especially when
human health or safety. The threat of a philosophies as well as government agen- attempting to develop an effective and
wildlife disease to humans or concentra- cies. For example, when robins damage legal pest management program. Legal
tions of birds at airports so dense they col- ripening fruit, a federal permit is required control recommendations are usually
lide with aircraft are two examples that to kill the offending birds but the use of based on accepted common names, al-
easily justify control. protective netting to exclude the birds though scientific names are usually added
Protection of agricultural crops is jus- does not involve a lethal method and no so that there is no confusion.
tifiable, and in some circumstances, even permit is needed. Except for a few spe- In most vertebrate pest control activi-
warranted. This is a grey area where opin- cies, a program designed to limit damage ties, there are several choices of materi-
ion varies. Some farmers, for example, without sacrificing the offending species als and/or methods. Choose the program
support abundant wildlife on their farms, is preferred over a program involving le- that uses only properly registered meth-
so they must be willing to accept more thal means. ods and materials, and use them as pre-
crop damage. The extent of depredation Misidentification of the pest fre- scribed on the label. Using registered ma-
acceptable to a grower depends on the quently complicates control programs. terials in any way other than that speci-
species causing the problem and on the Only occasionally is the pest observed “in fied on the label is as unacceptable as the
grower’s individual philosophy. It is un- the act.” More frequently, identification use of unregistered materials.
likely that any grower would accept mice is made from signs left behind by the pest. Alternative controls may present
in an orchard or rats in a corn crib. On the Since restrictions for vertebrate pest con- fewer hazards to the environment and to
other hand, a grower might accept depre- trol are highly specific, identification must other wildlife species. These include mak-
dations from wild turkeys because this be correct. The choice of material and ing the site inaccessible; moving the pest
bird is valued by most people. method depends on accuracy. One method unharmed to an environment where it is
Protecting structures, tools, and or material might be effective against one not a problem; using a repellent which
equipment may be justified when verte- pest but might be illegal or ineffective makes the susceptible crop or facility un-
brate damage threatens the usefulness of when used against another. Meadow mice desirable; altering the environment to
these facilities. For example, bird drop- are frequently misidentified as moles, yet make it unattractive to the pest; and pre-
pings on surfaces susceptible to deterio- different control techniques are needed for senting the pest with alternative commodi-
ration or rats gnawing holes in buildings. each. ties or facilities. These alternatives should
Regulatory agencies make a final Knowing the vertebrate species in the be considered even when lethal controls
determination in any dispute over the jus- area and their habits helps identify pest appear to be the only answer.
tification for vertebrate pest control. The damage. Proper identification is often a
complainant must demonstrate damage process of elimination and may involve
SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE Maine Regional Warden Service:

Vertebrate pest management often requires help from a public
Ashland 800-624-2512 or 207-435-3231
regulatory agency with responsibilities for wildlife protection. In-
formation on identification of depredating species, legal status, Bangor 800-624-2498 or 207-941-4440
permits, and other assistance can be provided by the U. S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 20240, and by state fish Gray 800-295-2435 or 207-657-2345
and wildlife agencies. In Maine, contact the District Wildlife Biolo- Greenville 800-624-2538 or 207-695-3756
gist, Warden Service, or Department of Inland Fisheries and Wild-
life, 284 State Street, 41 State House Station, Augusta, ME 04333, Sidney 800-292-7436 or 207-547-4145
207-287-8000.

VERTEBRATE PEST CONTROL METHODS
Chemical Control Environmental Control
Very few pesticides are registered for tion turnover is great. This means the an- Damage from vertebrates can often
use in vertebrate pest management pro- nual number of births must at least equal be solved by environmental methods. For
grams, and it is unlikely that the number the number of deaths if the species is to example, removing a crop from the for-
will increase significantly in the near fu- maintain its population. If it were possible est edge where deer are likely to feed;
ture. Registered materials must have la- to prevent this replacement, even over a using resistant varieties, such as corn with
bels which name the target species, the single generation, the population of a spe- tough, heavy husks may reduce its avail-
details of application, and precautions to cific pest would be significantly reduced. ability to birds; good sanitation and man-
be taken. Ideally, a control chemical Theoretically, the numbers of a pest spe- agement practices for stored grains and
should affect only the target species; it cies could then be held at tolerable lev- feeds will help reduce the attractiveness
should not affect other species or the en- els. Certain problems in the field use of of these areas to birds and mammals.
vironment. Unfortunately, very few ma- reproductive inhibitors must be overcome
terials are toxic to only the intended spe- before the method is widely used. Mechanical Control
cies. Chemical repellents can make treated
Careful use minimizes hazard to non- crops or stored products unacceptable by Mechanical control often provides
target species. Factors to consider are: the odor or taste and thus deter feeding. The practical alternatives to chemical use. For
bait on which a toxicant is used; the time offending animals are forced to find a new example, damage from rodent gnawing
of year; and the method and area of chemi- food source in a different location. Toxic can be stopped by placing wire guards
cal placement. Control programs must chemicals can sometimes reduce the num- around trees and shrubs; mechanical traps
also be carefully supervised. bers of an offending species; the use of can capture the offending species; cover-
It is possible to selectively use a rodenticides to reduce orchard mouse ing ripening fruits with netting will ex-
broad-spectrum pesticide (one that affects populations is an example. clude birds.
several species); however, knowledge of
the chemical and the target species is criti-
cal. For example, in apple orchards,
broad-spectrum mouse baits placed in
holes, inside runways, or under cover pro-
tects turkeys by making the bait inacces-
sible to them. Around buildings, pigeons
may be selectively controlled by placing
bait on flat rooftops where it is unlikely
to be found by other bird species, or use
bait particles too large to be eaten by other
birds, or control pigeons during winter
months when most beneficial birds have
migrated south. Labor costs increase when
these special precautions are taken; how-
ever, until selective materials are avail-
able, existing ones must be carefully used
to guard against accidental kills of non-
target species. If society continues to per-
mit the use of existing toxic materials, it
must be willing to absorb the added costs
of careful pest control methods that pro-
tect the environment and beneficial spe-
cies.
Reproductive inhibitors that control
vertebrate populations show promise with
some species. Research is continuing and
may develop birth control for vertebrate An electrified fence keeps raccoons out of sweet corn
pests as an acceptable management tac- using a combination of mechanical control (fence) and
tic. In many species the annual popula- physical control (electric shock).

WILDLIFE STEWARDSHIP Use Extra Care Around z Investigate the use of alternative pest
Natural Areas control tactics, mechanical, cultural,
Ideally, the purchase of a pesticide biological—use IPM.
should be based on more than a simple All wildlife need natural areas in z Guard against pesticide drift and
comparison of cost and performance. It which to feed, rest, reproduce, raise runoff. Apply pesticides under low,
is important to review various pesticide young, and take shelter. Create wildlife directional wind conditions; use
labels and note any hazards to wildlife. habitat by encouraging and promoting the adjuvants when appropriate.
There is often more than one product or growth of native vegetation. This also re- z Use buffer zones of unsprayed crops
management practice that can control a duces mowing costs and saves time. or grass strips adjacent to important
particular pest. Applicators should select habitats to help protect wildlife.
a product that is effective and presents the z Select disease and insect resistant z Adjust application schedules to
fewest potential hazards to nontarget or- trees and shrubs to plant on your reduce likelihood of runoff. Do not
ganisms. Give special attention to the bio- property, thereby reducing the need make pesticide applications when rain
logical and environmental uniqueness— for pesticide use. is imminent. Surface runoff may
the ecology—of the application site, as z Prevent wildlife poisonings by move some pesticides into ponds,
well as adjoining wildlife habitats. Remem- storing pesticides and wildlife feed streams, and wetlands inhabited by
ber, the decision to use a pesticide im- separately. wildlife. In urban areas, such runoff
plies that the user is willing to follow all z Do not feed wildlife near pesticide may flow into storm drains leading
label instructions. Users are encouraged storage and mixing areas. directly to streams and rivers, without
to adopt additional measures, beyond la- z Understand and follow pesticide labels. treatment.
bel guidelines, to protect the integrity of z Keep wildlife habitats in mind when z Multiple pesticide applications may
a habitat and its corresponding wildlife reading labels. have cumulative effects, especially
populations. z Compare labels and select highly during breeding seasons. Reduce
specific products which pose reduced frequency of applications, when
risks to nontarget species. Read the possible, and target each application
label carefully and use the lowest to the specific site of the pest instead
effective rate. of making broad applications over
z Calibrate equipment carefully to entire fields or lawns.
assure that the pesticide is applied at z Control weeds and insects by spot
labeled rates. treating to reduce the amount of
z Ask the retail outlet for the Endan- pesticide applied.
gered Species Bulletin when indi- z Where practical, eliminate the use of
cated by the label, or contact federal pesticides in and around field edges
and state agricultural and conserva- and corners, fence rows, set-aside
tion agencies for bulletins. acreage, nesting sites, vegetation near
z Consult state agricultural agency and streams and wetlands, and areas that
Cooperative Extension Service are dedicated to wildlife.
educators for additional assistance on z Incorporate pesticide granular
label clarification or to determine pesticides into the soil, or water them
potential pesticidal impacts on into turf to protect foraging birds.
wildlife. Also, consult state natural z Never spray leftover pesticides or
resource agencies, natural heritage wash off equipment near wetlands,
programs, and the Nature Conser- rivers, streams, creeks, potholes,
vancy for additional information ponds, marshes, sinkholes, other
about wildlife, native vegetation, and wildlife habitats, or drains leading to
endangered species. these areas. Dispose of leftover
z If you can identify areas that are pesticide in an approved manner as
frequented by wildlife, try to reduce specified by the label.
application rates near those areas, or
avoid spraying entirely.

1. A common feature of all vertebrates is the presence of a 11. State laws may protect those wildlife species that are not
backbone. protected by federal laws.
2. An animal perceived to be a pest by one person may be 12. What state agency should you contact if you have ques-
considered desirable by another. tions regarding identification or control of a pest bird or
(True or False) mammal?
a. Maine Department of Agriculture
3. Any amount of damage caused by wildlife is sufficient b. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
reason for a control program. c. Maine Department of Inland Fisheries & Wildlife
(True or False) d. Maine Fish and Game Commission
e. Animal Control Commission
4. A vertebrate that is causing damage must be accurately
identified before control methods are used. 13. Chemical controls include the use of repellents and re-
(True or False) productive inhibitors as well as lethal vertebrate pesti-
cides.
5. Chemical pesticides are usually the only option for re- (True or False)
ducing the damage caused by vertebrate pests.
(True or False) 14. One of the primary concerns with the use of pesticides to
control vertebrate pests is the potential poisoning of non-
6. Most pesticides used to control vertebrates are selective target animals.
and therefore poisonous only to the target species. (True or False)
(True or False)
15. Which is a mechanical control?
7. Which bird species is not protected by the Migratory a. resistant varieties of crops
Bird Act? b. odor repellents
a. robin c. relocating susceptible crops away from the areas where
b. red-winged blackbird the pest occurs
c. house sparrows d. nets and wire guards
d. bluebird e. all of the above
e. crow
16. Before using lethal methods to control pest wildlife you
8. A permit must be obtained to kill blackbirds, cow birds, must contact the Maine Warden Service or District Wild
and grackles which are damaging or about to damage ag- life Biologist.
ricultural crops or ornamental trees. (True or False)
(True or False)
17. Misidentification of the pest often complicates vertebrate
9. Which of the following could affect the selectivity of an pest control programs.
animal damage control program? (True or False)
a. the kind of bait used
b. the time of year the bait is used
c. the exact placement of the bait
d. the general area baited
e. all of the above
10. Endangered species, but not their habitats, are protected

by law.
(True or False)

CHAPTER 6
Pesticide Formulations
F ORMULATIONS make an ac-

tive ingredient more convenient
to handle; easier, and more accurate to
apply; and in some cases more attractive Some common pesticide formulations:
to the pest. The right formulation can
make the difference between successful Emulsifiable concentrates Water-soluble bags
control and a failed application that does Emulsifiable gels Ready-To-Use
more harm than good. Solutions Water-miscible liquids
The component of a pesticide that con- Soluble powders Oil solutions
trols the target pest is called the active in- Wettable powders Ultralow-volume concentrates
gredient (a.i.). Before a pesticide product Flowables Fogging concentrates
is sold, active ingredients are mixed with Water dispersible granules Aerosol dusts
liquid or dry inert ingredients (nonpesti- Dry flowables Polymeric impregnates
cidal). Inert ingredients do not control the Dusts Shelf papers
pest but can be toxic to humans and the Baits Wood preservatives
environment. These mixtures of active and Granules Wax bars
inert ingredients are called pesticide for- Pellets Insecticidal soaps
mulations. Abbreviations are often used to Aerosols Insecticidal paint
describe the type of formulation, for ex- Fumigants Resin strips
ample, WP indicates wettable powder, EC Microencapsulated Adhesive tapes
is emulsifiable concentrate. Genetically modified organisms Microbial pesticides
A single pesticide is often manufac-
tured in several different formulations. In
2000, Maine had over 7,000 pesticide
products registered for use but these were
formulated from only 500 active ingredi-
ents. The applicator should choose the for-
mulation that will best meet the require-
ments of a particular job. Considerations
include effectiveness against the pest, hab-
its of the pest, the plant, animal or sur-
face to be protected, application equip-
ment, danger of drift and runoff, and pos-
sible injury to the protected surface. Each
formulation has certain advantages and
disadvantages. Formulations vary in their:
z Toxicity
z Potential hazard to the environment
z Application equipment/method required
z Likelihood of causing phytotoxicity
z Cost
z Efficacy of pest control
44 - Chapter 6 - Pesticide Formulations

Emulsifiable concentrates (EC or E) therefore, generally limited to soil and pounds of active ingredient per gallon.
are liquid formulations with the active in- closed structures such as buildings, gra- Low concentrate solutions usually contain
gredient dissolved in one or more petro- naries, and greenhouses. Fumigants are less than 2 pounds of active ingredient per
leum solvents. An emulsifier is added so nonselective in their action. A single fu- gallon.
the formulation will mix readily with wa- migant can kill insects, weed seeds, nema- The advantages and disadvantages of
ter for application. Emulsifiable concen- todes, rodents, fungi, and other pests. solutions vary dramatically, depending on
trates usually contain between 2 and 8 Advantages: the solvents used, the concentration of the
pounds of active ingredient per gallon, z Toxic to a wide range of pests.
active ingredient, and the type of appli-
and, when added to water, form a milky- z Can penetrate cracks, crevices, wood,
cation equipment involved.
white emulsion. and tightly packed areas such as soil
or grain. Aerosols (A) are formulations contain-
z Single treatment usually required.
ing an active ingredient in solution (usu-
ally a petroleum distillate) and packaged
Disadvantages: in a pressurized container. “Bug bombs”
z The most hazardous of all pesticide contain a small amount of active ingredi-
formulations. ent mixed with a propellant that forces the
z Often requires extensive protective contents from the can in a spray or mist.
equipment, including respiratory
protection devices. Advantages:
z Ready to use and easily stored.
z May be formulated with an odorous
warning gas, but this gas usually is Disadvantages:
also highly toxic. z Volatile.
z Creates a fog of very fine particles z Relatively high cost.
ECs are very versatile and can be
that can hang in the air for days. z Risk of inhalation injury.
adapted for use with many types of spray
z Treatment area must be enclosed or z Difficulty in confining the pesticide
equipment.
covered to prevent the gas from to the target site or pest.
Advantages: escaping during application, and for a z Very hazardous if containers are
z Relatively easy to handle, transport, specific period after application. punctured or used/stored near a heat
and store. z Toxic to most beneficial organisms. source.
z Little agitation required. z High drift potential.
z Nonabrasive to equipment. Solutions (S) have an active ingredient z Indoor air pollutant.
z Do not plug screens and nozzles. dissolved in one or more liquid solvents.
They are often ready-to-use without fur- Microencapsulated (ME or MT) pes-
Disadvantages: ther dilution, or they can be diluted with ticides are encased in extremely small
z Volatile; solvent inhalation hazard. a specially refined oil or petroleum sol- capsules and suspended in a liquid car-
z High concentrations of active vent. High concentrate (Ultra Low Vol- rier.
ingredient reduce the margin for error ume, ULV) solutions contain 8 or more
when mixing or applying. Advantages:
z May have high phytotoxicity hazard. z The active ingredient is slowly
z May be easily absorbed through the released over a period of time, often
skin of humans and animals. resulting in better pest control.
z Solvents may cause equipment Disadvantages:
deterioration. z Microencapsulated formulations are
z May be corrosive, causing pitting or nearly insoluble in water and require
discoloration of painted surfaces. agitation to remain in suspension.
zl Should be stored away from heat;
petroleum solvents are flammable. Ready-To-Use (RTU) are used as pur-
z May contain highly toxic inert chased. They may be solutions in highly
ingredients. refined oils that contain low concentra-
tions of the pesticide.
Fumigants are pesticides that are active Low concentrate solutions may be
as gases. Some are formulated as liquids used in the household for flying or crawl-
under pressure and become gas only when ing insects and for mothproofing clothes.
released. Others are solids that release gas
under conditions of high humidity. Read the Label! In barns they are used as space sprays and
fly sprays for livestock. They are also used
Fumigants can leak from any area that as prepared sprays for mosquito control
is not airtight. The use of fumigants is, and shade tree insect control.
Chapter 6 - Pesticide Formulations - 45

Advantages: Dust (D) are formulations containing a Pellets (P) differ from granules only in
z No mixing is necessary; fewer low percentage of active ingredient (0.5 their precise uniformity, larger size, and
chances of making mistakes. to 10 %) plus a finely ground inert sub- shape. They are compressed into cylin-
z The liquid carrier usually evaporates stance such as talc, clay, nut hulls, or vol- ders about ¼ inch long. Herbicides for-
quickly and does not stain. canic ash. Dusts are always used dry; most mulated as pellets usually contain from
Disadvantages: are ready to use as purchased. 5% to 20% active material and are ap-
z Usually expensive for the amount of Advantages: plied by hand to control clumps of brush.
actual pesticide purchased. z Easily handled with low-cost
They also may be applied with spinner
z Uses for these materials are limited. application equipment. spreaders mounted on helicopters or air-
z Effective where a liquid formulation
craft for brush control in blueberries, for-
Bait formulations mix an active ingredi- can cause damage. ests or permanent pastures. Pellets gradu-
ent with an edible substance or attractant. z Ease to apply in hard-to-reach areas. ally break down from rainfall and leach
The bait either attracts pests or is placed Disadvantages: into the soil for root uptake.
where the pest animal will find it. The pest z Easily drift into nontarget areas.
must eat the bait to be affected. Soluble powders (SP) are dry, pow-
z Easily moved from treated surfaces dered formulations containing from 25 to
Baits may be used to control certain by wind and rain.
insects, snails and slugs, rodents and other z Relatively expensive for the small 80 percent active ingredient. Soluble pow-
pest mammals, and birds. Most bait for- ders dissolve in water to form solutions.
amount of active ingredient.
mulations contain a low percentage of z May be irritating to applicator. Advantages:
active ingredient (less than 5 percent). z Reasonable cost.
z High inhalation hazard.
Baits are often used in kitchens, gar- z Easily over-applied. z Easy to store, transport, and handle.
dens, granaries, food storage/processing z Lower phytotoxicity than some liquid
facilities, and refuse disposal areas. Granular (G) formulations are dry, formulations, especially ECs.
z Slower skin and eye absorption than
Advantages: ready-to-use materials usually containing
z Ready to use with no further mixing from 2 to 15 percent active ingredient. ECs.
or special application equipment. Most granules are prepared by applying Disadvantages:
z Used only when needed and then the active ingredient as a liquid to a z With dust-like consistency, they may
removed when the pest is not present. coarse, porous, solid material such as clay be hazardous if the handler breathes
z Non-volatile. or ground corn cobs. the dust during mixing. To avoid this,
Disadvantages: Granules are often contain systemic some are available in soluble packets.
z Baits may be attractive to children
pesticides for soilborne pests. The active These premeasured packets dissolve
and pets. ingredient leaches out, is absorbed by the in the spray tank, thus minimizing
z Domestic animals and wildlife may
roots, and translocated throughout the handling and inhalation exposure.
be affected. plant.
z The target pest may not be controlled Advantages:
Wettable powders (WP) are also dry,
by baits because other available z Ready to use without mixing and easy
finely ground formulations containing
sources of food are more attractive. to apply. from 25 to 80 percent active ingredient.
z Application costs are high relative to z Low drift hazard since the particles
Unlike the soluble powders, wettable
the amount of active ingredient in the are relatively heavy. powders do not dissolve in water. Wet-
formulation. z Lower hazard to user since there is
table powders are mixed with water, and
z Dead pests may cause an odor or usually little dust associated with applied as suspensions.
sanitation problem. granules. Advantages:
z Inexpensive application equipment. z Same as soluble powders
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
z More expensive than WPs or ECs z Same as soluble powders.
relative to the amount of active z Constant agitation is required to
ingredient in the formulation. avoid settling of the particles.
z Do not stick to foliage. z Wear to nozzles and pumps from
z May need soil incorporation, or abrasive spray mix.
require moisture to activate pesticide. z Clogging of sprayer screens and
z May be hazardous to nontarget nozzles.
species. z Difficult to mix in very hard or
z May contain dust posing an inhala- alkaline water.
tion hazard. z Visible residues on treated surfaces.
Bait guns allow accurate placement
into cracks and crevices.

Flowable (F) formulations are finely SELECTING A PESTICIDE Which pesticide will meet your
ground solid particles suspended in a liq- need? If you determine a pesticide is
uid carrier. The solid in a flowable is simi-
Remember, just because you see a needed, read the pesticide labels carefully.
lar to a wettable powder, except it is for-
pest, or pest damage, it does not mean that Choose a product that is specifically la-
mulated to stay suspended in a liquid. Be-
there is an immediate problem that re- beled for the location and effective against
cause flowables usually contain 4 or more
quires chemical treatment. Proper identi- the pest you want to control.
pounds of active ingredient per gallon of
fication of the problem is essential before Which pesticide is best for your
formulation, they should be handled with
you select any type of control. There are situation? Avoid problems by taking the
the same care as ECs and solutions. They
many excellent resources available to help time to carefully study your pesticide
are mixed with water for application. identify pest problems, including trained needs. Your local Cooperative Extension
Advantages: professionals at nurseries and garden cen- office can help with pesticide recommen-
z Same as soluble powders.
ters, the BPC, and your local Extension dations, as well as help you tailor proper
z Need only moderate agitation to stay
office. Before applying a pesticide con- applications to the site. Personal and en-
in suspension. sider the following: vironmental safety are prime concerns.
z Seldom clog nozzles. Consider the site. Read the label
z Do you really need a pesticide?
z Do not present a dust inhalation to be sure that it can be used in the place
z Healthy plants are less susceptible to
hazard when mixing. and the manner you intend. For example,
attack by pests, and good cultural
if the label indicates that the material is
Disadvantages: practices can reduce pest outbreaks.
toxic to fish, do not use it on plants along
z Same as wettable powders. Before you purchase any pesticide,
the border of a pond. If the label requires
you should answer some important
a wait two weeks from the time of appli-
Water-soluble bags (WSB) are avail- questions...
cation until harvest, it should not be used
able for a number of pesticide products z Is the damage actually being caused
on vegetables or fruits that are almost ripe.
and formulations. Pesticides (generally by a pest? Could it be the weather or
Consider all uses of the site to which the
DF or WDG) are packaged in polyvinyl a cultural practice, such as over- or
pesticide will be applied and protect chil-
alcohol-based bags that readily dissolve underwatering, fertilizer, or herbicide
dren, pets, and wildlife by careful pesti-
in water. WSBs offer improved handling damage, etc.)?
cide selection and use.
safety, reduced waste disposal, and mea- z If it is a pest, what kind is it? Insect?
What application equipment
sured-dose convenience. Disease? Animal? Rodent?
and personal protective equipment
z Are there non-chemical ways to
does the label require? Do you have
Emulsifiable gels (EG) are emulsifi- control it? Is the damage severe
the gear? If not, are you willing to pur-
able liquids formulated as gels. The gel- enough to warrant chemical control?
chase, use, and maintain it? Do you want
ling process reduces the need for water- z Is pesticide use cost-effective? Or
a pesticide that must be mixed and loaded
free solvents. They are typically packaged would the chemical treatment cost
into a sprayer, or will a pre-mixed, “ready-
in water-soluble bags (WSB) and stable more than the plant is worth?
to-use” product in a spray bottle be more
from -20° to 50°C. z Can the pest be controlled by a
appropriate to your needs?
chemical at this stage of its life cycle,
Minimize waste. You should pur-
Water dispersible granules (WDG) or would application at a different
chase only the amount of pesticide you
or Dry flowables (DF) are similar to time be more effective?
anticipate using in one season. Most pes-
wettable powders, except the active in- ticides have a limited shelf life. If pesti-
gredient is in a granular form rather than cides are stored, they must be protected
a powder. They pour easily into the from extreme heat and cold, and must be
sprayer tank without clumping or produc- kept in a secure, locked place. Read the
ing a cloud of dust.The granules are mixed storage section of the product label prior
with water and disperse on contact with to purchase, and do not buy a product that
water. The resulting spray mix has all the you can’t store as directed. Also, remem-
characteristics of a flowable or a finely ber that pesticides must be kept in their
dispersed wettable powder in water. original container with the label intact.
Advantages: Choose the least toxic product.
z Same as wettable powders. Compare pesticides based on how hazard-
z More easily measured and mixed. ous they are. The signal word on the la-
z The reduction in dust-like particles bel indicates a product’s toxicity. For ex-
lowers the inhalation hazard to the ample, products marked CAUTION are
user during pouring and mixing. less toxic than those marked WARNING,
and should be considered first.
Disadvantages: Read the label. Environmental
z Same as wettable powders.
hazards are reported on the label. Be es-

pecially cautious with pesticides contain- be sprayed. Unless labels specify Care should be exercised before us-
ing warnings regarding impact on water. otherwise, pesticides should be added ing adjuvants. Some labels very clearly
Carefully read the disposal direc- in this order: wettable powders, prohibit their addition; others are quite
tions. Be sure you can properly dispose flowables, soluble powders, surfac- specific about what type of adjuvant that
of any unused or unwanted pesticide and tants, and ECs. Agitate after each can be used and when it should be added
the pesticide’s container according to the addition. to a spray mixture.
manufacturer’s recommended method. 5. Shake the jar vigorously and let it
stand for approximately 15 minutes. SYNERGISTS
PESTICIDE MIXTURES If scum, clumps, or any precipitates
form, the mixture is probably Synergists, which have little or no ac-
Mixtures of pesticides offer the ad- incompatible. tivity of their own, are commonly added
vantage of controlling more than one pest 6. Do not use any mixture that gives off to pesticide formulations to enhance the
with a single application thus saving time, heat. This is an indication that a activity of the active ingredient(s). Syn-
labor, and fuel. chemical reaction has occurred. ergists are used frequently with pyrethrin
It is important to remember that not Properties of some of the products and pyrethroid insecticides.
all pesticides work well in combination. could be changed drastically. One of the more common synergists,
Two or more pesticides which can be 7. Test the mix on the plant species to PBO, comes from safrole, a naturally oc-
mixed together are said to be compatible. which it will be applied (under similar curring chemical found in sassafras oil.
Pesticides that cannot be effectively conditions, if possible). Sassafras oil was once commercially ex-
mixed are incompatible. Chemical or 8. If the jar test ends with unusable tracted from the roots of the common
physical separation of ingredients into material, it must be disposed of as North American tree (Sassafras albidum)
layers, globules, clumps, precipitates, or hazardous waste. but production has now shifted to tropi-
gels, indicates the products are incompat- cal species found in China, Brazil, and
ible. Incompatibility can result in: ADJUVANTS Viet Nam. Safrole is reacted with
butylcarbityl to make (Butylcarbityl) (6-
z loss of effectiveness against the target
An adjuvant is a chemical added to a Propylpipero-nyl), commonly known as
pests.
pesticide formulation or mixture to im- piperonyl butoxide or PBO. Because the
z phytotoxicity.
prove its performance and safety. Many final product requires a chemical reaction,
z increased hazard to the applicator or
formulations contain at least a small per- some groups feel PBO is no longer a
treated animals.
centage of one or more adjuvants. purely botanical, organic ingredient.
z clogging of equipment lines, pumps,
For maximum control a spray drop-
and tanks.
let must “wet” the treated surface and
z death of the microbe (in microbial
spread uniformly over the treated area
pesticides).
rather than bead up like dew. Applications
Pesticides are frequently combined to plants with very waxy or hairy leaves
by the manufacturer in premixes, but they often require the inclusion of a surfactant
are more often mixed by the applicator. to the spray mixture. Surfactants are “sur-
Before mixing pesticides, or a pesticide face active agents” that reduce the sur-
and fertilizer, read the label. Although face tension of spray droplets and alter
tank mixing is a common and legal prac- the dispersing, spreading, and/or wetting
tice, the compatibility of many pesticide properties of spray droplets. Wetting
combinations is still unknown. Therefore, agents and spreaders are the adjuvants
applicators may need to do some compat- most frequently used by pesticide appli-
ibility testing of their own by using the cators; they are often referred to simply
simple jar test described below: as surfactants.
1. Wear the proper protective gear to Stickers, penetrants, and safeners are
prevent inhalation, skin, or eye adjuvants that influence the adherence,
exposure during the test. absorption, or phytotoxicity of a pesticide
2. Use a large, clean, clear glass mixture on a treated surface. Crop-oil con- The synergist piperonyl
container like a one quart jar. centrates help break down layers of plant butoxide (PBO) is derived
3. Use the same water you will use in wax and aids absorption of herbicides. from the oil of sassafras.
your tank mix. Buffers, compatibility agents, emulsifiers,
4. Add the products in question in the and antifoaming agents affect the mixing,
same proportions as you will mix handling, and longevity of a pesticide mix-
them, in the same sequence, and at the ture. Foaming agents, drift retardants, and
same temperature at which they will thickeners reduce drift during application.

1. The component of a pesticide formulation that controls 11. Which is a true statement about fumigant formulations?
the pest is the ________________ ingredient. a. Fumigants are pesticides that are active as gases.
b. The use of fumigants is limited to soil and enclosed
2. Pesticide formulations vary in their risk to the user, the structures and containers.
environment, and the crop to be treated; their efficacy; c. Fumigants are toxic to a wide range of pests.
and their cost. d. Fumigants are the most hazardous of the pesticide for-
(True or False) mulations.
e. All of the above.
3. Which is a disadvantage of a wettable powder pesticide?
a. higher phytotoxicity hazard 12. Two or more pesticides which cannot be effectively mixed
b. may be easily absorbed through human and animal together are said to be ____________________.
skin
c. flammability 13. When adding two or more pesticides into a spray tank,
d. easily clog nozzles and screens always add the liquid formulations first.
e. may damage painted surfaces (True or False)
4. Which formulation dissolves in water? 14. Adjuvants are often required when making pesticide ap-
a. wettable powders plications to very ___________ or ___________leaves.
b. flowables
c. water dispersible granules 15. Adjuvants can be added to any pesticide spray mixture.
d. soluble powders (True or False)
e. none of the above
5. Inhaling dust is a potential hazard associated with

the mixing of wettable powders and soluble powders.
(True or False)
6. Which pesticide formulation must be mixed with water

before being used by the applicator?
a. baits
b. granules
c. aerosols
d. dusts
e. flowables
7. When added to water, emulsifiable concentrates form

emulsions.
(True or False)
8. Most bait formulations have 50 percent or more active

ingredient.
(True or False)
9. Extreme care must be exercised when placing baits to

make them inaccessible to children, pets, and other non-
target species.
(True or False)
10. Incineration is a recommended disposal procedure for

empty aerosol containers.
(True or False)

CHAPTER 7
Toxicity and Health
P ESTICIDES can control pests

because they are poisonous, or
toxic. Toxicity is the capacity of a pesti-
risk, of using a toxic chemical is always Applicators have a legal and moral
based on two things—its ability to harm responsibility to handle pesticides prop-
and the ease with which a person can come erly. The proper attitude is of utmost im-
cide to cause injury; it is a property of the in contact with the chemical. portance. The best way to avoid or mini-
chemical itself. However, a toxic effect mize pesticide hazards is to carefully read
can only occur where there is exposure—
Risk = Toxicity x Exposure the label and follow instructions; to know
only after the pesticide is absorbed, in- This relationship indicates that an acci- what material you are using and how to
haled, or swallowed. The risk that harm dent with a very toxic pesticide, but very use it. By taking adequate precautions,
will come from pesticide use is often brief exposure, might have the same practicing good management, and always
equated with toxicity alone, but they are amount of risk as a very long exposure to keeping safety in mind, we can minimize
not necessarily the same. The hazard, or a relatively nontoxic pesticide. pesticide accidents.
Common ways in which you may be exposed to pesticides

Dermal Exposure Oral Exposure Inhalation Exposure Eye Exposure
Not washing hands Not washing Handling pesticides Rubbing eyes or

after handling hands before in confined or poorly forehead with
pesticides or their eating, smoking ventilated areas contaminated
containers or chewing gloves or hands
Splashing / spilling Splashing pesticide Handling dusts or Splashing

pesticide on skin into mouth powders pesticide in eyes
Wearing pesticide- Storing Using an inadequate Pouring dry

contaminated pesticide in or poorly fitting formulations
clothing or footwear drink containers respirator without wearing
goggles
Applying pesticides Accidentally Being exposed to Applying

in windy weather applying pesticides drift pesticides in
to food windy weather
Touching treated Eating produce Not washing hands

plants or soil before days-to-harvest before using tobacco
or preharvest interval products
Exposure to drift
50 - Chapter 7 - Toxicity and Health

EXPOSURE: HOW PESTICIDES ENTER THE BODY
Obviously you must be exposed to pesticides before they can affect you. Topical exposure can damage the skin or eyes, but
the most harmful toxic effects usually involve internal exposure through the mouth and lungs. Preventing exposure is the key to
pesticide safety. Be sure to follow label directions and wear the proper PPE; see Chapter 9, Using Pesticides Properly. There
are four main routes of entry into the body:
Scalp 3.7 Jaw 4.0

Skin
Palm 1.3
Absorption through the skin, or dermal exposure, Forehead 4.2
is usually the major route of pesticide entry into the body. Back of hand 2.3
Skin absorption is the result of splash, spill, or drift when Forearm 1.0
mixing, loading, applying, or disposing of pesticides. It Ear 5.4
may also involve exposure to crop residue, or cleaning
and repairing contaminated equipment. Armpit 7.5 Abdomen
Different parts of the body vary in their ability to
absorb pesticides. The scrotal area, head, underarms, and
back of hands tend to be the most absorptive, although
Scrotum 11.8
cuts, abrasions, and skin rashes can enhance absorption
anywhere. Even a small amount of chemical can cause Ball of foot 1.6
significant exposure if allowed to remain on the skin.
Pesticide formulations also vary in their absorbency
Pesticide absorption rates vary for different areas of the
through skin. In general, wettable powders, dusts, and body. A higher rate increases the exposure and the risk
granular pesticides are not as readily absorbed as soluble of injury (data for parathion).
or oil-based liquid formulations, such as emulsifiable
concentrates.
Eyes The eyes can absorb large

The eyes are very sensitive to chemicals, and, con- amounts of pesticides.
sidering their size, are able to absorb surprisingly large Pinpoint pupils may be a
symptom of pesticide
amounts. Serious eye exposure can result from a splash,
poisoning by any route.
spill, drift, or rubbing the eyes with contaminated hands
or clothing. Many oil-based formulations can cause ir-
reversible eye damage.
Mouth
Pesticide absorption through the mouth, or oral ex-
posure, can occur if liquid concentrates splash into the
mouth when mixing or cleaning equipment, or using your
mouth to clear a spray line or siphon a pesticide (never
Many pesticides are rapidly,
do this!) Chemicals can also be swallowed when eating,
and completely absorbed by
drinking, smoking, even licking one’s lips. Wash hands the intestinal tract.
and face thoroughly before eating, drinking, or smoking.
Oral exposure occurs most frequently when prod-
ucts are taken from the original, labeled container and
put into an unlabeled, or reused container, especially
something for food storage such as a soda bottle. Unfor-
tunately, most victims are children.
Lungs
You can inhale powders, dusts, gases, vapors, and
small spray droplets when handling pesticides, especially Once in the lungs,
in confined areas. Inahlation exposure can also occur pesticides quickly, and
after pesticide use by using tobacco before washing your completely enter the
bloodstream.
hands. If inhaled in sufficient amounts, pesticides will
cause damage to the nose, throat, lung, brain, or even
cause death.
Chapter 7 - Toxicity and Health - 51

TOXICITY AND POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES
Acute Toxicity ments include, parts per billion (ppb), and high LD50 values (greater than 5,000 mg/
parts per trillion (ppt). These vanishingly kg) are considered the least acutely toxic
Acute effects—the immediate injuries small amounts are still significant—doses to humans when used according to the la-
from a single pesticide exposure, by any in the ppb range may still cause severe in- bel directions. As an example, suppose a
route of entry—are measured in test ani- jury. The following list demonstrates just pesticide, called No Pest, has an active
mals through the four routes of entry. how small these concentrations are: ingredient with an oral LD50, for male
Lethal doses are calculated statistically rats, of 50 mg/kg. Assuming humans have
and expressed as an LD50 (lethal-dose- 1 part per million (ppm) equal susceptibility, a lethal dose for a 150
fifty) or an LC50 (lethal-concentration- = 1 milligram per kilogram pound (68 kg) person is 50mg/kg X 68kg
fifty). The LD50 value is the amount or = 1 ounce of salt in 62,500 = 3.4 grams, just over a tenth of an ounce.
concentration of an active ingredient re- pounds of sugar For an active ingredient with an LD50 of
quired to kill 50 percent of a test animal = 1 inch in 16 miles 5,000 mg/kg, a lethal dose is 5000mg/kg
= 1 minute in 2 years
population. X 68kg = 340 grams, or 3/4 of a pound.
LD50s are expressed by the ratio of 1 part per billion (ppb)
the milligrams of active ingredient re- Signal Words
quired for each kilogram of animal = 1 square foot in 36
square miles Pesticides are grouped into four cat-
weight—or milligrams per kilogram (mg/
= 1 inch in 16,000 miles
kg). A gram is a small weight in human egories based on their acute toxicities, as
= 1 second in 32 years
terms—the weight of a paper clip. A mil- well as their potential for burns, eye ef-
ligram is one thousandth of a gram; a very 1 part per trillion (ppt) fects, birth defects, and cancer. Each cat-
small amount—the weight of a grain of egory is associated with a specific signal
= 1 pinch of salt in 10,000
salt. A kilogram is 1,000 grams, or about tons of potato chips word.
2.2 pounds. = 1 inch in 16,000,000 miles Pesticides that are highly toxic,
The proportion mg/kg, or one thou- = 1 second in 32,000 years through any route of entry, must promi-
sandth of a gram to one thousand grams, nently display the signal words DANGER
is one to one million. This provides an- The LD50 and LC50 values are use- and POISON (in red letters), and a skull
other way of expressing toxic doses: parts ful in comparing the acute toxicity of dif- and crossbones, on the package label, as
per million (ppm). One part per million ferent active ingredients, and different for- well as PELIGRO, the Spanish word for
means that every million parts of a solution mulations that use the same active ingre- danger. The acute oral LD50 values for
or mixture will have just one part of the dient. A low LD50 (less than 50 mg/kg) highly toxic (category I) pesticide prod-
active ingredient. The measures mg/kg and indicates a highly toxic pesticide; only a ucts range from a trace to 50 mg/kg. As
ppm are interchangeable. Other units used small amount is required to kill 50 per- little as a few drops taken orally could be
for environmental and residue measure- cent of a test population. Pesticides with fatal to a 150-pound person.
Acute pesticide toxicity and signal words

Category I Category II Category III Category IV
Measure of Toxicity
Highly Toxic Moderately Toxic Slightly Toxic Relatively Nontoxic
DANGER or
Signal Word(s)/ Symbol DANGER/POISON WARNING CAUTION CAUTION
w/ skull & crossbones
Oral LD50 (mg/kg) 0-50 50-500 500-5,000 >5,000
Approximate oral lethal A few drops to 1 teaspoon to 1 ounce to >1 pint or

dose for a 150 lb person 1 teaspoon 1 ounce 1 pint or 1 pound >1 pound
Dermal LD50 (mg/kg) 0-200 200-2,000 2,000-20,000 >20,000
Inhalation LC50 gas 0-0.2 0.2-2 2-20

>20
or vapor (mg/liter) (0-2,000 ppm) (2,000-20,000 ppm) (<20,000 ppm)
Irritation persists Irritation reversible

Effects on eyes Corrosive None
for 7 days within 7 days
Effects on skin Corrosive Severe irritation Moderate irritaion Mild irritation

The signal word DANGER, without There is considerable concern because the steps for reducing the risk. These include
the skull and crossbones symbol (category endocrine hormones regulate growth, re- cancellation, additional label statements,
I), indicates that skin irritation or eye ef- production, metabolism, and immunity; changes to label directions, and classifi-
fects are more severe than suggested by they guide physical development, maintain cation as restricted-use.
the acute toxicity (LD50) of the product. reproductive cycles, and ensure normal
Pesticide products considered mod- balance of normal systems. One group of Federal Resources
erately toxic (category II) must have the endocrine hormones, the estrogens, seem
signal words WARNING and AVISO especially sensitive to environmental EPA—Office of Pesticide Programs
(Spanish) displayed on the label. They chemicals. These hormones regulate sexual and Toxic Substances (OPPTS).
cause reversible eye damage and skin characteristics. This office is responsible for overall pes-
burns. Acute oral LD50 values range from Estrogenic effects can be subtle and ticide regulation. Specific programs in-
50 to 500 mg/kg. From 1 teaspoonful to 1 complex; environmental chemicals may af- clude the promotion of the reduction of
ounce of this material is fatal to a 150- fect different organs in different animals, pesticide use, establishment of tolerance
pound person. and may be active during different devel- levels for food, and the investigation of
Pesticide products classified as either opmental stages. Environmental estrogens, pesticide releases and exposure events.
slightly toxic or relatively nontoxic (cat- can mimic natural estrogens, reducing their EPA – OPPTS
Ariel Rios Building
egories III and IV) are required to have effect. The anti-estrogens can entirely
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
the signal word CAUTION on the pesti- block or cancel hormone actions. Environ- Telephone: 703-305-7090
cide label. Acute oral LD50 values are mental disrupters, or modulators, can al- http://www.epa.gov/oppts/index.htm
greater than 500 mg/kg for category III, or ter the interaction of natural hormones and
greater than 5,000 mg/kg for category IV. protein receptors on target cells. Occupational Safety and Health Ad-
ministration (OSHA). OSHA sets pro-
Delayed Effects Chronic Toxicity tective workplace standards, enforces the
Although one must be mindful of standards, and offers employers and em-
Delayed effects are illnesses or inju-
acute effects, an applicator must never be- ployees technical assistance and consulta-
ries that do not appear immediately after
come apathetic to the long term effects of tion programs.
pesticide exposure. They may be delayed
pesticide exposure. Chronic effects accu- OSHA – US DOL
for weeks, months, or even years. Delayed
mulate from small pesticide doses repeated Room N3647
effects depend on the pesticide; the extent, Constitution Ave NW
over a period of time.
frequency, and route of exposure(s); an Washington, DC 20210
individual’s genes; and their lifestyle Telephone: 202-219-8021
(smoking, drinking, prescription drugs, Chronic effects http://www.osha.gov
etc.) These effects may be detected in labo- Teratogenesis — birth defects

ratory experiments, but predicting delayed Fetotoxic effects — toxicity to a fetusFood and Drug Administration
effects is complicated by the time lapse be- Oncogenesis — (FDA). The Science Advisory Board to
production of tumors
tween exposure and observable effects, and Carcinogenesis — cancer causing the National Center for Toxicological
the possibility of other exposures that may Mutagenesis — genetic changes Research is charged with examining the
have occurred during the delay that con- Hemotoxic effects — blood disorders biological effects of potentially toxic sub-
tribute to the effect. The label will state Neurotoxic effects — nerve disorder stances found in the environment through
any known delayed effects as well as how Reproductive effects — reproductive disorders
fundamental investigations aimed at un-
to avoid exposures. derstanding the mechanisms of actions of
those substances in animals and develop-
Estrogenic Effects Chronic toxicity is more difficult to ing a better understanding of what this
determine than acute toxicity; laboratory data in animals means for man.
Many widely dispersed synthetic studies often last days, months, or years. FDA National Center for Toxicological Research
chemicals, including flame retardants, com- There is no standard measure, such as 5600 Fishers Lane
bustion pollutants, plastic ingredients, and LD50, for chronic toxicity studies—the Rockville, MD 20857
pesticides, may alter or interfere with the length of the experiment, the applied dos- Telephone: 301-443-3170
http://www.fda.gov/nctr/
body’s endocrine system. They are often age, and the observed effects are reported.
referred to as environmental chemicals be- For example, a study of chronic, oral tox- Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
cause they are free in the environment; icity might state "8 milligrams of pesti- www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/pestadd.html
some may be present in our food, air, or cide were fed to rats daily for two years.
water. These chemicals have been associ- No symptoms of poisoning appeared."
ated with health and reproductive problems When there is clear evidence that a
in wildlife and laboratory animals; some pesticide causes chronic effects in hu-
may affect human health in similar ways. mans, the EPA determines appropriate

PESTICIDE RISK ASSESSMENT
There are more than 865 active in- Hazard Identification Wildlife toxicology tests required
gredients registered as pesticides. These by EPA
are formulated into thousands of pesticide Hazard identification evaluates the
type of health effects that may occur from Daphnid acute & chronic toxicity tests
products. EPA plays a critical role in
evaluating these chemicals before regis- different pesticide exposures. This is done Mysid shrimp acute & chronic toxicity tests
tering them for use, and in reevaluating principally through laboratory studies. Oyster acute toxicity test
older pesticides already on the market, to Test animals receive a wide range of ex- Oyster bioconcentration test
ensure they can be used with a reason- posures, from so small that no effect is Oyster shell growth test
able certainty of no harm. seen, to doses that are equivalent to ex- Penaeid shrimp growth test
Toxicity is an inherent property of all treme human exposure. These tests are Acute fish test, cold-warm & fresh-salt water
substances. Every chemical can produce analyzed for potential toxic effects to hu- Fish bioconcentration tests - fresh water
adverse health effects at some level of mans (of all ages), wildlife, and the envi- Fish early life stage test - fresh & salt water
exposure. This relationship is character- ronment.
Avian dietary & single-dose tests
ized by the equation: Avian reproduction test - mallard, bobwhite quail
Risk = Toxicity x Exposure. Dose-Response Assessment Wild mammal toxicity tests - skunk, wolf, fox, rodent
EPA attempts to measure the risks of ad-
Special avian & mammalian tests
verse health effects by evaluating this Dose-response assessment measures
the dose levels at which adverse effects are Algal acute toxicity tests
equation for every registered pesticide, in
observed in test animals in order to calcu- Seed germination/root elongation toxicity tests
every possible exposure.
late equivalent doses for humans. This in- Plant uptake & translocation tests
The risk assessment process, for a
single chemical, requires the manufacturer volves the techniques of toxicology—the Small pen/field studies
(registrant) to conduct, analyze, and pay study of the adverse effects of chemicals
for up to 142 different scientific tests. on living organisms. Exposure Assessment
These tests define product chemistry, risks Acute testing. Short-term exposure
to humans, domestic animals, and wild- to a single, oral, dermal, or inhalation ex- Food. Many of the foods we eat have
life; and the environmental fate of the pes- posure is used to measure eye irritation, been grown with the use of pesticides.
ticide. Collecting this data, for a single skin irritation, skin sensitization, and neu- Pesticide residues may remain inside or
compound, may take 6-10 years and cost rotoxicity. LD50 values are measured for on the surfaces of these foods. Before al-
millions of dollars. lab animals (rats, rabbits, mice, and guinea lowing the use of a pesticide on food
EPA uses the National Research pigs) and wildlife indicator species. crops, EPA sets a tolerance—the maxi-
Council’s four-step process for risk as- Sub-chronic testing. Intermediate mum amount of pesticide residue allowed
sessment: exposure looks at repeated exposure over to remain in, or on, each treated food com-
a longer period of time (30-90 days). modity. The tolerance applies to all food
1. Hazard Identification
Chronic toxicity testing. This in- grown in the U.S. and all imported food.
2. Dose-Response Assessment Residues above the tolerance are subject
volves long-term, repeated exposure, last-
3. Exposure Assessment to federal action, including seizure of all
ing for most of a test animal’s life span.
4. Risk Characterization
Developmental and reproduc- contaminated food.
tive testing. These studies identify birth Home and personal use. Pesti-
Typical wildlife indicator species defects in the fetus of exposed pregnant cides are commonly used around the home
females and how pesticide exposure af- creating the potential for risk. In 1996,
Upland game birds — northern bobwhite fects the ability of a test animal to suc- the EPA estimated about three-fourths of
Waterfowl — mallard cessfully reproduce. the nation’s 100 million households used
Mammals — mink, rat Mutagenicity testing evaluates a pesticides. Insecticides were used in 56
Estuarine/marine fish — sheepshead minnow pesticide’s potential to affect the cell’s million; fungicides in 38 million; herbi-
Freshwater fish genetic components. cides in 14 million; repellents in 17 mil-
cold water — rainbow trout Hormone disruption measures the lion; and disinfectants in 42 million.
warm water — bluegill
effects to the endocrine system. Drinking water. Some pesticides that
Crustaceans
freshwater —daphnia Wildlife testing. Selected species, runoff treated surfaces or are applied di-
estuarine/marine — mysid shrimp known as wildlife indicator species, are rectly to the soil can make their way to the
Terrestrial plants —corn, soybeans, used to broadly represent nontarget organ- ground water or surface water systems that
ryegrass, lettuce,
carrot, sugar beets isms. They provide an information base feed drinking water supplies.
Aquatic plants — green algae, for assessing potential risks to a broad Worker exposure. Pesticide appli-
diatoms, duckweed range of nontarget birds, mammals, fish, cators, vegetable and fruit pickers, and
Insects — honeybee
aquatic invertebrates, predatory insects, others who work around pesticides can be
Marine mollusk — eastern oyster
insect pollinators, and plants. exposed by the nature of their jobs.

Wildlife exposure. An estimate of for use. EPA is reassessing the 9,700 pes- announce its reasons and offer the regis-
wildlife exposure to pesticide residue in ticide and other ingredient tolerances and trant a formal hearing to present opposing
the environment must be determined—the exemptions that were in effect as of Au- evidence. Because the cancellation process
Estimated Environmental Concentration gust 3, 1996 when the FQPA was signed. can be very time and resource intensive,
(EEC). For example, the EEC for birds and Exposure from all sources. In EPA often will employ a more informal pro-
mammals is the concentration of the pesti- evaluating a pesticide, EPA must estimate cess known as Special Review. This offers
cide in, or on, foods that they might con- the combined risk of a pesticide from all opportunities for interested parties, on all
sume. The EEC for aquatic organisms may non-occupational sources, including, sides, to comment and present evidence of
be a range of concentrations representing food, drinking water, and residential the risks and benefits of a pesticide. In many
typical and worst-case exposures, of run- sources. cases a Special Review can modify the reg-
off or spray drift, that may occur in bodies Cumulative risk. EPA must evalu- istration to sufficiently reduce risk and
of water adjacent to treated fields. ate pesticides that share a common mecha- avoid a formal hearing.
nism of toxicity and their potential for
Risk Characterization combined effects. Cancellation
Special sensitivity of children
Risk characterization combines the to pesticides. EPA must evaluate the If the Special Review process fails to
hazard, dose-response, and exposure data possibility of increased pesticide risk for resolve the issues, or if the problem is se-
to describe the overall risk of a pesticide. infants and children. If necessary, EPA vere enough, EPA may issue a Notice of In-
It includes a summary of assumptions, sci- must build an additional 10-fold safety tent to Cancel Registration.
entific uncertainties, and the strengths and factor into risk assessments to ensure their If no hearing is requested within 30
limitations of the analyses. protection. days of the notice, the pesticide’s regis-
To establish the highest allowable tration is immediately cancelled. If a hear-
human exposure, animal data are analyzed ing is requested, it is conducted in a trial-
to determine the No Observed Effects Level like manner before an EPA Administra-
(NOEL)—the pesticide concentration in tive Law Judge, who recommends a deci-
the total diet that causes no effect in treated sion to the EPA Administrator. The pro-
animals, when compared to untreated ani- cess may take two years or more, and the
mals maintained under identical condi- decision may still be appealed. If there is
tions. The goal is to identify a human Ref- no appeal, all registrations of the pesticide
erence Dose (RfD), also known as the Ac- are automatically cancelled, and the prod-
ceptable Daily Intake (ADI)—the amount ucts may no longer be sold or distributed
of chemical that can be consumed daily in the United States.
for a lifetime without causing ill effects. To There is often a specified phase out
account for the biological differences be- date for a cancelled product. Anyone with
tween humans and test animals, the NOEL the product may use it up to the specified
is divided by a safety factor of 10; an ad- date; after that, the prohibition extends even
ditional factor of 10 is applied to account to products already in the hands of the end
for especially sensitive adults. If testing user. For disposal options, call the BPC.
reveals any special hazards for children,
a third safety factor of 10 is applied to RISK MANAGEMENT Suspension
the NOEL.
Using the process of risk assessment, During the entire cancellation pro-
The Food Quality EPA can make an informed decision re- cess, the pesticide can remain on the mar-
Protection Act garding the registration of a pesticide, but ket; no regulatory restrictions are imposed.
registration does not end EPA’s oversight If EPA believes this poses unacceptably
In 1996, Congress made significant or the responsibility of the manufacturer. high risk, the Agency may issue a suspen-
changes to strengthen pesticide laws New data on registered products some- sion order that immediately bans sale or
through the Food Quality Protection Act times reveal a problem that was unknown use of the pesticide while the decision is
(FQPA). Many of these changes are key at registration. under review.
elements of the current risk assessment In order to issue a suspension order,
process. FQPA requires that EPA consider: Special Review EPA must find that use of the pesticide
A new safety standard. FQPA poses an imminent hazard. In most cases,
strengthens the safety standard that pesti- If EPA seeks to revoke or alter the reg- EPA must first offer the registrant an ex-
cides must meet before being approved istration of a pesticide, the Agency must first pedited hearing on the suspension issues.

HOW PESTICIDES POISON nerve cells, or neurons. Nerve cells do not brow headache, and severe irritation and
physically touch each other; there is a gap, reddening of the eyes. The symptoms of
Insecticides or synapse, between cells. Nerve impulses internal poisonings are almost entirely due
pass the message to the next cell by using to the accumulation of acetylcholine in the
Organophosphates and car- a chemical transmitter, acetylcholine. Af- nervous system. Early symptoms depend
bamates. Organophosphate (OP) insec- ter the impulse is transmitted, acetylcho- on the route of entry and the severity of
ticides including, azinphos-methyl, line is broken down by an enzyme known exposure. If the pesticide is ingested, gas-
chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dimethoate, as cholinesterase. This stops further trans- tric symptoms such as stomach cramps,
malathion, parathion, terbufos, and many mission and the prepares the synapse for nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea appear
others, as well as the N-methyl carbam- new transmissions. early. If the pesticide is inhaled, the first
ates, such as carbaryl, carbofuran, metho- Organophosphate and carbamate in- symptoms are salivation, headache, diz-
myl, aldicarb, thiodicarb, propoxur, and secticides are cholinesterase inhibitors— ziness, excessive secretions, and breath-
others, have become the most widely used they block the activity of cholinesterase. ing difficulties. If the pesticide is absorbed
insecticides today. These materials inhibit Without cholinesterase to control the through the skin, stomach, intestinal, and
the enzyme cholinesterase and interfere transmission, acetylcholine floods the cell respiratory symptoms usually appear si-
with the normal function of the nervous sys- junction causing an uncontrolled flow of multaneously. In children, the first symp-
tem. Many animals including insects, fish, nervous signals. This effect is lethal to in- tom of poisoning may be convulsion.
birds, and mammals use cholinesterase in sects but it may affect humans in the same In advanced poisonings, the victim is
their nervous systems. Exposure to OPs or way. pale, sweating, and frothing at the mouth.
carbamates effects humans (at the cellular The effects of human OP or carbam- The pupils are constricted and nonrespon-
level) in exactly the same way it effects ate poisoning exhibit internal and external sive to light. There may be changes in heart
insects. symptoms. Carbamate poisonings tend to rate, muscle weakness, respiratory failure
To understand the toxic action of or- be of shorter duration. According to the mental confusion, convulsions, and coma.
ganophosphate and carbamate insecticides, American Journal of Emergency Medicine, The victim may die if not treated.
one needs to know a little bit about the ner- OP and N-methyl carbamate insecticides Cholinesterase Testing. Applica-
vous system. The human nervous system, caused 934 moderate to major poisonings, tors who regularly work with OPs and car-
including the brain, controls the body’s and 5 deaths in 1999. bamates should consider having periodic
communication system by networking Exposure of the eye can cause constric- cholinesterase tests. Because cholinest-
electrical signals through millions of tion of the pupils, blurring of vision, an eye- erase levels vary considerably between in-
Cholinesterase Inhibitors
Electrical nerve impulses are transmitted across

the junction of two nerve cells (a synapse) when + +
acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) is released by - -
one cell and absorbed by the next.
After transmission, an enzyme, cholinesterase

(ChE), is signaled to break the impulse and clear
the synapse by cleaving and recycling the
acetylcholine molecules.
If cholinesterase is inhibited by an
organophosphate or carbamate insecticide, + + + +
acetylcholine floods the gap and the nerves - - - -
transmit an uncontrolled flow of impulses.

dividuals, a baseline must be established cypermethrin, fenvalerate, permethrin, lergen, probably due mainly to non-insec-
for each person. Determining a baseline resmethrin, and many others. They are ticidal ingredients. Contact dermatitis and
value often requires two tests performed similar chemically to natural pyrethrins, allergic respiratory reactions have oc-
at least 72 hours but not more than 14 days but modified to increase stability. Sys- curred following exposures. They are ef-
apart. If these two tests differ by as much temic toxicity by inhalation and dermal fectively hydrolyzed to inert products in
as 20%, a third test is often recommended. absorption is low. The most severe, al- the liver. Pyrethrins themselves do not in-
Take baseline measurements when pesti- though more uncommon, toxicity is to the hibit the cholinesterase enzyme.
cides are not being used, or at least 30 central nervous system; seizures have Rotenone. Rotenone products have
days from the most recent exposure. Cho- been reported in severe cases. Other ef- presented minor hazard to humans over
linesterase tests repeated during periods fects include abnormal facial sensation, many decades. There are accidental poison-
of OP and carbamate use may be com- dizziness, salivation, headache, fatigue, ings but neither fatalities nor systemic poi-
pared to the baseline level. If the cho- vomiting, diarrhea, and irritability to sonings have been reported. There may be
linesterase level drops 30% below the sound and touch. Pyrethroids are not cho- chronic effects associated with rotenone.
baseline, the applicator should be retested linesterase inhibitors. Diethyltoluamide (DEET). This is
immediately. If a second test confirms the Boric acid and borates. Boric acid a widely-used liquid insect repellent, suit-
drop in cholinesterase, the person should powders and pellets scattered on the floors able for application to skin or to fabrics.
be removed from further contact with OP of homes present a hazard to children. The potential for severe toxicity exists if
and carbamates until cholinesterase lev- Their frequent use for roach control in- ingested or improperly used, especially if
els return to the baseline. creases access for ingestion. Borax dust is high concentrations are repeatedly applied
A small percentage of the population moderately irritating to skin. Inhaled dust to children. Deaths have occurred follow-
has a genetically predetermined low level can cause irritation of the respiratory tract. ing very large doses. DEET is very irri-
of cholinesterase. Even minimal exposure Symptoms included nasal irritation, mu- tating to the eyes, but not corrosive. It has
to cholinesterase inhibitors can present a cous membrane dryness, cough, shortness caused contact dermatitis and may worsen
substantial risk to these people. of breath, and chest tightness. In severe pre-existing skin disease. Discretion
Antidotes. Antidotes for OP or car- poisonings, a beefy red skin rash appears. should be exercised for persons who have
bamate insecticide poisoning should only Characterized as a “boiled lobster” appear- acne, psoriasis, or other chronic skin con-
be prescribed and administered by a quali- ance. The rash most often affects palms, ditions. It should not be applied to any
fied physician. They can be extremely soles, buttocks, and scrotum. skin area that is likely to press against an-
dangerous if misused. Azadirachtin. Azadirachtin, de- other skin surface for a significant period
Atropine sulfate. This antidote is rived from the neem tree, causes severe of time. Limit applications to exposed ar-
given intravenously to counteract the ef- dermal and gastrointestinal irritation. Cen- eas of skin, using as little repellent as pos-
fects of excessive acetylcholine. It is ef- tral nervous system stimulation and de- sible and wash off after use. Do not apply
fective for both OP and carbamate poi- pression have been reported. to eyes or mouth; avoid repeated applica-
soning but should never be used to pre- Bacillus thuringiensis. Several tion day after day. Exercise extreme cau-
vent poisoning. Atropine can be given re- strains of the bacteria Bacillus thuringi- tion when using DEET on children. Low
peatedly as symptoms occur, the need and ensis are pathogenic to certain insects. concentrations (10% or below) are effec-
dosage are based on the body weight of The bacterial organisms are cultured, then tive and preferred in most situations. Do
the victim. harvested as spores for use as insecticides. not apply to children’s hands.
Protopam chloride (2-PAM). This Neither irritating nor sensitizing effects Synergists. Synergists are chemi-
antidote, used in conjunction with atro- have been reported in workers preparing cal agents included in formulations to en-
pine, helps to reactivate cholinesterase in and applying commercial products. hance the killing power of the active in-
OP poisoning, but not where carbamates Nicotine. The toxic action of nico- gredients. The synergists piperonyl butox-
are involved. tine is complex. Nicotine alkaloid is effi- ide and n-octyl bicycloheptene dicarbox-
Organochlorine insecticides ciently absorbed by the gut, lung, and skin imide have low toxic potential in humans.
such as kelthane, lindane, methoxychlor and directly affects the central nervous sys- There is limited dermal absorption on
and thiodan can affect the nervous system. Paralysis and vascular collapse are contact. Inherent toxicity in mammals is
tem of mammals. The initial symptoms prominent features of acute poisoning, but low. Large absorbed doses may theoreti-
depend, in part, on the route of entry. Nau- death is often due to respiratory paralysis. cally enhance the toxic hazard of rapidly
sea and vomiting commonly occur soon Nicotine does not inhibit the cholinesterase metabolized insecticides. Their presence
after ingestion. Dermal absorption causes enzyme. in pesticide products to which humans are
apprehension, twitching, tremors, confu- Pyrethrum and pyrethrins. Pyre- exposed does not change the basic ap-
sion, and convulsions. Organochlorines thrum is an extract of dried chrysanthe- proach to management of poisoning, ex-
are not cholinesterase inhibitors. mum flowers containing insecticidal in- cept that some possibility of enhanced
Pyrethroids. These are synthetic gredients known as pyrethrins. Crude toxicity of the active insecticidal ingredi-
pyrethrins, including allethrin, cyfluthrin, pyrethrum is a dermal and respiratory al- ents should be kept in mind.

Herbicides cides are probably responsible for a dis- nausea, vomiting, dizziness, stomach
proportionate number of irritant injuries pains. Convulsions, loss of consciousness
Chlorophenoxy herbicides in- to skin and mucous membranes. and mental disturbances occur. No deaths
cluding 2,4-D, 2,4-DB, MCPA, mecoprop, Thiocarbamates include a wide va- and very few poisonings have been re-
and dichlorprop, can be moderately irri- riety of fungicides (ferbam, thiram, metam- ported as a result of occupational expo-
tating to the skin and eyes. Inhalation of sodium, ziram) and herbicides (butylate, sures to phenyltin compounds.
spray mist may cause coughing and a burn- EPTC). Their acute toxicity to humans is
ing sensation in the nasal passages and generally considered low, but they can ir- Rodenticides
chest. Prolonged inhalation sometimes ritate the skin and eyes. Inhalation of spray
causes dizziness. Ingestion usually causes mist or dust may cause throat irritation, Rodenticides pose particular risks for
vomiting, a burning sensation in the stom- sneezing, and coughing. A few exhibit accidental poisonings for several reasons:
ach, diarrhea, and muscle twitching. weak anticholinesterase activity, but most they are specifically designed to kill mam-
Paraquat and diquat can cause se- have no significant effect on this enzyme. mals; accidental exposure is an integral
vere symptoms. Dermal exposure to con- Chronic toxicity may be high. part of bait placement; and, as rodents de-
centrates can result in irritated, cracking Substituted benzenes. Chloro- velop resistance to existing rodenticides,
skin, discoloration, abnormal growth, and neb exhibits very low oral toxicity, in there is a continuous need to develop new
loss of the nails. If splashed in the eye, mammals. It may be moderately irritat- and, potentially, more toxic products.
paraquat concentrate causes conjunctivi- ing to skin and mucous membranes. No Warfarin and related compounds
tis. Inhalation of spray mist may irritate cases of systemic poisoning in humans (coumarins and indandiones) are the most
the respiratory passages, causing a have been reported. Chlorothalonil has commonly ingested rodenticides in the
scratchy throat and a nosebleed. Acciden- caused irritation of skin, mucous mem- United States. They are efficiently ab-
tal or intentional ingestion of the concen- branes of the eye and respiratory tract on sorbed in the digestive tract and eventu-
trate causes pulmonary (lung) reaction contact. Cases of allergic contact derma- ally depress the synthesis of vitamin K de-
which is often fatal. titis have been reported. There is one re- pendent blood-clotting factors. Clinical
Other herbicides. There are sev- port of immediate anaphylactoid reaction effects of these agents usually begin sev-
eral other types of herbicides on the mar- to skin contact. It is apparently poorly eral days after ingestion including, nose-
ket including acetamides, anilides, ben- absorbed across the skin and the gas- bleeds, bleeding gums, blood in the urine
zoic anisic acid derivatives, phospho- trointestinal lining. No cases of systemic or vomit, and extensive bruising. Patients
nates, triazines, urea derivatives, and poisoning in humans have been reported. may also have symptoms of anemia, fa-
more. Formulations of these pesticides Ethylene bis dithiocarbamates tigue, and painful breathing. Severe poi-
may be mildly or moderately irritating to (EBDC Compounds). Maneb and soning may lead to shock and death.
eyes and skin. Systemic toxicity is un- zineb are formulated as wettable and Zinc phosphide. Inhalation of dust
likely unless large amounts have been in- flowable powders. Nabam is available as may cause nausea and vomiting, excite-
gested. Some triazine formulations are a soluble powder and in water solution. ment, chills, chest tightness, painful
strongly irritating to eyes, skin, and res- Mancozeb, a product of zinc and maneb, breathing, coughing, and fluid buildup in
piratory tract. The herbicidal carbamates is formulated as a dust and as wettable the lungs. More severe symptoms include
and thiocarbamates may be weak cho- and liquid flowable powders. liver failure, jaundice, kidney failure, in-
linesterase inhibitors. These fungicides may cause irritation ternal bleeding, delirium, convulsions,
Many formulations contain adjuvants of the skin, respiratory tract, and eyes. and coma. Heart attack and shock may
(stabilizers, penetrants, surfactants) that Both maneb and zineb have apparently lead to death
may have significant irritating and toxic been responsible for chronic skin disease
effects. A number of premixed formula- in occupationally exposed workers, pos- Disinfectants
tions contain two or more herbicides; the sibly by sensitization. Systemic poison-
companion pesticides may be more toxic ings of humans have been extremely rare. Hypochlorites. Hypochlorites are
than the principal herbicide. Thiophthalimides. These fungi- implicated in a large proportion of the dis-
cides include captafol, captan, and folpet. infectant poisonings reported to poison
Fungicides They are moderately irritating to the skin, centers in the United States. Most are so-
eyes, and respiratory tract. Dermal sensi- lutions of sodium or calcium hypochlo-
The currently registered fungicides tization may occur. No systemic poison- rite. They have relatively low toxicity, but
are unlikely to cause frequent or severe ings have been reported in humans, are mildly corrosive to the eyes, and mu-
systemic poisonings. Many have low tox- Organotin compunds. The fentin cous membrane burns have been reported.
icity in mammals; they are often formu- compounds and triphenyltin are irritating Significant poisonings are infrequent.
lated as suspensions of wettable powders to the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin. When hypochlorite solutions are
or granules which make absorption less They are probably absorbed, to a limited mixed with acids or ammonia, chlorine
likely; and application methods do not, extent, by the skin and gastrointestinal or chloramine gas is produced; these are
generally, lead to intensive exposure. But, tract. Toxicity is principally due to effects respiratory irritants. Repeated, brief ex-
apart from systemic poisonings, fungi- on the central nervous system: headache, posures have led to transient symptoms

requiring emergency department manage- cals are readily absorbed and highly cor- and vomiting. Intensive prolonged inha-
ment. Cases of prolonged exposure or rosive. Ingestion of concentrated forms lation, ingestion or dermal exposure (from
exposure to high concentrations may lead cause severe corrosive injury to the mouth contact with heavily treated fabric) can
to severe toxic pneumonitis. and upper gastrointestinal tract. Symp- destroy red blood cells; cause convulsions
Pine oil. Ingesting pine oil detergent toms usually include nausea, vomiting, di- and coma, particularly in children. Some
and disinfectant solutions are among the arrhea, hypotension, heart failure, fluid in individuals exhibit dermal sensitivity.
most common poisonings reported to poi- the lungs, and neurological changes. Ex- Paradichlorobenzene is widely
son centers. A relatively high number are ternal exposure may lead to severe eye used as a moth repellent, air freshener, and
serious or fatal. Pine oil is found in a va- and skin caustic injuries. deodorizer in homes and in public facili-
riety of household and commercial clean- ties. The vapor is only mildly irritating to
ers and disinfectants. Common side ef- Fumigants the nose and eyes. Liver injury and tremor
fects of small ingestions are irritation of may occur following ingestion of large
mucous membranes, gastrointestinal irri- Chloropicrin is severely irritating to amounts. Although accidental ingestions,
tation, mild respiratory and central ner- the upper respiratory tract, eyes, and skin. especially by children, have been fairly
vous system depression, and kidney dam- Inhalation of an irritant concentration common, symptomatic human poisonings
age. Larger ingestions can result in severe sometimes leads to vomiting. Ingestion have been rare.
respiratory distress, cardiovascular col- could cause a corrosive gastroenteritis.
lapse, severe central nervous system ef- Naphthalene is a solid white hy- Inert Ingredients
fects, and kidney failure. drocarbon long-used as a moth repellent.
Phenol disinfectants. Several The vapor has a sharp, pungent odor that Solvents are commonly used in in-
phenols are used as disinfectants. Com- is irritating to the eyes and upper respira- secticide formulations. A strong odor lin-
mon commercial preparations include tory tract. Inhalation of high concentra- gering after application of a structural pest
Lysol and hexachlorophene. These chemi- tions causes headache, dizziness, nausea, control spray is often due to the solvent
Pesticides most often implicated in symptomatic illnesses, 2000

Reported human exposures, by age
Pesticide or pesticide class
Less than 6 to 19 Over 19 Total
6 years old years old years old
Rodenticides 16,829 661 1,790 19,280

Herbicides 2,615 906 5,551 9,072
Hypochlorite disinfectant 4,852 680 2,059 7,591
Pyrethrins 2,589 921 3,785 7,295
Organophosphates 3,224 841 3,160 7,225
Pine oil disinfectants 4,657 630 1,768 7,055
PBO + pyrethrins 2,337 814 3,160 6,311
Insect repellents 4,415 976 718 6,109
Other insecticides 2,783 306 1,110 4,199
Moth repellants 3,120 266 777 4,163
Veterianary insecticides 2,124 517 1,470 4,111
Unknown insecticides 1,042 396 2,152 3,590
Phenol disinfectants 2,078 318 676 3,072
Carbamates 1,145 272 1,290 2,707
Insecticide combinations 873 308 1,430 2,611
Borates and boric acid 2,167 116 322 2,605
Organochlorines 818 353 867 2,038
Fungicides 463 162 988 1,613
Total 58,131 9,443 33,073 100,647
Source: American Association of Poison Control Centers, Toxic Exposure Surveillance System, 2000 data.
http://www.aapcc.org/poison1.htm

rather than the active ingredient. Com-
mon solvents include, petroleum distil-
lates, alcohols, glycols, ethers, or chlori- PESTICIDE DATABASES
nated solvents. It is possible that these
enhance dermal absorption of some pes- Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET)
ticides. Some solvents, such as metha- http://ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet
nol and isopropanol, represent a signifi- The Extension Service’s Toxicology Network provides science
cant toxic hazard if swallowed in suffi- based information to health care providers treating pesticide related
cient amounts. health concerns. Pesticide toxicological information is developed
Granular formulations. The clay cooperatively by the University of California at Davis, Oregon State
materials that make up the granules are University, Michigan State University, Cornell University, and the
not a toxic hazard, but there can be sig- University of Idaho.
nificant pesticide exposure when granules
contact human skin. If granules are swal- Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
lowed, substantial amounts of pesticides http://www.epa.gov/iriswebp/iris/index.html
may be absorbed. The Integrated Risk Information System is an electronic data-
Dusts are ground fine enough to be- base, maintained by EPA, on human health effects that may result
come trapped in the upper respiratory from exposure to various chemicals in the environment. IRIS is
mucous when inhaled. If the mucous is intended for those without extensive training in toxicology, but with
swallowed, enough pesticides may be ab- some knowledge of health sciences. It provides hazard identifica-
sorbed in the intestines to cause systemic tion and dose-response assessment information. Combined with spe-
poisoning. cific exposure information, the data in IRIS can be used to charac-
Stickers and spreaders. These terize the public health risks of a chemical in a particular situation.
adjuvants probably add little or no toxic Extensive supporting documentation is available online.
hazard.
Emulsifiers stabilize water-oil Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
emulsions. They probably have little ef- (ATSDR)
fect on the overall toxicity of formulated http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html
products. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (part
Penetrants facilitate the transfer of of the Department of Human Health and Services) publishes fact
herbicides from foliage surface to inte- sheets and other information on pesticides and other toxic sub-
rior tissues. Some are eye and skin irri- stances.
tants, and may account for the effects of
herbicide formulations whose active in- California Pesticide Databases
gredients do not have this property. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/dprdatabase.htm
Safeners are substances added to Includes Pesticidal Chemical Ingredients Queries, links to EPA’s
mixtures of fertilizers and pesticides Office of Pesticide Programs chemical dictionary, Product/Label Da-
(commonly herbicides) to limit undesir- tabase Queries (updated nightly), a current listing of California’s
able reactions. Some are moderately ir- Section 18 Emergency Exemptions, and more.
ritating to the skin and eyes. Systemic
toxicities are generally low. National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC)
Anticaking agents are added to http://npic.orst.edu/
granular and dust formulations to facili- NPTN hotline: 1-800-858-7378, 9:30am–7:30pm EST daily except
tate application by preventing clumps. holidays, E-mail: [email protected]
Diatomaceous earth has little adverse ef- The National Pesticide Information Center is based at Or-
fect except a drying action on the skin. egon State University and is cooperatively sponsored with EPA.
Methyl naphthalenes may be skin irritants NPIC serves as a source of objective, science-based pesticide in-
and photosensitizers. formation on a wide range of pesticide-related topics, such as rec-
ognition and management of pesticide poisonings, safety informa-
tion, health and environmental effects, referrals for investigation of
pesticide incidents and emergency treatment for both humans and
animals, and cleanup and disposal procedures. A toll-free telephone
service provides pesticide information to callers in the continental
United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Pesticide ques-
tions and comments can also be sent by e-mail.

FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONING
Poison Symptoms A single, nationwide number will con-

nect you with the nearest Poison Center,
Topical effects from pesticide poison- 1-800-222-1222. The Maine Poison Cen-
ing are a result of either a chemical irritant ter is located in Portland. The National
(active or inert ingredient), or an allergic Pesticide Information Center (NPIC) is
response by the victim. Dermatitis, or in- also available for pesticide information and
flammation of the skin, is the most com- emergencies.
monly reported topical effect associated
with pesticide exposure. Symptoms of der- Maine Poison Center
matitis range from reddening of the skin Maine Medical Center
to blisters or rashes. Symptoms of an al- 22 Bramhall Street
lergic reaction range from reddening and Portland, ME 04102
itching of the eyes and skin to respiratory soft cloth. Avoid the use of ointments,
1-800-442-6305 (Maine only)
discomfort often resembling asthma. TDD/TTY: 1-877-299-4447 (Maine only)
greases, powders, and other medications
The symptoms of a internal or sys- 1-207-871-2950 (administration) unless instructed by a medical authority.
temic poisoning begin as fatigue, headache, Open 24/7 It may be best to dispose of contami-
giddiness, sweating, dizziness or blurred nated clothing. But if you decide to keep
National Pesticide the clothing, store and wash it separately
vision, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and di- Information Center
arrhea. Moderate symptoms include numb- from the family laundry.
ness, changes in heart rate, general muscle 1-800-858-7378 If the pesticide has gotten into
weakness, difficulty in breathing and walk- 9:30am - 7:30pm EST the eye. Lower the effected eye, hold the
7 days a week, excluding holidays eyelid open, and immediately begin gen-
ing, pinpoint pupils, excessive salivation,
http://npic.orst.edu/ tly washing the eye with clean running
and an increase in the severity of the ear-
lier symptoms. In advanced poisoning water. Avoid skin contact with wash run-
cases there may be convulsions and coma First Aid off. If only one eye is involved, avoid con-
which could ultimately lead to death. tamination of the other eye. Continue wash-
Immediate action may be necessary ing for 15 minutes. Flush under the eye-
Be alert for the early symptoms of to prevent serious injury to a victim of
pesticide poisoning in yourself and oth- lids with water to remove debris. Do not
pesticide poisoning—it could be life-or- use chemicals or drugs in the wash water
ers. Early recognition of symptoms and death. The product label is the first source
an appropriate response may save a life. unless instructed by a medical authority.
of information. Follow all directions in Cover the eye with a clean piece of cloth
Remember that certain symptoms are not the Statement for Practical Treatment. Do
always the result of pesticide exposure. and seek medical attention immediately.
not attempt to rescue someone who is in If the pesticide has been inhaled.
Common illnesses such as the flu, heat a closed contaminated area unless you are
exhaustion or heat stroke, pneumonia, Get the victim to fresh air immediately;
wearing appropriate protective equip- carry the victim, do not allow the victim to
asthma, respiratory and intestinal infec-
ment. Call your Maine Poison Center or walk. Have the victim lie down and loosen
tions, or even a hangover can cause simi-
a physician. First aid is only the first re- clothing; keep them warm and quiet. If the
lar symptoms. But, whenever symptoms
sponse and is not a substitute for pro- victim is convulsing, watch the breathing
appear after contact with pesticides, seek
fessional medical help. and protect the victim’s head. Keep the
medical attention immediately. The doc-
tor needs to know the pesticide ingredi- If the pesticide has been spilled chin up to keep air passages free for breath-
ents, and an antidote may be listed on the on the skin or clothing. Remove con- ing. Become familiar with the proper tech-
label. Take the label with you, or the contaminated clothing immediately and thor- niques of artificial respiration; it may be
tainer, but not in the passenger section of oughly wash the skin with soap and wa- necessary if a person’s breathing has
the vehicle. ter. You should always have a source of stopped or become impaired. Do not,
clean water available when using pesti- however, expose yourself to pesticides on
Emergency Numbers cides but in an extreme emergency, even their lips.
water from a farm pond, irrigation sys- If the pesticide has been swal-
All emergency phone numbers tem, or watering trough could be used to lowed. If the pesticide has gotten in the
should be posted, or readily available by dilute the pesticide. Avoid harsh scrub- mouth but not yet swallowed, the mouth
the telephone. Emergency numbers bing; this enhances pesticide absorption. should be rinsed with water.
should also be placed in all service ve- Rinse the affected area with water; wash If the pesticide has been swallowed,
hicles involved in handling pesticides. If again and rinse. Gently dry the area and the most important decision to make is
you are a Maine licensed applicator, emer- wrap in loose cloth, or a blanket if neces- whether to induce vomiting or not. The
gency phone numbers are found on the sary. If there are chemical burns of the decision must be made quickly and accu-
back of your license. skin, cover the area loosely with a clean, rately—the victim’s life may depend on it.

SYMPTOMS OF ACUTE PESTICIDE POISONING
Sweating Tightness in chest Muscle twitching & cramps Vomiting

Rapid heartbeat Muscle weakness Diarrhea
High blood pressure Tremors
Salivation Rashes Pinpoint pupils Headache

Excessive tearing Red skin Coma Blurred vision
Runny nose Blisters Convulsions Dizziness
Read the label to see if vomiting is recom- it should not be used routinely. Charcoal To neutralize acids—if you are sure
mended or ask the Maine Poison Center. appears to be most effective within 60 the poison is an acid, give the victim milk
Induce vomiting only as a first aid minutes of ingestion. of magnesia (1 tablespoon in 1 cup of wa-
measure—do not waste a lot of time in Never induce vomiting if the victim ter). In an extreme emergency, where milk
the attempt. Make sure the victim is kneel- is unconscious or convulsing; they may of magnesia is not available, give the vic-
ing forward or lying on their side to pre- choke to death. Never try to give anything tim baking soda in water. Exercise cau-
vent vomitus from entering the lungs. Give by mouth to an unconscious person. tion, however, because baking soda reacts
the patient at least 2 glasses of water to Never induce vomiting if the victim with acids to form carbon dioxide (CO2)
dilute the poison. Do not use carbonated has swallowed petroleum solvents unless gas. Large amounts of CO2 can perforate
beverages. Do not use salt water to induce so directed by the label or a medical au- the intestines or stomach wall.
vomiting. thority. Many pesticides which are formu- To neutralize alkalis—if you are sure
Ipecac syrup, a powerful emetic that lated as emulsifiable concentrates are dis- the poison is alkali, give the victim lemon
was commonly prescribed for poisonings, solved in petroleum products. The letters juice or vinegar.
should not be administered routinely in EC or words “Emulsifiable Concentrate” Remember, this is just first aid. Call
poisoned patients. If ipecac is used, it on the pesticide label are signals to not the Maine Poison Center and get the vic-
should be administered within 60 minutes induce vomiting without first consulting tim to a doctor; bring the pesticide label.
of the ingestion. Even then, clinical stud- the product label or a physician. Petroleum
ies have demonstrated no benefit from its products inhaled into the lungs can cause
use. It should be considered only in an serious respiratory disorders.
alert conscious patient who has swallowed Never induce vomiting if the victim
a potentially toxic dose has swallowed a corrosive poison—a
An alternate method to induce vom- strong acid or base. Always determine
iting is to put your finger or the blunt end what poison has been ingested. A corro-
of a spoon at the back of the victim’s sive poison will burn the throat and mouth
throat. Do not use anything sharp or as severely coming up as it did going
pointed. Collect some vomitus for the down. The victim may experience severe
doctor, for chemical analysis. pain and have extensive mouth and throat
After vomiting, consider giving the burns. The best first aid is to dilute the
patient 2 to 4 tablespoons of activated poison as quickly as possible. It is very
charcoal in water. Activated charcoal acts important that the victim get to a hospital
as a sponge to absorb many poisons, but without delay.

HEAT STRESS
Heat stress is the buildup in the body body temperature, the ability to reason is cides (organophosphates or carbam-
of heat generated by muscles while work- impaired. An increase of 5°F can be life ates). In the table below, there are sev-
ing in a warm or hot work environment. threatening. eral common symptoms. However, there
The stress may intensify until it becomes In order to prevent heat stress, un- are distinct differences that help iden-
a heat illness. Heat illness includes a num- derstand the circumstances that increase tify someone who becomes ill while us-
ber of disorders that can occur when the risk: ing cholinesterase inhibitors on a hot
body is subjected to more heat than it can day. Is it pesticide exposure or heat ex-
z Heat factors. Rising temperature,
handle; these are heat rash, heat cramps, haustion? This determination is critical,
humidity, or the amount of sunlight
heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. The most because the two conditions require en-
increases risk. Wind, however, helps
serious heat illness is heat stroke. Heat tirely different treatments. Remember it
the body keep cool.
stroke survivors may suffer long term is possible to suffer acute pesticide ex-
z Work load. Heat stress is more likely
adverse effects. The illness is fatal to one posure and heat stress at the same time.
to develop when doing heavy work;
victim in every five. Seek immediate medical attention
work on foot rather than in a vehicle;
While not directly related to pesticide when a person exhibits any illness when
work without breaks; or maneuvering
poisoning, heat stress is associated with working with pesticides. Do so even if the
heavy objects.
pesticide use for two reaons: illness might be heat stress, not pesticide
z PPE. Extra layers of clothing and
exposure.
z wearing personal protective equip- chemical-resistant gear interfere with
ment can increase the risk of heat the natural body cooling of evaporat-
illness, especially when working in ing sweat.
Heat Stress Training
the sun on a warm day; z Water intake. Although sweating does
The Worker Protection Standard
z the symptoms of heat illness can be help cool the body, body temperature
(WPS) requires that employers take steps
confused with acute pesticide poi- will rise if one does not drink enough
to protect pesticide handlers from heat
soning (see chart below). Proper first water to replace what is lost through
stress. Agricultural employers must train
aid as soon as symptoms appear can sweating.
these employees so that they are aware of
save lives.
The symptoms and signs of the differ- the causes and dangers of heat stress, as
When the body becomes overheated, ent levels of heat illness are outlined on the well as how to avoid and respond to heat
less blood goes to active muscles, the next page. Become familiar with these symp- stress. This training is part of WPS pesti-
brain, and organs. The body feels weak toms in order to recognize them before they cide safety training, see Chapter 13, Pes-
and easily tires. One may be less alert, become worse. ticide Laws. The next step to take, even if
use bad judgment, and work poorly. As The symptoms of pesticide poison- not required to by the WPS, is to develop
heat stress builds, body temperature and ing are often similar to those of other a plan to prevent and, if necessary, re-
heart rate can rise rapidly. A person may ailments. This is certainly the case com- spond to heat stress.
not realize this is happening—there is no paring heat exhaustion and acute expo- Conduct training for workers and
associated pain. With only a 2°F rise in sure to cholinesterase-inhibiting pesti- handlers before they are exposed to con-
The symptoms of heat exhaustion and organophosphate/carbamate poisoning
Heat Exhaustion Organophosphate/Carbamate Poisoning
Sweating Sweating
Headache Headache
Fatigue Fatigue
DRY membranes MOIST membranes
Dry mouth Salivation
No tears Tears
No spit present Spit present in mouth
FAST pulse (slow if person has fainted) SLOW pulse
Nausea Nausea and diarrhea
DILATED pupils Possible SMALL pupils
Central nervous system depression Central nervous system depression
Loss of coordination Loss of coordination
Confusion Confusion
FAINTING (recovery prompt) COMA (can not waken)

Heat Illnesses and First Aid Measures
Illness Signs and Symptoms Treatment*
Early heat illness z Mild dizziness, fatigue, or z Loosen or remove clothing

irritability; decreased z Rest in shade 30 minutes or more
concentration impaired judgment z Drink water
z May lead to heat exhaustion or
heat stroke
Heat rash z Tiny, blister-like red spots on z Clean skin, apply mild
(“prickly heat”) the skin; pricking sensations drying lotion or cornstarch
z Commonly found on clothed z Wear loose clothing
areas of the body z Preventable by regular bathing
and drying the skin and by periodic
relief from humid conditions of work
z See physician if rash persists.
Heat cramps z Painful spasms of leg, arm, or z Loosen clothing

abdominal muscles z Drink lightly salted beverages
z Heavy sweating, thirst z Massage
z Occur during or after hard work z Rest
z May be totally disabling
Heat exhaustion z Fatigue, headache, dizziness, z Remove to cooler, shaded area

muscle weakness, loss of as quickly as possible
coordination, fainting, collapse z Rest lying down
z Profuse sweating; pale, moist, z If victim is conscious, have victim
cool skin; excessive thirst, dry drink as much water as possible
mouth; dark yellow urine z Do not give salt
z Fast pulse, if conscious z If victim is unconscious or if heat
z Low or normal oral temperature, stroke is also suspected, treat for
rectal temperature usually heat stroke until proven otherwise.
99.5 - 101.3°F z Loosen or remove clothing
z May also have heat cramps, z Splash cold water on body, especially head,
nausea, urge to defecate, rapid arms, and legs.
breathing, chills, tingling of the z Massage legs and arms
hands or feet, confusion, z If worker collapsed, get evaluation by
giddiness, slurred speech, physician, nurse, or EMT before worker
irritability leaves for the day; shower in cold water,
z Worker may resist treatment rest for balance of day and overnight
z May lead to heat stroke
Heat stroke LIFE-THREATENING MEDICAL EMERGENCY z Move to a shaded area

z Often occurs suddenly z Remove outer clothing and shoes
z Headache, dizziness, confusion, z Immediately wrap in wet sheet pour water
IMMEDIATE irrational behavior, coma on and fan vigorously, avoid over-cooling!
TREATMENT z Sweating may slowdown or stop z Treat shock if present, once temperature
REQUIRED z Fast pulse, if conscious is lowered
z Rapid breathing If victim vomits, make sure all vomit
BRAIN DAMAGE z Rectal temperature 104°F is cleared from mouth and nose to
AND DEATH CAN or more prevent choking on vomit
RESULT EVEN z May also have convulsions, z Transport to nearest medical treatment
WITH PROMPT nausea, incoherent speech, facility at once
TREATMENT very aggressive behavior z While awaiting or during transport, elevate
z Risk of damage to vital organs, legs, continue pouring on water, and fanning
including the heart, brain, central z If conscious, have worker drink as much water
nervous system liver and kidney as possible
z Victim may resist treatment z Do not give salt
* Combined effects of heat illness and pesticide poisoning must be considered with pesticide handlers
and early-entry workers.

ditions associated with heat stress (like ing). Consider wearing a cooling vest. z Cool the victim as rapidly as possible
working in warm weather with PPE). Pro- Cooling vests hold ice or frozen-gel in- by sponging or splashing the skin
vide refresher training at the beginning of serts that help keep the body cool. (especially the face, neck, hands, and
warm weather each growing season. Dur- Select appropriate PPE. While it forearms) with cool water. If at all
ing hot weather, hold periodic safety is important to wear appropriate PPE even possible, immerse the victim in cool
meetings to review and emphasize steps on hot days, try not to wear more than is water or get them to a shower.
for preventing heat stress. Cover the fol- necessary. Use the pesticide label and per- z Have the victim drink as much cool
lowing topics for heat stress training: sonal experience to determine the mini- water as possible. However, as with
z Purpose of establishing heat stress mum amount of PPE needed for adequate pesticide poisoning, do not give any
program. protection from pesticide exposure. Re- thing by mouth to an unconscious
z Causes, risk factors, and types of heat member that hot, sweaty skin absorbs pes- person.
ticides faster than cool, dry skin. Always z Keep the victim calm and quiet.
illness.
wear all PPE listed on the label. z Refer to the heat illness chart for first
z The effects of heat stress, including how
it can contribute to farm accidents by Select the coolest possible PPE aid.
impairing a person’s judgment. that provides the necessary protection
z How off-duty activities (alcohol and from exposure to pesticides. For example,
drug use, lack of sleep) can increase wide-brimmed hats help shield the sun; a
the risk of heat illness. positive- rather than negative-pressure air-
z How medical conditions and pre- purifying respirator allows one to work
scription drugs affect heat stress. cooler; some coveralls are made to
z Facility’s procedures for preventing breathe but still protect from exposure.
heat stress. Drink enough water. When heat
z Why PPE is necessary and how to stress is a concern, drink plenty of water
minimize its contribution to heat stress. before, during, and after work. Do not
z How to recognize and remain on necessarily wait for thirst to build—a dan-
guard for signs and symptoms of heat gerous amount of water may be lost be-
illness in oneself and others. fore feeling thirsty. Drink enough water
z How to respond to heat illness, in- each day to regain any weight lost through
cluding first aid and getting medical sweating.
attention. Know when to stop working. Be
able to recognize symptoms of heat ill-
ness and stop work immediately if any
Preventing Heat Stress symptoms arise. These preventive steps
Manage the workload. If a some- above will help prevent heat stress, but
one has not worked in a warm or hot en- may be ineffective in severe heat. Stop
vironment for some time, their body will all work in extreme conditions.
need to adjust. To do this safely, work in
the heat for short periods (about 2 hours) First Aid for Heat Illness
each day for a week or so before spend-
ing a full day working in the heat. When Because the symptoms of heat illness
an entire day is spent in the heat, take fre- are similar to those of pesticide poison-
quent breaks to allow the body to cool ing, it may not be immediately apparent
down. Most applicators properly adapt to why a person is ill. Do not waste time try-
warm conditions just by working outdoors ing to determine the cause; seek medical
throughout the gradual change in tempera- attention immediately. Do not let a vic-
ture from spring into summer. However, tim go alone to a doctor if at all possible.
there may still be a risk if unusually heavy If exposure to pesticides is ruled out, use
the first aid treatments suggested in the Know when to stop working!
work is involved or if there is a sudden,
dramatic rise in temperature. heat illness chart.
Account for heat factors. Sched- z Get the victim into a shaded or cooler
ule tasks that require heavy labor or sig- area.
nificant PPE during the coolest parts of z Carefully remove PPE and other
the day. Work in the shade whenever pos- clothing that may be making the vic-
sible (for example during mixing/load- tim hot.

1. The hazard associated with a pesticide product depends 9. Which signal word(s) would indicate a product that is
entirely on the toxicity of the active ingredient. least toxic to an applicator?
(True or False) a. DANGER
b. CAUTION
2. The most common route of pesticide exposure is inhalation. c. WARNING
(True or False) d. DANGER-POISON
e. Skull and crossbones
3. Because of the protective nature of eye tissues, very little
pesticide that contacts the eyes is actually absorbed. 10. Applicators who regularly use organophosphate and
(True or False) carbamate insecticides should have a pre-season blood
test to measure what baseline level?
4. Select the incorrect statement.
Symptoms of pesticide poisoning: a. carcinogens
b. oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
a. always occur immediately after exposure c. cholinesterase
b. can appear almost immediately or be delayed sev- d. random antibodies
eral hours depending on the chemical and the amount e. acetylcholine
of exposure
c. may mimic heat stroke, pneumonia, or intestinal in- 11. The key to minimizing the hazard of pesticide use is to
fections avoid exposure.
d. often occur as skin reactions (True or False)
e. often include dizziness, nausea, vomiting and weak-
ness if an organophosphate insecticide is involved 12. What is the first thing you should do if a pesticide is spilled
on the skin or clothing?
5. Which type of toxicity results from small, repeated expo- a. remove contaminated clothing, put on clean clothing
sures to a pesticide over a period of time? b. call a doctor immediately
a. low toxicity c. find the label
b. acute toxicity d. remove contaminated clothing and wash affected area
c. high toxicity with soap and water
d. chronic toxicity e. do nothing; most pesticides are not particularly haz-
e. undetermined toxicity ardous
6. What does the signal word on a pesticide label indicate? 13. A person who has swallowed a pesticide must be made
a. effectiveness to vomit regardless of their condition or the pesticide in
b. relative risk question.
c. compatibility (True or False)
d. formulation
e. ability to cause tumors 14. Pesticide labels contain information on the treatment of
poisonings and should always be available, especially if
7. Which LD50 is most representative of an acutely toxic medical attention is sought.
pesticide? (True or False)
a. 640 mg/kg 15. In the space provided, fill in the name and telephone num-
b. 5800 mg/kg ber of the nearest Poison Center. Post it near a telephone
c. 12,840 mg/kg as well!
d. 380 mg/kg
e. 46 mg/kg
8. The potential adverse human health effects of pesticides

are estimated by laboratory test animals.
(True or False)

CHAPTER 8
The Pesticide Label
O NE of the most important tools for proper and effec-

tive pesticide use is the product label. Every pesticide
label is the result of years of research in both laboratory and
instructions on a pesticide label can result in a serious pesti-
cide accident and constitutes a legal violation subject to civil
or criminal prosecution. The user is liable for personal injury,
field tests, costing the manufacturer millions of dollars. In the crop damage, or pollution caused by misusing a pesticide.
development and labeling of a pesticide, scientists and registra- In addition to the pesticide label, manufacturers often pro-
tion specialists are interested in, not only proving that the chemi- vide supplemental labeling information. This additional mate-
cal controls pests, but also that the potential benefits of use rial is also a part of the legal labeling. Information sheets and
outweigh any potential risks, and that use, according to label promotional materials do not legally substitute for the label.
directions, will not cause unreasonable, adverse effects on hu- Many of the terms on pesticide labels may be unfamiliar.
mans, wildlife, or the environment. Understanding the jargon (for example preplant vs. postemer-
Pesticide manufacturers are required by law to put certain gence; band vs. basal) allows a pesticide handler to comply with
information on the label. Through general and specific language, label directions and to get the maximum result from each appli-
the label addresses both known and potential risks. Labels are cation. If you do not understand the directions on a label, ask the
legal documents providing directions for how to mix, apply, Board of Pesticides Control (BPC), your pesticide dealer, or the
store, and dispose of a pesticide product. Failure to follow the local Cooperative Extension office.
Directions Environmental Use Reentry Brand Type of

Manufacturer for use hazards requirements interval name pesticide
Use
classification
Ingredients, Container
registration disposal
numbers
Precautionary
statement Liability
information
Statement
of practical
treatment
Storage &
disposal
Personal
protective Additional
equipment precautionary
statements
Signal words
A sample pesticide label; see the full-size version at the end of this chapter.
Chapter 8 - The Pesticide Label - 67

BRAND NAMES
The front panel of the label clearly shows the brand name.
This is a proprietary name used in advertisements; it often in-
READ THE LABEL!
dicates the type of formulation, and the percent, active ingredi-
ent. For example, a pesticide manufacturer, Chemco, Inc., buys
Before you buy a pesticide thousands of gallons of an active ingredient known, in the trade,
z Is the intended site on the label? as deltathion. This is a pure organophosphate chemical that
z Is the target pest on the label? actively inhibits cholinesterase. Chemco uses it in several in-
z Are you sure it is the pesticide you need for the job? secticide formulations including No Pest 5EC, an emulsifiable
z Can the pesticide be used properly in your situation? concentrate containing 50 percent active ingredient .
z Do you have the necessary protective equipment? Chemco does not want other companies using the “No Pest”
z How much pesticide is needed? name, so they trademark “No Pest” and “No Pest 5EC”, as
z What are the reentry and days-to-harvest intervals? well as every other product name they wish to own. The for-
mulations become brand names in Chemco’s product line. Other
Before you mix a pesticide pesticide manufacturers may offer identical formulations un-
der their own brand name. In 1999, more than 500 active pesti-
z What is the proper mixing procedure? cide ingredients were registered in Maine, these were formu-
z What protective equipment is required? lated as 7,238 different brand names. Because brand names
z What other chemicals and additives may be mixed can be misleading, make sure the proper chemical or common
with the pesticide? name is listed as the active ingredient of a formulation before
z How much pesticide should be applied? purchase.
Before you apply a pesticide INGREDIENT STATEMENT

z What safety measures are required? A pesticide product is usually a formulation of both active
z Where can the pesticide be legally applied? and inert ingredient. Different formulations provide the pesti-
z When to apply the pesticide (including the waiting cide handler with a variety of uses, as well as improved stor-
period for crops and animals)? age, handling, application, effectiveness, and safety. The ac-
z What is the most effective method of application? tive ingredient in a formulation is the pure pesticide. An inert
z What are the restrictions for using the pesticide. ingredient is any substance in a pesticide product having no
pesticidal action.
Before you store or dispose of a pesticide The term inert implies that a substance is non-toxic, but all
inerts are toxic to some degree. The inert ingredients must be
z Where and how to store the pesticide. tested to determine their toxicity, and be approved by EPA be-
z Where to dispose of surplus pesticide. fore they are used in pesticide products. EPA encourages manu-
z Where to dispose of the pesticide container. facturers to use the least toxic inerts in their products. The per-
centages of active and inert ingredients are given on the label.
Ingredient Statement—No Pest 5EC

ACTIVE INGREDIENT: BY WEIGHT
deltathion (1,2 phospho-(5)-4 chioromethane).............. 50%
INERT INGREDIENTS:
contains xylene range aromatic hydrocarbons............ 50%
TOTAL100%
The complex chemical structure of a pesticide is identi-

fied by the chemical name. The name must be listed in the
ingredient statement. The chemical name of the active ingredi-
ent in No Pest is (1,2 phospho-(5)-4 chioromethane).
Chemical names are hard to handle, especially during emer-
gencies; many are given a shorter, common name. This is not
the same as the brand name, although it might be if a single
manufacturer had exclusive rights for a particular active ingre-
dient. Only those common names officially accepted by the
EPA may be used in the ingredient statement on a pesticide
label. The common name for the active ingredient in No Pest
5EC is deltathion.
68 - Chapter 8 - The Pesticide Label

NET CONTENTS
The front panel of the pesticide label shows how much
product is in the container. For dry formulations, this is ex-
pressed as pounds or ounces; gallons, quarts, or pints are used
for liquid formulations. Liquid formulations may also list the
pounds of active ingredient per gallon of product.
USE CLASSIFICATION STATEMENT

EPA categorizes every use of every pesticide as either un-
classified or restricted use. A pesticide, or some of its uses, are
restricted if it has the potential to harm humans or the environ-
ment. Before purchasing or using a restricted use pesticide, the
applicator must be certified by the state of Maine and licensed to
make applications to a specific commodity. A restricted pesti- Birds, fish, and many aquatic organisms are
cide may be hazardous in any, or all, of the following activities: especially sensitive to pesticide poisoning.
z application,
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to oncogenicity. For
z mixing and loading,
retail sale and use only by certified applicators or persons
z transporting, storing, or handling pesticides after the under their direct supervision and only for those uses cov-
manufacturer's seal is broken, ered by the certified applicator's certification. The use of
z care and maintenance of application and handling equipment, this product may be hazardous to your health. This prod-
z disposal of pesticides and their containers. uct contains [active ingredient], which has been determined
to cause tumors in laboratory animals.
Restricted pesticide labels must state Restricted Use Pes-
ticide, in a box at the top, front panel. Below this heading may
be a statement describing the reason for the restricted-use clas- TYPE OF PESTICIDE
sification and, often, the category of certified applicator who The front panel of the label usually lists the type, or spe-
can buy and use the product. Unclassified pesticides have no cific action, of a pesticide. This short statement indicates, in
designation on the product label. Examples of restricted-use general terms, what the product will control. For example:
statements include: z Insecticide for control of certain insects on fruits, nuts,
and ornamentals.
Use Classification Statement—No Pest 5EC z Algicide.
z Herbicide for the control of woody brush and weeds.
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to ground water concern.
For retail sale to and use only by certified applicators or persons z No Pest - Insecticide for control of turf pests.
under their direct supervision and only for those uses covered by
the certified applicators' certification. Users must read and fol-
Some labels will also indicate the formulation of a prod-
low all precautionary statements and instructions for use in or- uct, often with an abbreviation, such as WP for wettable pow-
der to minimize potential of deltathion to reach ground water. der, D for dust, or EC for emulsifiable concentrate. For ex-
ample, No Pest 5EC indicates this is a emulsifiable concen-
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to acute toxicity and trate containing 5 pounds of active ingredient per gallon.
toxicity to birds and mammals. For retail sale and use only
by certified applicators or persons under their direct su- NAME & ADDRESS OF MANUFACTURER
pervision and only for those uses covered by the certified
The law requires that the manufacturer or formulator of a
applicator's certification.
product put the name and address of the company on the label.
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to very high acute tox- This allows you to identify who made or sold the product.
icity to humans and birds. For retail sale to and use only by
certified applicators or persons under their direct supervi- REGISTRATION & ESTABLISHMENT
sion and only for those uses covered by the certified NUMBERS
applicator's certification. Direct supervision for this product
is defined as the certified applicator being physically present Before a pesticide may be sold, distributed, or used in the
during application, mixing, loading, repair, and cleaning of United States, EPA evaluates the proposed pesticide thoroughly
application equipment. Commercial certified applicators to ensure that it will not harm human health or the environ-
must also ensure that all persons involved in these activi- ment. Pesticides that pass this evaluation are granted a license,
ties are informed of the precautionary statements. or registration, that permits their sale and use.

Federal EPA registrations are the most common form Emergency exemptions (Section 18 exemptions) are
of pesticide registration. An EPA registration number (for ex- used to control extreme pest situations that offer no registered
ample, No Pest 5EC, EPA Reg. No. 999 000) indicates that the form of pesticide control. Exemptions from registration are only
pesticide label has been approved by EPA. Most products will used if the delay involved with federal and/or SLN registra-
contain two sets of numbers. For No Pest 5EC, 999 identifies tions would cause unacceptable risk or damage. Exemptions
the manufacturer or company; 000 identifies the product. are usually handled by the governor, or the head of a federal
Special local needs registrations (SLN or 24(c) reg- agency. The exemption allows a pesticide product to be sold,
istrations) allow individual states to modify federal labels by and used for a nonregistered purpose, for a specified period of
adding additional uses, application sites, or control techniques, time. Strict controls and recordkeeping are required for each
or by increasing the restrictions to the federal label. A new label, use. Applicators must understand all of the special requirements
supplementing the original, is required for each SLN registra- and responsibilities before using emergency exemptions. The
tion. Applicators must have a copy of the SLN label in their agency that has granted the exemption provides application
possession to apply the pesticide for that purpose. rates, safety precautions, and other information.
SLN labeling includes the initials "SLN" and a two-letter Establishment numbers. An EPA establishment num-
abbreviation for the state that issued the registration. In Maine, ber (for example, No Pest 5EC EPA Est. No. 5840-AZ-1) must
a label might read, EPA SLN ME-860009. These registrations appear on the pesticide label. It identifies the facility that pro-
are legal only in the state or local area specified on the label. duced the pesticide in order to track manufacturing problems,
Any other application is subject to civil and criminal penalties. accidents, and poisonings.
SIGNAL WORDS AND SYMBOLS

Every pesticide product is associated with a signal word that reflects the hazard of the entire contents including, active
ingredients, carriers, solvents, and all inert ingredients. The signal word indicates the acute toxicity of the active ingredient
through he most threatening route of entry (eyes, mouth, skin, or lungs). The signal word does not reflect the risk of delayed,
chronic, or allergic effects.
Use the signal word to help decide the precautionary measures needed to avoid exposure. Always choose the least toxic
pesticide that will give the desired level of pest control. See Chapter 8, Toxicity and Health for a discussion of signal words and
toxicity. The signal word must appear in large letters on the front panel of the label along with the statement, Keep Out of Reach
of Children.
Danger - Poison—These words, and the skull and crossbone symbol, must appear
on all products that are highly toxic by any route of entry into the body. PELIGRO,
the Spanish word for danger, must also appear on the label. These pesticides are
DANGER POISON
fatal or poisonous if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. They are
Keep Out of Reach of Children
corrosive and cause eye and skin damage. Do not breath vapor, dust, or spray mist.
Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. A front panel Statement of Practical
Treatment is required.
Danger—These pesticides are fatal or poisonous if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed

DANGER through the skin. They can cause severe eye damage or skin burns. Products may
Keep Out of Reach of Children have caused tumors in lab animals. Do not breath vapor, dust, or spray mist. Do not
get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. An appropriate first aid statement is required.
Warning—This indicates the product is moderately toxic to mouth, skin, or lungs

or causes moderate eye or skin irritation. AVISO, the Spanish word for warning,
WARNING
must also appear on the label. These pesticides are harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or
Keep Out of Reach of Children
absorbed through the skin. Avoid breathing vapor, dust, or spray mist. Avoid con-
tact with eyes, skin, or clothing. An appropriate first aid statements is required.
Caution—This signals that the product is slightly toxic orally, dermally, or through
CAUTION inhalation, or causes slight eye or skin irritation. No precautionary statements are
Keep Out of Reach of Children required, although they are often included.

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
All pesticide labels contain precautions that are necessary After stating the hazards to humans, most labels list the
to protect the pesticide handler, their employees, other persons, minimum Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). This may be
or animals. Sometimes these statements are listed under the a general reference to clothing, hats, etc., or specific equip-
heading, Hazards to Humans and Domestic Animals. They may ment such as the type of respirator or gloves. The requirements
be composed of several sections. may vary for different activities; for example, more protection
Routes of entry statements. The routes of entry (eyes, may be needed when mixing a pesticide than is needed when
mouth, skin, lungs) that are particularly hazardous and need you applying it.
specific protection are identified immediately below the signal
word. These statements are brief but provide critical informa- Personal Protective Equipment—No Pest 5EC
tion. A DANGER signal word followed by May be fatal if swal-
Applicators and other handlers must wear:
lowed or inhaled gives you a far different warning than, DAN- z Long sleeved shirt and long pants
GER followed by Corrosive-Causes eye damage and severe z Waterproof gloves
skin burns. Many pesticide products are hazardous by more z Shoes plus socks
z Protective eyewear
than one route; study these statements carefully.
Specific action statements. These statements usually
follow route of entry statements. They help prevent pesticide Some labels do not mention PPE. To determine common-
poisoning by emphasizing the necessary precautions, and the sense precautions for these materials, consider the signal word,
correct personal protective equipment to wear. and all precautionary statements. For example, Avoid skin con-
Other precautionary statements. Labels often list tact indicates the need for gloves, long sleeves, long-legged
other precautions that should be followed when handling the pants, and goggles.
product These statements may appear under sections such as Follow all PPE requirements on the label. It is illegal to
Important, Note, Recommendations, or General Information. wear less protection than the label requires. However, the ab-
sence of a statement, or the mention of only a single piece of
User Safety Recommendations—No Pest 5EC equipment, does not rule out the exercise of more precaution
or the common-sense use of additional protection whenever
z Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using
tobacco or using the toilet. possible.
z Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside. Then
wash thoroughly and put on clean clothing. STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT
z Remove PPE immediately after handling this product. This section describes first aid procedures for accidental
z Wash the outside of gloves before removing.
z As soon as possible, wash thoroughly, change into clean clothes. exposures. Important information for physicians may be in-
cluded.
Typical precautionary statements

Routes of Entry Statements
DANGER WARNING CAUTION
z Fatal if swallowed z Harmful or fatal if swallowed z Harmful if swallowed

z Poisonous if inhaled z Harmful or fatal if absorbed z May be harmful if inhaled
z Extremely hazardous by skin contact through the skin z May irritate eyes, nose, throat,
-rapidly absorbed through skin z Harmful or fatal if inhaled and skin
z Corrosive-causes irreversible eye z Causes skin and eye irritation
damage and severe skin burns
z May cause allergic skin reaction
Specific Action Statements
DANGER WARNING CAUTION
z Do not breathe vapors or spray mist A combination of the specific action z Avoid contact with skin or clothing
z For exposures outdoors, a dust/mist statements found on DANGER and z Avoid breathing dust, vapors, or
filtering respirator (MSHA/NIOSH CAUTION labels. spray mists
approval number prefix TC-21C) z Avoid getting in eyes
must be used.

z This pesticide is extremely toxic to fish and wildlife. Birds
Statement of Practical Treatment—No Pest 5EC and wild mammals utilizing treated areas may be killed.
If Swallowed: Do not induce vomiting. Contains xylene range Do not apply directly to water or to areas where surface
aromatic hydrocarbons. Call a physician or poison control
water is present.
center immediately. If In Eyes: Flush with plenty of water for
at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention. If on Skin: Wash z This product is highly toxic to bees exposed to direct treat-
with plenty of soap and water. Get medical attention if irrita- ment or residues on crops or blooming weeds. Do not apply
tion persists. If Inhaled: Remove to fresh air immediately. this product or allow it to drift to blooming crops or weeds
Get medical attention.
if bees are visiting the areas to be treated.
z This pesticide can travel (seep or leach) through soil and
All DANGER labels, and some WARNING and CAUTION contaminate ground water. Users are advised not to apply
labels, contain a note to physicians describing the appropriate where the water table (ground water) is close to the surface
medical procedures for poisoning emergencies and may identify and where the soils are very permeable.
an antidote. A copy of the label should always be available for z This product may not be mixed or loaded within 50 feet of
emergencies. For more information about pesticide poisoning; intermittent streams and rivers, or natural or impounded
see Chapter 7, Toxicity and Health. lakes and reservoirs.
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS STATEMENT PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL HAZARDS

The following advisory statement must appear in the envi- This section of the label describes any special fire, explo-
ronmental hazard statement of any product intended for out- sion, or chemical activity. For example:
door, terrestrial applications: z Flammable - Do not use, pour, spill, or store near heat or
open flame. Do not cut or weld container.
z Corrosive - Store only in a corrosion-resistant tank.
For terrestrial uses, do not apply directly to water, or to
areas where surface water is present, or to intertidal areas
below the mean high water mark. Do not contaminate water
STORAGE AND DISPOSAL
by the cleaning of equipment or disposal of wastes. All labels contain general instructions to properly store
and dispose of the pesticide and its container. Because state
and local laws vary considerably, specific instructions are usu-
If a pesticide is hazardous to wildlife or the environment, ally not included. For information about pesticide storage and
statements are required describing the nature of the hazard and disposal, see Chapter 9, Using Pesticides Properly.
the appropriate precautions to avoid accident, injury, or dam- One or more statements may appear in a special section of
age. Certain pesticides require Special Toxicity Statements. the label titled Storage and Disposal or under headings such as
These are developed according to toxicological data and field Important, or Note, or General Instructions:
testing (see chart below).
Some form of environmental hazard statement appears on z Store herbicides away from fertilizers, insecticides, fungi-
virtually every pesticide label. They are reminders to follow cides, and seeds.
common sense precautions to avoid contaminating the envi- z Store at temperatures above 32°F (0°C).
ronment. Sometimes these statements provide practical steps z Store in original container only.
to avoid harm. z Do not reuse container; render unusable.
z Do not contaminate water, food, or feed by storage or disposal.
z Do not apply when runoff is likely to occur. z Triple rinse and offer this container for recycling or re-
z Do not apply when weather conditions favor drift. conditioning, or dispose in an approved landfill.
Special toxicity statements

If the toxicological data The label must display
for a pesticide indicates: the following advisory:
Mammalian acute oral LD50 of 100ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.
Fish acute LC50 of 1ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to fish.
Avian acute oral LD50 of 100ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.
Avian dietary LC50 of 500ppm or less This pesticide is toxic to wildlife.
Bee acute toxicity of 2 micrograms or less This pesticide is highly toxic to bees.
Field studies or investigations indicate that This pesticide is extremely toxic
the use of the pesticides may result in fatality to wildlife and fish.
to birds, fish, or mammals.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE Federal law, however, does allow certain pesticides uses
Misuse Statement. On every label, directly under Di- in ways not specifically mentioned on the label [FIFRA Sec-
rections for Use, is the following statement: tion 2(ee)]. Unless you would be in violation of the laws of
your state or tribe, you may:
It is a violation of Federal law to use this product
z Apply a pesticide at any dosage, concentration, or frequency
in a manner inconsistent with its labeling.
less than that listed on the labeling.
z Apply a pesticide against any target pest not listed on the
The Directions for Use give explicit application information:
label as long as the application is to a plant, animal, or site
z The pests that the product will control. that is listed.
z The crop, animal, or site the product is intended to protect. z Use any appropriate equipment or method of application that
z The proper equipment to use. is not prohibited by the labeling.
z Mixing instructions. z Mix a pesticide, or pesticides, with a fertilizer, if the mixture
z How much to use and how often to apply. is not prohibited by the labeling.
z Compatibility with other products. z Mix two or more pesticides, if all of the dosages are at, or
z Phytotoxicity and other possible injury. below, the recommended rate.
z Where and when the material should be applied.
All other deviations from the label are illegal. Be aware
A state may develop special rules that place additional re- that you, alone, are liable for any problems that result from
strictions or requirements on the use of a particular pesticide. these uses. Before deviating from label directions, discuss the
These restrictions are usually not on the pesticide label. You situation with the BPC, your Cooperative Extension office, or
are responsible for knowing Maine’s laws governing pesticide Extension commodity expert. Just because you may legally de-
use. See Chapter 12, Federal and Maine Pesticide Laws for viate from the label does not mean it is always wise to do so.
more information. If you have a question concerning label di-
rections contact the BPC, your local Cooperative Extension
office, or your pesticide dealer. REENTRY STATEMENT
Directions for use by reference. Sometimes additional The label may specify a restricted-entry interval (REI; also
directions are contained in documents that are only referred to known as a reentry interval), during which no one is allowed in
on the product labeling. For example: the treatment area without taking the precautions specified on
the label. The label may also require you to post warning signs
Referenced Directions—No Pest 5EC at entrances to the treated area during the REI.
The reentry statement may be printed in a box under the
Refer to the DIRECTIONS FOR USE booklet attached to this con-
heading Reentry or Agricultural Use Requirements or under a
tainer for proper use directions and additional precautionary statements.
more general title such as Important, or Note, or General In-
formation.
Use of this product in a manner inconsistent with the PES- If no reentry statement appears on the label, or none has
TICIDE USE BULLETIN FOR PROTECTION OF ENDAN- been set by your state, then all unprotected workers must wait
GERED SPECIES is a violation of Federal laws. Restric- at least until sprays have dried or dusts have settled before re-
tions for the protection of endangered species apply to entering without protective equipment—the minimum legal re-
this product. If restrictions apply to the area in which this entry interval.
product is to be used, you must obtain the PESTICIDE
USE BULLETIN FOR PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED
AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS
SPECIES for that county.
Pesticide labels used on farms, forests, nurseries, or in
The reference statement may be the only indication that greenhouses will contain an Agricultural Use Requirements
additional directions and restrictions apply to the product. The box. This box will contain:
applicator is responsible for determining whether the additional
references apply to their particular situation. If the reference is z The application restrictions for the product.
applicable, they must comply. Referenced documents do not z A reference statement to comply with the Worker Protection
always accompany the pesticide product when it is sold. Standard, 40 CFR part 170.
Use inconsistent with the labeling. It is illegal to z The REI (the interval may be different between uses and/or
use a pesticide in any way not permitted by the labeling. A sites).
pesticide may be used only on the plants, animals, or sites that z PPE requirements for early entry workers.
are named in the Directions for Use. You may not use higher z Posting and/or oral notification statements to workers.
dosages, higher concentrations, or more frequent applications.
You must follow all directions for use. You must wear the speci- Labels for agricultural pesticides often list the minimum
fied personal protective equipment even though you are risk- number of days which must pass between the last pesticide ap-
ing only yourself. The use directions are actually instructions; plication and the harvest of crops, slaughter of livestock, or
they are not advice, they are requirements. continued grazing. These preharvest intervals (days to har-

vest) or pre-slaughter intervals are set by EPA to allow time duce or import. Distributors are responsible for ensuring that
for the pesticide to break down. Adhering to these intervals their customers are provided a copy of these MSDSs. Employ-
avoids poisoning of grazing animals and prevents residues ers must have an MSDS for each hazardous chemical they use.
greater than the tolerance on food, feed, or animal products. MSDSs must be readily and directly accessible by employ-
The requirements listed under Agricultural Use Require- ees when they are at work. As long as employees can get the
ments apply only to those uses covered by the Worker Protec- information when they need it, any approach may be used. Some
tion Standards (WPS); see Chapter 13, Pesticide Laws. Re- employers keep the MSDSs in a binder in a central location, or
quirements for non-WPS uses will appear elsewhere in the Di- post them in a prominent place, others computerize the infor-
rections for Use portion of the label. mation and provide access through terminals.
Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS)
LABEL CHANGES is a program, developed by the National Paint and Coatings
Over the years, a manufacturer may change a product’s Association. These numerical ratings serve as a quick assess-
label. A new label may require additional PPE or allow use on ment of a product’s health, flammability and reactivity haz-
a new site. What are your responsibilities if you use a product ards. The ratings are expressed on a scale from 0 to 4; 0 de-
with the old label on the container? notes a minimal hazard; 4 is a severe hazard. There is a sepa-
In most cases, the answer is simple: use the product accord- rate code system for personal protection equipment needed to
ing to the label that came with it. Labels may change with little handle the product and designation of chronic health hazards.
notice, and it would be impractical, if not impossible, to deter- Though much of the HMIS material is aimed at protecting
mine if a label has changed every time you use a pesticide that workers formulating the product, it can also benefit the user.
you already have. Labels with rating hazards may be attached to the product.
If EPA reclassifies a pesticide as restricted-use, manufac-
turers generally have 120 days to change the label of any con-
tainers being shipped. Within 270 days, all pesticide labels on
products anywhere in the commerce chain also must be labeled
as restricted-use. If you have product that has the old unre- Hazard Materials
stricted label, you may use the product, as labeled, without be- Identification System
ing certified. However, you must become certified to purchase label.
or use new product that has the restricted-use label.
If you know that a label has changed, you may follow the
newer label provided the change results in stricter requirements.
For example, suppose you know that the newer label requires
that you wear eye protection. It would certainly make sense for
you to heed this precaution even though it does not appear on the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). This
old label of the product you are using. If, however, the newer may appear on some products. The system uses a diamond-
label eases use restrictions, abide by the stricter requirements on shaped warning symbol. The top, left and right boxes refer to
the label of the product you are using. For example, you cannot flammability, health and reactivity hazards, respectively; each
apply the old product to sites that do not appear on its label, but contains a number from 0 to 4, see the diagram below. The
have been added to the newer label. bottom box refers to specific hazards.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RATING

HEALTH HAZARD FIRE HAZARD
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are technical 4- Deadly Flash Points
documents meant to supplement the information on the label; 3- Extreme DANGER 4- < 730 F
they provide detailed hazard, precautionary, and emergency 2- Hazardous 3- < 1000 F
1- Slightly hazardous 2- > 1000 F, < 2000 F
information for a pesticide product. The MSDS is not part of
0- Normal material 1- > 2000 F
the legal labeling, yet it has its own regulatory requirements. 0- Will not burn
An MSDS for No Pest 5EC insecticide is included at the end of
this chapter, after the sample label.
The MSDS is required by the United States Department
of Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as
a part of the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS). The HCS
is based on the concept that employees have both a need, and a
SPECIFIC HAZARD REACTIVITY
right, to know the identities and hazards of the chemicals they Oxidizer - OX 4- May detonate
may be exposed to at work. They also need to know what pre- Acid - ACID 3- Shock and
cautions will minimize risk. Corrosive - COR heat may detonate
Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to ob- Use NO WATER - W 2- Violent change
Radioactive - 1- Unstable if heated
tain or develop an MSDS for each hazardous chemical they pro- 0- Stable

1. What should be determined by reading the pesticide 10. Regardless of the container material (glass, metal, or plas-
label before purchasing it? tic), all empty No Pest 5EC containers should be:
a. if the product can be used to treat your crop, animal, or site a. burned
b. if the product will control the problem pest b. reused
c. if there are any particular environmental hazards (such c. triple rinsed
as toxicity to fish, bees, or an endangered species) that
you should be aware of 11. Containers of No Pest 5EC can be kept in the home as
d. how much product will be needed long as the storage area is locked.
e. all of the above (True or False)
2. Regardless of the signal word(s), all pesticide labels must 12. No Pest 5EC poses a hazard to wildlife or other non-
carry the words, “KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHIL- target animals?
DREN.” (True or False)
(True or False) If true, list three groups of animals:
____________, _______________, and ____________.
3. All formulations of the same active ingredient carry the
same signal word. 13. No Pest 5EC may be applied to sandy or gravelly soil
(True or False) with the water table close to the surface?
(True or False)
4. The skull and crossbones symbol must appear on every
pesticide label. 14. What PPE must be worn before entering an agricultural
(True or False) area still wet from a No Pest 5EC treatment ?
5. Which signal word on a pesticide label would indicate
that the product is highly toxic to humans?
a. WARNING
b. CAUTION
c. Keep Out of Reach of Children 15. If warning signs are to be posted in a No Pest 5EC
d. DANGER-POISON treatment area, the name of the pesticide is all that is r
required to be written on the sign.
6. Labels should be removed from pesticide containers and (True or False)
kept in a notebook so they remain clean and legible.
(True or False) 16. Once you read the entire pesticide label you will
probably never need to read it again.
7. A certain active ingredient has only one technical chemi- (True or False)
cal name and one accepted common chemical name, but
may be in products with several different trade/brand 17. Some pesticide labels require posting of treated areas
names. during the re-entry interval to reduce the possibility of
(True or False) accidental exposure.
(True or False)
To answer questions 8 through 15, refer to the No Pest
sample label found on the following page. 18. No Pest 5EC may be purchased by any state resident.
(True or False)
8. Employees must wear a face shield or goggles when han-
dling No Pest 5EC?
(True or False)
9. If a person filling a spray tank accidentally swallows several

mouthfuls of No Pest 5EC you should induce vomiting.
(True or False)

CHEMCO
REG. U.S. PAT. & TM OFF
NO PEST 5 EC INSECTICIDE
For control of turfgrass insects
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE due to ground water con-
cern. For retail sale to and use only by certified applica- For terrestrial uses, do not apply directly to water, or to areas
tors or persons under their direct supervision and only for where surface water is present, or to intertidal areas below the
those uses covered by the certified applicators' certifica- mean high water mark. Do not contaminate water by the clean-
tion. Users must read and follow all precautionary state- ing of equipment or disposal of wastes.
ments and instructions for use in order to minimize po- This pesticide is toxic to birds and extremely toxic to fish. Do not
tential of deltathion to reach ground water. apply directly to water or contaminate water through cleaning and
disposal. This product is highly toxic to bees. Avoid use when
ACTIVE INGREDIENT: BY WEIGHT bees are actively foraging.
deltathion (1,2 phospho-(5)-4 chioromethane)...................50% “No Pest” has been found in groundwater as a result of agricul-
INERT INGREDIENTS: tural use. Users are advised not to apply “No Pest” where the
contains xylene range aromatic hydrocarbons.................50% water table (groundwater) is close to the surface and where the
TOTAL 100% soils are very permeable (i.e., well drained soils such as loamy
EPA Reg. No. 999 000 EPA Est. No. 5840-AZ-1 sands).
PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS
el
HAZARDS TO HUMANS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS
DIRECTIONS FOR USE
It is a violation of Federal law to use this product in a manner
inconsistent with its labeling.
DANGER/POISON
ab
Causes eye irritation. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing.
Harmful if swallowed. Avoid breathing spray mist. Wash hands
and face before eating or using tobacco. Bathe at the end of work
For any requirements specific to your State or Tribe, consult the
agency responsible for pesticide regulation. Do not apply this prod-
uct in a way that will contact workers or other persons, either
L
directly or through drift. Only protected handlers may be in the
day, wash entire body and hair with soap and water. Change cloth- area during application.
ing daily. Wash contaminated clothing thoroughly before reusing.
Refer to the DIRECTIONS FOR USE booklet attached to this
e
STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT container for proper use directions and additional precautionary
l
statements.
If Swallowed: Do not induce vomiting. Contains xylene range
p
aromatic hydrocarbons. Call a physician or poison control center
immediately. If In Eyes: Flush with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Get medical attention. If on Skin: Wash with plenty of AGRICULTRAL USE REQUIREMENTS
soap and water. Get medical attention if irritation persists. If In- Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and with
am
haled: Remove to fresh air immediately. Get medical attention.
NOTE TO PHYSICIANS: “No Pest” is a cholinesterase inhibitor.

Treat symptomatically. If exposed, plasma and red blood cell cho-
the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR part 170. This Stan-
dard contains requirements for the protection of agricultural
workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, and
handlers of agricultural pesticides. It contains requirements
S
linesterase tests may indicate significance of exposure (baseline for training, decontamination, notification, and emergency
data are useful). Atropine, only by injection, is the preferable an- assistance. It also contains specific instructions and excep-
tidote. Oximes, such as 2- PAM/protopam, may be therapeutic if tions pertaining to the statements on this label about personal
used early; however, use only in conjunction with atropine. In case protective equipment (PPE), and restricted-entry interval. The
of severe-acute poisoning, use antidote immediately after estab- requirements in this box only apply to uses of this product that
lishing an open airway and respiration. are covered by the Worker Protection Standard.
Personal Protective Equipment Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during
Applicators and other handlers must wear: the restricted entry interval (REI) of 48 hours.
z Long sleeved shirt and long pants
PPE is required for early entry into all treated areas if it in-
z Waterproof gloves
volves contact with anything that has been treated, such as
z Shoes plus socks
plants, soil, or water. Minimum PPE includes:
z Protective eyewear
z Long sleeved shirt and long pants
Discard clothing and other absorbent materials that have been z Waterproof gloves
drenched or heavily contaminated with this product’s concentrate. z Shoes plus socks
Do not reuse them. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning/ z Protective eyewear
maintaining PPE. Keep and was PPE separately from other laundry.
KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

DANGER POISON
MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED
PELIGRO

CHEMCO
REG. U.S. PAT. & TM OFF
NO PEST 5 EC INSECTICIDE
For control of turfgrass insects
rinse (or equivalent). Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or

NON-AGRICULTRAL USE REQUIREMENTS puncture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or incineration, or, if
The requirements in this box apply to uses of this product allowed by state and local authorities, by open burning. If burned,
that are NOT within the scope of the Worker Protection stay out of smoke. Glass Containers: Triple rinse (or equiva-
Standard for agricultural pesticides (40 CFR Part 170). The lent). Then dispose of in a sanitary landfill or by other approved
WPS applies when this product is used to produce state and local procedures.
agricultural plants on farms, forests, nurseries or green-
houses. LIMITATION OF WARRANTY AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITY
NOTICE: Read this Limitation of Warranty and Limitation of Li-
Do not allow contact with treated surface for 48 hours. ability before buying or using this product. If the terms are not
acceptable, return the product at once, unopened, and the pur-
REENTRY STATEMENTS chase price will be refunded. It is impossible to eliminate all risks
inherently associated with the use of this product. Crop injury,
Do not apply this product in such a manner as to directly or through ineffectiveness, or other unintended consequences may result
drift expose workers or other persons. The area being treated because of such factors as weather conditions, presence of other
must be vacated by unprotected persons. materials, or the manner of use or application, all of which are
l
Do not enter treated areas without protective clothing for 24 hours. beyond the control of the manufacturer or seller. All such risks
shall be assumed by buyer or user. Manufacturer warrants that
e
Written or oral warnings must be given to workers who are ex- this product conforms to the chemical description on the label
pected to be in a treated area or in an area about to be treated and is reasonably fit for the purposes stated in the Directions for
with this product. When oral warnings are given, warnings shall
b
Use, under normal use conditions, subject to the risks described
be given in a language customarily understood by workers. Oral above. Manufacturer makes no other express or implied warranty
warnings must be given if there is reason to believe that written
a
of fitness or merchantability or any other express or implied war-
warnings cannot be understood by workers. Written warnings must ranty. In no event shall Manufacturer or seller be liable for any
include the following information: “WARNING! Area treated with incidental consequential or special damages resulting from the
L
“No Pest’ Insecticide on (date of application). Do not enter with- use or handling of this product. The exclusive remedy of the user
out appropriate protective clothing until sprays have dried. If ac- or buyer, and the exclusive liability of Manufacturer or seller for
cidental exposure occurs, follow the instructions below.” (Written any and all claims, losses, injuries or damages (including claims
e
warnings must include the STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREAT- based on breach of warranty, contract, negligence, tort, strict li-
l
MENT given at the beginning of this label.) ability or otherwise) resulting from the use or handling of this prod-
uct, shall be the return of purchase price of the product or, at the
p
STORAGE AND DISPOSAL election of Manufacturer or seller, the replacement of the prod-
PROHIBITIONS: Do not contaminate water, food or feed by stor- uct. Manufacturer and seller offer this product, and buyer and
age or disposal. Open dumping is prohibited. Do not reuse empty user accept it, subject to the foregoing limitations of warranty and
m
container. limitation of liability, which may not be modified by any oral or
written agreement.
a
STORAGE: Store in original container only. Keep container closed
when not in use. Store “No Pest” in a well ventilated clean dry area CHEMCO, Inc.
out of reach of children and animals. Do not store in areas where PO Box 0000
S
temperature averages 115°F (46°C) or greater. Do not store in or Hometown, USA
around the home or home garden. Do not store near food or feed. In 1-800-000-0000
case of spill or leak on floor or paved surfaces, soak up with sand,
earth or synthetic absorbent. Remove to chemical waste area.
PESTICIDE DISPOSAL: Pesticide wastes are toxic. Improper User Safety Recommendations
disposal of excess pesticide, spray mixture or rinsate is a viola-
tion of federal law. If these wastes cannot be disposed of by use z Wash hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum,
according to label instructions, contact your State Pesticide or using tobacco or using the toilet.
Environmental Control Agency or the Hazardous Waste Repre- z Remove clothing immediately if pesticide gets inside.
sentative at the nearest EPA Regional Office for guidance. Then wash thoroughly and put on clean clothing
z Remove PPE immediately after handling this product.
CONTAINER DISPOSAL: Metal Containers: Triple rinse (or Wash the outside of gloves before removing.
equivalent). Then offer for recycling or reconditioning, or punc- z As soon as possible, wash thoroughly and change into
ture and dispose of in a sanitary landfill, or by other procedures clean clothing.
approved by state and local authorities. Plastic Containers: Triple
KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN

DANGER POISON
MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED
PELIGRO

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
DATE PREPARED: 11/12/1998 MSDS No: 0000 A
No Pest 5 EC
1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION

PRODUCT NAME: No Pest 5 EC
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION: Insecticide
MANUFACTURER
Chemco
P.O. Box 00000
Hometown, USA
24 HR. EMERGENCY TELEPHONE NUMBERS:
Emergency Phone 800-000-0000
EPA REG. NO.: 999-000
2. COMPOSITION / INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Chemical Name Wt.% CAS#
No Pest 50 00-00-0
3. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
le
p
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE: Clear, odorless liquid
m
IMMEDIATE CONCERNS: HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED CAUSES EYE IRRITATION AVOID CONTACT WITH
S
EYES, SKIN OR CLOTHING AVOID BREATHING DUST KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
a
S SD
EYES: Eye contact may include discomfort, tearing, swelling, redness, and blurred
vision. See Toxicological Information, section 11.
SKIN: This substance is not expected to cause prolonged or significant skin irrita-
tion. If absorbed through the skin, this substance is considered practically non-
M
toxic to internal organs. See Toxicological Information, section 11.
INGESTION: Ingestion may cause irritation of the digestive tract which may include
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. If swallowed, this substance is considered slightly
toxic to internal organs. See Toxicological Information, section 11.
INHALATION: The systemic toxicity of this substance has not been determined. How-
ever, it should be practically non-toxic to internal organs if inhaled.
TARGET ORGANS: No Pest is a inhibitor of the cholinesterase enzyme, found in nervous
tissue, red blood cells, and plasma.
4. FIRST AID MEASURES

EYES: Flush eyes immediately with fresh water for at least 15 minutes while holding
the eyelids open. Remove contact lenses if worn. If irritation persists, call a
doctor.
SKIN: As a precaution, wash skin thoroughly with soap and water. Remove and wash
contaminated clothing.
NGESTION: If swallowed, give water or milk to drink and telephone for medical ad-
vice. Consult medical personnel before inducing vomiting. If medical advice cannot
be obtained, then take the person and product container to the nearest medical
emergency treatment center or hospital.
INHALATION: If respiratory discomfort or irritation occurs, move the person to fresh
air. See a doctor if discomfort or irritation continues.

NOTE TO PHYSICIANS: ‘No Pest’ is a cholinesterase inhibitor. Treat symptomatically.
If exposed, plasma and red blood cell cholinesterase tests may indicate significance
of exposure (baseline data are useful). Atropine, only by injection, is the prefer-
able antidote. Oximes, such as 2- PAM/protopam, may be therapeutic if used early;
however, use only in conjunction with atropine. In case of severe-acute poisoning,
use antidote immediately after establishing an open airway and respiration.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Medical Information: Call day or night, 1-800-000-0000
5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

FLASHPOINT AND METHOD: Nonflammable
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA: Use appropriate agent for surrounding fire - product is not
combustible.
HAZARDOUS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS: Normal combustion forms carbon dioxide, water vapor and
may produce oxides of nitrogen. Incomplete combustion can produce carbon monoxide.
FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES: Products of combustion from fires involving this material
may be toxic. Avoid breathing smoke and mists. Avoid personnel and equipment contact
with fallout and runoff. Minimize the amount of water used for fire fighting. Do not
enter any enclosed area without full protective equipment, including self-contained
breathing equipment. Keep containers cool with a water spray. Contain and isolate
runoff and debris for proper disposal. Decontaminate personal protective equipment
and fire fighting equipment before reuse. Read the entire document.
e
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES
in the trash.
l
SMALL SPILL: Clean up material and use according to label instructions or dispose of
p
LARGE SPILL: Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in Exposure Controls/
Personal Protection section. Vacuum with machines equipped with high efficiency filters
am
or sweep up material and place in a disposable container. Scrub contaminated area with
S
detergent and water using a stiff broom. Pick up liquid with Oil Dry, cat litter, clay,
rags or other absorbent and place in a disposable container. Dispose of in accordance
S SD
with instructions in Section 13. ‘DISPOSAL.’
GENERAL PROCEDURES: Observe all protection and safety precautions when cleaning up
spills see Section 8. ‘EXPOSURE CONTROLS/PERSONAL PROTECTION.’ For help with any spill,
leak, fire or exposure involving this material, call day or night (800) 000-0000.
7. HANDLING AND STORAGE
M
GENERAL PROCEDURES: Keep pesticide in original container. Do not put into food or
drink containers. Avoid contamination of feed and foodstuffs. Store in a cool, dry
place, preferably locked storage area.
STORAGE TEMPERATURE: 104°F maximum
8. EXPOSURE CONTROLS / PERSONAL PROTECTION

ENGINEERING CONTROLS: Provide natural or mechanical ventilation to minimize expo-
sure. If practical, use local mechanical exhaust ventilation at sources of air
contamination such as open process equipment.
PERSONAL PROTECTION
EYES AND FACE: Where there is significant potential for eye contact, wear chemical
goggles and have eye flushing equipment available. For application of product in
accordance with label instructions, no special eye protection is needed.
SKIN: Wear appropriate protective clothing and chemical resistant gloves to prevent
skin contact. Consult glove manufacturer to determine appropriate type of glove for
given application. Wash contaminated skin promptly. Launder contaminated clothing
and clean protective equipment before reuse. Wash thoroughly after handling.
RESPIRATORY: Avoid breathing dust. Use NIOSH/MSHA approved respiratory protection

equipment (full facepiece recommended) when airborne exposure limits are exceeded
(see below). If used, full facepiece replaces need for chemical goggles. Consult
respirator manufacturer to determine appropriate type equipment for given applica-
tion. Observe respirator use limitations specified by NIOSH/MSHA or the manufac-
turer. Respiratory protection programs must comply with 29 C.F.R. 1910.134. For
application of product in accordance with label instructions, no special respiratory
protection is required.
OSHA HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS (29 CFR 1910.1200):
EXPOSURE LIMITS
Chemical Name OSHA PEL ACGIH TLV ACGIH STEL
No Pest 5 mg/m3 5 mg/m3 None
9. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL STATE: Liquid
APPEARANCE: Clear, odorless liquid
pH: Not Applicable
SOLUBILITY IN WATER: Insoluble
DENSITY: 51-55 lbs/cu. ft.
10. STABILITY AND REACTIVITY

STABLE: YES
e
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: NO
l
CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Avoid contact with acids and bases.
HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION: Thermal decomposition products may include oxides of
11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION

p
carbon and nitrogen and trace amounts of methyl isocyanate.
ACUTE
EYES: Rabbit - corrosive
am S
S SD
EPA FIFRA toxicology category - I.
DERMAL LD50: Rat = > 250 mg/kg.
EPA FIFRA toxicity category - II.
M
SKIN IRRITATION: Rabbit - corrosive.
EPA FIFRA toxicity category - I.
ORAL LD50: Rat male = 50 mg/kg, female = 42 mg/kg.
INHALATION LC50: Rat - 1 hour inhalation = > 0.5 mg/liter.
SENSITIZATION: Guinea pig - positive
CARCINOGENICITY:
CARCINOGENICITY COMMENTS: No Pest has been associated with the development of tumors
in high dose groups in both rats and mice in lifetime feeding studies. In the rat
and mouse chronic studies, the NOEL (no observable effect level) for oncogenic
findings was 7000 and 800 ppm, respectively.
NEUROTOXICITY: No Pest is not considered to be a neurotoxin in the sense of produc-
ing direct histopathological changes to nerve tissue. Delayed and irreversible
neurotoxic effects have not been observed in animal toxicology investigations.
TERATOGENICITY: No Pest is not considered to be a teratogen or a chemical that
causes birth defects. Certain developmental changes have been observed in some
species when the dose of No Pest administered to the mother caused signs of toxic-
ity. Results from monkey teratology studies have not demonstrated birth defects even
at maternally toxic dose levels.

MUTAGENICITY: No Pest has demonstrated positive findings when tested in some in
vitro systems, however results from in vivo mammalian investigations have been
negative.
COMMENTS: See Section 16 for definition of EPA FIFRA toxicity categories.
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION

ENVIRONMENTAL DATA: No data available.
ECOTOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION: This material is toxic to aquatic and estuarine inver-
tebrates. Do not apply directly to water. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of
equipment or disposal of wastes. This product is highly toxic to bees exposed to
direct treatment or residues on plants.
13. DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS

FOR LARGE SPILLS: Material collected that cannot be reprocessed should be disposed
of in a landfill approved for pesticide disposal or in accordance with applicable
Federal, State or local procedures.
PRODUCT DISPOSAL: Chemco is committed to responsible environmental practices and
recommends that all of the product be used up, carefully following all label direc-
tions and precautions.
If necessary to dispose of partially filled product container, then securely wrap it
in several layers of newspaper and discard in trash.
e
EMPTY CONTAINER: Do not reuse empty container. Discard container in trash.
14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION

DOT (DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION)
PROPER SHIPPING NAME:
pl Not Regulated
PRIMARY HAZARD CLASS/DIVISION:
UN/NA NUMBER:
PACKING GROUP:
am S
None
NONE
NO
S SD
U.S. SURFACE FREIGHT CLASS: Insecticides, Fungicides, Insect or animal repellents or
vermin exterminators, NOI, Other than poison
MARINE POLLUTANT #1: No Pest
M
AIR (ICAO/IATA)
PROPER SHIPPING NAME: Not Regulated
SPECIAL SHIPPING NOTES: The description shown may not apply to all shipping situa-
tions. Consult 49CFR, or appropriate Dangerous Goods Regulations, for additional
description requirements (e.g., technical name) and mode-specific or quantity-
specific shipping requirements.
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION

TSCA (TOXIC SUBSTANCE CONTROL ACT)
All components of this product are listed on the TSCA inventory.
CERCLA (COMPREHENSIVE RESPONSE, COMPENSATION, AND LIABILITY ACT)
Sec. 103 RQ lbs: No
Releases to air, land or water of these hazardous substances which exceed the Re-
portable Quantity (RQ) must be reported to the National Response Center, (800-424-
8802); Listed at 40 CFR 302.4.
RCRA (RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECLAMATION ACT)
Sec. 261.33: No
Commercial chemical product wastes designated as acute hazards and toxic under 40
CFR 261.33.

SARA (SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS AND REAUTHORIZATION ACT)
Reportable Quantity (RQ) of Extremely Hazardous Substance (EHS), listed at CFR 355.
ACUTE: YES
CHRONIC: YES
FIRE: NO
REACTIVITY: NO
PRESSURE GENERATING: NO
313 REPORTABLE INGREDIENTS: Deltathion (CAS No. 00-00-0)
EHS 302 TPQ: No
Threshold Planning Quantity of Extremely Hazardous Substance (EHS). An asterisk (*)
following a Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ) signifies that if the material is a
solid and has a particle size equal to or larger than 100 micrometers, the Threshold
Planning Quantity = 10,000 LBS.
16. OTHER INFORMATION

HMIS CODES
FIRE: 0 HEALTH: 1 REACTIVITY: 0 PROTECTION: -
NFPA CODES
FIRE: 0 HEALTH: 1 REACTIVITY: 0 SPECIAL: -
APPROVAL DATE: 01/01/2001
MANUFACTURER SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES: EPA FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
le
Rodenticide Act) Toxicity Categories: The EPA toxicity categories are based on the
results of the acute toxicology studies. The toxicology findings are compared to the
p
FIFRA criteria to determine the product label signal word, precautionary and first
aid statements. The EPA FIFRA toxicity category summary:
EPA FIFRA Product Label Toxicity Rating
Toxicity Category
I
II
Signal Word
am S
DANGER Most toxic and irritating
WARNING
S SD
III CAUTION
IV CAUTION Least toxic and irritating
COMMENTS: For additional information concerning this product, call Chemco’s Consumer
Helpline at 800-000-0000.
M
MANUFACTURER DISCLAIMER: This Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) contains health,
safety and environmental information for you and your employees. It does not replace
the precautionary language, use directions, or the storage and disposal information
found on the product label. Information contained in this MSDS will help you to
prepare for emergency response and to meet community right-to-know, emergency re-
sponse and reporting requirements under SARA Title III and many other laws. Emer-
gency response agencies and health care providers will also find this additional
information useful.
Use of this product is regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) through the approved label copy. It is a violation of Federal law to use this
product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling.
Although the information and recommendations set forth herein (herinafter ‘Infor-
mation’) are presented in good faith and believed to be correct as of the date
hereof, Chemco makes no representations as to the completeness or accuracy thereof.
Information is supplied upon the condition that the persons receiving same will make
their own determinations as to its suitability for their purposees prior to use. In
no event will No Pest be responsible for damages of any nature whatsoever resulting
from the use of or reliance upon Information. NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES,
EITHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR
OF ANY OTHER NATURE ARE MADE WITH RESPECT TO INFORMATION OR THE PRODUCT TO WHICH
INFORMATION REFERS.

CHAPTER 9
Using Pesticides Properly

P ESTICIDES have the potential to
cause immediate or long-term
damage to the environment and injury to
The required PPE depends on the spe-
cific application and the type of chemical.
Many highly toxic pesticides require full
living things. Misapplication may fail to protection during every phase of pesticide
control the pest, or result in crop dam- handling. Some fumigants may require a
age, economic loss, and civil suits. Care- completely self-contained air system. In
less accidents and repeated misuse may some situations involving extensive PPE
lead to regulatory actions—fines, restric- and warm temperatures, you must con-
tions, or even product cancellations. Only sider the potential for heat stress. Condi-
by using pesticides properly can we mini- tions may preclude any pesticide appli-
mize their adverse effects and preserve cation until temperatures moderate.
the future availability of these products.
z Make sure you are familiar with the Protecting Your Hands
current federal, state, and local z Do not allow children to play around
pesticide laws and regulations. pesticide application equipment, or The proper gloves depend on the
z Always read the label to ensure you mixing, storage, and disposal areas. product being applied; many labels pre-
are treating at the proper time, place, z Keep pesticides in the original, scribe a particular type of glove. There
and rate. labeled containers and lock them in a are several types available including, rub-
z Use pesticides only when necessary, properly marked cabinet or store- ber, neoprene, nitrile, nylon, polyethyl-
and as part of an Integrated Pest room, away from food and feed. ene, viton, vinyl, and laminate.
Management (IPM) program. z Dispose of empty containers accord- Gloves must resist a product's
z When handling pesticides, have ready ing to the label, in a manner that does active ingredient and solvents.
access to a clean water source and not endanger the environment. Some rubber products react with certain
first aid supplies. solvents and become sticky as the rubber
z Avoid spills and splashes. If there is PROTECT YOURSELF dissolves. If this happens, dispose of them
an accident, follow the procedures on FROM PESTICIDES and use approved materials. The product
the label; see Chapter 7, Toxicity and manufacturer is always a good source to
Health. The greatest risk of exposure to pes- call for information regarding the choice
z If pesticide poisoning is suspected, ticides occurs when mixing and loading of gloves. Glove descriptions may indi-
contact the Maine Poison Center, the pesticide concentrates, and applying cate the amount of time it takes for a
nearest hospital emergency room, or highly toxic materials. Although applica- chemical to move from the outside sur-
physician. Take the pesticide label tion of diluted material is usually less haz- face of the glove to its interior—referred
with you. ardous, the hazard increases if there is sig- to as breakthrough time. Disposable
z Wear all required protective clothing nificant drift or when proper application gloves provide protection for only a few
and equipment and wash it after use. procedures are not followed. Exposure minutes. Reusable gloves should have a
z Work in pairs when applying highly may also occur when cleaning up pesti- breakthrough time of at least 240 min-
toxic pesticides. cide spills, making equipment repairs, or utes (4 hours).
z Avoid drift to nontarget areas. entering treated areas before the restricted Gloves should be thick enough
z Never eat, drink, or smoke while entry interval. to protect the pesticide handler for
handling pesticides. Wearing personal protective equip- as long as the job lasts. Glove thick-
z Bathe after handling pesticides or ment (PPE) offers protection against ex- ness is described in mils (a mil is one thou-
pesticide contaminated equipment. posure. Although PPE is sometimes un- sandth of an inch). The thicker the glove,
z Wash clothing after applying pesticides. comfortable and cumbersome, you must the more protection it will provide, and the
z Stay out of recently sprayed areas. follow label directions and do everything longer it will last under normal conditions.
Observe the restricted entry intervals possible to protect yourself and your em- Thick gloves offer more protection but may
specified on the label. ployees from pesticide exposure. restrict hand movement. Gloves that are at
Chapter 9 - Using Pesticides Properly - 83

EPA chemical resistance categories for PPE materials
The Worker Protection Standard requires that pesticide labels for use on farms, in forests, nurseries and greenhouses
list the type of PPE that must be worn with each product. Labels refer to EPA chemical resistance categories—A through
H. The categories are based on the solvents used in the pesticide formulations, not the pesticides themselves. Therefore,
there will be instances where the same pesticide with two different formulations (WP and EC, for example) will require
PPE from two different chemical resistance categories.
PPE made from the listed materials can resist pesticides for different amounts of time. For example, pesticide products
in category H require barrier laminate or Viton materials for a full day's exposure; butyl, nitrile, and natural rubber offer
protection for 10 minutes of chemical contact. No other PPE materials offer protection against category H chemicals.
Always choose PPE that offers protection for the full duration of the job.
Resistance CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS

Category
Listed on Barrier Butyl* Nitrile* Neoprene* Natural* Polyethylene Polyvinyl* Viton*
Pesticide Label Laminate Rubber Rubber Rubber Rubber Chloride(PVC)
A (dry & water-based high high high high high high high high
formulations)
B high high slight slight none slight slight slight
C high high high high moderate moderate high high
D high high moderate moderate none none none slight
E high slight high high slight none moderate high
F high high high moderate slight none slight high
G high slight slight slight none none none high
H high slight slight slight none none none high
* based on material that is 14 mil thick or more.

High: Highly resistant to chemicals in this category. Clean or replace PPE after each day’s work; rinse off at rest breaks.
Moderate: Moderately resistant to chemicals in this category. Clean or replace PPE within an hour or two of contact.
Slight: Slightly resistant to chemicals in this category. Clean or replace PPE within ten minutes of contact.
None: No chemical resistance. Do not wear this type of material as PPE when contact is possible.
least 14 mil thick offer a reasonable de- Hand Glove baby powder or talc be used to make gloves
gree of protection and dexterity. circumference size easier to put on and remove. If the pesti-
Gloves should allow adequate cide accidentally leaks inside the gloves,
grip so that applicators can safely carry 5 to 7 inches extra small linings and absorbents would actually soak
out their jobs. Various glove surface are 7 to 8 inches small up the chemical and hold it against the skin,
textured, raised, or roughened to increase 8 to 9 inches medium increasing the degree of exposure.
the ability to grip. 9 to 10 inches large Glove use and maintenance.
Gloves should fit well and be 10 to 12 inches extra large z Provide new gloves regularly and as
comfortable. Glove size is determined needed or requested by applicators.
by measuring the circumference of the z Adjust gloves according to the task.
hand (around the palm and back of hand). to 12 inches provide hand and lower fore- When spraying overhead, gloves
The glove size is the circumference in arm protection; 13 to 14 inches, middle should be folded with a cuff, or
inches. Some gloves are sold as small, me- forearm protection; 18 inches, elbow pro- extended over long sleeves so the
dium, or large (see chart). tection; and 32 inches give protection to pesticide cannot be funneled into the
Gloves must be long enough to the shoulder. gloves. Conversely, spraying down-
adequately protect the hands and Gloves must be unlined. Cotton, ward requires long sleeves to extend
arms from chemical splashes. Glove leather, and canvas gloves, as well as over the gloves to prevent the
length is measured from the tip of the gloves lined with these materials, should pesticide from being channeled into
middle finger to the cuff. Lengths of 10 not be used with pesticides, nor should the gloves.
84 - Chapter 9 - Using Pesticides Properly

z Keep an extra, clean pair of gloves in
a sealed plastic bag in a location free
of pesticides, yet easily accessible, in
case the pair in use gets torn or
contaminated.
z Wash reusable gloves with soap and
water before removing them and hang
by the fingertips to air dry.
z Store contaminated, reusable gloves
in a sealed plastic bag until final
cleanup or disposal.
z Store gloves separate from other
safety equipment.
z Inspect gloves for visual signs of
wear before each use. Watch for clues
that new gloves are needed: color
changes, thin spots, cracks, softening,
swelling, bubbling, and stiffening.
Discard all gloves with cuts, holes, Goggles with polycarbonate lenses safety spectacles in tightly sealed,
abrasions, or staining. protect eyes from flying objects. Some plastic bags or carrying cases, then
z Never try to patch gloves with duct or have perforations, or air holes, for in- store them in a sturdy box or com-
electrical tape. creased air circulation; these are not con- partment to prevent scratching,
z Wash gloves before disposal, then sidered splash resistant because liquids breaking, or crushing.
cut off the fingers to prevent reuse. may leak through the small air holes. z Avoid storing eyewear in the sun;
z Do not put used gloves in your Goggles with indirect vents or no vents heat and ultraviolet radiation can
pockets—chemicals can transfer from are considered splash resistant. affect the performance of plastics.
gloves to clothing. Face shields are intended as sec- z Between uses, no eye protection
z Never leave gloves behind the seat, ondary means of eye protection and are equipment should be left on the seat
on the floor board, above the visor, on designed to be worn over safety spectacles or floor, placed above the visor, or
the stick shift, or in the bed of your or goggles for full face protection. They hung from the mirror of a vehicle
truck —pesticide residues may should not be worn without safety spec- between uses.
transfer to these surfaces. tacles or goggles. z Clean contaminated protective
z Never wear pesticide-use gloves eyewear immediately after use. Rinse
z Personal spectacles, goggles, and
when feeding or watering livestock, face shields should be assigned and under running water (wiping may
harvesting fruits and vegetables, or fitted to each individual. This scratch the lenses), air dry.
cleaning animal pens. z On a regular basis, soak equipment in
equipment should not be shared.
z Eye protection equipment should a solution of warm water and soap for
permit peripheral (side) vision. 10 to 15 minutes. Goggles should be
Protecting Your Eyes disassembled: headband, lenses,
z When purchasing eye protection,
make sure it complies with ANSI- frame.
There are three types of eye protec-
tion equipment (excluding the full Z87, the national standard for eye and
facepiece respirator) designed to provide face protective devices. Protecting Your Lungs
eye protection from airborne particles or z Most safety spectacles can be
chemical splashes: safety spectacles, purchased with prescription lenses. Respirators are the most specialized
goggles, and face shields. Contact lenses should not be worn piece of PPE; proper selection can be com-
Safety spectacles (safety glasses) when working with pesticides. plicated. Specific information will be sup-
are the most basic equipment used to pro- z Always discard damaged gear. plied by pesticide labels. Read the manu-
tect eyes from particles in the air. They Replace spectacles or goggle lenses facturer’s instruction manual and the pes-
are unlikely to fog and comfortable to or face shields when they are pitted, ticide label before using any respirator.
wear. They should have scratch-proof scratched, stained, or cracked. Use only respirators approved by the Na-
lenses for maximum visibility and dura- z Replace head straps when they do not tional Institute of Occupational Safety and
bility. Safety spectacles are used only for hold goggles or face shields snugly to Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and
applications with minimal exposure. the face. Health Administration (MSHA). Respira-
Spectacles with brow and side shields z All eye protection equipment should tors approved by NIOSH have an attached
offer some protection from overhead and be stored away from possible label bearing an approval number with the
side impact, they do not provide full eye contamination sites such as chemical prefix TC. For example, TC-23C respira-
coverage. storage areas. Place goggles and tors are approved for use with organic va-

When the chemical filter becomes satu-
rated, the contaminant will start to pass
through, usually allowing the user to smell
the pesticide. At this point, the filter must
be changed immediately. Get to fresh air
immediately if you sense any of the fol-
lowing danger signals:
z You begin to smell or taste contami-
nants, or your eyes, nose, or throat
become irritated.
z Your breathing becomes difficult.
z The air you are breathing becomes
uncomfortably warm.
z You become nauseous or dizzy.
Mechanical filter respirators
(dust masks) provide respiratory pro-
tection against particulate matter such as
pors, acid gas, or ammonia. All particu- Before selecting a respirator for protec- mists, smokes, metal fumes, and nonvola-
late filters now being made are approved tion against a specific product, consult the tile dusts. They cover the nose and mouth.
with the new designation TC-84A. It may product label to determine the physical Dust masks should never be used when
be some time before manufacturers be- form of the risk. mixing or applying liquids; they may be
gin specifying this new class on pesticide Air purifying respirators filter absorbed by the mask and held close to
labels, however, any newly purchased res- outside air when it is inhaled through a the skin and breathing passages.
pirators should meet the TC-84A stan- charcoal cartridge or a filter. The char- Many respiratory devices are com-
dard. coal blocks contaminants and purifies the binations of chemical cartridge and me-
Filters may also be identified by air before it enters the lungs. Air purify- chanical filter respirators. These can pro-
codes, such as an N, R or P, indicating ing respirators are available with half- or vide respiratory protection against both
the level of oil resistance—N filters are full-face masks. gases and particulate matter.
excellent for use with dusts and granular Air purifying respirators do not sup- Full face respirators. Full face
formulations; R indicates oil-resistant; O ply fresh air; they merely filter the avail- respirators work in the same manner and
is oil-proof able air. They cannot be used where the use the same cartridges and/or prefilters
Selecting respiratory protec- oxygen level is below 19.5 percent, nor as half mask respirators, and offer two ad-
tion equipment. When choosing a resin situations that are immediately danger-
pirator, consider the label directions, the ous to life or health, such as fumigation
degree of hazard associated with breath- in an enclosed area.
ing the pesticide, and the specific uses, Chemical cartridge respirators.
and limitations, of the available equip- Various chemical filters can be used to
ment. Respirators are required when us- purify inhaled air. A different type of
ing some pesticide products, but many chemical filter must be used for different
pesticide labels do not specify their use. contaminants. Be sure to use the cartridge
However, common sense demands that required by the label directions.
applicators wear protection when apply- Chemical cartridge respirators are
ing pesticides in enclosed areas such as available either as half-masks, covering
greenhouses, crawl spaces, and grain bins, only the nose and mouth, or as masks with
even if the label does not require it. a full-face shield for eye protection. They
All pesticide handlers should be ex- are used only when continued exposure
amined by a physician before using res- to high concentrations of pesticides is un-
pirators. Respirators make breathing more likely, for example mixing pesticides out-
difficult, and the resulting stress on the doors. Do not use chemical cartridge res-
heart and lungs may worsen preexisting pirators for protection against extremely
conditions and increase blood pressure. toxic gases (fumigants); special fumigant
No one should wear a respirator without masks are available for these purposes. Use only respirators approved by
medical clearance. The length of time a filter will pro- the National Institute of Occupa-
There are two forms of chemical con- vide protection depends on the type and tional Safety and Health (NIOSH)
taminants: particulates (dust, mist, and concentration of the contaminants, the and the Mine Safety and Health
smoke) and vapors (including gases). user’s breathing rate, and the humidity. Administration (MSHA).

Respirators are the most specialized type of PPE; proper selection can be complicated.
vantages: They protect the face and eyes equipped with a battery operated blower respirators do not supply oxygen; do not
against airborne particles and splashes; that forces air into the mask to assist use them in areas where oxygen may be
and they offer a higher level of respira- breathing. The forced air cools the atmo- limited, such as grain or silage storage.
tory protection. sphere in the mask and reduces stress on Make sure half mask respirators allow
Powered Air Purifying Respira- the heart and lungs. Powered air purify- space for safety eyewear, especially when
tor. Most half mask and full face respira- ing respirators with hoods or helmets may working with eye or skin irritants.
tors require the user to physically draw in be worn by people with beards. Make sure all valves, mechanical fil-
air. Powered air purifying respirators are Supplied air respirators are ters, and chemical filters are properly po-
highly specialized for use in situations that sitioned and sealed. Fit the respirator on
are more toxic than those where air puri- your face to ensure a tight but comfortable
fying respirators are permitted. When seal. Require everyone who wears a respi-
equipped with an emergency air supply, rator to be clean-shaven. Bearded workers
they can be used in atmospheres that are cannot be protected against inhalation ex-
hazardous or where the oxygen level is posure by wearing a respirator. Even mini-
below 19.5 percent. The air supply is pro- mal beard growth prohibits a tight seal.
vided through a hose hooked to a station- Fit tests. There are two fit tests to
ary cylinder of compressed air or from a perform. First, place your hand tightly over
portable air pump. Supplied air respira- the outside exhaust valve. If there is a good
tors are more expensive than air purify- seal, exhalation should cause slight pres-
ing respirators. They require continual sure inside the facepiece. If air escapes,
maintenance and applicators must be spe- readjust the headbands until a tight seal is
cially trained to use them. obtained. Second, cover the inhalation
Use and care of respirators. Be- valve(s) by placing your hands over the
fore using a respirator, read and under- cartridge(s). If there is a good seal, inhala-
stand the instructions and all supplemen- tion should cause the facepiece to collapse.
Store the respirator facepiece, tal information about proper use and If air enters, readjust the headbands.
cartridges, canisters, and me- care. Be sure the filter will provide pro- After each use, remove all mechani-
chanical filters tightly sealed in a tection against the pesticide you intend cal and chemical filters. Wash and sani-
plastic bag, in a clean, dry place. to use. Remember, chemical cartridge tize the facepiece using the procedure rec-

ommended for goggles. Store the respi- Pant legs should hang over the out- chemical-resistant, the garments must be
rator facepiece, cartridges, canisters, and side of footwear so that pesticides cannot properly discarded.
mechanical filters tightly sealed in a plas- be funneled down the pant leg into the Reusable coveralls or two-piece rain
tic bag, in a clean, dry place. Do not store shoes or boots. Footwear should be washed or splash suits, designed to wear over
your respirator with pesticides or other in soapy water after each day's use. regular work clothes, can be purchased
agricultural chemicals. Headgear. Spraying upward may with coatings of PVC, rubber, neoprene,
expose the head, shoulders, and back to nitrile, or polyurethane over a durable cot-
Protecting Your Body pesticides. Labels direct applicators ton, nylon-scrim, or polyester backing.
spraying overhead to wear chemical-re- They differ in chemical resistance and
Even under minimum exposure con- sistant headgear. may be washable. Manufacturers' labels
ditions, the selection of clothing should be Well designed headgear provides can guide the selection process and should
given careful thought. A long sleeve shirt, protection for the scalp, neck, and ears explain care recommendations.
long pants, shoes, and socks are essential. and can help prevent pesticides from Limited-use or disposable coveralls
Layers of clothing help reduce exposure reaching the body through neckline open- are generally designed to be worn for one
by limiting the penetration of the pesticide. ings in clothing. Headgear can take many workday, then discarded in the trash. Cov-
Additional protective clothing is some- forms: stiff and impact resistant or soft erall fabrics differ in breathability, weight,
times required to supplement the protec- enough to tie around the face like a hood; thickness, flexibility, strength, durability,
tion offered by ordinary work clothes. a hat with a broad brim or a full hood that abrasion resistance, and chemical resis-
Forearm and leg protection. drapes to cover the shoulders. Hoods may tance. Some limited-use coveralls are
Protecting the skin on the arms and legs be attached to coveralls or jackets or pur- coated to withstand repeated wear, but
is an important way to reduce pesticide chased separately. they should be discarded after eight hours
exposure. Arms may become contami- Aprons. Pesticide users can de- total wear (all in one day or over multiple
nated during mixing and loading opera- crease the likelihood of frontal exposure days). Limited-use, nonwoven coveralls
tions if gloves are too short. Lower pant by wearing chemical-resistant aprons. The must be discarded once they are contami-
legs may become contaminated during product label may state that a chemical- nated or damaged. Never wash dispos-
lawn care applications. resistant apron must be worn when mix- able, nonwoven coveralls since launder-
Sleeve guards are designed to pro- ing, loading, or cleaning equipment. Pes- ing tends to reduce their repellency and
tect the arms when wearing a long sleeve ticides bearing the signal word DANGER could move contaminates to the inside of
shirt. Guards cover the arm from the wrist and products with the potential for chronic the garment.
to above the elbow and have elastic in toxicity may require an apron in addition
both ends to hold them close and block to other protective clothing. Aprons
pesticide from the openings. backed with cotton or other materials are
Chaps are designed to cover the legs; resistant to tearing; but backing materials
they fasten to the belt at the waist and are can absorb pesticides, making cleanup
held to the ankle with elastic. Chaps pro- difficult or impossible.
vide additional protection during turf and Although aprons offer protection
nursery applications where the lower leg against pesticide exposure, many work-
is most vulnerable to exposure. Long, pro- ers do not wear them. In some cases,
tective pants are also available. aprons can lead to accidents when the user
Sleeve guards, chaps, and protective must climb ladders or work around ma-
pants are available in several materials. chinery. In some cases an alternative, such
Some are disposable; others are reusable. as coveralls, may be preferred.
If reusable, they should be cleaned thor- Coveralls. Labels may specify the
oughly after each use. use of coveralls to provide an extra layer
Footwear. Some labels may only di- of protection against pesticides penetrat-
rect applicators to wear shoes plus socks, ing to the skin. Washable, reusable cot-
others may specify chemical-resistant ton or cotton blend coveralls are accept-
footwear plus socks. Rubber and neoprene able when using low toxicity pesticides
are commonly used for chemical-resistant (those labeled CAUTION). However,
footwear. Leather and canvas are not rec- because trace amounts of pesticides can-
ommended because they can absorb pes- not be removed from cotton fabrics, an-
ticides and trap them next to the skin. nual or more frequent replacement is sug-
Disposable booties can be worn over gested. Cotton coveralls should never be
shoes for short periods. They offer mini- used when handling liquid pesticide con-
mal protection from exposure, primarily centrate. Anytime a concentrate comes
in dry conditions. into contact with clothing that is not

Laundering Pesticide Use the following steps for launder- z Hang cotton and cotton-blend clothes
Contaminated Clothing ing all cotton and cotton-blend clothing on the line to dry in the sun. Sun
worn around pesticides. This will reduce helps degrade some pesticides.
All protective clothing and equip- exposure to pesticides and leave the least z Before laundering family clothes, run
ment should be washed after each day of amount of residue in clothing. the washer through a complete cycle,
use. Pesticide contaminated clothing z Wear chemically resistant gloves to without clothes, to rinse pesticide
should be stored and washed separately handle pesticide-soiled clothes. residue out of your machine. Use hot
from any other laundry. Until laundered, z Keep pesticide-soiled clothing water and detergent.
work clothes must be handled with the z Repeated or multiple washing, before
separate from other clothes before
same caution as the pesticides themselves. and during laundering to avoid drying, helps remove more of the
Remember to wear gloves while handling transfer of residues. residue from work clothing. After
contaminated clothing. Be sure to check z Wash pesticide-soiled clothing daily, washing, check wet clothes for visible
the pesticide label for any specific instruc- and as soon as possible after use to staining, an unusual odor, or color
tions. Clothing that has become saturated maximize removal of chemicals. differences. If necessary, repeat the
with a concentrate should be discarded. z Pre-rinse or pre-soak in a separate washing before clothing is dried. If a
Traces of pesticide remain on work tub, on the line with a garden hose, or second washing does not remove
clothing, even after washing. Careful laun- in the pre-rinse cycle of your washer; stains or odor, discard the clothes.
dering techniques, however, can reduce discard water used for rinsing or
pesticide residue to extremely small lev- soaking. Laundering additives:
els, measured in parts per million or bil- z Fill tub again with hot or warm water z Ammonia. Ammonia has not been
lion. Whether or not trace residues in for washing. Use cold water for the shown to help remove residues. Never
clothing represent a health hazard to hu- rinse cycle. use bleach and ammonia in the same
mans is unknown—pesticides remain bio- z Use a heavy-duty detergent, prefer- wash load; toxic fumes result.
logically active in the cloth and can sup- z Chlorine bleach. A three-hour soak in
ably phosphate-based or liquid.
press enzymes and kill fruit flies or cock- z Do not overcrowd the washer; wash chlorine bleach solution may help
roaches. Wear clean clothes daily. If pes- only a few items at a time. remove chloropyrifos, but fabrics will
ticide gets on clothes that are already z Use the highest water level setting, be weakened and color may fade.
soiled or dirty, the pesticide will be more even for small loads. This has not been shown to be
difficult to remove than from clean z Use the longest wash time cycle—at effective with other pesticides.
clothes. z Fabric softeners. Studies show that
least 10 to 12 minutes—not a shorter
knit cycle. If your washer has a fabric softeners neither help nor hinder
sudsaver feature, never use it for residue removal in cotton fabrics.
z Pretreatment sprays. Solvent-based
clothing soiled with pesticides.
sprays assist removal of oil-based
pesticide formulations in cottons.
z Starch. Starch used on cotton or
cotton blend fabrics may help prevent
pesticides from reaching the skin.
Starch seems to trap pesticide so that
both the starch and pesticide wash
away in the next laundering. Starch
must be reapplied after each wash.
Heavy starching of lower pant legs
should not be uncomfortable for the
wearer.
z Salt. Salt helps remove paraquat, but
not other pesticides. Add 1 cup of
table salt to your wash load with
regular detergent.
z Soil and water repellent finishes such
as Scotchgard and Zepel help cotton
fabrics resist penetration of pesticide
sprays, but also make fabrics more
difficult to launder. If you use these
Pesticide contaminated clothing should be stored and
repellents, renew them after every
washed separately from the family laundry.
second or third wash.

MIX AND LOAD PESTICIDES PROPERLY
In general, the most hazardous activi- posal problems and wasting product. Re- keeps it there. Buffering agents prevent
ties involving pesticides are mixing and place container caps, close bags, and re- hydrolysis during mixing and storage in
loading concentrates. Always wear ad- turn them to the pesticide storage area. the tank until the spray is applied and has
equate PPE—at least the equipment re- Equipment should be operational and evaporated away. Under no circumstances
quired by the label. Put PPE on before calibrated before filling and using. The should sprays containing fixed copper or
handling or opening pesticide containers. spray tank must also be clean; oil, grease, lime fungicides, including lime sulfur,
Remember to wear a respirator and ap- and chemical residues can cause incom- Bordeaux, copper oxide, basic copper
propriate form of eye protection if there patibility problems. The agitation system sulfate, copper hydroxide, etc. be mixed
is any chance of pesticide inhalation or should be running and the spray tank with a buffering agent— plant damage
eye exposure. Review the label before should be approximately half filled with may occur.
opening the container so you are familiar water before any pesticide is added. Al- Many manufacturers provide infor-
with current mixing and usage directions. ways keep your head above the fill hole mation on the rate at which their prod-
If an accident occurs, attend to it imme- and do not spill or splash the pesticide ucts hydrolyze. This rate is usually ex-
diately. Remove any contaminated cloth- when putting it into the tank. pressed as half-life or the time it takes for
ing and wash yourself thoroughly with Closed handling systems can reduce 50 percent of the product to breakdown.
soap and water. Spills on the floor or exposure to pesticide concentrates. A How much buffering agent is used will
ground should be cleaned promptly. closed handling system has interconnected depend on the pH of the water. Measure
equipment that allows the applicator to re- pH with an electronic pH meter or swim-
z Do not tear open paper containers;
move a pesticide concentrate from its origi- ming pool test kit. Test paper used for pH
use a sharp knife or scissors.
nal container, rinse the empty container, testing is less reliable and should not be
z When pouring from a container, keep
and transfer the pesticide and rinsewater used. After the pH is determined, read and
the container at or below eye level
to the spray tank without contacting the closely follow the directions on the label
and avoid splashing or spilling on
pesticide. of the buffering agent.
your face or protective clothing.
If two or more pesticides are mixed,
z Do not use your mouth to siphon a
pesticide from a container.
they must be compatible and mixed in the Avoid Back-Siphoning
proper order: wettable powders before
z Always stand upwind, so the wind
flowables, before water solubles, before When adding the additional water to
does not blow the pesticide toward
emulsifiable concentrates. Small quanti- a spray mixture, the water pipe or hose
your body.
ties of wettable powders often mix easier should be equipped with an antisiphon
Carefully choose the pesticide mix- if a slurry is made first. Compatibility is check valve and remain above the level
ing and loading area. It should be outside, discussed in Chapter 6, Pesticide For- of the mixture, never contacting the sur-
away from other people, livestock, and mulations. face. This prevents contamination of the
pets. Pesticides should not be mixed in hose and avoids the possibility of back-
areas where a spill or overflow could get Spray Tank pH siphoning the pesticide into the water
into a water supply. According to the source. Never leave a spray unit unat-
Maine Pesticide Regulations, no person The pH of water is a measure of its tended while it is being filled!
shall mix or load any pesticides, or fill a relative acidity or alkalinity. Water with
sprayer or mix tank within fifty feet from a pH higher than 7 is alkaline; lower than
the high water mark of any surface water 7 is acidic. In the presence of alkaline
in the state. water, many pesticides, particularly orga-
Measure accurately, follow label in- nophosphate and carbamate insecticides,
structions, and mix only the amount you are degraded by a chemical process
plan to use immediately. Refer to Con- known as alkaline hydrolysis. For every
versions and Calculations at the end of unit increase in pH, the rate of hydrolysis
this manual for unit conversion tables and increases 10 times. Hydrolysis can be very
sample pesticide calculations. All measur- fast if the pH of the water is greater than
ing devices (spoons, cups, scales) should 8 and 9. In alkaline water, active ingredi-
be kept in the pesticide storage area and ents start to degrade before the pesticide
should never be used for other purposes. ever leaves the tank. If a spray tank is al-
Measuring cups should be rinsed and the lowed to stand for several hours, or over-
rinsewater put into the spray tank. Pesti- night, before the contents are used, as
cide containers should be triple rinsed as much as 50 percent of the active ingredi-
soon as they are emptied; dried residues ent may be lost.
The most hazardous activities
are difficult to remove later. Pour the A buffering agent changes the pH of
involving pesticides are mixing
rinsewater into the spray tank to avoid dis- a spray solution to a prescribed level and
and loading concentrates.

APPLY PESTICIDES PROPERLY
Before Application
Before making a pesticide applica-
tion, review the product label. Never let
an irresponsible person apply pesticides.
Some employees cannot read label in-
structions, others may not care to.
Wear clean clothing and the proper
protective equipment. Respiratory protec-
tion may be essential if the application is
made indoors or if the applicator rides in
an enclosed cab without air filters. Never
eat, smoke, or drink while applying pes-
ticides. Do not even carry food or smok-
ing items with you. Fresh water, soap, and
paper towels should be carried in a pro- It is often preferable to apply pesti- than ester formulations. Dust formulations
tected container to allow quick removal cides in the early morning or early drift much more readily than most sprays.
of pesticide contaminants from the body evening. At these times wind speeds are Granular formulations are relatively less
following exposure to a spill or spray drift. usually lower and protective clothing and likely to drift. Use high water volumes
A first aid kit and plastic eyewash bottle equipment can be worn with less risk of during application.
that has a flushing action are also good heat stress. When spraying in a light breeze, Droplet size of pesticides during
precautions, particularly in service ve- position yourself and the equipment to pre- application is extremely important in de-
hicles. Applicators must work in pairs vent the pesticide from blowing in your face. termining the potential for drift. The abil-
when applying highly toxic pesticides, All attempts should be made to guard ity of particles to drift increases greatly
especially fumigants. against pesticide drift onto nearby water as the particle size decreases.
Livestock, pets, farm equipment, and bodies, crops, pastures, livestock, or resi- Application pressures are impor-
other nonessentials should be covered or dential areas. tant in determining the sizes of droplets
removed from the area to be treated. Any If you must fix or adjust equipment that are formed. Use low pressures dur-
persons not involved in the application while making an application, minimize ing spraying. As pressure increases, the
should leave. Posting placards may be re- your exposure to the chemical. If a nozzle number of fine particles also increases.
quired to warn people away. becomes clogged while spraying, stop Drift can be reduced by reducing sprayer
Check application equipment care- spraying and move to an untreated area pressures during application.
fully, particularly for leaking hoses and to correct the problem. Make sure to wear Nozzle construction can also af-
connections and plugged or worn nozzles. gloves. Use an old toothbrush or other fect the number of small particles that are
Make sure your equipment is properly comparable brush to clean plugged formed during spraying. Nozzle tips that
calibrated and that the pesticide is accu- nozzles; avoid wire or metal that can dam- produce larger droplet sizes help reduce
rately mixed. To avoid a disposal prob- age nozzles. Never touch your mouth to a drift. For example, larger nozzles can be
lem, try to use all of the spray mix in the spray nozzle or a clogged pump part. used at lower pressures to get the same
tank. See chapter 11, Pesticide Applica- Pesticide drift. Pesticide drift is the volume as smaller nozzles operated at
tion Equipment for more information. movement of airborne pesticides (par- higher pressures. Nozzles should be
ticles, spray droplets, or gases) beyond the checked for wear; wear can significantly
During Application intended contact area. Drift becomes more affect sprayer calibration and droplet size.
severe when, wind speeds and air tem- Drift control adjuvants, or thick-
During pesticide application the peratures increase, when relative humid- eners, can be added to the spray mixture
weather should be carefully monitored. ity is low, when nozzle height and pump to reduce drift. These compounds can in-
Apply pesticides only during favorable pressure are high, and when spray drop- crease the percentage of larger droplets
weather conditions. Do not apply pesti- lets are small. Drift control is vital during which are formed but do not completely
cides during ,or just before, expected high every pesticide application. eliminate small droplets.
winds; wind increases the chance of drift Formulations. Use pesticides that Weather conditions during appli-
and volatilization. Do not apply pesticides have low volatility. Certain of pesticides cation have a great effect on pesticide
just before a heavy rain. Rain can wash can help reduce drift. For example, low- drift. Air movements, both horizontal and
pesticides off treated surfaces or cause volatile acid and amine 2,4-D formula- vertical, cause pesticides to move away
pesticide runoff from a treated area. tions have less potential for volatilization from where you are spraying. The higher

the wind speed, the larger the amount of After Application Personal clean up is next. In particu-
pesticide that will be carried away. lar, wash your hands and face thoroughly
Pesticides should never be applied To maximize pest control, be sure to with soap and water before eating, drink-
during high wind conditions (greater than follow any post-application procedures ing, or smoking. Shower and change
10 mph). This is particularly important listed on the label. For example, irriga- clothing as soon as possible. Be sure to
when wind direction is likely to move tion is required to move some soil insec- scrub your scalp, neck, behind your ears,
drifted pesticides onto nearby sensitive ticides into the target area; ventilation may and under your nails.
crops or other sensitive areas. Drift to be required for indoor applications. Some pesticide labels list restricted
sensitive areas often can be avoided by After the pesticide application, clean entry intervals (REI). These intervals are
spraying when the air is moving away all equipment; be sure to follow any clean- the length of time following a pesticide
from these areas. Drift may also increase ing recommendations on the label. Never application during which a worker is re-
when warming air near the soil rises. leave equipment unattended at the appli- quired to wear protective clothing and
Make applications when air and soil cation site. Cleaning should be done in a equipment before entering a treated area.
temperatures are most similar, often dur- designated area away from water supplies. These intervals should be strictly ob-
ing early morning and late evening. At this Wear the appropriate protective equip- served. If there is no other time listed on
time, vertical air movements are lowest. ment and clothing, keeping in mind that the label, the minimum reentry interval for
If the air near the soil surface is cooler all equipment parts that were exposed to workers is until sprays have dried or dusts
than the air above, an inversion exists. the pesticide likely to bear some residue. have settled. It may be necessary (or re-
Avoid pesticide applications during inver- Exercise extreme caution if a sprayer, quired) to post fields or structures with
sions. Small spray particles remain sus- once used for herbicides, is used to apply appropriate warning signs to reduce the
pended in the cool air during temperature any other type of pesticide or agricultural possibility of someone accidentally walk-
inversions, and the particles do not settle chemical. After cleaning application ing into a recently treated area.
readily onto soil or plants. Later the sus- equipment, clean your protective equip- Proper pesticide storage helps pro-
pended particles drift out of the crop area ment. Do not continue to wear contami- long chemical shelf life while protecting
on winds. nated clothing or footwear.
Temperature and humidity can affect
pesticide drift. When the temperature is
high and humidity low, particles evapo-
rate most rapidly. The evaporation causes
droplet size to decrease which increases
pesticide drift. Volatile pesticides also
evaporate more rapidly with high tem-
peratures. Pesticides should be applied
when the temperature is cool. Vapor drift
of soil-applied pesticides can be reduced
by soil incorporation.
Buffer zone. In agricultural fields,
leave an untreated border around the field
and try to spray downwind from sensitive
areas such as residential properties ,water-
ways, and beehives.
Sprayer height. Height and orien-
tation of sprayer nozzles can also affect
drift. The distance traveled and the
amount time spent for spray droplets to
reach their target is directly related to the
height at which a pesticide is released.
Sprays should be released as close as pos-
sible to the target. Sprays should also be
directed so droplets are propelled down- After applying pesticides, shower and change
ward to reduce the distance of droplet fall. clothing as soon as possible.

STORE PESTICIDES PROPERLY
the health of people, animals, and the en- chemical fires, first aid equipment, and
vironment. Always read the pesticide la- emergency telephone numbers should
bel for specific storage information. A all be readily available.
number of conditions are essential for safe
pesticide storage. Pesticide Storage Safety
Storage Area z Wear appropriate protective clothing

when handling pesticide containers.
Pesticides should be stored in a z Label all items used for handling
locked, secure place, such as a separate pesticides (measuring utensils,
building or storage room. All pesticides protective equipment, etc.) to prevent
should be kept out of the reach of chil- their use for any other purpose.
dren, pets, livestock, and irresponsible z Keep on hand clay, kitty litter,
people. Around the home, the same rule activated charcoal, sawdust, or
applies—lock them up. another similar material to soak up
A storage area should not be located spills or leaks. Keep hydrated lime
where water damage is likely. Consider and bleach available for decontami-
soil and land surface characteristics when nating surfaces.
building a storage facility to minimize po- z Seed that is intentionally treated with
tential contamination of surface or a pesticide is usually colored with a Pesticides should be stored
groundwater by drainage, runoff, or leach- brightly colored dye to serve as a in a locked, secure place.
ing. In certain situations dikes may be warning. Unfortunately, the bright
needed. colors may attract children. Treated
seed should never be used for feed or Anyone using a pesticide should not
z For outdoor pesticide storage, a fence mixed with untreated seed. It should rely on verbal directions.
should be erected to prevent unautho- be handled with the same care as the z Close containers securely when not in
rized entry and reduce the chances of pesticide itself and kept in a locked use. Dry formulations can cake when
theft and vandalism. storage facility away from feed, wet or in high humidity. Opened bags
z Post highly visible warning signs on veterinary supplies, pesticides, other of wettable and soluble powders,
walls, doors, and/or windows to farm chemicals, farm equipment, pets, dusts, and granules should be placed
indicate to anyone attempting to enter and children. in sealed plastic bags or other suitable
the facility that pesticides are stored z Store volatile herbicides separately to containers to reduce moisture
there. “No Smoking” signs should be avoid possible cross contamination of absorption, and prevent spill.
posted. other pesticides, fertilizers, and seeds. z Store liquid formulations and small
z Store pesticides in an area away from Use separate storage areas for all containers of dry formulations on
food, feed, potable water supplies, pesticide types. metal shelving. Metal shelving will
veterinary supplies, seeds, and not absorb pesticides and is easier to
protective equipment. This prevents Pesticide Containers clean than other surfaces.
contamination from fumes, dusts, or z Store liquid pesticides under cool
spills, and reduces the likelihood of z Store pesticides in their original conditions on lower shelves. Too
accidental human or animal exposure. containers. Never use soda bottles, much heat can cause the container to
z Ventilate the storage area and keep it fruit jars, or other types of break or explode. Containers should
relatively free from temperature nonpesticide container. Serious not extend beyond the shelf edge
extremes. Very high or low tem- poisonings could result because small where they could be bumped or
peratures can cause pesticide deterio- children, and even many adults knocked off.
ration. Exhaust fans directed to the associate the shape of a container z Place larger metal drums and non-
outside reduce the temperature and with its contents. metallic containers on pallets.
dust or fume concentrations. Fire- z Keep the original label attached to z Check containers regularly for leaks,
proof construction with a sealed the container. If necessary, protect it breaks, rust, and corrosion. If a leak
cement floor is best. with transparent tape or lacquer. The or break occurs, place the container
z Keep pesticides cool, dry, and out of label is the single most important inside another container, or transfer
direct sunlight. safety factor; do not let it become the contents to an empty container
z Keep plenty of soap and water damaged or destroyed. which originally held the same
available in or close to the storage z Never lend a pesticide in an un- material and has the same label
area. A fire extinguisher approved for marked or unlabeled container. attached.

pest control and/or damage to the treated A selection of pesticides on the Ex-
tremely Hazardous Materials list and
crop or surface can occur.
their Threshold Planning Quantities (lbs)
To minimize storage problems, avoid
storing unnecessarily large quantities of Pesticide TPQ
pesticides for long periods. Keep records
azinphos-methyl (Guthion) 10
of previous usage requirements to make carbofuran 10
good estimates of future needs. Buy only dimethoate (Digon) 500
as much as you anticipate needing for the disulfoton (Di-Syston) 500
season; recommendations may change by endosulfan Thiodan) 10
ethoprop 1000
next season. formetanate HCL (Carzo) 500
methidathion (Supracide) 500
Inventory Reporting methomyl (Lannate) 500
paraquat (Gramoxone) 10
Requirements parathion 100
Shelf Life of Pesticides phosmet (Imidan) 10
The Emergency Planning and Com- phosphamidon 100
oxamyl (Vydate) 100
Keep an inventory of all pesticides in munity Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)
terbufos 100
storage and mark each container with the specifies that facilities with certain inven- zinc phosphide bait 500
purchase date. If a product has an effective tories of hazardous chemicals and Ex-
shelf life recorded on the label, you will tremely Hazardous Substances (EHS)
know how long the product should remain must report their inventories to the local ing quantity for hazardous chemicals is
usable. If there are doubts concerning the fire department, the Local Emergency 10,000 pounds. Extremely Hazardous
shelf life of a pesticide, call the dealer or Planning Committee (LEPC) and the Substances are chemicals which readily
manufacturer. Pesticide deterioration may State Emergency Response Commission become airborne gases, vapors, mists, or
be apparent in mixing: excessive clumping, (SERC). Hazardous Chemicals are de- dusts and are toxic to humans in relatively
poor suspension, layering, or abnormal col- fined as any chemical, or chemical mix- low concentrations. They are specified
oration. Sometimes, however, pesticide de- ture, for which the manufacturer is re- under Sec. 302 of EPCRA. The reporting
terioration from age or poor storage condi- quired to develop an MSDS and that may threshold for extremely hazardous sub-
tions is apparent only after application. Poor cause adverse health effects. The report- stances is 500 pounds or the chemical's
Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ),
whichever is lower. There may be two
TPQs for certain chemicals, depending on
the formulation.
In addition to these requirements,
Maine’s Toxic Use and Hazardous Waste
Reduction Law requires those facilities
with threshold amounts of an EHS to also
report to the Maine Department of Envi-
ronmental Protection (DEP). For a list of
Pesticide kills cows Sec. 302 chemicals and threshold quanti-
Joe (the neighbor) was helping Sam plant his corn. When Joe finished
ties, consult the List of Lists published by
planting, he had a little corn rootworm insecticide left in the hopper. So Joe the EPA. Free copies are available at 1-
looked for a container to dump the granules into. There it was, an empty 800-452-8735. The EHS list is also avail-
feed mineral bag blowing around the barnyard. After the hoppers were emp- able on-line at http://www.epa.gov/
tied, Joe sat the bag over by the shed intending to take care of it later. swercepp/ehs/ehslist.html.
In the meantime, Frank, a hired hand, saw the bag by the shed and, Some commonly used pesticides and
since it was a feed mineral bag, he carried it over and put it in the feed shed. their TPQs, are listed below. Note that the
He was just doing his job—he was going that way anyway. Frank had no TPQ is the quantity of active ingredient
reason to suspect the bag did not contain feed minerals. Besides, Joe had
not the total formulated weight. For ex-
taken the planter away so why should he be suspicious.
When Bob, another farm hand, went to the feed shed, he noticed that it
ample, the TPQ of Lannate (methomyl)
was time to mix some more feed. Logic told him to use the opened bag is 500 pounds, but it takes 556 pounds of
before opening another, so he unknowingly poured the pesticide granules Lannate 90SP to make 500 pounds of the
into the feed mixer. The granules and mineral feed supplement were so active ingredient.
similar in appearance that Bob didn’t notice anything peculiar. Also, pesti-
cides are “never” stored in the feed shed. The result was more than 100
dead dairy cows. Keep pesticides in original containers.

DISPOSE OF PESTICIDES PROPERLY
In recent years there has been grow- To triple rinse: At the time of sale, dealers must col-
ing concern that improper disposal of pes- 1. Allow the concentrate to drain from the lect a deposit for each container and at-
ticide wastes creates serious hazards for empty pesticide container into your spray tach a sticker which identifies both the
both humans and the environment. It is tank for 30 seconds. dealer and purchaser. Dealers maintain
the responsibility of the pesticide user to records of limited and restricted use pesti-
2. Fill approximately 10 percent of the
see that pesticide wastes such as unused cide sales subject to the Act for two years.
container volume with water, replace
chemicals and empty pesticide contain- Applicators are expected to triple rinse
the lid, and rotate the container so all
ers are properly disposed. Improper dis- each container at the time it is emptied.
the interior surfaces are rinsed.
posal can result in groundwater contami- Affidavits are filled out by the applicator
nation and crop damage, and empty pes- 3. Dump the rinsewater into the spray to attest that all containers were properly
ticide containers are a hazard to curious tank, allowing it to drain for at least 30 rinsed. Containers are stored securely un-
children and animals. seconds. til the purchaser is ready to deliver them
It makes good business sense to deal to a designated collection site.
4. Repeat the procedure two more times.
with pesticide wastes properly and safely. At collection sites, BPC inspectors
Plan carefully and observe the following 5. Apply rinsewater to a labeled site. examine containers to certify that they are
guidelines. properly rinsed and returned for legal dis-
Triple-rinsed containers held for disposal. The purchaser may then return the
z Avoid disposal problems associated posal at a later time should be dated to affidavit to the dealer for a refund of the
with excess pesticide by purchasing indicate triple rinsing has been done. Pes- deposit.
only the amount you need for one ticide containers that will not be recycled
growing season. Do not stockpile Whenever feasible triple-rinsed con-
should be rendered unusable by breaking, tainers should be recycled as mentioned
materials. Recommendations may puncturing, or crushing. Never reuse pes- above. For information on recycling fa-
change and new chemicals may be ticide containers. Burning and open cilities consult your local solid waste dis-
better than old ones. The storage dumping are prohibited by Maine DEP
period may also exceed the effective regulations. All containers should be kept posal authorities, the BPC, or DEP.
shelf life of the product. Always date in the locked storage area until disposal,
all pesticide containers when pur- and kept away from all possible contact
Spray Mixes and Rinsewater
chased. with children and animals.
z Always read the label for disposal Estimate job needs carefully and mix
In 1983, the Maine Legislature passed
instructions. only as much pesticide as needed for a
an act to provide for the return and proper
z Clothing and protective equipment to disposal of limited and restricted use pesti- particular application. If you should hap-
be discarded, and contaminated soil pen to mix too much, it is best to apply
cide containers. This act insures the triple
or any materials used to clean up the material as directed by the label to an-
rinsing or equivalent of limited and re-
spills, should be considered pesticide stricted use pesticide containers. It provides other listed crop or site.
waste and handled as such. If possible use the rinsewater from
an incentive through a deposit system for
z Federal and state laws regulate the your spray tank in a future spray mix. Be
return of the triple rinsed containers.
disposal of containers and other very careful with herbicide contaminated
pesticide wastes. Anyone with rinsewater on sensitive plants. Caution
questions or requiring assistance must also be exercised with food or feed
should contact the Maine Board of crops to avoid illegal residues. Never dis-
Pesticides Control, 207-287-2731, or pose of pesticide contaminated rinsewater
the Maine Department of Environ- in a manner that will contaminate public
mental Protection, 207-287-7688 or or private water sources or sewage treat-
800-452-1942 in Maine. ment facilities.
Applicators who need to dispose sur-
Containers plus spray mixture or contaminated
rinsewater should consult with the BPC
Triple Rinsing allows glass, metal, on disposal options.
plastic, and even some heavy paper con-
tainers to be considered nonhazardous Pesticide Concentrates
waste. It also saves money because each
rinse captures pesticide residues from the The best means of disposal for pesti-
sides and bottom of the container that are cide concentrates is to use the product in
included in the spray mix and not wasted. a manner consistent with its label. If this
Triple rinse containers

is not possible, return it to the dealer or Protect pesticides from temperature z Call the fire department, let them
manufacturer or offer it to another quali- extremes during transport. Remember, in know what pesticide is involved.
fied applicator. Certain pesticides may be hot weather, the temperature inside the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
disposed of through the BPC obsolete pes- trunk of a car is always considerably hot- provide technical and emergency
ticide pick-up program. If no disposal op- ter than outside. information.
tion is available, contact the DEP. Whenever possible transport pesti- z Fire fighters must wear the proper
Commercial and public applicators cides in a locked compartment. Never protective clothing and equipment
should be aware of the current hazardous leave your vehicle unattended when trans- (especially respirators). Assume all
waste guidelines established under the porting pesticides in an unlocked trunk protective gear worn at the fire scene
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act compartment or open-bed truck. You are is contaminated and hazardous until
(RCRA) as well as all comparable state legally responsible if curious children or washed.
hazardous waste statutes prior to dispos- careless adults are accidentally poisoned z Be aware that overheated pesticide
ing of pesticide wastes. Pesticide wastes from pesticides left unattended in your ve- containers might explode. Nearby
classified as hazardous require special hicle. containers should be moved or kept
disposal and recordkeeping; contact DEP cool.
or BPC for more information. PESTICIDE FIRE SAFETY z The principal objective is to contain
the fire and prevent contamination of
TRANSPORT PESTICIDES Pesticide products vary significantly surrounding areas. Use only as much
in their flammability and storage hazard. water as absolutely necessary. Heavy
PROPERLY hose streams should be avoided;
Those requiring extra precautions bear the
label statement Do not use or store near dikes should be built to prevent flow
Once a pesticide is in your possession, of contaminated run off into lakes,
you are responsible for its safe transport. heat or open flame. Pesticides contain-
ing oils or petroleum solvents are most ponds, streams, wells, or sewers.
Accidents can occur even when transport-
ing materials a short distance. Do all you likely to have these warnings, although
certain dry formulations also present fire PESTICIDE SPILLS
can to prevent an accident, but be prepared
in case an emergency should arise. and explosion hazards.
As careful as we try to be, pesticide
The safest way to carry pesticides is spills still occur. The spill may be minor,
in the back of a truck. Flatbed trucks To reduce fire hazards: involving only a leaking container, or ma-
should have side and tail racks. Steel beds z Locate storage areas as far away as jor, if the contents of a fully loaded spray
are preferable since they are easier to de- possible from dwellings, schools, and
inhabited areas. tank are suddenly released because of
contaminate if a spill occurs. equipment malfunction. It is very impor-
z Keep storage area locked at all times.
Pesticides should never be carried in tant that all pesticide applicators be fa-
the passenger compartment of a vehicle; z Post signs that indicate combustible miliar with the laws and guidelines gov-
hazardous fumes may be released; spills materials are stored in the facility.
z Store combustible materials away
erning chemical spills. Your failure to re-
may cause injury and it may be impos- spond properly to such an emergency, no
sible to remove residues from seats. Never from steam lines and other heating
systems. matter how minor the problem appears,
carry pesticides in the same compartment could seriously endanger public health
z Do not store glass containers in
as fertilizers, seed, food or feed; the risk and environmental quality.
of contamination is too high. Herbicides sunlight where they can concentrate
heat, possibly causing and explosion. The suggested course of action in the
in particular should be separated from fer- event of a pesticide spill, or for that mat-
z Install fire detection systems in large
tilizers and other pesticides. ter any spill involving a hazardous chemi-
Inspect containers before loading to storage areas.
z Keep a fire extinguisher approved for
cal is the Three C program—Control the
be sure all caps and plugs are tightly spill, Contain the spill, and Clean up the
closed and legible labels are attached. chemical fires just outside, or in, all
storage areas. spill.
Handle containers carefully when load-
z Notify your local fire company of the
ing to avoid rips or punctures. Be sure the Control the Spill
outsides of containers are not contami- location and contents of the storage
nated with pesticide. area. It may save their lives and the Do not expose yourself unnecessar-
Secure containers to safeguard lives of others if there is a fire. ily to the leaking chemical; use protec-
against spills or leaks which may result if tive equipment when attempting to con-
the containers roll or slide. Packing or In the Event of a trol the leak. Do not charge in blindly if
shipping containers provide extra protec- Pesticide Fire someone is injured; make sure you are
tion. Protect all containers from moisture properly protected.
that would saturate paper and cardboard z Clear all personnel to a safe distance Take immediate steps to control the
packages, or rust metal. upwind from smoke and fumes. flow of the spill, regardless of the source.

If a sprayer has tipped over, or if a 5-gal- such as a shovel or rake, or power equip- If dust, wettable powder, or granules
lon can on a storage shelf has rusted ment to construct a dam of soil or sod. If are spilled, contain the spread by lightly
through and is leaking, do everything pos- the spilled material is flowing into a ditch misting the material with water, or cover-
sible to stop the leak or spill. Smaller con- or depression, the flow should be blocked ing the spill with some type of plastic
tainers, up to 55 gallons, can be put into on all sides to reduce further movement. cover.
larger containers to prevent further release The important thing to remember is do
of the chemical. Ripped bags can be con- not allow the spilled material to enter any Clean Up the Spill
tained in larger plastic bags. body of water, including storm sewers, no
Isolate the area. Keep people at matter how small the spill. Spread absorbent material over the
least 30 feet away from the spill; rope off If the chemical does contaminate a contaminated area, sweep it up, and place
the contaminated area if necessary. Avoid stream, pond or any other waterway, con- it in a heavy-duty plastic bag. Keep add-
coming in contact with any drift or fumes tact a regional office of the DEP. Authori- ing the absorbent until the spilled liquid
that are released. Do not use road flares ties need to notify downstream users as is entirely soaked up. Absorbent materi-
if you suspect the leaking material is flam- soon as possible. Prompt precautionary als are not used for dry spills. Dry spills
mable. It may be necessary to evacuate actions could prevent accidental poison- should be swept up for reuse if possible.
people downwind from the spill. Some- ing of livestock and avoid contamination If dry materials have become wet or con-
one should be present at the spill site con- of crops and soil receiving irrigation wa- taminated with soil and other debris,
tinuously until the chemical is cleaned up. ter from the stream. A contaminated wa- sweep them up and place them in a heavy-
Do not leave the spill until someone re- ter well should be brought to the atten- duty plastic bag.
lieves you. tion of a county or state health official. Once the spill has been cleaned up,
Get help. Stopping large leaks or Liquid pesticide spills can be con- it may be necessary to decontaminate or
spills often is difficult. If you encounter a tained as well as absorbed by covering the neutralize the area, especially if a carbam-
pesticide accident or spill that you can not entire spill area with absorbent materials ate or organophosphate insecticide is in-
handle or if problems occur during clean- such as fine sand, vermiculite, sawdust, volved. Use the decontamination solution
up, you should contact the Chemical clay, kitty litter, or absorbent pads. How- described on the product label.
Transportation Emergency Center ever, avoid using sawdust or sweeping Soil contamination. The only ef-
(CHEMTREC) in Washington, D.C., 800- compounds on a spilled material that is a fective way to decontaminate soil is to re-
424-9300. The CHEMTREC office is strong oxidizer—these materials create a move the top two to three inches, then
staffed 24 hours a day by competent and fire hazard. cover the area with at least two inches of
trained personnel who are knowledgeable
in handling chemical emergencies.
If you request emergency assistance
have the product label available! Addi-
tional emergency telephone numbers are
found on many labels and on the back of
Maine pesticide licenses. These emer-
gency lines are staffed 24 hours a day by
the manufacturers to handle pesticide
emergencies involving their products.
Have someone alert the state and lo-
cal police if a spill occurs on a public high-
way. Contact a regional office of the DEP
and BPC if the chemical is a pesticide or
other agricultural chemical. In certain
cases, it may be necessary to alert the fire
department, but be sure to caution them
not to wash down the spill until advised to
do so by DEP or CHEMTREC. It may also
be necessary to contact public health offi-
cials and the hospital emergency room. All persons using or transporting pesticides and
other hazardous chemicals have a responsibility
Contain the Spill or Leak to protect the public and the environment.
While working to control the leak,

contain the spilled material in as small an
area as possible. Do everything possible
to keep it from spreading. Use a hand tool

lime and cover with fresh topsoil. Dispose ing certain pesticide spills if the amount call to the BPC could avert a bigger prob-
of contaminated soil properly. spilled is greater than the reportable lem in the future.
Soils contaminated through applica- quantity for that chemical. Discharge of
tion errors or minor spills can sometimes chemical substances into waterways, in- Spill Prevention
be amended by applying activated char- cluding aquatic pesticide applications,
coal to the contaminated surface imme- must be reported to DEP under the au- A key to preventing pesticide spills is
diately after the incident. Because it is dif- thority of the Clean Water Act. For legal properly maintaining vehicles and appli-
ficult to clean up, charcoal is recom- protection, it is advisable to keep records cation equipment. Leaks and drips from
mended for use only on soil surfaces. The of any interaction with regulatory authori- cracks or loose fittings can lead to trouble.
charcoal can adsorb or tie up enough ties, emergency personnel, and the gen- Understanding how spray equipment
chemical to avoid significant plant injury eral public. Photographs help document works can minimize equipment damage
and long-term contamination. However, damage as well as the clean-up process. should a problem occur. Safe driving and
activated charcoal is unlikely to reduce Commercial agricultural producers, good operating habits further reduce the
soil contamination or prevent plant dam- commercial pesticide applicators, spray likelihood of a spill.
age to areas effected by large spills. contracting firms, and licensed dealers are Knowing how to safely handle pesti-
Clean up equipment and ve- responsible for telephoning a spray inci- cide spills and leaks is as important as
hicles. Clean up all vehicles and equip- dent to the BPC as soon as practicable knowing how to correctly apply the ma-
ment contaminated as a result of the origi- following emergency health concerns and terial. All locations where pesticides are
nal spill or the clean-up procedure. Be- clean-up are taken care of. handled should have emergency phone
fore you begin, be sure you are wearing A reportable spray incident is any sig- numbers (fire, police, doctor, poison con-
the proper PPE. Use an alkaline detergent nificant misapplication or accidental dis- trol center) readily available. Always have
(dishwasher soap) solution to clean the charge of a pesticide. These incidents in- the label with you! An MSDS for every
equipment. Porous material and equip- clude: fires involving pesticides; vehicle pesticide in storage is also needed. The
ment such as brooms, leather shoes, and and aircraft accidents that cause a spill or proper clean up equipment is essential in-
cloth hats cannot be effectively decon- human contamination; failure to turn off cluding absorbent materials; neutralizers;
taminated and should be discarded or de- spray equipment resulting in application a shovel; protective clothing and/or equip-
stroyed. Do not try to save disposable gar- to sensitive areas, applying pesticides to ment; clean water, soap and disposable
ments and gloves or any clothing that is the wrong site or places of human habita- towels; and first aid supplies.
badly contaminated. Properly dispose of tion when such application is a violation All persons using or transporting pes-
all contaminated items immediately. of label; overfilling of spray equipment ticides and other hazardous chemicals
resulting in risk of contamination of wa- have a responsibility to protect the public
Follow Up ter; and any other equipment breakage or and the environment. Doing everything
malfunction or pesticide handling activ- possible to avoid spills, and adhering to a
Be sure the spill has been reported to ity which causes a pesticide release re- few basic guidelines when handling spills
the BPC and DEP. Title III of the sulting in a threat to human health or the and leaks, go a long way toward meeting
Superfund Amendments and Reauthori- environment. In fact, it is a good idea to that responsibility.
zation Act (SARA) also requires report- report any spill, large or small. A quick
Use the Three C program to

handle pesticide spills:
Control the spill,
Contain the spill,
Clean up the spill.

RECORD KEEPING
The Maine BPC Chapter 50, Record number(s), active ingredient(s), re- period of two years from the date of ap-
Keeping and Reporting Requirements stricted entry interval(s) and/or per- plication; The records must be kept cur-
describe the types of records and reports missible air concentration level; rent and must be available for inspection
which commercial applicators, commer- z dilution agent(s), if other than water; by representatives of the BPC at reason-
cial agricultural producers, limited/re- z method of application (type of equip- able times upon request. You may use
stricted use pesticide dealers, spray con- ment); and your own format if all required informa-
tracting firms and monitors must main- z the applicator’s name and certification is included in the daily records and it
tain and submit to the BPC. tion number (where applicable). is available for inspection on request.
All commercial applicators must Application rate information must For a copy of Chapter 50, of the BPC
keep records for all pesticides used for a also be recorded in one of the following Regulations, Record Keeping & Report-
minimum of two years. Except for agri- ways: ing Requirements, or for more informa-
cultural producers, annual summary re- tion about these new regulations, contact
ports are required for both indoor and z For restricted use pesticides, record the BPC, 207-287-2731. Chapter 50 is
outdoor applications. the total amount of undiluted pesti- online at http://www.state.me.us/agricul-
cide applied. ture/pesticides/laws/regs.htm.
z For general use pesticides, record
Why Keep Records? either:
z the total amount of undiluted pesti-
Records are important tools for pes- cide applied;
ticide applicators. All pesticide users are z the mix ratio and total mix applied;
strongly advised to keep thorough records z or the mix ratio and mix per unit area
for their own protection should a prob- applied.
lem arise from an application. Applica-
tion records are essential for protecting For outdoor applications (except for
the applicator in the event of an off-tar- pesticides placed in bait stations; pesti-
get drift complaint which could lead to a cide-impregnated devices placed on ani-
civil suit. mals, such as ear tags; or pesticides in-
Personal protection, however, is not jected into trees or utility poles) applica-
the only reason for keeping pesticide tors must record:
records. Information on previous applica- z wind speed and direction; air
tions can prevent damage to sensitive crops temperature; and
and prevent the presence of illegal residues. z sky conditions, in terms such as sunny,
Recordkeeping can save money. Records partly cloudy, overcast, foggy, or rainy
from year to year help you compare the (see example next page).
results of your pest control programs and Annual summary reports shall be
practices, and can serve as a guide when filed with the Board by or on behalf of
making future purchases. Keep in mind that commercial applicators at the time of li-
the BPC enforcement staff emphasizes cense renewal and contain the following
record keeping during inspections. information for each site or crop treated:
All commercial applicators need to pest name and quantity of each pesticide
keep records of all pesticide applications. used, EPA registration number, total area Pesticide applicator logbooks
Pesticide application records must in- treated (where applicable) for each pesti- may be purchased from the
clude: UMCE Pest Management Office
cide and method of application for each 491 College Ave.
z site information - town and location; pesticide. Orono, ME 04473-1295
z crop or site treated (as specific as pos- Pesticide dealers licensed to sell lim-
sible); ited and restricted use pesticides must
z target pest; provide the Board with a calendar year-
z a practical description of the extent end report of total sales of all limited, re-
of the application, such as size or vol- stricted and general use pesticides before
ume of area treated; their pesticide dealer license can be re-
z date and time of the application; newed. The Board will furnish report
z pesticide-specific information, in- forms.
cluding the brand name of the Commercial applicators must main-
pesticide(s), EPA registration tain pesticide application records for a

A typical log book with record keeping examples and a combination of those records in an annual
summary report (required of commercial applicators). To save space and eliminate repetition,
information which does not change between applications, such as the pesticide-specific information,
mixture content, rate description, target site or target pest, may be recorded once on a separate
reference sheet, or key, as long as it is kept with the log book.

1. Pesticide respirators must be approved by the: 8. If a nozzle becomes clogged while spraying:
a. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health a. carefully use your mouth to blow out what is plugging
b. Mine Safety and Health Administration the nozzle
c. Environmental Protection Agency b. use a piece of wire to clean the nozzle
d. Occupational Safety and Health Administration c. continue to spray until the tank is empty, then correct
e. both a and b the problem
d. stop spraying, move to an untreated area, and use a
2. The life of the cartridge in a chemical cartridge respira- soft brush to clean the plugged nozzle
tor depends on the concentration of the pesticide used, e. replace the plugged nozzle with whatever nozzle is
the breathing rate of the person wearing the respirator, available
and the capacity of the cartridge to bind to the chemical.
(True or False) 9. Which is an undesirable characteristic of a pesticide stor-
age area?
3. Gloves and boots worn when handling pesticides should a. dry
be made of: b. well lighted by direct sunlight
a. canvas c. locked and away from children, pets, food, feed, and
b. leather water sources
c. lined rubber, nitrile, nylon, or viton d. well placarded with warning signs
d. unlined rubber, nitrile, nylon, or viton e. none of the above
e. none of the above
10. Pesticides should be stored:
4. For convenience, all clean protective equipment and cloth- a. in any convenient container
ing should be kept with pesticides in a locked pesticide b. only in their original containers
storage area. c. in containers too heavy for children to handle
(True or False) d. in any container as long as it is tagged with name of
contents
5. Pesticide contaminated clothing should be washed sepa- e. none of these
rately from the family laundry in hot water with laundry
detergent. 11. The best way to dispose of a registered pesticide is to:
(True or False)
a. pour it into the sewer system
6. When filling a spray tank with water, back siphoning is b. dump it in a vacant area
prevented by: c. use it as directed on the label
d. ship it to the EPA
a. never leaving the spray unit unattended while it is be- e. bury it in a safe place,
ing filled
b. attaching an anti-backflow valve to the hose 12. The best way to clean empty pesticide containers is to:
c. keeping the hose above the level of the water in the
spray tank a. rinse them once
d. avoiding water sources with fluctuating pressure b. rinse them twice
e. all of the above c. rinse them three times, with clean water
d. rinse them until the residue appears to be gone
7. Spray drift is the greatest when which of the following e. rinse them three times using the rinsewater in the spray
conditions exist? tank
a. spray droplet size increases and wind speed increases 13. Pesticides should not be transported in the passenger com-
b. spray droplet size increases and wind speed decreases partment of a vehicle.
c. spray droplet size decreases and wind speed increases (True or False)
d. spray droplet size decreases and wind speed decreases
e. none of the above; droplet size has nothing to do with
drift potential

14. Select the incorrect statement regarding spill cleanup. 16. Wooden shelves are ideal for storing liquid pesticides.
a. A spill should never be left unattended. (True or False)
b. No matter how small the spill, it must be kept out of
water sources. 17. A respirator could fail because of ______________.
c. Materials used to absorb a spilled liquid must be treated a. worn valves
as pesticide waste. b. beard or long sideburns
d. A quick and effective way to deal with any spill is to c. a and b
hose down the area with water. d. saturated cartridges
e. all of these
15. Pesticide application records are useful only to commer-
cial applicators in case they have problems with a cus- 18.Improper pesticide disposal can result in:
tomer. a. injury to children and animals
(True or False) b. ground water contamination
c. monetary penalties
d. crop damage
e. all of these

CHAPTER 10
Pesticides and the

Environment
O UR population continues to
grow and so does our demand
for clean water, clean air, and an envi-
ronment that does not threaten our health
or safety. We have rightfully become con-
cerned about the state of our environment.
As a result, many activities that we have
long taken for granted are being carefully
examined. We worry that the earth’s natu-
ral resources are not only being depleted,
but are becoming polluted and unfit for
human use. Pesticides can be one source
of that pollution.
Pesticides can injure wildlife, and
contaminate our water, soil, and air. If
properly handled, however, pesticides can
control pests with minimal environmen-
tal impact. By developing a greater aware-
ness of these issues pesticide applicators
can make environmentally responsible de- or animals from an area. The degradation Volatilization occurs when a solid
cisions regarding the use of pesticides. processes involve microbes, chemical ac- or liquid turns into a gas. Volatilization
tion, and photodegradation. of pesticides increases with higher air tem-
PESTICIDE FATE perature, higher temperature at the treated
Pesticide Transfer surface, increased air movement, low rela-
Pesticides are affected by environ- tive humidity, and small spray droplet
mental processes as soon as they are re- Adsorption is the binding of chemi- size. Pesticides volatilize more readily
leased. Sometimes these are beneficial to cals to soil particles. The amount and per- from coarse textured soils and from me-
the application, but often they are detri- sistence of adsorption varies with pesticide dium to fine textured soils with high mois-
mental. Leaching, for example, can en- properties, soil moisture content, soil pH, ture content.
hance weed control when root-absorbed and soil texture. Soils high in organic mat- Once in a gaseous state, a pesticide
herbicide moves into the root zone. Run- ter or clay are the most adsorptive. Coarse, can be carried away from a treated area
off, however, moves a herbicide away sandy soils with little organic matter or clay by air currents. The movement of pesti-
from target weeds resulting in wasted are much less adsorptive. Certain pesticide vapors in the atmosphere is called
chemicals, reduced weed control, and a cides used on highly adsorptive soils may vapor drift. Unlike the spray drift or dusts
chance of damage to nontarget plants, require higher rates or more frequent ap- that can sometimes be seen during an ap-
hazards to human health, and pollution of plications. plication, vapor drift is an invisible gas.
nearby soil and water. The adsorptive nature of soil influ- The vapor pressure rating of a pesti-
Environmental processes can be di- ences the other processes that determine cide is a measure of its capacity to vola-
vided into those that transfer chemicals pesticide fate. A pesticide, tightly held by tilize. The higher the vapor pressure, the
or influence their movement, and those soil particles, is less likely to be absorbed more volatile the pesticide. Volatilization
that degrade or break down chemicals. by plants, volatilize, leach, or be degraded can be reduced through the use of low vola-
The primary transfer processes are ad- by microorganisms. However, soil tile formulations and soil incorporation.
sorption, volatilization, runoff, leaching, adsorbed pesticides readily move when Avoid applying volatile pesticides when
absorption, and removal of treated crops the soil is eroded by wind or water. conditions favor volatilization.
Chapter 10 - Pesticides and the Environment - 103

Runoff occurs as water moves over factor influencing leaching. In the chart Absorption. Once absorbed into a
a sloping surface, carrying pesticides ei- below, a higher coefficient indicates plant, most pesticides degrade. Some resi-
ther mixed in the water or bound to erod- strong adsorption and less likelihood of dues may persist and enter the environ-
ing soil. The amount of pesticide runoff leaching. ment when the plant tissues decay. Some
depends on the grade or slope of an area, z Persistence. Pesticide persistence indi- pesticides are so persistent in soil that they
the erodibility and texture of the soil, the cates how long a pesticide resists degra- are absorbed by plants years after the ap-
soil moisture content, the amount and tim- dation. Persistence is usually measured plication.
ing of irrigation or rainfall, and the prop- as a half-life—the time it takes for one- Crop removal is the final pesticide
erties of the pesticide. For instance, a pes- half of the amount of pesticide to de- transfer process. When treated crops are
ticide application made to a heavy clay grade. A pesticide with a long half-life harvested, or animals are removed from an
soil already saturated with water is highly may persist in the soil long enough to area, the pesticide residues within them
susceptible to runoff. Established vegeta- leach even if it adsorbs fairly well. move to a new location. After harvest many
tion or plant residues retain soil and mois- z Pesticide rate and rainfall or irriga- agricultural commodities are washed and
ture and tend to reduce runoff. tion. The greater the amount of pesti- processed, which can remove or degrade
Runoff from farms, residences, rec- cide used, and the closer the time of ap- much of the remaining residue.
reational areas, and industrial sites can plication to a heavy rainfall or irriga-
pollute streams, ponds, and lakes. Once tion, the greater likelihood of leaching. Pesticide Degradation
in these surface waters, pesticides can in- z The method of application. Pesticides
jure the aquatic ecosystem, contaminate applied directly to the soil or incorpo- Microbial degradation occurs
groundwater, cause livestock injury and rated in the soil are available for leach- when microorganisms such as fungi and
crop loss, and damage sensitive plants ing in higher concentrations than foli- bacteria use a pesticide as a food. Micro-
downstream age applied treatments. bial degradation can be quite rapid and
Pesticide runoff is greatest when thorough under favorable soil condi-
heavy rainfall occurs shortly after appli- Coefficient of adsorption and half- tions—warm temperatures, proper pH,
cation. Always check the forecast before life for some common pesticides adequate soil moisture, oxygen, and fer-
any outdoor application; if heavy rain is tility. The amount of adsorption also in-
Common Soil Half-life
expected, the treatment should be delayed. fluences microbial degradation; adsorbed
Name Adsorption (µg/g) (days)
Irrigation should be applied in accordance pesticides are not as available to micro-
with label instructions and monitored to acephate 2 3
organisms and degrade slower.
avoid runoff and accumulation of excess dicamba 2 14
methamidophos 5 6 Microbial degradation is one of the
surface water. more important processes that destroy
picloram 16 90
No-tillage, minimum-tillage cropping 2,4-D 20 10 pesticides in the soil. Certain pesticides
systems, and soil incorporation methods dimethoate 20 7 may require higher application rates to
reduce pesticide runoff. Adjuvants that carbofuran 22 50 compensate for the loss. Accelerated mi-
promote pesticide retention on treated oxamyl 25 4 crobial degradation can occur in extreme
surfaces can reduce the pesticide content aldicarb 30 30
cases. Pesticides, once effective for
in runoff water. In addition, surface grad- bromacil 32 60
metalaxyl 50 70 weeks, may suddenly lose their effective-
ing, drainage ditches and dikes, and the
hexazinone 54 90 ness if the earlier applications stimulate a
use of border vegetation can help reduce
ethoprop 70 25 buildup of microorganisms that rapidly
the amount and control the movement of methomyl 72 30 degraded the pesticides.
runoff waters. atrazine 100 60 Chemical degradation is the
Leaching. In contrast to runoff, simazine 130 60 breakdown of pesticides by processes that
which occurs as water moves on the sur- prometon 150 500
do not involve living organisms. The
face of the soil, leaching occurs as water alachlor 170 15
cyanazine 190 14 breakdown products, or metabolites, are
moves through the soil, potentially reach-
captan 200 3 usually nontoxic or nonpesticidal. Soil ad-
ing groundwater. Several factors influence
metolachlor 200 90 sorption, pH levels, temperature, and mois-
pesticide leaching:
carbaryl 300 10 ture influence the rate and type of chemi-
z The water solubility of the pesticide. A terbufos 500 5 cal reactions that occur. Many pesticides,
azinphos-methyl 1,000 10 especially the organophosphate insecti-
pesticide that is dissolved in water can
diazinon 1,000 40
move readily with the water as it seeps cides, are susceptible to degradation in high
phorate 1,000 60
through the soil. chlorothalonil 1,380 30 pH (alkaline) soils or spray mixes.
z Soil permeability (how fast the water malathion 1,800 1 Photodegradation is the break-
moves through soil). This is affected by benomyl 1,900 240 down of pesticides by sunlight. Pesticides
soil structure, texture, and management fenvalerate 5,300 35 vary considerably in their stability when
practices. chlorpyrifos 6,070 30 exposed to natural light. Photodegradation
z The degree of pesticide adsorption. Ad- glyphosate 24,000 47 is reduced by soil incorporation or by irri-
paraquat 1,000,000 1,000
sorption is probably the most important gation or rainfall following application.
104 - Chapter 10 - Pesticides and the Environment

Pesticides found in Maine groundwater and surface water as of July, 2001
Surface
Groundwater surveys
water survey
Pesticide
University Union
BPC1 MGS2 of Maine Carbide BPC1
Alachlor 9 9
Aldicarb 9
Atrazine 9 9 storm event
Bentazon trace
Chlorothalonil 9 storm event
Cyanazine 9
Deethylatrazine (metabolite) 9
Deisopropylatrazine (metabolite) 9
Diaminoatrazine (metabolite) 9
homeowner
Diazinon point source
Dicamba trace 9
homeowner
Dinoseb point source 9
Diuron 9
Endosulfan 9 9
Ethoprop 9
Guthion 9
Hexazinone 9 9 9
Hexazinone Metabolite B 9 9
Metalaxyl 9
Methamidophos 9
Metolachlor 9
Metribuzin 9 9 storm event
Phosmet 9
Picloram 9
Propiconazole 9 9
Simazine 9
Terbacil 9 9
1
BPC - Maine Board of Pesticides Control
2
MGS - Maine Geological Survey

REDUCING HAZARDS TO GROUNDWATER
Groundwater is a crucial natural re- industrial waste disposal (landfills, brine ents have been detected in groundwater.
source essential to Maine industry and and mine wastes, deep well disposal), and Many of these detections came from ar-
agriculture. One third of the people in government generated waste disposal (ra- eas with no spills or other point sources
Maine, rely on this source of drinking wa- dioactive wastes). Agriculture can con- of pollution. Apparently, even legal use
ter—up to 95 percent of the people in tribute to groundwater contamination of pesticides can cause groundwater con-
some rural areas. through the maintenance of livestock tamination.
Groundwater is found below the sur- waste storage facilities and the applica-
face of the earth. Most groundwater oc- tion of manures, fertilizers, and pesticides. Keeping Pesticides out
curs in aquifers—permeable zones of Other outdoor treatments may also be of Groundwater
rock, sand, or gravel saturated with wa- hazardous including both commercial and
ter. Groundwater, moving through aqui- home use applications. Maine’s aquifers currently provide a
fers, emerges at points of natural dis- vast supply of clean water that supports
Maine’s environment. They can continue
charge such as springs or streams, or man- Pesticides in Groundwater as a source of high quality groundwater
made locations such as wells or farm
ponds. The movement of groundwater is A pesticide that is not volatilized, ab- for agriculture, homes, and industry only
often slow and difficult to predict. Sub- sorbed by plants, bound to soil, or bro- if they are protected now. It is important
stances that enter the groundwater in one ken down can potentially move into to understand the impact of pest manage-
location can turn up years later in other groundwater by runoff or leaching. Rock ment practices, including pesticide use.
locations. ledges or outcrops and a high water table Pest management conditions contributing
The upper level of the water saturated increase the hazard. Exposed ledge or to water pollution include:
zone is called the water table. The depth rocky areas are very sensitive and can al- z the proximity of the mixing area, the
of the water table below the soil surface low pesticides to flow directly into an treatment area, and the disposal area
fluctuates throughout the year, depending aquifer. A high water table may allow in- to any source of water;
on the amount of water removed from the sufficient time for pesticides to adsorb to z the depth to the water table at the site;
ground and the amount of water added by soil or degrade before reaching ground- z soil conditions: sand leaches rapidly,
recharge and connected surface waters. water. After pesticides reach groundwa- clay leaches slowly, organic matter
Recharge is water that seeps through the ter they may continue to break down, but holds moisture;
soil from rain, melting snow, or irrigation at a much slower rate because there is less z the properties of the pesticide;
sources. available light, heat, and oxygen. z conditions during application that af-
Both surface water and groundwater The major difficulty in dealing with fect pesticide drift;
are subject to contamination by human groundwater contaminants is that the z crop management practices that affect
activities. Problems can result from do- sources of pollution are not easily recog- leaching;
mestic waste disposal (septic systems, nized. The problem occurs underground, z precautions during application to avoid
landfills, waste water treatment plants), out of sight. In Maine, 22 active ingredi- contamination.
Subsurface water that fills the spaces between particles of rock and
soil, or in fractures in solid rock, is called groundwater.

It is very difficult to purify or clean Some pesticides known to leach ganic matter. Pesticides applied to coarse,
groundwater that has become contami- Active Common sandy soils usually call for lower rates;
nated. Treatment is complicated, time con- Ingredient Name fine clay and soils high in organic matter
suming, expensive, and often not feasible. Alachlor Lasso usually need higher rates.
The best solution is to prevent the prob- Aldicarb Temik Measure accurately. Concen-
lem in the first place. The potential for Atrazine Aatrex trates need to be carefully measured be-
ground and surface water contamination Bromocil Hyvar, Krovar fore they are added to the spray tank. Do
should considered before making the de- Carbofuran Furadan not “add a little extra” to ensure the pes-
cision to apply pesticides. Pesticides Cyanazine Bladex ticide will do a better job. This only in-
Dinoseb Dyanap creases the likelihood of injury to the site,
should only be used as a last resort. When
Disulfoton Dasanit, MocapPlus
available, use alternative pest controls the cost of pest control, and the chance of
Methomyl Lannate, Nudrin
available with less water pollution hazard. Metolachlor Bicep, Dual
groundwater contamination.
The following management practices Oxamyl Vydate Mix on an impervious pad. Mix
can reduce the potential for surface and Simazine Princep and load pesticides on an approved, im-
groundwater contamination: pervious mix/load pad where spills can
Use Integrated Pest Manage- particular care when irrigating shortly af- be contained and cleaned up. If mixing in
ment. Pesticide use can be minimized by ter a pesticide application—the pesticide the field, change the location of the mix-
combining all available practices in an is in the highest concentration at this time. ing area regularly. A portable mix/load
environmentally sound management plan. Calibrate and maintain applica- pad is required if you fill at the same lo-
Consider the geology of your tion equipment. Equipment should be cation ten or more times per year.
area. When planning pesticide applica- calibrated carefully and frequently. Dur- Avoid back-siphoning. Keep the
tions, be aware of the water table depth ing calibration, check the equipment for end of the fill hose above the water level
and the permeability of the geological lay- leaks and malfunctions. Excessive appli- in the spray tank at all times. This avoids
ers between the soil and groundwater. cation rates or spills due to poorly main- contaminating hoses and prevents back-
Consult the regional office of the Natu- tained equipment can lead to illegally high siphoning of chemical into the water sup-
ral Resources Conservation Service to concentrations. ply. Always use an antisiphon device on
learn about the groundwater and soil in Select pesticides carefully. Pes- all water fill systems.
your area (http://me.nrcs.usda.gov/maine ticides that are highly soluble, relatively Clean up spills. Chemicals spilled
soil survey.htm). stable, and not readily adsorbed to soil near wells and ledge areas can move rap-
Consider soil characteristics. are most likely to leach. Choose pesticides idly into groundwater. Avoid spills but,
Determine the susceptibility of your soil with the least potential for leaching into if they do occur, control, contain, and
to leaching. Soil texture and organic mat- groundwater. Read labels carefully and clean them up quickly.
ter content, in particular, influence chemi- consult the Cooperative Extension, the Consider the weather. If you sus-
cal movement. Amending soils can im- Maine BPC, or your chemical dealer if pect heavy or sustained rain or high winds,
prove their characteristics. necessary. delay pesticide applications.
Irrigate in a manner that re- Follow label directions. The la- Dispose of wastes and contain-
duces pesticide movement. High bel carries crucial information about the ers properly. All pesticide wastes must
rates of irrigation can increase the amount proper rate, timing, and placement of the be disposed of in accordance with local,
of pesticide leaching. Excessive irrigation pesticide. Many label rates are adjusted state, and federal laws. Triple-rinse con-
can also cause run-off and erosion. Take to soil type, including the amount of or- tainers. Pour the rinse water into the spray
tank for use in treating the labeled site or
NO PEST
crop. After triple rinsing, perforate the
container so it cannot be reused. Recycle
CHEMCO INSECTICIDE all metal and plastic triple-rinsed contain-
REG. U.S. PAT. & TM OFF. To control turfgrass insects ers. Otherwise, dispose of them in a state-
licensed sanitary landfill. Dispose of all
paper containers in a sanitary landfill. Do
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS not burn used pesticide containers. Burn-
For terrestrial uses, do not apply directly to water, or to areas where surface water is ing does not allow for complete combus-
present, or to intertidal areas below the mean high water mark. Do not contaminate tion of most pesticides and releases them
water by the cleaning of equipment or disposal of wastes. into the air. It is also a violation of state
“No Pest” has been found in groundwater as a result of agricultural use. Users are ad- regulations. Contact the BPC or local Ex-
vised not to apply “No Pest” where the water table (groundwater) is close to the surface tension office for more information on
and where the soils are very permeable (i.e., well drained soils such as loamy sands).
pesticide container recycling in your area.
A typical environmental hazard statement.

Store pesticides properly and REDUCING HAZARDS TO PLANTS
away from water sources. Pesticide
storage facilities must be situated at least Plant damage resulting
100 feet away from wells, cisterns, from a pesticide application
springs, and other water sources. Pesti- to a desirable plant is known
cides must be stored in a locked facility as phytotoxicity. Symptoms
that will protect them from temperature include, burning of leaves,
extremes, high humidity, and direct sun- flowers, or growing tips, yel-
light. The storage facility should be lowing, leaf distortions, ab-
heated, dry, well ventilated, and dedicated normal growth, and stunting.
to pesticides storage—nothing else. It Symptoms may not appear for
should be made of materials that will not several days or weeks and,
absorb leaks or spills and designed for even then, are often confused
easy cleanup. Always store pesticides in with disease, pest damage,
their original containers. nutritional deficiencies, cul-
tural practices, or adverse
Protecting Surface Water weather conditions.
Do not use pesticides on plants hood of injury. Wet foliage is also more
Surface waters are those bodies of known to be susceptible. Carefully likely to be injured by aerosol formula-
water we can see such as lakes, rivers, and reading the pesticide label can help iden- tions. Never treat plants that need water.
oceans. Pesticides can enter water via tify plants or varieties that are especially Wilted or dry plants are extremely sensi-
drift, surface runoff, soil erosion, leach- sensitive. Warnings may be in the label tive to spray injury. Slow growing or dis-
ing, and carelessness, or in some cases, section that discusses crop uses, or in a eased plants may also be injured more fre-
deliberate release of the pesticide directly separate section. Pesticides broadly la- quently than vigorously growing plants.
into the water. beled for use on flowers or ornamentals Use proper rates. Excessive pes-
To protect surface waters, reduce the may not include warning statements for ticide rates can cause injury. Plants may
volume of runoff water that leaves the some susceptible plants. also be injured by repeated applications
treated area. Keep chemicals in the field Use formulations with reduced made at short intervals.
using cultural practices such as conser- phytotoxcity hazard. Wettable powder Avoid mixtures. Certain pesticide
vation tillage, terraces, strip cropping, and and other dry formulations tend to be less mixtures can cause plant injury. For ex-
contouring. Trap them in biologically ac- phytotoxic than emulsifiable concentrate ample, the use of any sulfur based pesti-
tive areas like sediment basins, vegeta- liquids. This is because the various “inert” cide will cause increased injury if com-
tive buffers, farm ponds, and wetlands that ingredients in some emulsifiable concen- bined with oils. Compatibility charts that
allow microorganisms to degrade the pes- trates (xylene, for example) can be harm- can help avoid any mixtures known to
ticides into inactive metabolites. ful to plants. Almost all aerosol formula- cause phytotoxicity are available at most
tions of pesticides for use on ornamental pesticide dealers.
plants can cause injury if the spray nozzle On flowers and ornamentals, test a
is too close to the plant. It should be held spray mixture on just a few plants. Make
18-20 inches or more from the plant. 3 to 4 preliminary applications at inter-
Apply pesticides under the best vals of 3 to 7 days. If the mixture is phy-
environmental conditions. Avoid totoxic, damage appears within 18 hours
spraying plants during extremely hot con- to 3 days. It is useful to compare sprayed
ditions. Remember that, during sunny plants with adjacent non-sprayed plants
conditions, the surface temperature of receiving identical cultural care.
leaves and flowers may be considerably Application equipment. Sprayer
higher than the air. equipment used for applying herbicides
Pesticides should not be applied should never be used for spraying insec-
when they will not dry. Applications made ticides and fungicides. Minute amounts of
during cool and humid conditions remain herbicide residues in such equipment can
wet for long periods increasing the likeli- cause severe damage to desirable plants.

REDUCING HAZARDS TO POLLINATING INSECTS
Bees and other pollinating insects are lated insecticides can be very hazard-
essential for the successful production of ous when the minute capsules are car-
many crops including deciduous tree fruits, ried back to the hive just like pollen.
small fruits, most seed crops, and certain Granular insecticide formulations are
vegetables. Many pesticides, particularly generally the least hazardous to bees.
insecticides, are highly toxic to honeybees z Do not apply pesticides that are toxic to
and other pollinators. Pesticide applicators bees or other pollinators during bloom.
should be aware of how poisonings can oc- Even shade trees and weeds should not
cur, and how to prevent them. be sprayed during bloom. Mow cover
crops and weeds to remove the blooms
z Most poisonings occur when blooming prior to spraying.
plants are treated with pesticides. Adult z Reduce drift during application. Appli-
pollinators can be killed directly and cations made by aircraft and mistblow-
entire hives can become contaminated
ers are usually more hazardous to bees
by pesticides. Pollinating insects are essential
than ground applications.
z Select the pesticide least harmful to
z Try to time pesticide applications care- for the success of many crops.
pollinating insects. An insecticide that
fully. Evening applications are less haz-
becomes inaccessible to pollinators (for
example tightly adhered to the foliage) ardous than early morning; both are less
within a few hours after application pre- risky than midday applications.
sents less risk—as long as the insects z Do not treat near hives. Bees should
are not actively foraging during the ac- be moved or covered before using in-
secticides near colonies. Lady beetle
tual application. Check product labels
for specific hazards. z Bee poisonings can be reduced by fos-
z Select the lowest risk formulation. Dusts tering cooperation among beekeepers,
and baits are more hazardous to bees growers, and pesticide applicators. Be-
than sprays. Wettable powders are usu- fore application, always check with Parasitic wasp
ally more hazardous to bees than either neighboring landowners and growers to
emulsifiable concentrates or water see if bees or other pollinators are in
soluble formulations. Microencapsu- the area.
Wolf spider
REDUCING HAZARDS TO BENEFICIAL ARTHROPODS

AND MICROORGANISMS
Insects and other arthropods that are other soilborne pests. Most soil applied Predatory bug
parasites or predators of pest species, as chemicals have minimal impact on soil
well as pest pathogens, are known as ben- microbes but pesticides can alter popula-
eficials. Unfortunately, after applying tions of beneficial bacteria, fungi, and
pesticides, there may be a noticeable de- other microorganisms that live in the soil
Ground beetle
crease in beneficials both above and be- by selecting certain species of microor-
low ground. ganisms over others.
Any negative impact to beneficial soil The best way to avoid injury to ben-
microbes is undesirable. Certain micro- eficials arthropods and microorganisms is
organisms degrade organic matter to ba- to minimize pesticide usage. Use selective
sic nutrients making them available to pesticides whenever possible, and apply
plants and other organisms. Others them as spot treatments within an IPM
outcompete or kill fungal diseases and program.
Dragonfly
Tachinid fly Syrphid fly Predatory mite Lacewing Some beneficial arthropods.

REDUCING HAZARDS TO FISH AND OTHER WILDLIFE
Pesticides can be harmful to all verte- z Avoid spraying trees that overhang
brates. Animals can be killed when baits streams or ponds.
are left unattended or improperly placed. z Exercise caution when placing baits or
They may ingest pesticide granules, baits, granules.
or treated seed; they may be exposed di- Be aware of the legal considerations
rectly to the spray; they may consume a when using pesticides. Strict laws have
treated crop; they may drink or use con- been enacted to protect wildlife, espe-
taminated water; they may feed on pesti- cially endangered species. Refer to
cide contaminated prey. Fish kills are of- the Chapter 5, Vertebrate Pest
ten a direct result of water pollution. Management and Chapter 9,
The following practices can minimize Using Pesticides Properly.
wildlife injury caused by pesticides.
z Use pesticides only when necessary; se-
lect the least toxic and least persistent
pesticide that will do the job.
z Observe the environmental precautions
on the label.
z Treat only the areas needed; avoid
aquatic areas. If possible, leave a buffer
zone of at least 50 feet between bodies
of water and the treated area. Fish kills in coastal areas by pesticide class, 1980-89.
REDUCING HAZARDS IN MAINE
Critical Pesticide Two areas in Maine are currently desig- including pesticide uses indoors, within
Control Areas nated critical pesticide control areas. Up- outdoor rights of way, and within five feet
dated lists are available from the BPC. of structures.
The designation of Critical Pesticide The Registry complements a former
Control Areas serves to reduce exposure Notification Registry BPC rule that enabled residents within
in locations where pesticide use, without 500 feet of spray sites to receive notice if
In July, 1998 the BPC approved a they first request it from the applicator.
additional restrictions, may cause signifi- statewide Notification Registry. The reg- This rule included drawbacks for those
cant harm. Private citizens, municipalities istry establishes a list of citizens to be living in densely populated areas where
or counties may petition the BPC to desig- contacted by non-agricultural, commer- residents are less likely to know when to
nate certain areas as sites that deserve special applicators and at-home applicators ask an applicator for notification. Neither
cial protection. prior to their use of pesticides. For an did this rule address notification by at-
A critical pesticide control area may annual $20 fee residents have their names home applicators—a user group which
be designated if the unrestricted use of and addresses distributed to licensed com- applies as much pesticides as all of Maine
pesticides on a candidate area is likely to mercial applicators.
cause significant effects to: agriculture. At-home pesticide users who
Once on the list, registrants can ex- treat within 250 feet of their registrant
z endangered and threatened species or pect applicators to provide pretreatment neighbors must now give notification as
their habitats; notification via telephone, personal con- long as they have been informed of this
z significant invertebrate species or their tact or mail. Such communication must responsibility. To be listed in the regis-
habitats Exemplary natural communi- occur between 6 hours and 14 days ahead try, contact the BPC for an application.
ties or ecosystems; of pesticide use within 250 feet of a
z the quality of surface water or ground- registrant’s property. Notification enables
water supplies; individuals to take action to avoid poten-
z the health of sensitive individuals or tial pesticide exposure, close windows,
groups of individuals; keep pets and children indoors, or simply
z government managed natural resources stay clear of a sprayed area. There are
and lands. exemptions to notification requirements

1. The airborne movement of a pesticide from the target 10. To reduce the potential for groundwater contamination:
area occurs only during application and is clearly visible a. do not dispose of leftover spray mix near wells or sink-
when it occurs. holes
(True or False) b. prevent back-siphoning into water sources
c. delay application of pesticides if a heavy rain is ex-
2. Select the condition that could help reduce pesticide vola- pected
tilization: d. triple rinse pesticide containers before disposal
a. strong winds e. do all of the above
b. high air temperatures
c. low relative humidity 11. Crop production can be significantly reduced if pollinat-
d. incorporation ing insects are killed.
e. wet soils (True or False)
3. Pesticide adsorption is greatest in coarse, sandy soils. 12. Select the incorrect statement.
(True or False) To reduce the chances of bee poisoning from pesticides:
a. select dust formulations whenever possible
4. Runoff is usually more likely from a water saturated soil b. do not apply pesticide toxic to bees during bloom
than from an unsaturated soil. c. reduce drift during application
(True or False) d. do not treat areas near beehives
e. avoid mid-day applications when bees are most ac-
5. Pesticide degradation processes are always beneficial be- tively foraging
cause they reduce the amount of pesticide residue in the
environment. 13. Fish kills most commonly result from pollution of water
(True or False) by:
6. The upper level of the water saturated zone in the soil is a. herbicides
called the: b. fungicides
c. insecticides
a. surface water d. rodenticides
b. groundwater e. avicides
c. aquifer level
d. water table 14. Nontarget bird kills can result from:
e. groundwater level
a. ingestion by a bird of a pesticide granule or bait
7. Pesticide properties have little if any effect on whether a b. actual contact with a pesticide during application
chemical will reach groundwater. c. ingestion by the bird of a treated crop or contaminated
(True or False) water source
d. ingestion by the bird of an animal killed by a pesticide
8. Pesticides can reach groundwater through: e. all of these
a. microbial activity 15. Accidental or intentional environmental damage caused
b. leaching by a pesticide can result in financial losses to the respon-
c. photodegradation sible party.
d. crop removal (True or False)
e. absorption
16. What is a chemical that causes injury to plants called?
9. Pesticide contaminated surface water can contaminate
groundwater. a. phytotoxic
(True or False) b. systemic
c. translocated

CHAPTER 11
Pesticide Application
Equipment
E FFECTIVE pest control requires
modern equipment that is main-
tained to deliver properly calibrated ap-
plications. There is a vast array of equip-
ment on the market which must be
matched to the pesticide material as well
as the size and type of job.
Pesticide application equipment is
designed to distribute the pesticide to the
target at the proper rate. The target is the
area or item to be treated. It may be a spot,
such as a patch of thistles in a pasture, or
an entire field; the base-boards in a home, Granular broadcast applicator on disk
or an entire warehouse; it may be a band
of soil within row crops; an enclosure,
such as a greenhouse or grain bin; an in- They can operate as separate units but Hydraulic Sprayers
dividual animal, plant, a waterway, a fence
are often attached to other equipment
line, driveway, or ditch; a paper machine such as planters or disks to combine two A hydraulic (liquid) sprayer usually
or a swimming pool. Information on the operations. They usually have gravity uses water as a diluent and as a carrier for
label specifies the proper dosage and feed, a rotating feed valve or agitator, and the pesticide although ultra-low volume
sometimes suggests appropriate equip- an adjustable opening to regulate flow. sprayers apply pesticides directly as for-
ment for use. Application equipment Granular formulations are manufactured mulated. In any case, pressure from a
might be an aerosol can, hand equipment, for direct application without mixing. Re- pump or compressed gas is used to atom-
or power equipment, including aircraft. fill time is short since extra granules can ize the spray mix at the nozzle. Hydraulic
The equipment may be carried, towed, or be taken to the treatment site. sprayers may be used to apply most pes-
self-propelled. Equipment is designed to apply ticides.
The most common type of pesticide granular pesticides in either band or Hydraulic sprayers are used for spot,
application equipment in the United Statesbroadcast patterns. Band applicators are band, broadcast, and specimen spraying.
is the sprayer; nearly 90 percent of all pes-
often combined with planting or cultivat- The sprayer may have one or several
ticide is formulated for spraying. Other ing equipment to place a band of pesti- nozzles on a boom, in a cluster, perma-
equipment includes, granular applicators; cide over a row. Broadcast applicators nently mounted, or hand held. Hydraulic
air-assisted sprayers; electrostatic spray-
may be combined with a disk or harrow sprayers are often powered and can be
ers; dusters; wick applicators for weeds; when incorporation (mixing) with the soil towed, self-propelled, or mounted on
rubs, walk-through sprayers, and dipping is desired. other equipment, including aircraft.
vats to control animal pests; bait dispens- Band applicators use a system of Since hydraulic sprayers use water
ers to control rodents, insects, and preda-
tubes and deflectors or a spinner to spread to dilute and carry the pesticide, a tank is
tors; foggers for structural pest control the granules. The spinner units are conve- necessary to contain the spray mix. The
and insect control in open spaces; nient to use around trees, especially in or- tank should be large enough to eliminate
chemigation systems for greenhouses chards; however, they should be used frequent refills but not so large that the
and field crops; and fertilizer spreaders only when there is little or no wind. The loaded weight becomes a problem. The
for pesticide impregnated fertilizer. application rate is affected by the ground tank should be made of or coated with a
speed; granule size, shape, and density; material that does not corrode and is eas-
Granular Applicators field terrain; relative humidity; and air tem- ily cleaned. Large tanks should have an
perature. To ensure accurate application, opening in the bottom to aid cleaning and
Granular applicators are available each individual unit must be calibrated with draining. A large top opening is useful
for either band or broadcast application. the specific material applied. for filling, cleaning, and inspection. The
112 - Chapter 11 - Pesticide Application Equipment

opening should have a water tight cover Air-blast Sprayers Sprayer Pumps
to prevent spills. If a wettable powder is
used, the tank should have an agitator— The air-blast (or mist) sprayer uses Large hydraulic sprayers usually have
a jet or paddle—to ensure uniform mixing both water and air. The pesticide is di- roller, centrifugal (impeller), piston, or dia-
of the pesticide and water. Constant mix- luted with water (except with ultra-low- phragm pumps. Roller and centrifugal
ing produces a uniform spray mixture (sus- volume spraying), and both water and air pumps are very popular for low pressure
pension) and an even application of are used as a carrier. Spray droplets are weed control. For wettable powders, the
chemicals. formed with hydraulic nozzles, air-shear centrifugal pump is especially good be-
nozzles, or rotary nozzles and a high-vol- cause wear is relatively slow and there is
ume fan produces an air stream (blast) that plenty of flow capacity for jet agitation.
carries the droplets to the target area. Tank Most air-blast sprayers have piston, dia-
and agitation requirements are similar to phragm, or multistage centrifugal pumps
those of hydraulic sprayers. Air-blast to produce the necessary high pressure.
sprayers are typically used for disease Roller pumps are widely used be-
and insect control on fruits, vegetables, cause of their low cost, wide range of pres-
Christmas trees, and shade trees. sures (up to 300 psi), and because they
Uniform coverage with an air blast can be directly mounted on a tractor PTO
sprayer is very difficult in winds over 5 shaft. Their volume is adequate for most
miles per hour. Applications are often weed control applications. Roller pumps
made at night or very early in the morning wear relatively fast, especially when pump-
to take advantage of the generally calmer ing abrasive formulations. However, re-
air conditions. The relative humidity is building a roller pump is an easy job usu-
also higher at night; this slows evapora- ally completed in about half an hour using
tion of the small droplets which is espe- simple tools.
cially important with low-volume applica-
tion.
Air-blast sprayers may be towed or
mounted on a three-point hitch. Smaller
trailer models are usually PTO powered;
larger units have their own engines. The air Roller
may be discharged from one or both sides pump
of the sprayer. Both the shape of the air
opening and the placement of the droplets
For smaller jobs a hand-carried in the air stream must be matched to the job
compressed air or a backpack (orchard, row crops, etc.).
sprayer is often used. Nozzle selection is critical for air-blast
sprayers. Application for disease and in-
sect control and for plant growth regula- Centrifugal
tion require complete coverage. For this rea- pump
son, air sprayers are normally equipped with
cone nozzle tips or air-shear nozzles to pro-
duce a large number of fine droplets.
Piston
pump
Diaphragm
pump
Self powered air-blast sprayer
Chapter 11 - Pesticide Application Equipment - 113

Centrifugal pumps are longer last- provide information about the character- Nozzle Tip Color Code
ing although somewhat more expensive. istics and intended use of the various
Wear is much slower than in roller or pis- nozzle designs. Choose a nozzle based on Nozzle Gallons per
ton pumps, especially with wettable pow- the pesticide, the pest, the location, the Tip Color minute at 40 psi
ders. Centrifugal pumps have high vol- type and size of target, and the weather Orange 0.1
ume capacity (up to 125 gallons per conditions. Green 0.15
minute) but their low pressures limit them Nozzle tips are available in various Yellow 0.2
to applications of 50 psi or less (for single materials including brass, plastic, stain- Blue 0.3
impeller units). Centrifugal pumps must less steel, and ceramic. They are engi- Red 0.4
operate at rated speeds to produce rated neered to deliver a specific output (flow Brown 0.5
volume and pressure. Because they are rate) but wear eventually increases the Gray 0.6
White 0.8
built to operate in the 2,500 to 4,000 rpm orifice and alters performance. Replace all
range, they cannot be directly mounted worn nozzles as needed.
on a PTO shaft but must be driven with a To reduce wear rates, especially with
speed increaser or directly connected to abrasive wettable powders, use nozzle tips etration is not required. Flat-fan nozzles
a hydraulic motor. Because the perfor- made of a hard, wear-resistant material produce different patterns with various
mance of these pumps is poor when the such as hardened stainless steel or ce- spray angles. A wide angle nozzle can be
inlet is restricted in any way, the diameter ramic. They are more expensive but their operated closer to the ground to minimize
of the inlet line should never be reduced. higher quality and longer life increase the drift. Normal operating pressure for a flat-
Place inline screens on the pressurized accuracy of applications and save money fan nozzle is 30 to 60 psi. Some newer flat-
(outlet) side of the pump rather than in in the long run. Brass tips should never fan tips help minimize drift by operating at
the suction (inlet) line. be used to apply abrasive wettable pow- 15 to 20 psi yet providing approximately
Piston pumps are high pressure ders because they wear too fast. the same fan angles and flow rates. Other
units operating at up to 600 psi or more. Nozzle tip colors. Newer nozzles flat-fans have an extended pressure range
They are wear resistant but low in vol- follow a standard color coding system operating at 15 psi to minimize drift and up
ume and expensive. They can be mounted which quickly identifies the nozzle out- to 60 psi to maximize coverage.
on the sprayer and driven through a PTO put. Be careful with older nozzles—they Flooding-fan spray nozzles can
shaft, but the size of the multicylinder are also colored, but do not match the new spray a wide swath while operating close
models (for higher volumes) may not per- system. to the sprayed surface. These nozzles are
mit direct mounting. Piston pumps are Flat-fan nozzles produce a fairly normally placed at 40-inch spacings on a
often powered by separate gasoline en- coarse spray in a fan pattern that provides boom. Operating at 10 to 20 psi the nozzles
gines. A piston pump produces a pulsat- uniformity with proper spray pattern over- produce patterns that are resistant to drift
ing output so a small surge tank should lap. It is well suited for weed control and and satisfactory for broadcast herbicide
be used to smooth out the pulses. These insecticide applications where foliage pen- distribution.
pumps should be used where high pres-
sure is needed, such as a handgun for
shade tree spraying or sprayers for insec- Durability of nozzle tip materials
ticides and fungicides.
Diaphragm pumps are also high Ceramic Superior wear life; highly
pressure pumps with operating pressures, resistant to abrasive and
capacities, and initial costs similar to pis- corrosive chemicals.
ton pumps. Maintenance is easy and rela- Hardened Very good wear life; good
tively inexpensive. Replacing the dia- Stainless durability and chemical
phragm is the most common repair and it Steel resistance.
can be done by the operator, often with- Stainless Good wear life; excellent
out removing the pump from the sprayer. Steel chemical resistance;
durable orifice.
Sprayer Nozzles Polymer Medium to good wear life;
good chemical resistance;
Nozzles are a very important part of a orifice susceptible to dam-
sprayer. They control the amount of ma- age when cleaned.
terial applied, the formation and pattern Brass Poor wear life; susceptible
of the droplets, and the uniformity of ap- to corrosion, especially
plication. Always consult the product la- with fertilizers.
bel for recommendations on selecting the Standard nozzle design
correct nozzle, pressure, and spray vol-
ume combination. The manufacturer can

Nozzle types: A - solid cone, B - hollow cone, C - even flat fan, D - regular flat fan, E - whirl chamber,
F - solid stream, G - air shear, H - flooding fan, I - broadcast (boomless).
Hollow and solid cone nozzles The discharge rate of each hydraulic the adjacent patterns should overlap 8
are designed to operate at high pressure nozzle is controlled by the size of the inches.
(40 to 400 psi) and break the spray into nozzle orifice (opening) and the pressure. Clusters of nozzles do not provide
small droplets. This design provides more Booms can be equipped to provide 2 to good distribution, even in still air. A slight
complete coverage of the sprayed area, 150 gallons per acre depending on nozzle wind can produce serious pattern distor-
however, the production of smaller, lighter size, spacing, pressure, and driving speed. tion and drift problems. One of the few
droplets increases the likelihood of fog- Nozzle arrangement. The best places clusters are useful is spraying past
ging or drifting. Cone nozzles are gener- nozzle arrangement for broadcast appli- obstructions, such as trees in a park or
ally used for insecticides, fungicides, and cation on a boom is evenly spaced tips. fence line.
growth regulators where complete cover- This setup can provide the uniform appli- Single nozzles or up to four in a group
age and foliage penetration are needed. cation required for good weed control. may be hand held in a gun arrangement.
Air-shear nozzles use a high speed Adjust the boom height so patterns over- The gun may have a pistol valve for on-
air stream to break the liquid into drop- lap on each side (about 40 percent of spac- off control. These are used for spot treat-
lets. These nozzles are used in air-blast ing between the nozzles for flat-fans and ment of weeds, tree and shrub spraying,
sprayers with high speed (170 to 190 mph) 50 percent for flooding-fans). For example, or animal treatment.
air delivery. if the flat-fan nozzles are 20 inches apart,
In a proper flat fan nozzle

setup for boom sprayers, a
40% overlap gives uniform
coverage by compensating
for the thinner spray at the
outside of the fan.

Pesticide Drift The influence of droplet size on pesticide drift
Diameter
The most important consideration for Time to fall1 Lateral drift
(microns)
dealing with pesticide spray drift is the
initial size of the droplet as it exits the 1 28 hours miles and miles
spray tip. 5 66 minutes 3 miles
Droplet size. Spray droplets are 10 17 minutes 4,500 feet
measured in microns. One micron equals 20 4.2 minutes 1,109 feet
approximately 1/25,000 inch. For compari- 50 40.5 seconds 178 feet
son, the diameter of human hair averages 100 10.2 seconds 44 feet
about 100 microns. Droplets smaller than 200 4.2 seconds 15 feet
150-200 microns are more likely to move 400 2 seconds 8.5 feet
off-target and should be avoided. They 500 1.7 seconds 7 feet
are small enough to float in the air for a 1,000 1 second 4.7 feet
long time and can move greater distances. Droplet falling 10 feet in a 3 mph wind
1
Particles less than 50 microns in diameter

may never land; they float long enough Wind. Make outdoor applications Application speed. A faster travel
to completely vaporize. Below 50 microns, when winds are light to moderate. If you speed during applications increases the
droplets become invisible, except as a fog notice pesticide drifting because of the shearing effect—the breakup of the drop-
in high concentrations. wind, stop spraying until the wind sub- lets in the spray sheet as they hit the tar-
Spray pressure. Spray nozzles use sides. get. Shearing produces smaller droplets
hydraulic pressure to atomize the spray Try to spray when the wind direction and reduces the benefits of using a larger
mix. The mix passes through a precisely is stable and blowing away from suscep- nozzle.
formed exit hole, or orifice and disperses tible crops or environmentally sensitive Spray angle and application
as a range of droplets—some large, some areas. Do not spray right to the edge of distance. Nozzles with wide spray angles
very small. environmentally sensitive areas such as (110° or more) create smaller droplets than
The amount of hydraulic pressure af- woodlots, ponds, and stream banks. nozzles with narrower spray angles ( 80°
fects the formation of the droplets as they Leave a buffer zone of untreated natural or less). Although smaller droplets are
leave the nozzle: lower pressures create vegetation to protect these areas. prone to drift, a wider angle allows appli-
larger droplets; higher pressures create
smaller droplets. The small droplets move
faster and give better coverage but they Estimating Wind Speed
can drift and evaporate quickly.
Approximate
A simple method of reducing spray Description Observed Effects Notes
Wind Speed
drift is to reduce nozzle pressure and in-
crease the droplet size. Large droplets have Calm Smoke rises vertically Avoid fine sprays on Less than 1mph
more momentum and stay on target bet- warm sunny days
ter, but they are also more likely to bounce Light Air Smoke drift Avoid fine sprays on 1 to 3 mph
off plants providing incomplete coverage. indicates wind warm sunny days
Because lower pressure reduces direction; weather
vanes do not move
spray output, a larger nozzle with a higher
flow rate may be needed. Never operate a Light Breeze Leaves rustle; Ideal spraying 3 to 7 mph
nozzle outside of its recommended pres- wind felt on face;
weather vanes begin
sure range—distorted spray patterns de-
to move
velop giving poor coverage.
Spray volume. Given the same Gentle Breeze Leaves and twigs Good spraying 7 to 11 mph
in constant motion
pressure, nozzles with higher output pro-
duce larger droplets. A larger orifice cre- Moderate Small branches Avoid pesticides 12 to 15 mph
ates droplets that are less likely to drift moved, raises dust, with finer sprays
leaves, and loose paper
but they also require more water for each
application. Coarser sprays are adequate Fresh Breeze Small trees sway DO NOT SPRAY - Drift regulations prohibit
for many herbicide applications the in- spraying when wind speed is over 15 mph.
creased water may actually increase ef- Strong Breeze Large branches sway Off target movement very likely
fectiveness. However, contact herbicides,
fungicides, and insecticides may require
Moderate Gale Whole trees in motion
better coverage and finer sprays.

cations that are much closer to the target. insecticides and fungicides that require EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
This minimizes the effects of air currents, greater target coverage.
boosts efficiency, and reduces drift. Each Pre-orifice. Raindrop nozzle tips pro- Pesticide application equipment re-
type of nozzle recommended has a nozzle- duce large droplet sizes relatively inde- quires maintenance for effective opera-
to-target distance. Check with the manu- pendent of operating pressure. The nozzle tion. Maintenance saves time and pre-
facturer for more information. design limits the release of small droplets vents frustration early in the season
Evaporation. As soon as a droplet by reducing pressure within an additional Appropriate protective clothing and
leaves the nozzle, it begins to evaporate. chamber—the pre-orifice. These tips are equipment should be worn when clean-
On a very warm, dry day, spray droplets popular for soil-applied herbicides. ing or repairing equipment; check labels
evaporate more quickly, and are more Turbulence chamber. A turbulence for any specific instructions.
likely to drift. Large droplets can become chamber absorbs energy within the nozzle
very small by the time they reach the tar- tip which increases droplet size. These Cleaning Hydraulic
get. As a general rule, spray when the rela- nozzles provide a good compromise be- Sprayers
tive humidity is above 70 percent. Rela- tween larger droplets and adequate cov-
tive humidity below 50 percent may in- erage for many herbicide applications. After each day’s use, sprayers should
crease the chance of drift. Air induction or venturi nozzles pro- be flushed with water inside and out to
Pesticides that are more volatile than duce larger droplets by inducing air into prevent chemical buildup. Choose the
water will actually evaporate out of a the spray mix as it passes through the washing area carefully to avoid contami-
spray droplet if the temperature is warm nozzle. The droplets containing entrained nation of water supplies and injury to
enough. Try to use low volatility formu- air are generally larger than those pro- plants or animals. Do not create standing
lations and avoid spraying when tempera- duced by similar sized nozzles. puddles that might be accessible to chil-
tures are high. dren, pets, farm animals, or wildlife. Ide-
Temperature inversions occurs ally, all wash water should be collected
when cool air near the soil surface is and applied to a labeled site or disposed
trapped under a layer of warmer air. This of as hazardous waste. When chemicals
happens at night when the earth cools are changed or spraying is completed for
off. Under these conditions there is very the season, clean the sprayer thoroughly
little mixing of the air. If applicationa are with a cleaning agent. The following steps
made too early in the morning, when tem- are suggested for thoroughly cleaning a
peratures are still cool, small spray drop- sprayer.
lets remain suspended over the treated
1. Hose down the inside of the tank and
area for long periods of time, and are eas-
partially fill it with water. Flush the
ily blown off target by the wind. To avoid
cleaning water through the nozzles by
temperature inversions, wait until the air
operating the sprayer.
temperature has risen 2 to 3 degrees since
2. Repeat step 1.
sunrise.
3. Remove nozzle tips and screens.
Adjuvants affect droplet size by
Clean them in strong detergent
changing the viscosity, surface tension,
solution using a soft brush such as
and other physical properties of the
an old toothbrush. Avoid wire, knives,
spray mix.
or other hard objects that might
Low drift nozzles. Several equip-
scratch the orifice.
ment manufacturers have introduced low-
4. Partially fill the tank with water and
drift nozzles. These nozzles are designed
add cleaning agent. Refer to the
to create larger droplets than standard
Cleaning Agents table for information
nozzles at the same flow rate and operat-
on the type and amount to use for
ing pressure. These nozzles reduce wind
specific types of pesticide.
drift and making applications less depen-
dent on weather conditions. However,
large droplets produce poorer coverage. Cleaning Granular
Extended pressure. Low drift nozzles Applicators
may widen the range of pressures avail-
able. For example, standard flat fan nozzles Granular applicators must be cleaned
operate at 30-60 psi; low drift flat-fan after use. The following steps are recom-
nozzles operate at 15-60 psi. By maintain- mended.
ing their pattern at lower pressures, these Low drift nozzle designs 1. Remove all pesticide from the applicat-
nozzles offer more flexibility and less drift. or. You may have to disassemble
These tips are useful for applications of certain parts to do a thorough job.

2. Thoroughly clean the inside of the ration during storage. Clean the sprayer radiator rust-inhibitor instead of oil. Ro-
hopper. inside and out. If the sprayer has no rub- tate the pump shaft by hand to coat the
3. Clean rusted or corroded parts with ber parts, partially fill withy water and add inside surfaces.
sandpaper, emery cloth, or wire brush. new motor oil or vegetable oil (2 to 5 gal- Any equipment with an auxiliary en-
Paint with rust preventive primer and lons for large sprayers) for a final flush- gine should also be prepared for winter
machinery paint. ing. As the water is pumped from the storage. Thoroughly clean the outside of
4. Wipe inside and out with coat of oil. sprayer, the oil will leave a protective film air-cooled engines. Completely drain or add
Oil or grease bearings, if appropriate.on the inside of the tank, pump, and antifreeze solution to water-cooled en-
5. Thoroughly clean and oil the flow plumbing. Remove nozzle tips and gines. Either drain the fuel system or add a
control valve and adjustment. screens and store them in a can of light stabilizer fluid to the fuel tank. Remove
6. Clean and oil any steel tubes that oil or kerosene. Place tape over nozzle spark plugs and pour one ounce of rust
were used. openings to prevent entry of dirt or in- preventive oil into each cylinder. Turn the
7. Wipe off oil that may come in contact sects. Drain all parts that are prone to engine shaft four or five revolutions to dis-
with granules. freeze damage. tribute the oil, but do not start the engine.
If the sprayer contains rubber parts Check for worn, deteriorated, or bro-
Preparation for Storage but the pump does not, disconnect the ken parts; order replacements early. Store
pump and put two tablespoons of oil in equipment in a clean, dry building.
All parts of a sprayer, especially the each inlet and outlet connection. If the
pump, should be protected from deterio- pump has rubber parts, use antifreeze or
Cleaning agents and rates for cleaning sprayers

per 25 gallons of per 2.5 gallons of
Pesticides used Instructions
Cleaning solution Cleaning solution
Hormone herbicides, salt or Thoroughly agitate, flush small

amine formulations (2,4-D, 1 qt household ammonia ½ cup household ammonia amount through system, and
dicamba, MCPA, etc.)1 let remainder stand in sprayer
overnight. Flush and rinse.
or or Thoroughly agitate, flush small
1 lb washing soda 3 Tbsp washing soda amount through system, and
let remainder stand for at least
2 hours.
or or Thoroughly agitate, flush small
2 lb trisodium phosphate ¼ lb trisodium phosphate amount through system, and
stand for at least 2 hours. let remainder stand for at least
2 hours.
or or Agitate, operate sprayer for 2
½ lb fine activated charcoal 2 Tbsp fine activated minutes, let remainder stand
and ½ cup powder charcoal and 1-2 oz for 10 minutes, then flush
detergent2 powder detergent2 through sprayer. Rinse.
Hormone herbicides, ester 1 lb washing soda (sal soda) 4 oz washing soda (sal soda) Rinse inside of tank and flush
formulations (2,4-D, brush + 1 gal kerosene + + 1½ cup kerosene + small amount through system.
killers, MCPA, etc. )1 ¼ lb powder detergent 2
1 Tbsp powder detergent 2 Let stand at least 2 hours.
Flush and rinse.
Other herbicides (atrazine, Rinse with clean water before,

¼ lb powder detergent2 1 Tbsp powder detergent2
alachlor, glyphosphate, etc.) and after using sudsy solution.
Insecticides3 and/or
¼ lb powder detergent2 1 Tbsp powder detergent2 Agitate, flush, and rinse.
fungicides
1
Caution: Since only a trace of 2,4-D herbicide can damage sensitive plants, it may be risky to use an insecticide or fungicide in a sprayer
that has been used to apply 2,4-D.
2
Liquid detergent may be substituted for powder detergent; mix at a rate to make a sudsy solution.
3
Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides may be detoxified by adding household ammonia to the cleaning solution
(1 quart per 25 gallons, or ½ cup per 2.5 gallons).

EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION Why do a calibration check?
Equipment is manufactured to be ad- z Because every production cost is important. Chemicals must be ap-
justable. Charts or tables help the opera- plied at the proper rate to be effective. Too little pesticide may not
tor make a preliminary choice of nozzles, control the target pest, too much may damage the target or leave illegal
pump pressure, and operating speed, but residues that harm wildlife and the environment
these rates are approximate and can z Because catalog data for nozzles and other equipment may not be accu-
change for different situations. Fine tune rate in your field conditions due to gauge error, wheelslip, speedometer
your calibration by making a test run with error, and friction loss.
clean water on a known area and measur-
ing the amount applied by your equip-
ment. This is the only way to know that
you are actually applying the correct
amount of material to a given area. Boom sprayer calibration course -
carry a watch to time the test
runs; see text.
Boom Sprayer Calibration
1. Check to be sure that all nozzles are

the same. They should be made by the
same manufacturer and have the same
part number.
2. Thoroughly clean all nozzles and screens to
ensure proper operation.
3. Select an operating pressure. Adjust pressure to desired psi while
pump is operating at normal speed and water is actually flowing through
the nozzles. This pressure should be the same during calibration and field
spraying. Caution: high pressure may increase drift.
4. Check the uniformity of spray patterns of all nozzles. Check the volume of delivery by placing similar
containers under each nozzle. Operate your equipment using water to determine if all containers fill at the
same rate. Replace nozzles that do not have uniform patterns or do not flow at the same rate.
5. Measure a course according to nozzle spacing along the boom:
Calibration Course
Nozzle spacing (in) 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

Course length (ft) 340 255 204 170 146 127 113 102
6. Select an operating speed (generally 3 to 5 mph). Note the tachometer reading and gear used. During actual applications, be
sure to use the same speed used for calibration.
7. Measure the number of seconds it takes the sprayer to cover the measured distance at the desired spraying speed. Make
three to five runs recording accurate speed and time. Average the results.
8. Using clean water, operate the sprayer standing still at selected pressure and pump speed. Collect and measure the water
from several nozzles for the number of seconds measured in step 7 using either a manufactured calibration jar or a container,
quart sized or larger, marked in fluid ounces. If you use a calibration jar, carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
9. Repeat step 8 three to five times. Record accurate pressure readings and jar measurements. Keep in mind that you are
collecting less than a quart of liquid to measure an application rate of several gallons per acre for many acres. Determine the
average output per nozzle in fluid ounces.
10.The length of the calibration course from step 5 is calculated to give the following relationship: the ounces collected per
nozzle is equivalent to the gallons applied per acre.

Band Sprayer Calibration Adjusting Sprayer tubes and collect the granules in a bag or
Application Rates can while operating over 1,000 feet. The
Follow the method of calibration de- granules collected should be measured by
scribed for boom sprayers. Note that ap- After completing a calibration check, weight since volume measurements may
plication rates and nozzle tables are cal- the application rate can be increased by cause errors due to settling of the materi-
culated for broadcast spraying and must slowing the travel speed, increasing the als. The pesticide will amount to only a
be adjusted for each particular band width pressure, or using nozzles with larger ori- few ounces; this can be weighed on a
and row spacing used. To calculate gal- fices. To decrease the application rate, postal scale or a no-longer-needed baby
lons applied per sprayed acre in the band speed up the application speed, decrease scale. Check the amount actually delivered
use the following formula: the pressure, or use nozzles with smaller with the labeled, application rate. If this
orifices. Make adjustments and repeat cali- rate is given in pounds per acre rather than
Gallons/sprayed acre in the band = bration runs until the desired rate of ap- ounces per row length, refer to the Band
Row spacing plication is achieved. Some sprayers have Application table below for conversion.
Gallons/field acre X For example, if the labeled, application rate
Band width other means of adjustment; check the
operator’s manual. is 7 pounds of chemical per acre on 38-
(where ‘Row spacing’ and ‘Band width’ inch rows, you should collect 8.1 ounces
are both measured in inches). Granular Applicator while your equipment moves 1,000 feet.
For example, if you are treating 12 inch Calibration Adjust the applicators and repeat calibra-
bands on 36-inch rows, the spray is con- tion runs until the desired delivery rate is
centrated on only one-third of the field Granular applicators must be cali- obtained.
acreage. If your calibrated application rate brated using the same material that will The calibration should be adjusted
is 5 gallons per field acre, the rate per be applied. The calibration method must for any change in conditions including
sprayed acre in the band is: provide a means for collecting and weigh- temperature, humidity, lot number of gran-
5 gal/acre x 36 in ÷ 12in = 15 gal/acre. ing the granules. Never apply two differ- ules, when using a different chemical, driv-
ent granular materials at the same time. ing at a different speed, or changing the
Air-blast Sprayer Calibration For broadcast applicators, select a agitator speed.
plot of known area (an acre or less). Dis-
Uniform and accurate applications connect the spreading mechanism (if one Adding the Chemical
are absolutely essential with low volume is used) and attach a catchpan, bag, or
spraying (less than 100 gallons per acre). other appropriate container to catch the After calibrating the application
Consult your dealer for correct nozzle size granules. Operate the applicator at the de- equipment, the amount of chemical needed
and placement on the manifold. Calibrate sired settings and ground speed with the per tankful is determined by the applica-
using the following steps: same pesticide that will be applied. Be care- tion rate and the area treated per tank. To
ful to operate over only the measured plot determine the number of treated acres per
1. Select a plot of known area such as tank, divide the tank capacity (gallons)
and to catch all the material that flows
an acre (43,560 square feet) or some by the application rate (gallons per acre).
through the unit. For example, using a ¼
part of an acre. Do not use less than To find the amount of chemical to add to
acre calibration plot, you catch and mea-
¼ acre. In an orchard use tree the tank, multiply the number of treated
sure 10 pounds of granules. The applica-
spacings for measurements. acres per tankful by the labeled pesticide
tion rate is 10 ÷ ¼ = 40 pounds per acre.
2. Fill the sprayer tank full or to a rate per acre. Refer to Conversions and
Since granular band applicators cover
measured level with clean water. Calculations at the end of this manual
such a small area, it is easier to calibrate by
3. Spray the check plot, being careful for examples of pesticide calculations.
band or row length. Disconnect the drop
not to lose water by splashing.
4. Measure the amount of water
Band application of granular pesticides
required to refill tank to the previous
level. Be sure to park sprayer in same Row spacing Row length Weight (ounces per 1,000 feet of row)
position. (inches) per acre (ft) 1 lb/A 5 lb/A 7 lb/A 10 lb/A
5. Calculate the gallons per acre. For
example, if 28 gallons are required to 20 26,136 0.61 3.1 4.3 6.1
refill the tank after spraying a ½ acre 24 21,780 0.73 3.7 5.1 7.3
plot, the application rate is 28 ÷ ½ = 28 18,669 0.86 4.3 6.0 8.6
56 gal/acre. 30 17,424 0.92 4.6 6.4 9.2
32 16,335 0.98 4.9 6.9 9.8
34 15,374 1.04 5.2 7.3 10.4
36 14,520 1.10 5.5 7.7 11.0
38 13,756 1.16 5.8 8.1 11.6
40 13,068 1.22 6.1 8.6 12.2
Hint: Values in the columns can be added. For example, to determine the amount to collect for a 15-
pound per acre rate, add the value in the 5-pound per acre column to the value in the 10-pound per acre.

1. Since an air-blast sprayer produces its own air stream, 11. A boom is equipped with flat-fan nozzles operating at 30
the operator does not need to worry about the wind when psi. For uniform spray application, the boom height
making an application. should be adjusted so the individual spray patterns over-
(True or False) lap at least 40 percent.
(True or False)
2. The centrifugal pump is the best choice for high pressure
requirements. 12. The best way to make a calibration check is to actually
(True or False) operate the equipment over some known area.
(True or False)
3. What factors do nozzles control?
a. the amount of material applied 13. A farmer wants to calibrate a boom sprayer by the jar
b. the formation of the droplets method. The nozzles on the boom are 20 inches apart.
c. the distribution of the droplets The time to travel 204 feet is 27 seconds. The average
d. only a and b output per nozzle is 22 fluid ounces during a 27-second
e. a, b, and c period. The application rate in gallons per acre is:
a. 20
4. Because brass is a soft metal, brass nozzle tips should b. 22
not be used to apply wettable powders. c. 27
(True or False) d. 10
e. 7.5
5. What is the best type of nozzle tip to use to minimize
drift when applying a herbicide? 14. A farmer wants to apply a granular insecticide in a band
a. low pressure flat fan over the row for corn rootworm control. To apply 7
b. off-center pounds per acre on 36 inch rows, how much material
c. high pressure cone should be collected on a 1,000-foot calibration check?
d. solid cone a. 11.0 oz.
e. makes no difference b. 8.6 oz.
c. 20.8 oz.
6. Plugged nozzles should be cleaned with thin wire. d. 0.007 lb.
(True or False) e. 7.7oz.
7. Empty pesticide application equipment does not need to 15. Why should you calibrate application equipment?
be cleaned if the same material is to be applied within the a. Too much pesticide increases costs and may damage
next few days. plants or the environment.
(True or False) b. Because application above the label rate is illegal.
c. Because nozzles may perform differently at each
8. Before storing spray equipment, it should be cleaned and application site.
filled with a detergent and water mixture. d. Too little pesticide may not be effective and would be
(True or False) a waste of time and money.
e. All of these.
9. Calibration of application equipment is necessary only
with new equipment and only at the beginning of each
season.
(True or False)
10. When calibrating a granular applicator, use the same

material that is to be applied.
(True or False)

CHAPTER 12
Public Relations
M ANY landowners next to agri-

cultural areas, and homeown-
ers who hire landscapers or pest control
professionals are concerned about the use
of pesticides and their effect on health
and the environment. Communicating
with customers and understanding their
concerns about pesticide exposure is an
essential part of a successful pest man-
agement program.
People who work with pesticides
may sometimes dismiss public concerns
as illogical or misinformed. But respond-
ing to these concerns can set you apart
from others. Meaningful communication
requires understanding both sides of an
issue and comes about only by stepping
back from your position to see things
through the eyes of the concerned indi-
vidual. They may be concerned about TALKING TO CUSTOMERS AND NEIGHBORS
both actual and merely perceived risks
including: Communication. Not only do pest the busiest times, but dealing with them
managers deal with pests, they also deal as quickly as possible may make the dif-
z risk of cancer or other health effects, with the expectations and concerns of cli- ference between an easy solution and one
z food safety, ents or neighbors. Always be courteous; that is complicated and expensive.
z groundwater contamination, first impressions can often be long lasting. No matter how careful you are, acci-
z child safety, and Carefully listen to all questions. Let them dents will happen. Stay calm and come
z air pollution. know that you understand the basis of their prepared for any emergency. Keep good
Public concern has been influenced concern. If you do not know the answer to records of applications, customer or neigh-
by historical events, such as DDT’s harm- a question, do not make up an answer— bor interactions, and accidents; include
ful effects and its removal from the mar- check with the appropriate specialist and name, location, date, time, details of the
ket, as well as present-day concerns, such get back with an answer. Never respond to situation, requests for information, and
as the lack of scientific knowledge about a customer’s concerns with a “don’t worry, follow ups.
the combined or cumulative effects of pes- it’s safe,” attitude. Show a genuine desire Continuing education. With an
ticide exposure. Furthermore, conflicting to answer the person’s questions. Be as emphasis on health and the environment,
conclusions and lingering gaps in knowl- informed as possible and never give infor- pest management continues to develop a
edge contribute to a lack of confidence in mation when you are not sure. variety environmentally sound alterna-
government and academic institutions. Newsletters are a good way to edu- tives to conventional chemical control.
Concerned citizens, may feel that they cate and communicate with concerned citi- The pest manager must spend time on
have little control over pesticide expo- zens. Include information about current self-education, not just to meet recertifi-
sures. Although you cannot resolve these pests, management strategies, and any cation requirements, but to keep current
problems, being open to their concerns, steps they can take themselves. with changes in the field.
and up-to-date on issues, can help estab- Professionalism. Be prompt and Certification and licensing. Cus-
lish a higher level of credibility. be careful. Problems may come up during tomers or neighbors may not be familiar
122 - Chapter 12 - Public Relations

with your knowledge and experience. Requests for notification. If re-
Show them your valid Maine pesticide quested, any state resident, living or work-
applicator license. Explain that all licensed ing within 500 feet of an outdoor site that
applicators are required to undergo exten- is sprayed with pesticides, including ag-
sive training, certification, and licensing, ricultural land, may request notification
and must keep strict records of all pesti- before applications are made. Although
cide applications. requests in person are always best, they
Pesticide choice. Before applica- may be made in any fashion as long as
tion, tell customers or neighbors exactly the applicator knows the name, address,
what pesticide you are using; supply a phone number, and the specific interest
copy of the manufacturer’s label and the for being notified.
MSDS. Be sure to mention relevant warn- Encourage customers to give your
ings that appear on the label. Applicators business card to neighbors. Neighbors
should know what materials are being can call your office directly if they have
applied, why they are being applied, and questions or would like prior notification.
the basic characteristics of the pesticide. Notification Registry. This is a list
Precautions. If an application is be- of Maine residents who must be contacted
ing made outside the home, instruct cus- by commercial and at-home applicators be-
tomers to close all windows and doors, fore the use of pesticides near their prop-
and remove children’s toys, pet items, erty. Agriculture applications are exempt
sports equipment, laundry and similar from registry notifications.
items from the area to be treated. Lawn For an annual fee of $20, residents’
furniture should be covered or rinsed with names and addresses are distributed to li-
Monitoring requires time and
water after application. Barbecues must censed commercial applicators. Applicators
extensive training on the part
be kept closed or covered and all cooking must provide notification via telephone,
of the applicator.
utensils removed. personal contact or mail between six hours
Caution customers or neighbors and 14 days before pesticide use within 250
never to stand in, or walk through, the feet of the registrant’s property.
treated areas during or immediately after method for the job. IPM carefully moni-
a pesticide application. Unless you in- ENVIRONMENTALLY tors pests, and uses a wide range of meth-
struct otherwise, they should keep off the SOUND MANAGEMENT ods to exclude, remove, drive away, or kill
treated area until the spray has dried or them, with the least possible hazard to
dusts have settled. Provide them with all Conventional pest management prac- people, property, and the environment. A
directions concerning reentry times that tices commonly use pesticides as a safe- program can be modified to fit specific
are stated on the pesticide label. They guard by treating for problems before they situations using a combination of cultural,
should follow the same reentry procedures actually appear. Treatments are made on mechanical, and biological controls.
for pets as recommended for humans; see a scheduled basis, whether they are Chemical control is a last resort.
the label for exceptions. needed or not. This method ignores the Cost. Starting IPM programs may be
Tell the customer that Maine State Law many sound reasons to take precautions more expensive than conventional control
requires commercial applicators to post a and reduce pesticide exposure. Integrated methods. Close monitoring requires more
sign notifying anyone entering the prop- pest management (IPM) offers an alter- time and extensive training on the part of
erty that a pesticide application was made. native that is just as effective, but ad- the applicator; additional equipment may be
dresses consumer and environmental required. In the long run, however, a good
concerns. Adopting IPM may be a major IPM program should pay for itself.
change for some applicators but, modify- IPM policy. All employees should
ing a conventional control policy can re- have a general understanding of IPM.
duce the risk of pesticide exposure to you, Write a company IPM policy, including a
your employees, and your customers. mission statement and an evaluation pro-
Integrated pest management. cess. Make it available to your employees
IPM is a systematic approach to pest con- and customers.
trol that focuses on long term prevention. Develop an easily used and compre-
IPM is effective in a variety of settings, hensive record keeping system. A pro-
can reduce pesticide use, and minimize gram can be fine-tuned to a specific loca-
pesticide exposure. tion by carefully evaluating your manage-
The philosophy of IPM is simple: ment practices. A variety of computer soft-
Accurate pest identification practice prevention, treat only when nec- ware packages are available to track man-
is essential to IPM. essary, and use the lowest risk, effective agement practices over time.
Chapter 12 - Public Relations - 123

Pest identification. Accurate pest LIABILITY ings to support the applicator’s position.
identification is essential to IPM and an Records should include the extent of pes-
important part of the pest manager’s job. Even the most careful applicators may ticide damage and the amount from other
A good pest manager uses expert knowl- have damage claims brought against them. conditions such as weather, disease, etc.
edge of pest life cycles, and an under- The usual claims are for: If the pesticide is applied to the
standing of the pest’s interactions with wrong area, serious problems can result.
z nonperformance,
other organisms, to determine when pests If damage occurs, or if the property owner
z misapplication,
are most susceptible to control measures. strenuously objects, the applicator may
z crop injury,
Biological controls. Biological be charged with negligent application. De-
z property damage, and
control organisms may effectively control fense is very difficult. Double check all
z contamination of nontarget areas.
pests although they are not always rec- addresses, site locations, and all land-
ognized. Before applying pesticides, the Target site and performance. marks before you treat an area.
treatment site should be examined for natu- Claims of injury to the target site or claims Personal injury. The applicator is
ral enemies. If large numbers are present, that the pesticide does not perform as liable for any personal injury caused by a
use spot treatments or avoid pesticides promised may involve the dealer, the pesticide application.
entirely. manufacturer, and the applicator. The Drift. Pesticide drift is a major cause
Selective pesticides. When sev- courts decide who must accept the blame of environmental contamination and dam-
eral different pesticides are available, se- and pay damages. age to nontarget areas. In general, the
lect the active ingredient and formulation Detailed records of all pesticide ap- BPC and the courts hold the pesticide
with less impact to natural enemies and plications are important in these proceed- applicator liable. If the label does not
the environment. For example, certain
strains of Bt, Bacillus thuringiensis, kill
only caterpillars and cause no direct harm
to insect predators and parasites. Pesti- What to do when you are involved
cides should also be applied selectively—
timed for maximum effect against the pest z Stay calm.
and minimum effect to the environment. z Listen patiently to concerns.
Pest tolerance levels. Customer
attitude is the major factor in determining z Be friendly and helpful.
pest tolerance levels—some clients tol- z Never admit liability. Be careful about discussing your operation.
erate a higher level of damage than oth-
ers. The pest manager and customer z Act carefully and promptly; look into the matter immediately.
should discuss specific pests to deter- z Immediately go to the scene; make notes of all essential
mine the appropriate level of management. information.
Customer education. Take the
time to talk to your customers and other z Take color photographs of any adverse conditions so that they
individuals involved in property mainte- can be examined by an expert.
nance about IPM strategies. Define the z Make sure your records are up-to-date including the type of the
role and responsibility of all people who equipment used, temperatures, wind speed and direction, and
will be involved in the IPM program. Em- other pertinent data.
phasize the ecological significance of the
z Save the container that was used in the job. If it is not practical to
IPM program, and that total eradication
of a pest is not practical. Explain exactly save the whole container, save the label or take a close-up, color
what will be involved and why. photograph of it.
Do not lead anyone to expect perfec- z Obtain the names and addresses of all witnesses who might
tion; an IPM program needs adequate time testify to the nature of the operation and conditions of the site
to show the desired results. Your cus- before and after the incident.
tomer must be educated to this fact and
z Try to obtain a history of the site including previous applications
willing to accept minor levels of pest dam-
age, especially in the early stages of the and persistent problems.
program. For impatient customers with z Notify your insurance company immediately. If you do not have
unrealistic expectations, conventional insurance for the loss involved, consider having an expert
pest management provides a quick fix. This examine the site or the property.
approach is usually temporary and pest
z Call the BPC, 207-287-2731.
problems return.

clearly warn about the possibility of drift, ment with exposed drive belts, drive z The applicator may make an error in
the manufacturer may also share liability. wheels, gears, or any moving parts where mixing or filling in the spray tank.
Bees. Honey bees are very suscep- children can get to them. Aircraft should z There may be pesticide residues left
tible to many insecticides. If the bees in never be parked where curious children from a previous application.
neighboring hives are killed as the result can find them. Pesticides and empty con- z The pesticide may be contaminated in
of spray drift, the applicator may be held tainers should never be left unattended the package by exposure to vaporous
legally responsible. or in unlocked vehicles. pesticides, such as 2, 4-D.
If bees are exposed to the pesticides Noise. Home owners and others, z The manufacturer may make a mistake
while they forage in the sprayed site, they have claimed damage and loss of prop- in labeling, formulating, or filling a
are considered “trespassing” and the app- erty value by noise from aircraft and container.
licator is not usually liable, unless the app- ground equipment. Applicators and own-
licator has ignored a label direction that ers are legally liable only if the noise is Insurance. There are many differ-
specifically protects bees. Play it safe! Read excessive or unreasonable. Reasonable ent insurance plans, including bodily in-
the label, know the location of beehives, noise is not legal nuisance, even though jury, property damage, restricted chemi-
and warn beekeepers before all treatments. it may be irritating. cal liability, and comprehensive chemical.
Attractive nuisance. An attractive Cross contamination. Be sure to explore the costs, benefits, and
nuisance is usually an instance where chil- The applicator should record the drawbacks of each plan before you buy;
dren are attracted to application equip- specific pesticide container, EPA estab- you need to know exactly what your cov-
ment and injure themselves. The owner lishment number, and application equip- erage includes. An insurance agent who
and/or applicator are held liable for inju- ment used on every site. If contamination specializes in pesticide insurance is the
ries even if the children are trespassing, occurs, complete records may identify the best person for advice. In Maine, com-
providing the landowner has failed to take origin of the problem. Contaminated in- mercial applicators for hire are required to
reasonable precautions. If children fre- gredients and application equipment can have liability insurance before applying
quent an area, never leave ground equip- occur in several ways: any pesticides.
Chapter 12 - Public Relations - 125

1. What practices are important for good public relations? 8. Who can best advise you on insurance needs?
a. keep good records a. the Board of Pesticides Control
b. be prompt b. Cooperative Extension
c. get answers to questions c. an insurance agent specializing in liability insurance.
d. listen patiently d. the EPA
e. all of these e. all of the above
2. If you apply a pesticide and the wind carries it off target,

are you liable even though you tried to be careful?
(True or False)
3. If the site you applied a pesticide to is injured, even

though you followed the directions and dosages on the
label, who could be liable?
a. the pesticide dealer
b. the pesticide manufacturer
c. the pesticide applicator
d. the property owner
e. all of the above
4. Is the application of pesticides legally considered to be a

hazardous activity?
(True or False)
5. Can you be sued for applying pesticides to the wrong

target area, even though no damage is done?
(True or False)
6. Why should you never leave pesticide equipment or

pesticide containers where children can find them?
a. children may damage the equipment
b. children may spill pesticides leaving you liable
c. if children are trespassing they have no legal rights
d. equipment and containers may be an "attractive nuisance"
e. none of these
7. If someone accuses you of pesticide misuse, what steps

should you take to protect yourself?
a. check your records
b. make notes of the scene
c. save the pesticide containers
d. make a list of all witnesses
e. all of the above

CHAPTER 13
Pesticide Laws
C HEMICAL pesticide use has sharply increased dur-
ing the past thirty-five years, not only in the United
States but worldwide. Pesticides have helped control malaria
FEDERAL PESTICIDE LAWS
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and

and other insect vectored diseases; added to the yield and qual-
ity of numerous commodities; and helped control nuisance
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
pests. However, because of associated human health and envi- The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
ronmental problems, the wide-scale use and misuse of pesti- (FIFRA) was enacted in 1947 and significantly amended in
cides is of worldwide concern. In order to protect the public 1972, 1975, 1978 and 1988. FIFRA provides the overall frame-
health and welfare, and to prevent adverse effects to the envi- work for the Federal pesticide program and charges the United
ronment, it is essential to regulate pesticides. Pesticide laws States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with register-
regulate, in the public’s best interest, every aspect of pesticide ing, or licensing all pesticide products used in the United States.
development, production, sale, and use. With the exception of Pesticide registration decisions are based on a detailed assess-
medical drugs, no other class of chemicals receives such ex- ment of the potential effects of a product on human health and
tensive testing before use. the environment, when used according to label directions.
z The applicator is not permitted to use any pesticide for any
use other than that stated on the label, except those specific
Millions lbs Active Ingredient exemptions granted under regulations of the Maine
Pesticide Control Act, Maine Board of Pesticides Control
Statute, and Section 2 (ee) of FIFRA (described in Chapter
8, The Pesticide Label).
z No pesticide can be registered or offered for sale unless its
labeling provides for reasonable safeguards to prevent
injury to humans and adverse effects to the environment.
z State restrictions on pesticides cannot be less restrictive
Agriculture than those of FIFRA. However, individual states may
Millions of Dollars
64 67 70 73 76 79 2 85 88 91 94 97
19 19 19 19 19 19 1 98 19 19 19 19 19
Millions lbs Active Ingredient
Non-agriculture
s s s r l
64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94 97 de de de he ta
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 ci i ci Ot To
r bi c tic gi
He se n
In Fu
Three charts from the EPA: left, U.S. conventional pesticide useage (agricultral and non-
agricultural), 1964-1997; right, U.S. and world pesticide sales for 1997.
Chapter 13 - Pesticide Laws - 127

impose stricter regulations, although the labeling and
packaging must be uniform nationwide. Uniform packag-
ing standards include container type, size, and color.
z FIFRA also provides for the disposal of pesticide contain-
ers and surplus or unwanted pesticides.
z The EPA, through the Maine Board of Pesticides Control
(BPC), can stop the sale or use of any hazardous pesticide.
z The EPA, through the BPC, can issue removal orders and
seize products to keep them out of the market.
z FIFRA requires that EPA reevaluate older pesticides to
ensure that they meet more recent safety standards.
z FIFRA requires EPA and states to establish programs to
protect workers, and provide training and certification for
applicators.
z Pesticide manufacturers, dealers, transporters, and applica-
tors are subject to penalties for violations of FIFRA.
unless they are confidential and protected from disclosure. Any
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act information concerning trade secrets, as well as commercial
(FFDCA) or financial information may be protected. EPA's pesticide pro-
gram has established a FOIA office; send requests to:
FFDCA governs the establishment of pesticide tolerances
for food and feed products. A tolerance is the maximum level EPA Freedom of Information Office
of pesticide residues allowed in or on human food and animal 401 M Street, Southwest
feed. EPA and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are Mail Code: 1105
responsible for administering the Act. Washington, D.C. 20460
Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA)
This law, passed in 1996, amends both FIFRA and FACA establishes policies and procedures for seeking ex-
FFDCA, setting a tougher standard for pesticides used on food. ternal stakeholder input to Federal Agency activities. This law
FQPA establishes a single, health based standard to be used ensures that such consultation is open to the public and trans-
when assessing the risks of pesticide residues in food or feed. parent. The EPA’s Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) hosts
The new safety standard considers the aggregate risk from di- several FACA committees.
etary exposure and other nonoccupational sources of exposure,
z Tolerance Reassessment Advisory Committee
such as drinking water and residential pesticide use.
z Food Safety Advisory Committee
z When setting new, or reassessing existing, tolerances, EPA z Endocrine Disrupters Screening and Testing Advisory Committee
must carefully assess exposures and risks to infants and z Pesticide Program Dialogue Committee
children and include additional safety factors to account z FIFRA Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) and Scientific
for uncertainty in data. Advisory Board
z EPA may only establish a tolerance if there is "a reasonable z State FIFRA Issues Research and Evaluation Group
certainty" that no harm will result from all combined (SFIREG)
sources of exposure to pesticides (aggregate exposures).
z FQPA also considers the combined effects of human Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
exposure to different pesticides that may act in similar
ways on the body (cumulative exposure). The Safe Drinking Water Act was established to protect
z EPA must review all old pesticides to make sure that the the quality of drinking water in the United States from both
residues allowed on food meet the new safety standard. underground and above ground sources. In 1996, Congress
z FQPA requires that pesticides be tested for potential amended the law to require the development of a testing pro-
endocrine disruption. gram for chemicals and pesticides for possible endocrine dis-
z To better inform the public, EPA must distribute a brochure rupting effects.
to supermarkets discussing pesticides on foods.
The Worker Protection Standard (WPS)
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)
This 1992 EPA regulation outlines steps to reduce the risk
Under FOIA, Federal agencies are required to respond to of pesticide-related illness and injury to employees. See Chapter
public requests for agency records and make them available, 14 for more information.
128 - Chapter 13 - Pesticide Laws

Occupational Safety and Health remove endangered plants from areas under Federal jurisdic-
Act (OSHA) of 1970 tion. It also mandates that other federal agencies ensure that
any action they carry out or authorize is not likely to jeopar-
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970 dize the continued existence of any endangered species, or to
is administered by the Occupational Safety and Health Ad- destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat.
ministration of the Department of Labor. This law requires
any employer with eleven or more employees to keep records The Resource Conservation and
of all work-related deaths, injuries and illness and to make Recovery Act (RCRA)
periodic reports. Records must be kept if the injury involves
medical treatment, loss of consciousness, restriction of work RCRA is administered by the EPA to manage all hazard-
or motion, or transfer to another job. Minor injuries involving ous wastes. Regulated waste includes unrinsed containers, ex-
only first aid treatment are not reportable. OSHA also requires cess pesticide or pesticide dilutions, rinse water, etc. which
investigation of employee complaints that may be related to contain a listed chemical and cannot be properly used.
pesticide use. Applicators who accumulate 2.2 pounds or more waste
per month containing acutely hazardous chemicals, or 2200
The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard pounds of waste containing a hazardous chemical, must regis-
ter as a generator of hazardous waste, obtain an ID number
This law is often referred to as the Worker’s Right-to-Know from EPA, and follow certain disposal requirements. For more
Law. It requires employers to inform employees of any chemi- information about hazardous wastes contact:
cal hazards they may be exposed to while performing their EPA RCRA Hotline
work. In Maine, the Bureau of Labor Standards (BLS) is re- 1-800-424-9346, (8:30am-7:30pm EST M-F)
sponsible for administering and enforcing these regulations.
Rules governing Hazardous Occupations for Minors, Chap- Maine Department of Environmental Protection,
ter 11 of the Maine BLS rules, prohibit minors under the age 207-287-7688 or 1-800-452-1942.
of 18 from working in direct contact with pesticides.
Anyone who employs someone that works with a hazard- The Transportation Safety Act of 1974
ous chemical, including any pesticide, must comply with the
Right-to-Know Law by implementing the following points. For This law, authorized the U.S. Department of Transporta-
more information contact BLS at 207-624-6400. tion (DOT) to regulate the transport of hazardous materials,
and establishes rules for packing, handling, labeling, placarding,
z Develop a written policy on how you comply with the law. and routing. The materials include explosives, compressed
z Inventory all hazardous materials. gases, flammable liquids and solids, poisons and several other
z Obtain Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) on all classifications of chemicals. Some pesticides are defined by
hazardous materials or products. the DOT as hazardous. For questions contact the Maine Bu-
z Report information on chemicals used, and other informa- reau of Remediation & Waste Management, 207-287-2651,
tion as requested, to the BLS. http://www.state.me.us/dep/rwm/.
z Provide warning labels for secondary containers that hold
hazardous materials.
The Superfund Amendments and
z Provide annual, documented training for each employee
that includes: Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA)
z an explanation of the written hazard communication
SARA Title III is a Federal Right-to-Know Law designed
program, chemical inventory, MSDS, secondary to inform communities about hazardous chemicals in their area
warning label system. Inform employees of the and addresses the need for community emergency response plans
location and provide access to these documents; in case of an accident. The BPC offers compliance manuals to
z the physical and health hazards of the chemicals
help applicators with this law. Title III has many sections, how-
used; ever, the areas that affect the pesticide applicator, applicator
z areas or tasks where hazardous materials are present;
business, or dealer are confined to four sections.
z methods of detecting the presence or release of
hazardous chemicals in work areas; Section 302

z protective measures, including the use and limitations Emergency planning and notification
of personal protective equipment; and EPA has assigned a Threshold Planning Quantity (TPQ)
z emergency procedures. for each active ingredient (not total weight of formulated prod-
uct). When the product in storage is at or above the TPQ the
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 State Emergency Response Commission (SERC) must be noti-
fied in writing. Each facility is also required to designate a coor-
The ESA is administered by the Fish and Wildlife Service dinator to work with the Local Emergency Planning Committee
(FWS), of the Department of the Interior. The ESA makes it (LEPC). The state will notify the LEPC that your operation is
illegal to kill, harm or collect endangered wildlife or fish or covered under SARA. This is a one time notification.

Section 304 repelling any pest; and any substance or mixture of
Emergency release reporting substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator,
This section describes the required response after an acci- defoliant or desiccant. Pesticides include disinfectants,
dental release (such as a spill) of any extremely hazardous sub- cleaners, insect repellants, plant disease controls, biologi-
stance. If a pesticide, covered under SARA Title III, is spilled cal controls, weed killers, rat poisons, and insecticides.
in an amount greater than the Reportable Quantity (RQ), and z Pests are defined, in part, as insects, rodents, nematodes,
the spill causes off-site exposure, you must: fungi, weeds, and other forms of terrestrial or aquatic plant
z notify the SERC, or animal life; or viruses and bacteria.
z As provided by law, the label must show:
z notify the LEPC, and
z Name, brand or trademark of pesticide
z report the release to the National Response Center
z Use classification - general or restricted
1-800-424-8802.
z Ingredient statement
Section 311 z Directions for use
Material safety data sheet reporting z Precautionary statements for users
MSDS reporting is required under SARA Title III. Em- z Net weight or measure of contents
ployers are required to obtain and keep material safety data z Name and address of the manufacturer
sheets and submit copies of each MSDS (or a listing of the z Registrant or person for whom manufactured
MSDS that must be maintained) to their local fire department, z Federal EPA registration number assigned to the
the LEPC, and the SERC. establishment in which it was produced
z Use of pesticides inconsistent with the label directions is
Section 312
Inventory reporting considered a violation of FIFRA and state law.
z Title 7 sets the maximum penalties for violation of
This section states that facilities must submit an annual
chemical inventory to their local fire department, LEPC, and pesticide law in Maine.
z A 1988 amendment to Title 7 requires public utilities and
SERC. This inventory must include all hazardous chemicals
stored at the facility at or above 10,000 pounds and any ex- the Maine Department of Transportation to offer no-spray
tremely hazardous chemical stored at or above 500 pounds (or agreements to municipalities. This amendment provides an
55 gallons) or above the TPQ, whichever is less. alternative to right-of-way maintenance procedures that
rely on pesticide use.
STATE PESTICIDE LAWS
Penalties and procedures
The Maine Pesticide Control Act (Title 7) and the Board The Maine Pesticide Control Act of 1975 permits the es-
of Pesticides Control Statute (Title 22, Chapter 258-A) be- tablishment of penalties for violation of Federal and state laws
came law in 1975. Both have been significantly amended by or regulations, or violation of municipal ordinances affecting
the Maine Legislature. These are companion laws to FIFRA pesticide use. There is also an appeal process defined by the
which enable the State to administer approved pesticide certi- statute to contest fines, revocations and suspensions.
fication and enforcement programs. Without this authority, An offense is punishable by a fine of up to $1,500 for
EPA would administer these programs in Maine. first-time violations and $4,000 for subsequent violations within
Regulations governing all aspects of pesticide use within a four year period. Private applicator violations of either the
the state. They are not completely summarized here, nor are returnable container or record keeping laws and regulations
they all covered on the certification exam. Copies of the cur- are subject to a maximum of $500 for a first offense and $1,000
rent Maine pesticide regulations are available from the BPC for subsequent violations.
or at http://janus.state.me.us/legis/statutes. The BPC can seek suspension or cancellation of a license
when a violation is severe, or when there are repeated offenses.
Grounds for suspension and revocation include, but are not
Maine Pesticide Control
limited to:
Act of 1975 (Title 7)
z using, distributing or storing pesticides in a faulty, careless,
This law provides for the registration of pesticides so they or negligent manner;
may be legally distributed in the state of Maine. Every pesti- z filing false or fraudulent reports;
cide distributed in Maine must be registered with the BPC. z violating the provisions of state or federal pesticide laws;
Registration is a tool for determining if pesticides distributed, z using chemicals contrary to label directions.
sold, or offered for sale in Maine meet the labeling require- In cases where there is intentional or willful violation of
ments. It also insures that proper use of a product should not any pesticide law, persons may be subject to a fine up to $7,500
cause unreasonable adverse effects to the public health or the and/or 30 days imprisonment per offense. Considerations used
environment. by the court to set the actual penalty include:
z Pesticides are defined, in part, as any substance or mixture z history of prior violations;
of substances intended for preventing destroying or z degree of environmental and/or public harm;

z degree of damage that has not been corrected; ally have lower toxicity with less potential hazard to humans
z the importance of deterring the violator or others; and the environment than restricted use chemicals. They can
z the foreseeability of the violation; be purchased without a license but application may require a
z the extent the violation continued after notification; license depending on who applies or where the pesticides are
z the standard of care demonstrated by the violator; applied (contact BPC for regulations). They must, however,
z whether the violator reported the incident to the BPC. always be used according to label directions.
Restricted use pesticides and their uses are often highly
There are specific procedures required of the BPC during hazardous to humans and/or the environment; applicators must
the course of an inspection or enforcement action including: know how to use them properly. Restricted use pesticides may
z distributing a written notice describing the enforcement be sold only by licensed dealers and only to certified and li-
process when licenses are issued; censed applicators and must be used only by those applicators
z showing credentials before entering public and private or by persons working under their direct supervision.
premises; Some active ingredients in pesticides may be listed as ei-
z notifying an alleged violator before the case is discussed at ther general or restricted depending upon the formulation, the
a Board meeting; application method, and the intended uses. An emulsifiable
z notifying an alleged violator of a complaint before concentrate formulation of a certain insecticide, for example,
collecting samples for evidence in drift incidents; might be restricted use if applied by aircraft for a potato pest.
z holding BPC meetings for enforcement actions in locations But the same chemical, with a low percentage of active ingre-
near the scene of the alleged violation. dient in a granular formulation, could be general use if used as
a soil treatment for turf pests.
Board of Pesticides Control All products classified for restricted use by the EPA are
Statute (Title 22) automatically restricted use pesticides in Maine. In addition,
all products containing the following active ingredients and
The Board of Pesticides Control (BPC) was created in 1965 meeting the listed criteria are also classified as restricted use
to regulate pesticide use in Maine. The BPC is attached to the pesticides in Maine:
Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources z arsenic compounds (above 2 percent)
with ten full-time and four seasonal employees. z azinphos-methyl (Guthion)
Policy decisions are made by a public board. The Board z chlorfenvinphos (4072)
consists of seven members appointed by the Governor to serve z daminozide
four year terms. Members are professionally involved in agri- z fenthion (Baytex)
culture, forestry, commercial pesticide application, medicine and z fonophos (Dyfonate, above 15 percent)
integrated pest management. Two members, from different ar- z formetanate hydrochloride (Carzol)
eas of the state, with demonstrated interests in environmental z mercury compounds
protection, are selected to represent the public at large. The Board z dichlorvos (Vapona, DDVP, above 25 percent)
meets monthly to establish policies which are carried out by the z methomyl (Lannate-all uses except bait formulations less
BPC staff and to decide cases of alleged violation of state law. than 2 percent methomyl)
The primary purpose of Title 22 is to create a certification z disulfoton (Disyston, above 1 percent - Granular formula-
and licensing system for applicators and dealers, and to assure tions of 10 percent and above are restricted)
the safe and proper use of pesticides. Other sections of the z DNOC (Sinox, above 2 percent)
statute empower the BPC to: z EBDC fungicides (Maneb, Mancozeb, Dithane, Polyram,
z require record keeping by applicators and dealers; Metiram, etc.) except dry flowable and liquid formulations.
z cooperate with other state and federal agencies; All dusts and wettable powder formulations of EBDC
z establish critical pesticide control areas for the protection fungicides are restricted, regardless of concentration.
z endosulfan (Thiodan, above 10 percent)
of natural resources;
z endothall
z develop regulations to satisfy the overall purpose of the law;
z ethion (above 40 percent)
z establish storage regulations for dealers;
z nicotine alkaloid
z require return and proper disposal of RUP containers;
z nicotine salts (above 40 percent expressed as alkaloid)
z allows for notification and monitoring of aerial pesticide
z oxamyl (Vydate)
applications;
z paraquat (above 0.2 percent)
z licensing of GUP dealers;
z phosphorus (white and yellow)
z establishes the state policy to minimize reliance on
z strychnine
pesticides.
State pesticide laws must be as stringent as federal laws.
Pesticide classification Because of the nature of Maine’s resources, they are even more
All pesticides are classified according to their potential restrictive in some respects. Title 22 and Title 7 allow the BPC
hazard in specific circumstances. General use pesticides usu- to further control the use of many pesticides that present con-

siderable human or environmental hazards. Limited use pesti- Beyond these minimum requirements it is recommend that
cides may be sold only by restricted use pesticide dealers li- signs be enlarged to 5-6" and that the information on the signs
censed by the Board and they may be purchased and used only be expanded to include the common name of the pesticide
by applicators licensed by the Board and holding a LUP per- used and phone number of the BPC.
mit from the Board. All products containing the following ac-
tive ingredients are classified as limited use pesticides in Maine: Notification Registry
Maine law assures the right to know about neighboring
z Aldrin pesticide applications. The Notification Registry is a list of
z Chlordane Maine residents who wish to be contacted by commercial and
z Heptachlor at-home applicators prior to the use of pesticides. The registry
z Lindane best serves urban and suburban residents who otherwise have
z methyl parathion (microencapsulated forms only) no means of knowing in advance when pesticides are applied
z sodium monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080) on neighboring lawns, in landscapes or around structures.
z Toxaphene For an annual fee of $20, residents’ names and addresses
z trichlofon (Dylox) are distributed to licensed commercial applicators. Once on
Restricted and limited use lists are frequently revised, up-to-date the list, residents can expect applicators to provide pretreat-
copies can be requested from the Board of Pesticides Control. ment notification via telephone, personal contact or mail. This
communication must occur between six hours and 14 days
Notification for Outdoor Pesticide ahead of pesticide use within 250 feet of a registrant’s prop-
Applications (Chapter 28) erty. At-home applicators treating their own property are re-
quired to notify registrants as well. Pesticides used in agricul-
Maine currently requires applicators to post treated turf, ture are exempt from registry notification. The registry is up-
ornamental, and outdoor structural areas, to “reasonably en- dated annually. To be listed, contact the BPC.
sure that persons entering such areas will see the notice” as
outlined in Chapter 28, Notification Provisions for Outdoor Request for notification
Pesticide Applications (http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pes- Anyone who lives or works within 500 feet of any out-
ticides/Ch28pro0.htm). door site treated with pesticides, including agricultural land, is
These regulations establish procedures and standards for entitled to be notified of impending applications. This law ex-
informing interested members of the public about outdoor pes- ists to enable neighbors to obtain basic information from the
ticide applications in their vicinity. The regulations set forth applicator such as what pesticides are applied and a forewarn-
the requirements for requesting notification about pesticide ap- ing as to when they are applied.
plications, for posting property on which certain commercial Neighbors must ask the applicator for notification. That
pesticide applications have occurred and also establishes the request may be made in any fashion so long as the applicator is
Maine Pesticide Notification Registry structure and fees. given a name, address, phone number and the interest in being
Notification signs should be located to inform people at notified. The request should be made to the person respon-
points of ingress and egress, in common areas and in places sible for management of the land on which a pesticide applica-
obvious to abutters. The posting must be made before spray-
ing starts, and must remain at least two days after completion
of spraying.
The notification signs must alert people to the fact that
pesticide spraying has occurred or is about to occur. The sign
must be sturdy, weather resistant, and able to last at least 48
hours of outdoor conditions. It must be at least five inches
wide and four inches high, light-colored with dark, bold let-
ters. The word CAUTION must be written in 72-point type
and the words PESTICIDE APPLICATION must be written
in 30-point type or larger. The sign must bear the BPC’s des-
ignated symbol ("keep children/pets-off-the-grass" logo) as
well as the name and phone number of the company making
the pesticide application. The bottom of the sign, when in place,
must be at least one foot above the surface of the turf. The sign
must also include the date and time of pesticide application,
the phone number of the applicator, date and time to remove
the sign (48 hours after application), and any reentry precau-
tions as listed on the label. If no re-entry precautions are on
the label you should put "Keep Off Until Dry" or "Keep Off Signs are available from the BPC:
Until Watered In" or some other appropriate warning www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/library/index.htm

tion takes place. Once the applicator, land manager or land Return and Proper Disposal
owner receives a request for notification, notification must be of Pesticide Containers
given before applications. The timing of this notification must
be agreed to by both parties. The purpose of the Returnable Pesticide Container Regu-
lation (Chapter 21) is to insure the triple rinsing, or equiva-
Notice of aerial pesticide applications lent, and proper disposal of limited and restricted use pesti-
As amended in Chapter 51, Notice of Aerial Pesticide Ap- cide containers. An incentive is provided through a deposit
plications, there are special notification requirements neces- system mandated by the BPC. Cardboard, fiberboard and pa-
sary before making aerial applications to control forest, orna- per containers are exempt from this program, as well as con-
mental, right-of-way, biting fly and public health pests. De- tainers of less than one-half pint.
tails are available from the BPC. Dealers collect deposits at the time of sale. Deposits are $5
For applications to forest or right-of-way sites, the appli- for containers less than 30 gallons, and $10 for containers 30
cator or landowner must provide notice through newspaper ar- gallons or larger. Dealers may require additional charges for
ticles/advertisements and provide details about the planned reusable containers. Stickers identifying the dealer and purchaser
spray activity to the BPC and the Maine Poison Center. In are attached to individual containers or unopened cases. Deal-
some situations, notice to landowners within 500 feet of the ers are required to maintain records of restricted or limited use
target site must be given. Application areas must be posted pesticide sales subject to this regulation for two years.
before treatment begins, with signs remaining in place 48 hours The BPC provides purchasers with affidavits for listing
after treatment ceases. the containers subject to this regulation. At the time the con-
For applications to control ornamental, biting fly or public health tainers are emptied and triple rinsed or the equivalent, the affi-
pests the applicator or landowner must provide notice through davits are completed and signed by the purchaser and the ap-
newspaper articles/advertisements, notify all landowners within plicator who performed the rinse procedure. All rinsates must
500 feet of the target site and provide details about the planned be added to the spray mix or applied to a labeled site.
application activity to the BPC and Maine Poison Center. Applicators deliver empty containers to a collection site
or recycling center where BPC personnel inspect and certify
Legal Settlements
Under Maine pesticide law, the Board of Pesticide Control has the responsibility to investigate pesticide
incidents and possible violations. The following summaries refer to actual incidents that violated at least one
section of Maine pesticide law, and resulted in an enforcement action.
Case 1—On one application day, an applicator drove his Case 4—A municipal employee attempted to control
sprayer through a brook each time it was refilled. The roadside brush by using a makeshift sprayer. A com-
sprayer was leaking around the agitation shaft. Several plaint alleged application was made to pastures and
hundred brook trout were killed from pesticide entering the into standing water. After investigation, the BPC cited
stream. The applicator was cited for violating a statute pro- the applicator for use inconsistent with product label-
hibiting use of pesticide in a “careless, negligent or faulty ing, which stated, “Do not apply directly to water”. The
manner potentially harmful to the environment”. He was applicator was cited for three additional violations of
also cited for use inconsistent with the product labeling pesticide regulations. One prohibits spraying of decidu-
which stated, “toxic to fish...keep out of lakes and streams”. ous trees over six feet in height on a public right-of-
way. Second was failure to comply with drift regula-
Case 2—A grower delivered restricted use pesticide con- tions requiring record keeping, sprayer calibration and
tainers subject to the Maine returnable container law to a identification of sensitive areas. Finally, violation of the
BPC inspection site for disposal. It was found that several commercial licensing regulations requiring municipal
containers had not been rinsed. The grower was found in employees to be licensed if they apply pesticides as
violation of the returnable container regulations which re- part of their job.
quire triple rinsing or equivalent immediately after empty-
ing the container. He was also cited for use inconsistent
with the product label which stated, “triple rinse or equiva- Case 5—An aerial applicator applied an herbicide to
lent.” an agricultural site. Spray drift resulted in damage to a
vegetable garden and ornamental plants on adjoining
Case 3—Several farmers applied a new selective herbi- land. The applicator was cited for violation of Maine’s
cide to an already emerged crop. Although effective, the drift regulation, which prohibits offtarget damage to veg-
herbicide was not labeled for the crop in question, which etation. He was also cited for use of a pesticide incon-
was tested for illegal residues. The farmers were cited for sistent with the label which stated, “Prevent drift to de-
use inconsistent with product labeling. sirable plants.”

the proper rinsing and return of containers. Purchasers may must be maintained for two years and be available for BPC
then return affidavits to dealers for the refund of deposits. review, upon request.
Pesticides obtained from out-of-state sources are also sub- The BPC emphasizes education to reduce off-target drift
ject to this regulation. In this case, the BPC supplies stickers and to minimize public exposure to pesticides. Persons own-
and collects deposits. ing a sensitive area within 500 feet of target areas may request
general information about planned applications (see Request
Reducing Pesticide Drift for Notification, previous page) from the land owner or man-
ager. The information must be provided within a week of the
The Maine Drift Regulations (Chapter 22) set specific per- request and at least one day before any applications. Applica-
formance standards which must be met by all outdoor applicators are encouraged to develop drift management plans that
tors using powered equipment (except when using granular or identify nearby sensitive areas and describe all methods or tac-
injection treatments). The intent of these regulations is to mini- tics used to minimize drift. Although these plans are retained
mize off-target drift and other unconsenting forms of pesticide by applicators, notice of their existence should be filed with
exposure. To achieve these goals, applicators must minimize the BPC. When the BPC determines that alternative methods
all off-target drift with extra precaution taken near specifically provide comparable drift reduction, they may grant requests
defined sensitive areas. These sensitive areas are: for variances from the drift regulations.
z residential buildings and 100 feet of adjoining property; Water Quality Protection
z school buildings playgrounds, athletic fields, or others
school facilities and 100 feet of adjoining property; The Standards for Water Quality (Chapter 29) establish
z businesses, churches, institutions, commercial buildings standards for protecting surface water in the State of Maine.
and 100 feet of adjoining property; z No person shall mix or load any pesticides, or fill a sprayer
z public or commercial recreational areas; or mix tank, within fifty feet from the high water mark of
z apiaries; any surface waters in the State.
z critical pesticide control areas designated by the BPC; z The following persons are exempt from the fifty foot set
z public wells, springs and water intake points; back:
z private drinking water sources; z Applicators with a variance approved by BPC for an
z surface waters, except where totally confined to property impervious mixing/loading pad with containment
receiving the application; features;
z fresh water and coastal wetlands; z Applicators using chemigation equipment specified
z pastures, cropland and gardens. on labels to draw water from their tail-water ponds;
Off-target residue standards onto sensitive areas are defined z Commercial applicators using small, individually
by the drift regulations. Off-target residues above 20 percent of packaged concentrates to mix no more than five
the residue levels on the target site are considered prima facie gallons for use in nonpowered equipment; and
evidence of violation and, therefore, require the applicator to z Commercial applicators making aquatic applications
prove that the level of drift was unavoidable using currently avail- from boats and barges.
able technology. Off-target drift of residues below 20 percent of z No person shall use a pump that pumps pesticide concentrate
the on-target level can also be considered a violation. In this or formulation, or any hose that has been in contact with
instance, the BPC must prove that the applicator did not reduce pesticide solution to draw liquid from any surface waters.
drift to the maximum extent practical. Off-target residues must z All pesticide pumping systems that contact with any surface
not cause organic produce to exceed organic tolerances. There waters shall be equipped with an anti-siphoning device.
must be no damage to off-target crops, vegetables, or other spe- z No person shall transport any pesticide unless it is secured
cies in adjacent sensitive areas. Also, any amount of drift onto so as to prevent release of pesticides onto the vehicle or
unconsenting people is a violation. from the vehicle.
The drift regulations prescribe actions that will minimize z All tanks, liquid containers, cartons and bags must be
the risk of off-target drift. Weather conditions must be moni- securely held so they may not shift and become punctured or
tored before application begins to determine when the risk of spilled.
drift is low. If conditions become unfavorable during applica- z Any person who spills a pesticide within fifty feet from the
tion, or if sprays are not settling properly, spraying should be high water mark of any surface water shall take immediate
stopped. Record keeping is required and includes logging steps to recover the pesticide by the most efficient means
weather conditions during the application. available and remove all contaminated soil to prevent
All applicators subject to the spray regulations are required water contamination.
to calibrate sprayers before application and maintain records
of these procedures. All sensitive areas within 500 feet of the
target area must be recorded. All pesticide application records

Regulations for the Sale and Chapter 31 Certification and Licensing Provisions/
Commercial Applicator. Requirements for certifica-
Use of Pesticides in Maine tion and licensing of commercial applicators.
http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/laws/index.htm
Chapter 32 Certification and Licensing Provisions/
Chapter 10 Definitions and Terms. Definitions that Private Applicator. Requirements for certification
relate to the use of pesticides, certification and and licensing of private applicators.
licensing, and other areas regulated by the Board. Chapter 34 Certification and Licensing Provisions/
Chapter 20 Special Provisions. Regulates the use, Dealers. Describes the requirements for certification
storage and disposal of pesticides with emphasis on and licensing of pesticide dealers.
registered pesticides, right of way, aquatic applica- Chapter 35 Certification and Licensing Provisions/
tions and employer/employee requirements. Spray Contracting Firms. Describes the require-
Chapter 21 Pesticide Container Disposal and Stor- ments for certification and licensing of spray con-
age. The regulations for managing emptied pesticide tracting firms.
containers for limited and restricted use pesticides, Chapter 36 Certification and Licensing Provisions/
including deposit amounts, sticker requirements, Monitors and Spotters for Forest Insect Aerial
triple rinse or equivalent procedures, and refund Spray Program. Describes the requirements for
places and procedures. certification and licensing of monitors and spotters
Chapter 22 Standards for Outdoor Application of for major forest insect aerial spray programs.
Pesticides by Powered Equipment in Order to Chapter 40 - Restricted and Limited-Use Pesticides.
Minimize Off-Target Deposition. The standards for Lists pesticides classified by the Board as restricted
the outdoor application of pesticides by powered use or limited use and describes procedures for their
equipment in order to minimize spray drift and other sale and use.
unconsented exposure.
Chapter 41 Special Restrictions on Pesticide Use.
Chapter 24 Pesticide Storage Facility Standards / Describes special limitations placed upon the use of
Pesticide Distributors. Provides minimum criteria (1) aldicarb (Temik 15G) in proximity to potable
for facilities and businesses which store pesticides water bodies; (2) trichlorfon (Dylox); (3) hexazinone
for wholesale or retail purposes, including display (Velpar, Pronone) and (4) aquatic herbicides in the
requirements for retail businesses selling pesticides State of Maine.
in self-service areas.
Chapter 50 Record Keeping and Reporting Re-
Chapter 26 Standards for Indoor Pesticide Applica- quirements. Describes the types of records and
tions and Disclosure and Notification for all reports which commercial applicators, commercial
Occupied Buildings Except K-12 Schools. These agricultural producers, limited/restricted use pesti-
are the procedures and standards for applying cide dealers, spray contracting firms and monitors
pesticides inside occupied private and public build- must maintain and submit to the Board.
ings other than K-12 schools, as well as the require-
ments for disclosure and notification about pending Chapter 51 Notice of Aerial Pesticide Applications.
pesticide applications to renters, employees, patients Describes the notification requirements for persons
and parents or guardians of children in licensed child contracting aerial pesticide applications to control
care facilities and nursery schools. forest, ornamental plant, right-of-way, biting fly and
public health pests.
Chapter 27 Standards for Pesticide Application and
Public Notification in Schools. Procedures and Chapter 60 Designation of Critical Pesticide Control
standards for applying pesticides in school buildings Areas. These regulations define the locations already
and on school grounds, as well as the requirements designated as critical areas by the Board and estab-
for notifying school staff, students, visitors and lish criteria to decide if other areas should be desig-
parents about pending pesticide applications. nated as a critical pesticide control, area as well as
the procedures parties must follow in requesting such
Chapter 28 Notification Provisions for Outdoor a designation.
Pesticide Applications. Procedures and standards
for informing interested members of the public about Chapter 70 Adjudicatory Proceedings. Describes
outdoor pesticide applications in their vicinity, procedures the Board must follow in conducting
including requirements for requesting notification hearings concerned with pesticide certification,
about pesticide applications, for posting property on licenses and permits.
which certain commercial pesticide applications have Chapter 80 Advisory Rulings. Describes the proce-
occurred and establishes the Maine Pesticide Notifi- dures any interested person must follow in requesting
cation Registry structure and fees. an advisory ruling to determine if the Board's Statute
Chapter 29 Standards for Water Quality Protection. and rules apply to his situation.
These standards for protecting surface water include Chapter 90 Complaints. Describes the procedure a
a fifty foot set back from surface water for mixing person must follow in bringing a complaint to the
and loading of pesticides as well as requirements for Board and outlines the steps the Board may take in
securing containers on sprayers and cleaning up response.
spills within the setback zone.

Critical Pesticide Control Areas (Chapter 60)
COMMON VIOLATIONS The designation of Critical Pesticide Control Areas serves
to reduce exposure in locations where pesticide use, without
PRIVATE APPLICATORS (growers) commonly fail to: additional restrictions, may cause significant harm. Private citi-
z wear all the Personal Protective Equipment required zens, municipalities or counties may petition the BPC to desig-
by the label nate certain areas as sites that deserve special protection.
z calibrate equipment and keep records of the calibration A critical pesticide control area may be designated if the
z identify sensitive areas and keep records of them unrestricted use of pesticides on a candidate area is likely to
z keep all of the required application records ( EPA cause significant effects to:
registration number, active ingredient, and restricted z endangered and threatened species or their habitats;
entry interval are commonly missing) z significant invertebrate species or their habitats Exemplary
z keep any records natural communities or ecosystems;
z store correctly labeled pesticides in a secure location z the quality of surface water or groundwater supplies;
z mix the correct rate ratios z the health of sensitive individuals or groups of individuals;
z use a total release aerosol correctly—often a green- z government managed natural resources and lands.
house is too small for the size container used
Two areas in Maine are currently designated critical pesticide
z comply with Worker Protection Standards (see Ch. 14):
control areas. Updated lists are available from the BPC.
z post Central Information Displays
z train agricultural workers or pesticide handlers
z notify workers of application
Certification and Licensing Regulations
z provide decontamination sites within ¼ mile of work (Chapters 10, 31, & 32)
General definitions
COMMERCIAL APPLICATORS may fail to: z Certification—recognition that an applicant has success-
z provide adequate notice to those listed on the fully fulfilled all competency standards required by BPC.
Pesticides Notification Registry z Licensing—issuance of a document signifying that an
z renew license applicant has been certified and has met all fee, insurance
and reporting requirements.
LAWN APPLICATORS have been known to: z Restricted use pesticide—classified by the EPA or BPC for
z make an application at the wrong address use only by or under the direct supervision of a certified
applicator. Federally restricted pesticides must bear the
COMMERCIAL APPLICATORS commonly fail to: word RESTRICTED in bold letters on the top, front label.
Maine restricted use pesticides are listed in Chapter 40 of
z mix the correct rate ratios. Many labels have different the BPC regulations.
mix ratios for both per square foot and per gallon. z Limited use pesticide—classified by the BPC for use only
after receiving a permit from the BPC.
z Under the direct supervision of a certified applicator—
unless otherwise prescribed by the labeling, an application
made by a competent person acting under the instructions
and control of a certified applicator.
z Agricultural commodity—any plant, plant part, or animal
product produced by farmers, ranchers, vineyardists, plant
propagators, floriculturists, orchardists, foresters, or others
primarily for sale, consumption, propagation or other use
by humans or animals.
Private Applicators
Private applicator certification and licensing is valid only
for application of restricted or limited use pesticides on your
own land or the land of your employer. An unlicensed grower
may trade services with a licensed grower for application of
pesticides. Those services may include harvesting, cultivat-
ing, application of manure or fertilizer; trades may not include
exchange of money or goods like blueberries, potatoes, apples
Pesticide applicator logbooks may be purchased or other commodities.
from the UMCE Pest Management Office, 491 Private applicators may not purchase restricted or limited
College Ave., Orono, ME 04473-1295 use pesticides for another grower, and they may not supervise

application of restricted or limited use pesticides to crops on parks, schools and other institutional buildings, public
another grower’s farm. They may supervise applications on roads, organized recreational facilities, golf courses,
their own land; the certified applicator need not be physically campgrounds, parks, parking lots, ornamental and turf
present at time and place of application, but must be available areas around condominiums, apartment buildings, stores
if and when needed. malls and retail areas of greenhouses and nurseries if the
public is allowed access before the pesticide restricted-
Certification procedures for private applicators entry or re-entry interval elapses;
Persons wishing to obtain a private license for the first z apply pesticides in connection with duties as an official or
time must pass written, closed book examinations (with a score employee of federal, state or local government, including
of 80 percent or greater) over general pesticide information municipal governments, schools, universities, etc.
(core material) and the commodity that represents their major
crop. Exams are scheduled by the BPC, and may be taken at The BPC system defines two levels of commercial appli-
their Augusta office, or at a county Cooperative Extension of- cators. Commercial applicator/master certification is required
fice. Persons who unsuccessfully complete the exams may refor one individual with each company, organization, or agency.
take them after 14 days. A 30-day waiting period must pass The owner, supervisor or manager may hold the master license,
before an applicant can retake exams for a third time. as long as this person is responsible for establishing company
Persons who successfully complete both exams are certi- policies related to overall pest control strategies, employee
fied for up to three years, ending on October 31 of the third training, safety and employee hygiene. Each branch office of
year. A license is needed to legally purchase or use restricted any company required to have licensed commercial applica-
use pesticides. Three year licenses are obtained by submitting tors shall have at least one master applicator licensed in all
an application and a $15 fee to the BPC. categories that the branch office handles. Persons who carry
out applications prescribed by others, such as seasonal em-
Private licensing requirements ployees or pesticide technicians, are certified as commercial
z The BPC assigns and records credit for certain pesticide applicator/operators. Operator level licenses are valid only
applicator training sessions offered by the BPC, Coopera- when the person is employed or supervised by a licensed mas-
tive Extension, industry and trade organizations. After ter applicator. When supervising unlicensed applicators, the
initial certification and licensing, license renewal requires certified applicator, holding either an operator or master li-
submission of the fee and accumulation of six hours cense, must be physically present at the time and site of the
recertification credit for all private commodities: application and be in continuous visual and voice contact.
Animal Blueberry Cranberry Certification procedures for commercial applicators
Forage Forestry (Christmas trees) Persons wishing to obtain a commercial applicator/mas-
Grain Greenhouse Nursery ter license must take written, closed book examinations cov-
Orchard Fruit Potato Small Fruit ering general pesticide information, appropriate categories, and
Turf Vegetable the applicable regulations. After successful completion of the
tests (with a score of 80 percent or greater), an oral examina-
z All recertification credits expire at the end of a certification is conducted by the BPC staff.
tion period. None may be carried over to the next licensing Persons wishing to obtain a commercial applicator/op-
period. erator license must be certified by passing written, closed book
z Licenses expire when insufficient credits are accumulated examinations (with a score of 80 percent or greater) covering
during the three year period. Recertification, by repeating general pesticide information (core material) and categories
the examination process, is necessary to obtain a new that represent each type of application to be performed or su-
license. pervised.
z See Certification and Licensing chart.
Commercial Applicators
Commercial applicators are persons, whether or not they
are private applicators who,
z use or supervise the use of any limited or restricted use
pesticide, other than as a private applicator;
z apply pesticides as a service for which compensation is
received;
z apply pesticides to non-agricultural sites open to public
use, including shopping centers, office and store space
routinely open to the public (i.e. rest rooms, self-service
areas and display aisles), common areas of apartment
buildings, occupied apartments, public pools and water

Tests are scheduled by the BPC after receiving a com- Commercial Certification Categories and
pleted application form and a $10 fee for each core exam or Recertification Credit Requirements
category exam requested and a $50 fee for the master exams.
Tests are conducted at the BPC offices in Augusta, and with In order to maintain certification status, commercial appli-
special arrangements, at their Presque Isle office. A $15 sur- cators must accumulate recertification credits over the six year
charge will be incurred whenever a commercial level exam- certification period. At least three of the credits must be in a
inee fails to notify the BPC staff at least 24-hours prior to can- category for which they are licensed, and at least one credit must
celling a scheduled exam. be in environmental science, ecology or toxicology.
Persons who unsuccessfully complete the exams may re-
test after 14 days. If the second attempt to pass a category Credits Required:
exam is not successful, then the core test must be retaken, as Category Operator Master
well. A 30-day waiting period must pass before an applicant
can retake exams for a third time. 1a - Agricultural - Animal
The certification period is six years, during which time Option I - Agricultural Animal 12 18
recertification credits must be accumulated, the number re- Option II - Domestic Pet Pest Mgt 12 n/a
quired depends on the category in which certified (see Credit 1b - Agricultural Plant 12 18
Requirement chart). The BPC assigns and records credit for Option I - Limited Comm. Blueberry 12 18
certain pesticide applicator training sessions offered by BPC
Option II - Chemigation 12 18
and Cooperative Extension, industry and trade organizations.
The BPC may assign credit to training sessions offered in other Option III - Agricultural Fumigation 12 18
states after receiving a detailed agenda and proof of attendance. Option IV - Post-Harvest Treatment 12 18
If insufficient credits are accumulated during the six year 2a - General Forest 12 18
period, certification lapses. Renewal requires successful 2b - Forest Vegetation Management 12 18
completion of all exams and may require obtaining the bal- 3a - Outdoor Ornamentals 12 18
ance of recertification credits required within one year. In all 3b - Turf 12 18
other cases, recertification credits expire at the end of the cer- 3c - Indoor Ornamentals 12 18
tification period and are not carried over to the next certifica-
4- Seed Treatment 12 18
tion period. See Certification and Licensing chart.
5- Aquatic 12 18
Commercial licensing requirements 6a - Utility Right of Way Vegetation Mgt. 12 18
z A biennial, $70 application fee is required to obtain a two- 6b - Roadside Vegetation Management 12 18
year commercial applicator license at the master or 6c - Railroad Vegetation Management 12 18
operator level. 6d - Industrial/Com./Municipal Veg. Mgt 12 18
z Each company, agency, organization or individual conduct-
7a - Structural General 12 18
ing commercial applications must have at least one
7b - Food Processing 12 18
licensed commercial applicator/master.
z All companies that spray for hire must secure liability 7c - Cooling Water 12 18
insurance, as specified in Chapter 31 of the BPC Regula- 7d - Wood Preserving
tions, and submit an affidavit of insurance. Option I - Pressure Treating 12 18
z All for-hire companies (except unincorporated, sole Option II - Sapstain/Bluestain 12 18
proprietorships) must obtain a biennial firm license by Option III - Remedial Treatment 12 18
submitting a completed application form and a $200 fee to Option IV - General Wood Treating 12 18
the BPC.
7e - Biting Fly 12 18
Record and reporting requirements 7f - Anti-Fouling Paints 12 n/a
z All commercial agricultural producers and commercial 7g - Termites 12 18
applicators must keep records of all pesticide applications, 8a - Public Health - Biting Fly1 12 18
see Chapter 9, Using Pesticides Properly and BPC 8b - Public Health - Other1 12 18
Regulations Chapter 50, Reporting Requirements. 9 - Regulatory1 12 18
z Commercial applicators and government agencies must 10 - Demonstration & Research2 12 18
submit annual summary reports to the BPC, on or before
11 - Aerial Application2 12 18
January 15th.
z Failure to submit required reports results in refusal to 1
For government officials only
renew licenses. 2
Requires another certification category
z Commercial applicators and dealers may be required to
report inventories of pesticides, see Chapter 9, Using
Pesticides Properly.

Certification and Licensing
License Type Where do I get Types of Exams Where do I take exams? Exam fees Certification License License Duration
study materials? Period Fee
Private UMCE(1) 2 Written Any county None 3 years $15 3 years

1-800-287-0279 (Core and primary Extension office by (same as expiring 10/31 of
207-581-3880 commodity exams) arrangement license) the third year
Core and Category Call BPC 207-287-2731
Manuals
Commercial UMCE Minimum of 3 written BPC Offices by prefiled $10 each for the 6 years $70 2 year
Master 1-800-287-0279 (Core,one or more exam application only Core and for each renewable 12/31
207-581-3880 categories, and regulation 207-287-2731 category exam
Core and Category exams) plus Master’s
Manuals Oral exam
BPC(2) $50 for regulation
207-287-2731 and Master’s Oral
Regulations Manual exams
Commercial UMCE Minimum of 2 written BPC Offices by prefiled $10 each for the 6 years $70 2 year
Operator(3) 1-800-287-0279 (Core and one or more exam application only Core and for each renewable 12/31
207-581-3880 category exams) 207-287-2731 category exam
Core and Category
Manuals
Firm(4) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A $200(5) 2 year
renewable 12/31
Restricted Use UMCE 1 Written Dealer exam BPC Offices by prefiled $10 5 years $20 2 year
Pesticide Dealer 1-800-287-0279 exam application only renewable 12/31
207-581-3880 207-287-2731
Dealer Study
Manual
General Use N/A N/A. N/A N/A N/A $20 1 year
Pesticide Dealer renewable 12/31
(1) UMCE = Univ. of Maine Cooperative Extension, Pest Management Office, 491 College Avenue, Orono, ME 04473. Manuals prices vary; http://www.umext.maine.edu/topics/pest.htm
(2) BPC = Board of Pesticides Control, 28 State House Station, 333 Deering Bldg., AMHI, Augusta, ME 04333-0028. Regulations study manual will be sent once complete exam
application is received.
(3) Company/agency must have a licensed Commercial Master applicator before Commercial Operators may be licensed. Call BPC for exemptions.
(4) Required of all custom applicator companies other than sole proprietors with no other employees or companies which perform all applications solely on or within a premises which
Chapter 13 - Pesticide Laws -

they own or lease (i.e., pet grooming or wood treating establishments and boat yards).
(5) In addition to the license fee, proof of insurance and Commercial Master applicator is required.
139
Download applications and other forms at http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/library/index.htm
SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE
Applicator certification, licensing, recertification training; Federal pesticide registration, labeling, safety, laws, and
pesticide registration, disposal, spills, and regulations: regulations.
Maine Board of Pesticides Control US Environmental Protection Agency
28 State House Station, Office of Pesticide Programs
Augusta, Maine 04333-0028 Ariel Rios Building
207-287-2731 1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW
BPC Homepage: Washington, D.C. 20460
http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/ 703-305-7090
BPC recertification calendar: EPA Homepage:

http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/cert/ http://www.epa.gov/
creditcal.htm Federal restricted use pesticides:
Pesticides Notification Registry, licensing and certifica- http://www.epa.gov/opprd001/rup/
tion applications, form and signs: Pesticide Information:
http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/library/ http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/index.htm
index.htm Pesticide safety programs:
State laws and pesticide regulations: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/safety
http://www.state.me.us/agriculture/pesticides/laws/
index.htm Liaison between EPA Headquarters in Washington, DC
and the New England states:
Pesticide transportation, disposal, and spills:
US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 1
Maine Department of Environmental Protection 1 Congress Street
17 State House Station Boston, MA 02114-2023
Augusta, Maine 04333-0017 888-372-7341
207-287-7688
800-452-1942 EPA New England Pesticide Program:
http://www.epa.gov/region01/eco/pest/
DEP Homepage:
http://www.state.me.us/dep/index.htm Certification manuals, pesticide education, pest identifi-
Toxics and Hazardous Waste Reduction Program infor- cation, pesticide recommendations, integrated pest man-
mation: agement, pesticide applicator training:
http://www.maine.gov/dep/oia/toxics/ University of Maine Cooperative Extension
Pest Management Office
Pesticide spills and reporting pesticide inventories: 491 College Avenue
Maine Emergency Management Agency Orono, Maine 04473-1295
State House Station #72 207-581-3880
Augusta, ME 04333 800-287-0279 (in Maine)
207-626-4503 PMO Homepage:
800-452-8735 http://www.umext.maine.edu/topics/pest.htm
MEMA Homepage: Pesticide Applicator Training manuals:
http://www.state.me.us/mema/memahome.htm http://pmo.umext.maine.edu/patrain/prices.htm
The Worker’s Right-to-Know Laws and the requirements

of employers who work with pesticides:
Bureau of Labor Standards
45 State House Station
Augusta, Maine 04333-0045
207-624-6400
BLS Homepage:
http://www.maine.gov/labor/bls/

1. The only purpose of the federal and state pesticide laws 11. “Under the direct supervision of a certified applicator”
is to protect the environment from hazardous pollutants. has different meanings for commercial and private ap-
(True or False) plications. (True or False)
2. The Environmental Protection Agency, through the BPC, 12. Which application situation could only be done legally
has the authority to stop the sale or use of any pesticide. by a licensed commercial applicator:
(True or False) a. application of a restricted use pesticide on potatoes for
hire
3. Restricted use pesticides can be sold only to a: b. application of a general use pesticide by a municipal
a. certified and licensed private applicator employee
b. certified and licensed commercial applicator c. application of any pesticide on a golf course
c. person over twenty one years old d. application of a restricted use pesticide on your home
d. county Extension agent lawn
e. certified and licensed applicator-commercial, public, e. all of the above
or private
13. Annual summary reports filed by all commercial ap-
4. Restricted use pesticides can be used by any person, at plicators should include the location of each application,
any time, as long as they are purchased by a certified the name of each applicator, the type of equipment used
applicator. and the weather conditions.
5. All pesticide products containing the same active ingre- 14. The returnable container regulations were developed to
dient are either general use or restricted use, regardless help ensure the proper triple rinsing or equivalent of re-
of the formulation. stricted and limited use pesticide containers.
6. The Maine Board of Pesticides Control administers the 15. An applicator can avoid harming the environment, mis-
pesticide applicator certification program. applying pesticides, and violating the law by reading and
(True or False) following label directions.
(True or False)
7. Every pesticide used or distributed in Maine must first
be registered with the Board of Pesticides Control.
(True or False)
8. Members of the Board of Pesticides Control currently

include the heads of eight state agencies.
(True or False)
9. It is a violation of the “Drift Regulations” to operate a

powered sprayer without first calibrating the sprayer.
(True or False)
10. Certified private applicators can legally apply restricted

use pesticides to the property of others for monetary com-
pensation, provided the area treated is producing an agri-
cultural commodity.
(True or False)

C HAPTER 14
THE WORKER
PROTECTION STANDARD
T
he 1992 Worker Protection Standard
(WPS) is a federal regulation issued by
the EPA. It covers pesticides that are
used in the production of agricultural plants on
farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses. By
requiring steps to reduce the risk of pesticide-
related illness and injury to employees, WPS
protects over three and a half million people at over
560,000 workplaces.
Who Does WPS Protect?

The WPS requires employers to take steps to
protect two types of agricultural employees:
workers and pesticide handlers. The terms worker
and pesticide handler are defined very specifically
in the WPS, and employers of persons who meet
these definitions must comply with the WPS.
Depending on the tasks being performed, you may 2. is doing any of the following tasks:
need to provide the same employee with worker
protections on some occasions and pesticide z mixing, loading, transferring, or applying
handler protections on other occasions. pesticides
Owners of agricultural establishments and z handling opened containers of pesticides,
members of their immediate family are exempt z acting as a flagger,
from many WPS requirements. See Agricultural z cleaning, handling, adjusting, or repairing the
Owner Exemptions, page149. parts of mixing, loading, or application
equipment that may contain pesticide
A worker is anyone who: residues,
1. is employed (including self-employed) for any z assisting with the application of pesticides,
type of compensation and including incorporating the pesticide into the
2. is doing tasks, such as harvesting, weeding, or soil after the application has occurred,
watering, relating to the production of z entering a greenhouse or other enclosed area
agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery, or after application and before the inhalation
greenhouse. This term does not include persons exposure level listed on the product labeling
who are employed by a commercial has been reached or one of the WPS
establishment to perform tasks as crop advisors. ventilation criteria have been met to:
A pesticide handler is anyone who: z operate ventilation equipment,
1. is employed (including self-employed) for any z adjust or remove coverings, such as tarps,
type of compensation by an agricultural used in fumigation, or
establishment or a commercial pesticide handling z check air concentration levels,
establishment that uses pesticides in the z entering a treated area outdoors after
production of agricultural plants on a farm, application of any soil fumigant to adjust or
forest, nursery, or greenhouse, and remove soil coverings, such as tarpaulins,
142 Chapter 14 - The Worker Protection Standard

z performing tasks as a crop advisor: 2. do other tasks involved in the production of
z during any pesticide application, agricultural plants, such as moving or operating
z before any inhalation exposure level or irrigation equipment.
ventilation criteria listed in the labeling has Handler employer—If you hire people to do
been reached or one of the WPS ventilation pesticide handling tasks, or if you do them
criteria has been met, yourself, the WPS considers you a handler
z during any restricted-entry interval, employer. In general, pesticide handlers are persons
z disposing of pesticides or pesticide containers. who mix, load, apply, or do other tasks that bring
You are not a handler if you only handle them into direct contact with pesticides. You must
pesticide containers that have been emptied or provide WPS protections to all your pesticide
cleaned according to instructions on pesticide handler employees, whether or not they are
product labeling or, if the labeling has no such licensed as applicators of restricted-use pesticides.
instructions, have been triple-rinsed or cleaned by z The same employee may be a worker at some
an equivalent method, such as pressure rinsing. times and a handler at other times, depending on
You are not a handler if you only handle the type of task being performed.
pesticide containers that are unopened including: z You may be both a handler employer and a
z purchasing pesticides and transporting them worker employer, depending on the tasks that
unopened to an establishment. you and your employees do.
z carrying unopened containers into a pesticide z Both general-use pesticides and restricted-use
storage facility. pesticides are covered by the WPS, as well as
z transporting unopened containers to the site approved organic products.
where they are to be mixed, loaded, or applied.
Which Pesticide Uses Are Covered?
However, you are a handler if you load
If you are using a pesticide product with
unopened water-soluble packets into a mixing tank
labeling that refers to the Worker Protection
(because you are mixing and loading the pesticide).
Standard, you must comply with the WPS.
Otherwise, you will be in violation of Federal law,
Who Must Comply with WPS?
since it is illegal to use a pesticide product in a
You probably need to comply with WPS if you are a:
manner inconsistent with its labeling.
z Manager or owner of a farm, forest, nursery, or Most pesticide uses involved in the production
greenhouse, or of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery, or
z Labor contractor for a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse are covered by the WPS. This includes
greenhouse, or pesticides used on plants, and pesticides used with
z Custom (for-hire) pesticide applicator or the soil or planting medium. Both general-use and
independent crop consultant hired restricted-use pesticides are covered by the WPS.
by a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse You will know that the product is covered by the
operator. WPS if you see the following statement in the
Most WPS provisions are protections that you Directions for Use section of the pesticide labeling:
as an employer must provide to your own
employees and, in some instances, to yourself. The AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS
WPS covers two types of employers, which it Use this product only in accordance with its labeling
defines according to the type of work their and with the Worker Protection Standard, 40 CFR
employees do: 170. This standard contains requirements for the
protection of agricultural workers on farms, forests,
Worker employer—If you hire or contract for
nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of agricul-
people to do agricultural worker tasks, or if you do
tural pesticides. It contains requirements for train-
them yourself, the WPS considers you a worker ing, decontamination, notification, and emergency
employer. In general, agricultural workers are assistance. It also contains specific instructions and
persons who: exceptions pertaining to the statements on this label
1. do hand labor tasks, such as weeding, planting, about personal protective equipment, notification of
workers, and restricted-entry intervals.
cultivating, and harvesting, or
Chapter 14 - The Worker Protection Standard 143

SUMMARY OF WPS REQUIREMENTS
This summary is presented in three tables: Duties For All Employers; Additional Duties For Handler
Employers; and Additional Duties For Worker Employers. These are the maximum WPS requirements
including all revisions through 2004. The tables do not include exceptions that may permit you to do less
or options that may involve different requirements. For a complete discussion of WPS requirements see the
EPA’s How to Comply manual available online at www.epa.gov/agriculture/htc.html.
DUTIES FOR ALL EMPLOYERS
ANTI-RETALIATION
Do not retaliate against a worker or handler who attempts to comply with the WPS.
INFORMATION DISPLAY AT A CENTRAL LOCATION

1. In an easily seen central location on each agricultural establishment, display close together:
z EPA WPS safety poster,
z name, address, and telephone number of the nearest emergency medical facility,
z these facts about each pesticide application [from before each
application begins until 30 days after the restricted-entry interval (REI)]:
z product name, EPA registration number, and active ingredient(s),
z location and description of treated area,
z time and date of application, and REI.
2. Tell workers and handlers where the information is posted, and allow them access.
3. Tell them if emergency facility information changes and update the posted information.
4. Keep the posted information legible.
PESTICIDE SAFETY TRAINING

(See Pesticide Safety Training, page 154).
Unless they possess a valid training card, train handlers and workers before they begin work
and at least once every 5 years:
z use written and/or audiovisual materials,
z use EPA WPS handler training materials for training handlers,
z use EPA WPS worker training materials for training workers,
z have a licensed applicator conduct the training orally and/or audiovisually in a manner
the employees can understand, using easily understood terms, and respond to questions.
EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE
When any handler or worker may have been poisoned or injured by pesticides:
1. Promptly make transportation available to an appropriate medical facility.
2. Promptly provide to the victim and to medical personnel:
z product name, EPA registration number, and active ingredient(s),
z all first aid and medical information from label,
z description of how the pesticide was used,
z information about victim’s exposure.

For more WPS information:
Board of Pesticides Control Certification and Worker Protection UMCE Pest Management
28 State House Station, Branch Office of Pesticide Programs 491 College Ave.
Augusta, Maine 04333-0028 U.S. EPA (7506C) Orono, ME 04473-1295
207-287-2731 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. 1-800-287-0279
Washington, DC 20460-0001
703-305-7666
DUTIES FOR ALL EMPLOYERS
DECONTAMINATION SUPPLIES
1. Establish accessible decontamination supplies located together within 1/4 mile of all workers
and handlers. There are two exceptions:
z For a pilot who is applying pesticides aerially, the decontamination supplies must
be at the aircraft’s loading site or in the aircraft.
z For tasks performed more than 1/4 mile from the nearest point reachable by vehicles, the
decontamination supplies may be at the nearest access point.
Decontamination supplies must include:
z enough water for routine and emergency whole-body washing and for eyeflushing,
z plenty of soap and single-use towels,
z a clean coverall.
2. Provide water that is safe and cool enough for washing, for eyeflushing, and for drinking.
Do not use tank-stored water that is also used for mixing pesticides.
3. Provide handlers the same supplies where personal protective equipment (PPE) is removed
at the end of a task.
4. Provide the same supplies at each mixing and loading site.
5. Make at least 1 pint eyeflush water immediately accessible to each handler.
6. Do not put worker decontamination supplies in areas being treated or under an REI.
7. In areas being treated, put decontamination supplies for handlers in enclosed containers.
EMPLOYER INFORMATION EXCHANGE

1. Before any application, commercial handler employers must make sure the operator
of the agricultural establishment where a pesticide will be applied is aware of:
z location and description of area to be treated,
z time and date of application,
z product name, EPA registration number, active ingredient(s), and REI,
z whether the product label requires both oral warnings and treated area posting,
z all other safety requirements on labeling for workers or other people.
2. Operators of agricultural establishments must make sure any commercial pesticide

establishment operator they hire is aware of:
z specific location and description of all areas on the agricultural establishment where
pesticides will be applied or where an REI will be in effect while the commercial handler
is on the establishment,
z restrictions on entering those areas.

ADDITIONAL DUTIES FOR HANDLER EMPLOYERS
APPLICATION RESTRICTIONS AND MONITORING

1. Do not allow handlers to apply a pesticide so that it contacts, directly or through drift,
anyone other than trained and PPE-equipped handlers.
2. Make sight or voice contact at least every 2 hours with anyone handling pesticides
labeled with a skull and crossbones.
3. Make sure a trained handler equipped with labeling-specified PPE maintains constant
voice or visual contact with any handler in a greenhouse who is doing fumigant-related
tasks, such as application or air-level monitoring.
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR HANDLERS

1. Before handlers do any handling task, inform them, in a manner they can understand,
of all pesticide labeling instructions for safe use.
2. Keep pesticide labeling accessible to each handler during entire handling task.
3. Before handlers use any assigned handling equipment, tell them how to use it safely.
4. When commercial handlers will be on an agricultural establishment, inform them
beforehand of:
z areas where pesticides will be applied or where an REI will be in effect,
z restrictions on entering those areas.
(The agricultural establishment operator must give you these facts.)
EQUIPMENT SAFETY
1. Inspect pesticide handling equipment before each use, and repair or replace as needed.
2. Allow only appropriately trained and equipped handlers to repair, clean, or adjust
pesticide equipment that contains pesticides or residues.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

(See Personal Protective Equipment, page 156).
Duties Related to PPE
1. Provide handlers with the PPE the pesticide labeling requires for the task,
and be sure it is:
z clean and in operating condition,
z worn and used correctly,
z inspected before each day of use,
z repaired or replaced as needed.
2. Be sure respirators fit correctly.

3. Take steps to avoid heat illness.
4. Provide handlers a pesticide-free area for:
z storing personal clothing not in use,
z putting on PPE at start of task,
z taking off PPE at end of task.
5. Do not allow used PPE to be worn home or taken home.

ADDITIONAL DUTIES FOR HANDLER EMPLOYERS
Care of PPE
1. Store and wash used PPE separately from other clothing and laundry.
2. If PPE will be reused, clean it before each day of reuse, according to the instructions
from the PPE manufacturer unless the pesticide labeling specifies other requirements.
If there are no other instructions, wash in detergent and hot water.
3. Dry the clean PPE before storing, or hang to dry.
4. Store clean PPE away from other clothing and away from pesticide areas.
Replacing Respirator Purifying Elements

1. Replace dust/mist filters:
z when breathing becomes difficult,
z when filter is damaged or torn,
z when respirator label or pesticide label requires (whichever is shorter), or
z at the end of day’s work period, in the absence of any other instructions or
indications.
2. Replace vapor-removing cartridges/canisters:
z when odor/taste/irritation is noticed,
z when respirator label or pesticide label requires (whichever is shorter), or
z at the end of day’s work period, in the absence of any other instructions or
indications.
Disposal of PPE
1. Discard coveralls and other absorbent materials that are heavily contaminated with
undiluted pesticide having a “DANGER” or “WARNING” signal word.
2. Follow Federal, State, and local laws when disposing of PPE that cannot be cleaned
correctly.
Instructions for People Who Clean PPE

Inform people who clean or launder PPE:
z that PPE may be contaminated with pesticides,
z of the potentially harmful effects of exposure to pesticides,
z how to protect themselves when handling PPE,
z how to clean PPE correctly.

ADDITIONAL DUTIES FOR WORKER EMPLOYERS
RESTRICTIONS DURING APPLICATIONS

(See nursery and greenhouse restrictions, page 150).
1. In areas being treated with pesticides, allow entry only to appropriately trained and
equipped handlers.
2. Keep nursery workers at least 100 feet away from nursery areas being treated.
3. Allow only handlers to be in a greenhouse:
z during a pesticide application,
z until labeling-listed air concentration level is met or, if no such level, until after
2 hours of ventilation with fans.
RESTRICTED-ENTRY INTERVALS (REIs)

(See Restricted Entry Intervals, page 152).
During any REI, do not allow workers to enter a treated area and contact anything
treated with the pesticide to which the REI applies.
NOTICE ABOUT APPLICATIONS

1. Orally warn workers and post treated areas if the pesticide labeling requires.
2. Otherwise, either orally warn workers or post entrances to treated areas.
Tell workers which method is in effect.
3. Post all greenhouse applications.
Posted Warning Signs

(See Warning Signs, page 161).
When required by the pesticide label, and for all greenhouse applications:
1. Post legible 14" X 16" WPS-design signs just before application; keep posted during
REI; remove before workers enter and within 3 days after the end of the REI.
2. Post signs so they can be seen at all entrances to treated areas, including entrances
from labor camps.
Oral Warnings
1. Before each application, tell workers who are on the establishment (in a manner they
can understand):
z location and description of treated area,
z REI, and not to enter during REI.
2. Workers who enter the establishment after application starts must receive the same
warning at the start of their work period.

AGRICULTURAL OWNER EXEMPTIONS 3. Restrictions during applications:
Owners of agricultural establishments and z Make sure that each pesticide is applied so that
members of their immediate family are exempt it does not contact, either directly or through
from many WPS requirements. However, EPA drift, anyone (including you and members of
encourages owners to provide themselves and their your immediate family), except appropriately
families with all WPS protections. Immediate family trained and equipped handlers.
includes only spouse, children, stepchildren, foster z Make sure that you, your family members, and
children, parents, stepparents, foster parents, all other persons, except correctly trained and
brothers, and sisters. equipped handlers, are kept out of areas being
Agricultural Owner: Any person who treated with pesticides.
possesses or has interest (fee, leasehold, rental, or z Make sure that you, your family members,
other) in an agricultural establishment. Anyone who and all other persons, except correctly trained
has leased an agricultural establishment to someone and equipped handlers, are kept out of areas
else and who has granted that person full authority immediately around the area being treated
to manage the use of that establishment is not an during certain pesticide applications in
agricultural owner under the WPS. nurseries and greenhouses.
You do not qualify for the agricultural owner
exemptions if:
1. You have rented out or leased out your farm,
forest, nursery, or greenhouse to another person The WPS does not apply when pesticides are
and you have no part in the management or applied on an agricultural establishment in
profit/loss from it. For the purposes of the WPS, the following circumstances:
the person to whom you have rented or leased z For mosquito abatement or similar wide-area public
your property is the “owner.” pest control programs sponsored by governmental
2. You are hired to operate a farm, forest, nursery, entities.
or greenhouse, but the person who owns the z On livestock or other animals, or in or about animal
property makes some of the decisions concerning premises.
management or shares in the profit/loss from it. z On plants grown for other than commercial or
The WPS allows no exemptions for owners of research purposes, which may include plants in
habitations, home fruit and vegetable gardens, and
commercial pesticide handling establishments or
home greenhouses.
for persons who operate or manage, but do not
z On plants that are in ornamental gardens, parks, and
own, an agricultural establishment. public or private lawns and grounds that are
Agricultural owners must provide all intended only for aesthetic purposes or climatic
protections required by the WPS to persons who are modification. Note: pesticides used on sod farms are
not members of their immediate family. These covered by WPS.
persons include: z By injection directly into agricultural plants. Direct
z workers or handlers who are their employees, and injection does not include "hack and squirt," "frill
z persons who clean PPE or repair, clean, or and spray," chemigation, soil-incorporation, or soil-
injection.
maintain contaminated pesticide equipment.
z In a manner not directly related to the production of
agricultural plants, such as structural pest control,
Requirements for Agricultural Owners control of vegetation along rights-of-way and in
These requirements apply to owners of agricul- other noncrop areas, and pasture and rangeland use.
tural establishments and their immediate family: z For control of vertebrate pests.
1. Employer information exchange. z As attractants or repellents in traps.
2. Restrictions during handling tasks: z On the harvested portions of agricultural plants or
z Use the personal protective equipment and on harvested timber.
other work attire listed on the pesticide labeling z For research uses of unregistered pesticides.
for the task being performed.
z See Exceptions to PPE Requirements, page 160.

SPECIAL APPLICATION RESTRICTIONS Ventilation Criteria for Greenhouses
IN NURSERIES 1. After some types of pesticide applications listed
Worker employers must make sure that, during in Table 2, column A, you must make sure that
certain nursery applications, workers and other adequate ventilation has occurred before you
persons do not enter treated areas on the nursery or, allow workers to enter the areas specified in
in some circumstances, do not enter areas that are column B. If column C indicates that ventilation
near the treated area. restrictions apply, make sure that one of the
following ventilation criteria is met:
Specific Duties z The concentration of the pesticide in the air
During any application described in column A is measured to be less than or equal to any
of Table 1, do not allow or direct any person, other inhalation exposure level required on the
than an appropriately trained and equipped handler, labeling.
to be in the areas on the nursery specified in z If no inhalation exposure level is listed on
column B. After the application is finished and the labeling, keep workers out until after:
during the restricted-entry interval: z 10 air exchanges, or
z keep workers out of the treated area (the area to z 2 hours of ventilation using fans or other
which the pesticide was directed), mechanical ventilating systems, or
z you may allow workers in the areas just outside z 4 hours of ventilation using vents,
the treated area that were off-limits during the windows or other passive ventilation, or
application. z 11 hours with no ventilation followed by
1 hour of mechanical ventilation, or
SPECIAL APPLICATION RESTRICTIONS z 11 hours with no ventilation followed by
IN GREENHOUSES 2 hours of passive ventilation, or

Worker employers must make sure that workers z 24 hours with no ventilation.
and other persons do not enter specific areas within 2. After ventilation criteria are met and until the
the greenhouse during—and, in some instances, restricted entry interval expires:
after—certain greenhouse applications.
z do not allow workers into the treated area
(see Column D on Table 2),
Specific Duties
z you may allow workers to enter the areas
During any application described in column A
just outside the treated area that were off-
of Table 2, do not allow or direct any person, other
limits during the application.
than an appropriately trained and equipped handler,
to be in the areas specified in column B.
Table 1. Entry-Restricted Areas in Nurseries during Pesticide Applications
Workers and other persons are

During application of a pesticide
prohibited in:
(1) (a) Applied: aerially, in an upward direction, or using a spray Pesticide treated area plus 100 feet in
pressure greater than 150 psi (pounds per square inch), or all directions on the nursery
(b) Applied as a: fumigant, smoke, mist, fog, or aerosol
(2) (a) Applied downward using: a height of greater than 12 inches from Treated area plus 25 feet in all
the planting medium, a fine spray, or a spray pressure greater directions on the nursery
than 40 psi and less than 150 psi.
(b) Not as in 1 or 2(a) above, but for which a respiratory protection
device is required for application by the product labeling
(3) Applied otherwise Pesticide treated area

Table 2. Special Application Restrictions in Greenhouses
COLUMN A COLUMN B COLUMN C COLUMN D

When a Pesticide Is Applied: Workers and Other Until: After the Expiration of Time
Persons Are Prohibited in: in Column C Until the Re-
stricted-Entry Interval Expires,
the Entry-Restricted Area Is:
1. As a fumigant. Entire greenhouse plus any The ventilation criteria on the No entry restrictions after criteria
adjacent structure that cannot be previous page are met. in column C are met.
sealed off from the treated area.
2. As a Entire enclosed area. The ventilation criteria on the Entire enclosed area is the treated
z Smoke, or previous page are met. area.
z Mist, or
z Fog, or
z Aerosol.
3. Under circumstances (other Entire enclosed area. The ventilation criteria on the Pesticide-treated area
than in 1 or 2) for which the previous page are met.
pesticide labeling requires the
applicator to wear a respirator.
4. Other than in 1, 2, or 3, but: Pesticide-treated area plus 25 feet Application is complete. Pesticide-treated area
z From a height of greater than in all directions within the entire
12 inches from the planting enclosed area.
medium, or
z As a fine spray, or
z Using a spray pressure greater
than 40 pounds per square inch.
Chapter 14 - The Worker Protection Standard

5. In any other manner. Pesticide-treated area Application is complete. Pesticide-treated area
151
RESTRICTED ENTRY INTERVALS 2. Contact, Early-Entry
WPS has established specific restricted reentry This exception allows workers to enter a treated
intervals for all pesticides covered by the Standard. area during the REI for short-term activities, as long
The restricted entry interval (REI) is the time as the following conditions are met:
immediately following a pesticide application when z No hand labor activity (such as weeding, hoeing,
entry into a treated area is limited. During the REI, pruning, detasseling, harvesting, packing, etc.) is
do not enter or allow any workers or your family performed;
members to enter a treated area unless an exception z The time in treated areas under an REI for any
is being used as outlined below. However, properly worker may not exceed 1 hour in a 24 hour period;
trained, PPE-equipped, and informed handlers may z The workers do not enter the treated area during
enter during an REI to do handling tasks. the first 4 hours after application, and before any
You will find the REI within the Directions for inhalation exposure levels and ventilation criteria
Use section of a label - either under the have been satisfied.
Agricultural Use Requirements box or next to the z Personal protective equipment for early entry is
crop or use situation to which it applies. The provided (with instructions) to the worker. The
amount of time required is based on the toxicity of early-entry PPE requirements are provided under
the pesticide and the tasks involved during the the Agricultural Use Requirements box on the
product's use. In most cases, REIs are in 4, 12, 24, label; and
48 and 72 hour intervals, however, there are a few z Before workers enter a treated area under an REI,
products that have a zero hour REI (always read the they must have received full safety training and
actual product label). When a mixture of pesticides heat-stress prevention training. In addition, they
is applied, the REI is based on the pesticide that must be notified of all labeling requirements and
requires the longest restricted entry period. the specifics of the early-entry exception being used.
Exceptions to REIs 3. Limited-Contact, Early-Entry

1. No-Contact, Early-Entry This exception allows workers the flexibility
A worker may enter a treated area immediately during an REI to perform limited contact tasks or
after the application is finished (during REI) as long irrigation tasks that could not have been foreseen
as any inhalation exposure level or ventilation and which, if delayed, would cause significant
criteria listed on the labeling has been reached, and economic loss (i.e., emergency situations). The
he will have no contact with anything that has been additional conditions for using this exception are
treated with pesticide including pesticide residues the same as for "contact, early-entry", except that:
on plants, on or in the soil, in water, or in the air. In z The workers' contact with treated surfaces is
contrast to the two exceptions listed below, a minimal and is limited to the feet, lower legs,
worker using this exception is not required to wear hands and forearms; and
early-entry PPE. The rules and examples are very z The time in treated areas under an REI for any
strict here, no-contact early entry means no contact! worker may not exceed 8 hours in a 24 hour period.
Appropriate examples of using this REI
exception include: 4. Agricultural Emergencies
z A worker (wearing footwear) walking through Early-entry workers may enter treated areas
the treated area using roads or pathways where before the restricted-entry interval is over to do
the plants or treated surfaces cannot brush against tasks that are necessary because of an agricultural
the worker and cannot drop or drip pesticides emergency, if provided with the protections and
onto the worker; PPE required for early entry. Each worker must:
z A worker in an enclosed cab on a truck, tractor, z do only those tasks relating to mitigating the
or other vehicle; emergency, and
z An open-cab vehicle where plants cannot brush z wait at least 4 hours after the pesticide application
up against or drip onto the worker; is completed before entering the treated area, and
z After a pesticide is incorporated or injected into z wait at least until any inhalation exposure level
the soil and the worker is doing tasks that do not listed on the product labeling has been reached or
involve touching or disrupting the soil. any WPS ventilation criteria have been met.

Table 3. Summary of Early Entry Requirements - see the How to Comply manual for more information.
Type of Early Entry

WPS Provision Limited Agricultural
No Contact Short-term
or Requirement Contact Emergency
Entry during application no entry no entry no entry no entry
(entry by workers during
application is never
acceptable)
Entry before inhalation no entry no entry no entry no entry
exposure level or
ventilation criteria have
been met
Entry during first 4 hours entry permitted no entry no entry no entry
after application is
complete
Need for early entry could entry permitted entry permitted no entry no entry
have been anticipated
Need for early entry could entry permitted entry permitted entry permitted entry permitted
not have been anticipated (Under certain (Under certain
conditions) conditions)
Entry is not an economic entry permitted entry permitted no entry no entry

necessity
Entry is an economic entry permitted entry permitted entry permitted entry permitted
necessity (Under certain (Under certain
conditions) conditions)
Hours of entry permitted no limit 1 hour 8 hours no limit
per day
Hand labor tasks yes no no yes
permitted?
Pesticide safety training yes yes yes yes
(worker) provided? (no 5-day (no 5-day (no 5-day
grace period) grace period) grace period)
Information at central yes yes yes yes
location provided?
Emergency assistance yes yes yes yes
provided?
Notice about applications yes yes yes yes
provided?
Restrictions during yes yes yes yes
applications in effect?
Instructions related to no yes yes ye
personal protective
equipment provided?
Labeling information and no yes yes yes
instructions provided?
Early entry no yes yes yes
decontamination supplies
provided?
Personal protective no yes yes yes
equipment provided,
cleaned, and maintained?

PESTICIDE SAFETY TRAINING z Washing work clothes separately from other
If an employee is not currently licensed by the clothes before wearing them again; and
BPC as a pesticide applicator, they must receive z Washing immediately in the nearest clean
WPS safety training. Handlers must be fully trained water if pesticides are spilled or sprayed on the
before they do any handling task. Workers must body and, as soon as possible, showering,
receive basic pesticide safety training (oral or shampooing, and changing into clean clothes.
written form) immediately before they enter an area
Workers must be fully trained before they
treated within the last 30 days. To assist employers,
accumulate more than 5 days of entry into treated
the EPA created an English/Spanish brochure (use
areas on your establishment. Consult the EPA's
is optional), entitled Protect Yourself from
How to Comply manual for specific content
Pesticides, that includes the required basic worker
required for full safety training for workers and
training information:
handlers (requirements are different).
1. Complete training will be provided within 5 days Complete worker and handler training must be
of entering a treated area; repeated at least every five years and may be
2. Pesticides may be in/on plants, soil, irrigation performed only by qualified persons (see chart).
water, or may drift from nearby applications; The training must be conducted in a manner and
3. Prevent pesticides from entering your body by: language that the employees can understand. The
z Following directions and/or signs about trainer must also be on hand and able to answer
keeping out of treated or restricted areas; questions after the training. Although not required,
z Washing before eating, drinking, using training verification cards (handler or worker) may
chewing gum or tobacco, or using the toilet; be distributed to employees after they are trained.
z Wearing work clothing that protects the body For more information about training verification
from pesticide residues; cards cards, contact the Board of Pesticides Control
z Washing/showering with soap and water, 207-287-2731.
shampoo hair and put on clean clothes after work;
Your training determines who you may train: Handlers Workers
A state-licensed (private or commercial) Pesticide Applicator may train X X

One who completes an approved train-the-trainer program X
Designated trainers - BPC or UMCE personnel X X
One trained as WPS Handler X
Training Materials
z The National Agriculture Compliance Assistance Center offers fact sheets on many compliance-related
subjects. You can read the fact sheets online, print them, or order copies. A complete list is available at
www.epa.gov/agriculture/factsheets/index.html. To order copies of fact sheets call 888-663-2155.
z EPA has created an English/Spanish brochure (use is optional), entitled Protect Yourself from Pesticides,
that includes the required basic worker training information; available at www.smallbiz-enviroweb.org/
pub_video/epadocs/fdocs/f06.pdf. Additional WPS publications are available at www.epa.gov/agriculture/
awor.html. For a complete discussion of WPS requirements see the EPA’s How to Comply manual
available at www.epa.gov/agriculture/htc.html.
z The Board of Pesticides Control WPS Video Library; call 207-287-2731 or email [email protected].
z The UMaine Cooperative Extension Pest management Office sells worker and handler training materials.
For more information call 207-581-3880 or 800-287-0279 (Maine only).
z For a listing of certification and licensing opportunities (some of which may cover WPS), see the BPC's
credit meeting calendar at www.maine.gov/agriculture/pesticides/cert/creditcal.htm.
z Gempler’s Inc., www.gemplers.com, also provides a variety of EPA approved training resources.

CRITERIA FOR WORKER TRAINING
1. WPS training for workers must include at least the following information:
z Where and in what form pesticides may be encountered during work activities.
z Hazards of pesticides resulting from toxicity and exposure, including acute effects,
chronic effects, delayed effects, and sensitization.
z Routes through which pesticides can enter the body.
z Signs and symptoms of common types of pesticide poisoning.
z Emergency first aid for pesticide injuries or poisonings.
z How to obtain emergency medical care.
z Routine and emergency decontamination procedures, including emergency
eyeflushing techniques.
z Hazards from chemigation and drift.
z Hazards from pesticide residues on clothing.
z Warnings about taking pesticides or pesticide containers home.
z An explanation of the WPS requirements designed to protect workers, including
application and entry restrictions, design of the warning sign, posting of warning
signs, oral warnings, availability of specific information about applications, and
protection against retaliatory acts.
2. WPS worker training materials must use terms that the worker can understand.
CRITERIA FOR HANDLER TRAINING

WPS training for handlers must include at least the following information:
z Format and meaning of information on pesticide labels and in labeling, including
safety information such as precautionary statements about human health hazards.
z Hazards of pesticides resulting from toxicity and exposure, including acute effects,
chronic effects, delayed effects, and sensitization.
z Routes through which pesticides can enter the body.
z Signs and symptoms of common types of pesticide poisoning.
z Emergency first aid for pesticide injuries or poisonings.
z How to obtain emergency medical care.
z Routine and emergency decontamination procedures, including emergency
eyeflushing techniques.
z Need for and appropriate use of personal protective equipment.
z Prevention, recognition, and first aid treatment of heat-related illness.
z Safety requirements for handling, transporting, storing, and disposing of pesticides,
including general procedures for spill cleanup.
z Environmental concerns such as drift, runoff, and wildlife hazards.
z Warnings about taking pesticides or pesticide containers home.
z An explanation of WPS requirements that handler employers must follow for the
protection of handlers and others, including the prohibition against applying
pesticides in a manner that will cause contact with workers or other persons, the
requirement to use personal protective equipment, the provisions for training and
decontamination, and the protection against retaliatory acts.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT Replacing Respirator Filters, Cartridges,
(PPE) or Canisters
Handler employers must make sure that Employers must:
pesticide handlers: 1. Replace dust/mist respirator filters:
z are provided with the PPE the pesticide labeling z when breathing resistance becomes excessive,
requires for the task, z if the filter is damaged or torn,
z wear the PPE for the entire handling task, and z whenever the respirator manufacturer or
z use the PPE correctly. Each pesticide handler is pesticide labeling says to replace them (if the
responsible for wearing the required PPE during instructions differ, change the filter at the
the entire handling task. shorter interval),
z at the end of each day’s work period, if no
Specific Duties other instructions or indications of service life
Employers must: are available.
1. Provide handlers with the appropriate PPE in 2. Replace gas- and vapor-removing respirator
clean and operating condition. cartridges or canisters:
2. Make sure the handlers wear the PPE correctly
z at the first indication of odor, taste, or
and use it according to the manufacturer’s
irritation,
instructions. If a handler wears a respirator, make
z when the respirator manufacturer or pesticide
sure that it fits the wearer correctly.
labeling says to replace them (if instructions
3. Inspect all PPE before each day of use for leaks,
differ, change the cartridge or canisters at the
holes, tears, or worn places, and repair or discard
shorter interval),
any damaged equipment.
z at the end of each day’s work period, if no
4. Provide handlers with clean places away from
other instruction or indications of service life
pesticide storage and pesticide use areas to:
are available.
z store personal clothing not in use,
z put on PPE at the start of any exposure period, Disposal of PPE
z take off PPE at the end of any exposure period. Employers must:
5. Take any necessary steps to prevent heat illness 1. Discard coveralls or other absorbent materials
(too much heat stress) while PPE is being worn. that have been drenched or heavily contaminated
6. Do not allow any handler to wear home or take with an undiluted pesticide that has the signal
home PPE or clothing contaminated with word “DANGER” or “WARNING” on the
pesticides. labeling. They must not be reused.
2. Comply with any applicable Federal, State,
Cleaning and Maintaining PPE Tribal, and local regulations when disposing of
Employers must do the following: PPE that cannot be cleaned correctly.
1. Keep pesticide-contaminated PPE away from
\
other clothing or laundry, and wash it separately. Instructions for Persons Who Clean PPE
2. If PPE will be reused, clean it before each day of Employers must inform people who clean or
reuse according to the instructions from the PPE launder PPE:
manufacturer unless the pesticide labeling z that the PPE may be contaminated with
specifies other requirements. If there are no such pesticides, of the potentially harmful effects of
instructions or requirements, wash PPE exposure to pesticides,
thoroughly in detergent and hot water. z how to protect themselves when handling
3. Thoroughly dry the clean PPE before it is stored, contaminated PPE, and
or put it in a well-ventilated place to dry. z how to clean PPE correctly. For more information
4. Store clean PPE separately from personal about laundering pesticide-contaminated
clothing and away from pesticide-contaminated clothing, please visit the Worker Protection
areas. Standard topic page on the Ag Center’s Web site at:
www.epa.gov/agriculture/twor.html

PPE Definitions Chemical-resistant: A material that allows no
Personal protective equipment (PPE): Apparel measurable amount of pesticide through during use.
and devices worn to protect the body from contact Waterproof: Allows no measurable movement of
with pesticides or pesticide residues, including: water (or solutions) through the material during use.
coveralls, chemical-resistant suits, gloves, footwear,
Chemical-resistant footwear: Chemical-
aprons, and headgear, protective eyewear, and
resistant shoes; chemical-resistant boots; or
respirators.
chemical-resistant shoe coverings worn over shoes
The following attire is not defined as PPE, but
or boots. Substitution: Leather boots may be worn
the labeling may require pesticide handlers or
in rough terrain, if chemical-resistant footwear with
early-entry workers to wear it for some tasks: long-
sufficient durability and a tread appropriate for
and short-sleeved shirts, long and short pants,
wear in such terrain is not obtainable.
shoes and socks, other items of regular work
clothing. If such non-PPE attire is required, the Protective eyewear: Goggles, a face shield, or
employer must make sure that it is worn. safety glasses with front, brow, and temple
Table 4. EPA Chemical Resistance Category Chart

For PPE selection when the pesticide label lists a chemical resistance category.
The Worker Protection Standard requires that labels of pesticides used on farms, and in forests,
nurseries and greenhouses list the type of personal protective equipment (PPE) that must be worn
with each product. Labels will refer to chemical resistance categories (A-H) for PPE. Items in these
categories are made of materials that the pesticide cannot pass through during the times indicated
below the chart. Choose the category of resistance which best matches the handling task duration.
The categories are based on the solvents used in the pesticides, not the pesticides themselves.
Therefore, there will be instances where the same pesticide with two different formulations (wettable
powder-WP and emulsifiable concentrate-EC, for example) will require PPE from two different
chemical resistance categories.
Types of Personal Protective Material

Selection Category
Listed on Pesticide
Label Neoprene Natural Polyvinyl
Barrier Butyl Rubber Nitrile Rubber Viton
Rubber Rubber Polyethylene Chloride (PVC)
Laminate > 14 mils > 14 mils > 14 mils
>14 mils > 14 mils > 14 mils
A (a dry and water- high high high high high high high high
based formulation)
B high high slight slight none slight slight slight
C high high high high moderate moderate high high
D high high moderate moderate none none none slight
E high slight high high slight none moderate high
F high high high moderate slight none slight high
G high slight slight slight none none none high
H high slight slight slight none none none high
high: Highly chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE at end of each day’s work period. Rinse off pesticides at rest breaks.
moderate: Moderately chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE within an hour or two of contact.
slight: Slightly chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE within ten minutes of contact.
none: No chemical-resistance. Do not wear this type of material as PPE when contact is possible.

protection. Substitution: A full-face respirator may Chemical-resistant apron: An apron that is
be worn instead of protective eyewear. made of chemical-resistant material and that covers
Chemical-resistant suit: A loose-fitting, one- or the front of the body from mid-chest to the knees.
two-piece, chemical-resistant garment that covers, Substitution: If a chemical- resistant suit is worn, no
at least, the entire body except head, hands, and feet. apron is required.
Coverall: A loose-fitting one- or two-piece Respirator: A device that protects the

garment that covers, at a minimum, the entire body respiratory system. It must be the type listed on the
except head, hands, and feet. Coveralls are made of pesticide label (or one that is more protective) and
fabric and are not chemical-resistant. The pesticide must be appropriate for the pesticide product being
labeling may specify that the coveralls be worn used and for the activity being performed.
over a layer of clothing. Substitution: A chemical- Substitutions: A respirator with a canister approved
resistant suit may be worn instead of coveralls and for pesticides or with an organic-vapor cartridge
any required inner layer of clothing. equipped with a pesticide prefilter may be worn
instead of a dust/mist filtering respirator.
Table 5. Interpreting PPE Statements on Pesticide Labels
Label Statement Acceptable PPE
Long-sleeved shirt and long pants Long-sleeved shirt and long pants, or
Woven or nonwoven coverall
Plastic or other barrier-coated coverall, or Rubber or plastic suit
Coverall worn over short-sleeved shirt Coverall worn over short-sleeved shirt and short pants, or
and short pants Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long pants, or
Coverall worn over another coverall, or
Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long pants, or
and long pants Coverall worn over another coverall, or
Chemical-resistant apron worn over coverall No substitute

or over long-sleeved shirt and long pants
Waterproof suit or liquid-proof suit No substitute
Waterproof gloves Any rubber or plastic gloves sturdy enough to remain intact throughout
the task being preformed
Chemical-resistant gloves Barrier-laminate gloves, or

Other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance indicate are chemical-
resistant to the pesticide for the period of time required to perform the task
Chemical-resistance gloves Butyl gloves, or

such as butyl or nitrile Nitrile gloves, or
Other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance indicate are chemical-
resistant to the pesticide for the period of time required to perform the task
Shoes Leather, canvas, or fabric shoes

Chemical-resistant shoes, or
Chemical-resistant boots, or
Chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties)
Chemical-resistant footwear Chemical-resistant shoes, or

Chemical-resistant boots, or
Chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties)
Chemical resistant boots Chemical-resistant boots
Chemical-resistant hood Rubber or plastic-coated safari-style hat or fire-fighter hat, or

or wide-brimmed hat plastic or other barrier-coated hood, or rubber or plastic hood, or
Full hood or helmet that is part of some respirators.

Chemical-resistant headgear: A chemical-
resistant hood or a chemical-resistant hat with a
wide brim.
Avoiding Heat Stress
Gloves: Hand-coverings that are the type listed The WPS requires employers to take any
on the pesticide label. necessary steps to prevent heat illness (too
Gloves made of leather, cotton, or other much heat stress) while personal protective
absorbent materials must not be worn for handling equipment is being worn. Employers can take
or early entry activities unless these materials are many precautions against heat stress. Some of
listed on the pesticide labeling as acceptable for them are summarized here:
such use. z Training—Train workers and supervisors
Chemical-resistant gloves with non-separable how to control heat stress and how to
absorbent lining materials must not be worn for recognize symptoms of heat illness. The
handling or early entry activities. See the chemical- symptoms of pesticide poisoning can be
resistance chart on page 157. similar.
Substitution: Leather gloves may be worn over z Monitoring and adjusting workloads—
chemical-resistant liners, if chemical-resistant Take into account the weather, workload,
gloves with sufficient durability and suppleness are and condition of the workers, and adjust
not obtainable. However, after leather gloves have work practices accordingly. Higher
been worn for protection from pesticide exposure, temperatures, high humidity, direct sun,
they may only be worn with chemical-resistant heavy workloads, older workers, and
liners and may not be worn for any other use. workers unaccustomed to heat are more
Separable glove liners: Separable glove liners likely to become ill from heat. Here are
are separate glove-like hand coverings, made of things to do:
lightweight material, with or without fingers. z Monitor temperature, humidity, and
Work gloves made from lightweight cotton or workers’ responses at least hourly in
poly-type material are considered to be glove hot environments
liners, if worn beneath chemical-resistant gloves. z Schedule heavy work and PPE-related
Unless the pesticide product labeling tasks for the cooler hours of the day
specifically prohibits their use, separable glove z Allow workers to gradually adapt to hot
liners may be worn beneath chemical-resistant temperatures

gloves, provided the liners do not extend outside z Shorten the length of work periods and
the chemical-resistant gloves that are worn over them. increase the length of rest periods
Once used for handling or early entry activities, z Give workers shade or cooling during
separable glove liners must be discarded breaks

immediately after a total of 10 hours of use or z Halt work altogether under extreme
within 24 hours of first use, whichever occurs first. conditions

The liners must be replaced immediately if they z Drinking water—Make sure employees
come into direct contact with pesticides. Pesticide- drink at least the minimum required
contaminated liners must be disposed of in amounts of water to replace body fluid lost
accordance with any Federal, State, or local through sweating. Thirst does not give a
regulations. good indication of how much water a
person needs to drink.
More details for these measures are
included in EPA's A Guide to Heat Stress in
Agriculture, May 1993, available from the
Board of Pesticides Control, farm supply
companies and from the U.S. Government
Printing Office using document number 055-
000-00474-9.

EXCEPTIONS TO PPE REQUIREMENTS instructions. The cab must be declared in writing by
Handler employers may allow handlers to omit the manufacturer or by a governmental agency to
some of the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling for provide at least as much respiratory protection as
a handling task if the handlers are using a closed the type of respirator listed on the pesticide labeling.
system, in an enclosed cab, or in a cockpit. Examples: Some enclosed-cab systems provide
respiratory protection equivalent to a dust/mist
Closed Systems filtering respirator and could, therefore, be used as
Closed systems are systems designed by the a substitute when that type of respirator is specified
manufacturer to enclose the pesticide to prevent it on the product labeling. Other enclosed-cab
from contacting handlers or other people while it is systems are equipped to remove organic vapors as
being handled. Such systems must function properly well as dusts and mists and could be used as a
and be used and maintained in accordance with the substitute when either the dust/mist filtering
manufacturer’s written operating instructions. respirator or an organic-vapor-removing respirator
1. When using a closed system to mix or load is specified on the product labeling.
pesticides with the signal word "DANGER" or 1. Enclosed cabs that do not provide respiratory
"WARNING," handlers need not wear all the PPE protection—In an enclosed cab that does not
listed on the pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: provide respiratory protection, handlers need not
z long-sleeved shirt and long pants, wear all the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling,
z shoes and socks, but must wear at least:
z a chemical-resistant apron, and z long-sleeved shirt and long pants,
z protective gloves specified on the label for z shoes and socks, and
mixing, loading, and other handling tasks. z any respirator required for the handling task.
2. When using a closed system to mix or load 2. Enclosed cabs that provide respiratory
pesticides with the signal word "CAUTION," protection—In an enclosed cab that provides
handlers need not wear all the PPE listed on the respiratory protection equal to the labeling-
pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: required respirator, handlers need not wear all the
z long-sleeved shirt and long pants, and PPE listed on the label, but must wear at least:
z shoes and socks. z long-sleeved shirt and long pants, and
3. When using a closed system to do handling tasks z shoes and socks.
other than mixing and loading with any pesticide, 3. In any enclosed cab where reduced PPE is
handlers need not wear all of the PPE listed on worn—Handlers must:
the pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: z keep immediately available all PPE listed on
z long-sleeved shirt and long pants, and the labeling for the type of task being performed,
z shoes and socks. z store the PPE in a chemical resistant container
Such closed systems might include closed (such as a plastic bag),
application systems designed to incorporate z wear the PPE if it is necessary to leave the cab
pesticides into soil, but only if the system does and contact pesticide-treated surfaces in the
not allow any pesticide contact with the air treated area, and
throughout the entire application process. z take off PPE that was worn in the treated area
4. When using a closed system that operates under before reentering the cab in order to prevent
pressure, handlers may wear the reduced PPE contamination of the inside of the cab.
specified above, but must add protective eyewear. Note: If the PPE that was worn in the treated area
needs to be stored inside the enclosed cab, it must
Enclosed Cabs be stored in a way that prevents contaminating the
Enclosed cabs must have a nonporous barrier inside of the cab. One way to achieve this is to
that totally surrounds the occupants and prevents store the contaminated PPE in a chemical-resistant
contact with pesticides outside of the cab. container, such as a plastic bag.
Enclosed cabs that provide respiratory
protection must have a properly functioning Cockpits
ventilation system that is used and maintained 1. Gloves when entering or leaving an aircraft
according to the manufacturer’s written operating Handlers have the option of whether to wear

chemical-resistant gloves when entering or application tasks. However, they may wear:
leaving an aircraft used to apply pesticides, z shoes and socks instead of chemical-
unless the pesticide product labeling requires resistant footwear,
chemical-resistant gloves to be worn for these z a helmet instead of a chemical-resistant hat
activities. If gloves are worn for such a use, then or hood, and
if they are brought inside the cockpit, handlers z a visor instead of protective eyewear.
must store the used gloves in a enclosed 3. Enclosed cockpits—In an enclosed cockpit,
container, such as a plastic bag, to prevent handlers need not wear all the PPE listed on the
contamination of the inside of the cockpit. pesticide labeling, but must wear at least:
2. Open cockpits—In an open cockpit, handlers z long-sleeved shirt and long pants, and
must wear any gloves, respirator, and body z shoes and socks.
protection listed on the pesticide labeling for
NOTIFICATION OF APPLICATIONS
In addition to providing application information at a central location employers must also notify their
workers about pesticide applications on the establishment if they may walk into or walk within a quarter
mile of the treated area, during application or while the REI is in effect. In most cases, employers may
choose between oral warnings or posted warning signs, but they must tell workers which warning method
will be used. Greenhouse applications must always be posted. Some pesticide labels may require both oral
and posted sign warnings. Pesticides requiring both oral and posted warnings will state this on the WPS
section of the label. When used, warning signs must:
z Be in English and either Spanish or an alternate language spoken by the majority of workers;
z Be posted (24 hours or less) before the application and removed within three days after the end of the
REI. If the REI is zero hours, remove the sign within three days after the application. Under normal
circumstances, entry is not permitted as long as the sign is up, even if the REI has expired;
z Be posted so they remain legible and can be seen at all normal entrances to treated areas, including
borders adjacent to labor camps; and
z Comply with size, color, font size, and language requirements set forth
in the “EPA: How to Comply” manual. Use of smaller signs is allowed
provided minimum letter size and posting distances are observed (see
Table 6). In nurseries and greenhouses, small signs may be used at any
time. A small sign may be used on farms and forests if the treated area
is too small to accommodate the standard sign.
When used, oral warnings must be delivered before the application
and in a manner understood by workers, using an interpreter if necessary.
Oral warnings must contain the following information:
z Location and description of the treated area;
z The length of the REI; and
z Specific directions not to enter during the REI.
Table 6. Sign Size and Posting Minimum Requirements

The posting and lettering requirements for the smaller signs will result in sign
sizes of approximately 7 inches by 8 inches and 41/2 inches by 5 inches.
Sign size DANGER & PELIGRO Posting

Circle graphic height Other lettering height
(approx.) lettering height Distance
7 1
7"x 8" 3" /8" /2" 50 feet
41/2"x 5" 11/2" 7

/16" 1
/4" 25 feet

The Board of Pesticides Control WPS Inspection
The inspector. The Board of Pesticides Control has five districts throughout the State that
are routinely monitored by inspectors. They inspect all types of pesticide use and sales,
respond to complaints about pesticides, and offer courtesy visits and educational
information to help ensure that pesticides are used and distributed properly.
The inspection. If pesticides are applied to plants at your farm, forest, nursery or
greenhouse, the federal Worker Protection Standard (WPS) will be one of the topics an
inspector will inquire about via a thorough interview and checklist process. All inspections
are designed to check for compliance, but they are also intended to keep you informed
about pesticide laws, including WPS and the protections it provides. The goal is to have
everyone involved with pesticides aware of the rules and in compliance.
When. In most cases, our inspectors will come to your business unannounced in order to
perform an accurate assessment of your pesticide activities. Inspectors do take into
consideration the time constraints of peak growing season when scheduling these
unexpected visits throughout the year.
How long. The entire inspection, including WPS, averages about 1 to 2 hours. The WPS
portion can range from as little as 5 minutes for a one-person business, to a couple of hours
for a complex operation with many employees.
Interview process. During the WPS portion of the inspection, the inspector will first
determine if you operate a family or non-family business, and then use the appropriate
checklist to determine if you are in compliance. They will ask many detailed questions of
the owner or manager with whom we are conducting the inspection, and will also interview
workers and pesticide handlers to confirm they are given the required protections.
Compliance. The inspector will point out violations noted during the inspections (if any)
and will tell you how to meet compliance. Occasionally there are additional violations
found during later review of inspection data. If violations are noted at either of these times,
the inspector may send you a Compliance Checklist in the mail. This checklist will be the
inspector's written review of violations found and
corrective actions needed. In some instances, no additional
enforcement action will result from the compliance issues
noted. However, you should be aware that whether a more
formal enforcement response is warranted is left to the sole
discretion of the seven member Board of Pesticides
Control.
The inspectors have direct one-on-one contact with the
entire pesticide-using community, as well as with the
general public. They have a unique opportunity to provide
specific information to keep people and the environment
safe, and to promote compliance with pesticide
regulations. The BPC’s goal is to keep you and your
employees safe and working within the law.

REVIEW QUESTIONS - answers in Appendix D 10. The WPS applies to all farm owners or managers if
pesticides are used for agricultural plant production.
1. An employee that applies a pesticide labeled with (True or False)
skull and crossbones must remain in continuous
sight or voice contact with a WPS trained handler 11. Unless they are licensed applicators, handlers
who is outside the application area. and workers must be trained every five years,
2. For WPS purposes, an employee who mixes, 12. Farm workers who hand-weed agricultural
loads, or applies agricultural pesticides is a crops and act as flaggers for pesticide
pesticide handler. applications are:
(True or False) A. required to be licensed pesticide applicators.
B. not covered by the WPS.
3. The employer is required to provide showers C. considered pesticide handlers.
for worker decontamination on the work site. D. need no Personal Protective Equipment.
(True or False)
13. Pesticide handlers must be trained before
4. The pesticide REI must be recorded in performing any handling task.
application records for each application. (True or False)
(True or False)
14. For WPS purposes, an employee who cleans or
5. Even though a handler is licensed by the BPC repairs pesticide contaminated application
as a private pesticide applicator, they must still equipment is a pesticide handler.
be trained in WPS every five years. (True or False)
(True or False)
15. Who must insure that PPE is properly cleaned?
6. For WPS purposes, an employee who assists A. handler employer, or
with the application of pesticides in any way is B. the handler (the employee).
a pesticide handler.
(True or False) 16. The WPS requires that all sprayer fill stations
have a paved base that acts as a containment
7. A decontamination site must be located within area to prevent spray rinsate and overflow from
1
/4 mile of an employee’s work site. However, if leaching into the ground.
the work place is more than 1/4 mile from the (True or False)
nearest point of vehicular access:
A. there is no exception—the decontamination 17. For WPS purposes, employees who harvest
site must still be located within 1/4 mile. plants on farms or in greenhouses, nurseries, or
B. the decontamination site may be located up forests are pesticide handlers.
to 1/2 mile away but no further. (True or False)
C. the decontamination site may be located at
18. The period between a pesticide application and
the nearest access point.
the time when people may enter the area
D. a waiver for this requirement may be
without wearing PPE and/or clothing required
granted by the BPC but only if requested 7
by the label is called the ________________.
days prior to any applications.
19. The active ingredient must be recorded in
8. EPA Registration Numbers must be recorded in
application records for each application.
application records for each application.
(True or False)
(True or False)
20. For the benefit of all employees, information
9. The purpose of the WPS is to protect
regarding pesticide applications must be posted
employees on farms, forests, nurseries, and
in a central location.
greenhouses from occupational exposure to
(True or False)
pesticides.
(True or False)

Conversions and Calculations
CONVERSION FACTORS
To use this conversion table, multiply the number in the left-hand column by the conversion factor in the center column. This
converts your original number to the units in the right-hand column. Examples:
How many ounces in 1.0 gallon?
—› 1.0 gallon x 128 = 128 fluid ounces.
How many ounces in 2.5 gallons?
—› 2.5 gallons x 128 = 320 fluid ounces.
Multiply By To get Multiply By To get
Acres 43,560 Square feet

Miles 5,280 Feet
Acres 4,840 Square yards
Miles 1,760 Yards
Acres 0.405 Hectares
Miles per hour 88 Feet per minute
Bushels 64 Pints
Miles per hour 1.467 Feet per second
Bushels 32 Quarts
Miles per minute 88 Feet per second
Cubic feet 1,728 Cubic inches
Miles per minute 60 Miles per hour
Cubic feet 0.037 Cubic yards
Ounces (dry) 28.35 Grams
Cubic feet 7,481 Gallons
Ounces (dry) 0.063 Pounds
Cubic feet 59.84 Pints (liquid)
Ounces (liquid) 0.063 Pints (liquid)
Cubic feet 29.92 Quarts (liquid)
Ounces (liquid) 0.031 Quarts (liquid)
Cups 8 Ounces (liquid)
Parts per million 0.001 Grams per liter
Cups 16 Tablespoons
Pecks 16 Pints (dry)
Feet 30.48 Centimeters
Pecks 8 Quarts (dry)
Feet 12 Inches
Pints 0.125 Gallons
Feet 0.305 Meters
Pints 0.473 Liters
Feet 1/3 or 0.333 Yards
Pints 2 Cups
Gallons 128 Ounces (liquid)
Pints (liquid) 16 Ounces (liquid)
Gallons 8 Pints (liquid)
Pints (liquid) 0.5 Quarts (liquid)
Gallons 4 Quarts (liquid)
Pounds 453.592 Grams
Gallons of water 8.345 Pounds of water
Pounds 16 Ounces
Grams 0.001 Kilograms
Pounds 0.0005 Tons
Grams 1,000 Milligrams
Quarts 2 Pints
Grams 0.035 Ounces
Quarts 0.25 Gallons
Grams per liter 1,000 Parts per million
Quarts 0.946 Liters
Hectares 2.47 Acres
Quarts (liquid) 32 Ounces (liquid)
Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Quarts (liquid) 2 Pints (liquid)
Kilograms 1,000 Grams
Rods 16.5 Feet
Kilograms 2.205 Pounds
Square miles 640 Acres
Kilometers 3,281 Feet
Square yards 9 Square feet
Kilometers 0.621 Miles
Square yards 1,296 Square inches
Liters 0.264 Gallons
Tablespoons 3 Teaspoons
Liters 2.113 Pints (liquid)
Temperature °C + 17.98 1.8 Temperature °F.
Liters 1.057 Quarts (liquid)
Temperature °F - 32 0.555 Temperature °C.
Meters 100 Centimeters
Tons 907.185 Kilograms
Meters 3.281 Feet
Tons 2,000 Pounds
Meters 39.37 Inches
Meters 0.001 Kilometers
Meters 1,000 Millimeters
Meters 1.094 Yards
166 - Conversions and Calculations

CALCULATING PESTICIDE DILUTIONS
Unless you have the correct amount of pesticide in your tank mix, even a correctly calibrated sprayer can apply the wrong
amount of pesticide to the target. Formulations such as wettable and soluble powders, emulsifiable concentrates, and flowables
usually are sold as concentrates and must be diluted in the spray tank. Water is the most common diluent, but kerosene, oil, and
other liquids are sometimes used. Consult the labeling or other recommendations to find out what diluent to use and how much
the formulation should be diluted.
You usually will need to do some simple calculations based on the capacity of your sprayer, how your equipment is
calibrated, how much area you want to treat, and the recommended application rate. This unit gives you the formulas you need
to figure dilutions in most ordinary situations, and it includes examples of how the formulas can be used.
But do not rely totally on the formulas plus your pencil or calculator -- use your common sense, too. It is easy to make a
mistake in calculation, so it is a good idea to always make a rough estimate of what you would expect the amount to be. Then you
will be better able to judge whether the results of your calculations are reasonable. Many of the "hints" that accompany the
examples in this unit are designed to help you make these kinds of estimates.
Try to calculate the amount of pesticide per tank by a second method to check your first answer. An error resulting in an over-
application may result in crop injury, exceeding the label (legal) rate and wasted money. Under-applying may not control the target
pest and also results in wasted resources. Calibration is absolutely necessary for achieving an economical application.
DILUTING DRY FORMULATIONS
Pounds of formulation per 100 gallons

Directions for dry formulations, such as wettable or soluble powders, may be given in pounds of pesticide formulation per
100 gallons of diluent. You must know how many gallons your sprayer tank holds (or the number of gallons you will be adding
to the tank if the job requires only a partial tank load); then use the following formula:
Gallons in tank X lbs. per 100 gal. recommended

= Pounds needed in tank
100 gallons
Example: Your spray tank holds 500 gallons. The labeling calls for 2 pounds of formulation per 100
gallons of water. How many pounds of formulation should you add to the tank to make a full tank load?
Hint: 100 gallons is 5 times less than your tank holds, so you will need 5 times more than 2 pounds of
formulation.
Gallons in tank (500) X lbs. per 100 gallons (2)

= Pounds needed in tank
100 gallons
(500 X 2) ÷ 100= 10 pounds needed in tank
Example: You need to spray only 1 acre, and your equipment is calibrated to spray 60 gallons per acre.
The labeling calls for 2 pounds of formulation per 100 gallons of water. How much formulation should you add
to the tank to make 60 gallons of finished spray?
Hint: 60 gallons is slightly more than half of 100 gallons, so you will need slightly more than 1 pound (one-
half of the recommended 2 pounds) of formulation.
Gallons in tank (60) X pounds per 100 gallons (2)

= Amt. needed in tank
100 gallons
(60 X 2) ÷ 100 = 1.2 pounds needed in tank
1.2 pounds X 16 ounces per pound = 19.2 ounces needed in tank
Conversions and Calculations - 167

Pounds of formulation per acre
The label may list the recommended rate in terms of pounds of pesticide formulation per acre. If the job requires a full tank,
you must know how many gallons your equipment applies per acre and the spray tank capacity. Use these formulas:
Gallons in tank
= Acres sprayed per tankful
Gallons applied per acre
Acres sprayed per tank X Pounds formulation per acre = Pounds formulation needed in tank
Example: Your sprayer applies 15 gallons per acre and your tank holds 400 gallons. The labeling rate is
3 pounds of formulation per acre. How much formulation should you add to the tank to make a full tank load?
Hint: 400 gallons is much more than 15 gallons, so you will be able to spray many acres with a tankful and
will need to add many pounds of formulation to the tank.
Gallons in tank (400)

Gallons per acre (15)
400 ÷ 15 = 26.7 acres sprayed per tankful
Acres sprayed per tankful (26.7) X Pounds formulation per acre (3) = Pounds needed in tank
26.7 X 3 = 80.1 pounds needed for a tankload
If the job requires less than a full tank, you must know how many acres you want to treat and how many gallons your
sprayer is delivering per acre. You must figure both the number of gallons needed in the tank and the pounds of formulation to
add. Use these formulas:
Gallons per acre X Acres to be treated = Gallons needed in tank
Acres to be treated X Pounds formulation per acre = Pounds formulation needed in tank
Example: You want to spray 3 1/2 acres. Your equipment holds up to 100 gallons and delivers 15 gallons
per acre. The labeling rate is 3 pounds per acre. How much water do you need to add to the tank? How much
pesticide should you add to the tank?
Gallons per acre (15) X Acres to be treated (3 1/2) = Gallons needed in tank
15 X 3.5 = 52.5 gallons of water needed in the tank
Acres to be treated (3 1/2) X Pounds formulation per acre (3) = Pounds formulation needed in tank
3.5 X 3 = 10.5 pounds formulation needed in tank

Pounds of formulation per 1,000 square feet
If the application rate is listed as pounds or ounces of formulation per 1,000 square feet, use the following formula:
Amount in tank X Rate per 1,000 square feet

= Amount formulation needed in tank
Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet
Example: Your sprayer tank holds 3 gallons and applies 2 quarts of spray per 1,000 square feet. The
labeling directions indicate a rate of 4 ounces of formulation per 1,000 square feet. How much formulation do
you need to make a tankful of spray?
Hint: Your sprayer holds 3 gallons, which is equal to 12 quarts. Also be aware that 16 ounces equals 1
pound.
Amount in tank (3 gal. = 12 qts.) X rate per 1,000 square feet (4 oz.)
= Amount form. needed
Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet (2 quarts)
(12 X 4) ÷ 2 = 24 oz
24 oz. ÷ 16 oz. per pound = 1.5 pounds needed in tank
Pounds of active ingredient per acre

If the recommended rate is given as pounds of active ingredient (a.i.) per acre, you must first convert that figure to pounds
of formulation per acre. Use the following formula:
Pounds of a.i. per acre X 100

= Pounds formulation per acre
Percent of a.i. in formulation
Then follow the formulas listed above under the heading "Pounds of formulation per acre" to find the pounds of formula-
tion to add to your tank.
Example: You want to apply 2 pounds of active ingredient per acre. Your formulation is 80 percent WP.
How much formulation do you need per acre?
Hint: Your formulation is less than 100 percent, so you will need a little more than 2 pounds of formulation.
Pounds of a.i. per acre (2) X 100

= Pounds formulation per acre
% a.i. in formulation (80%)
(2 X 100) ÷ 80 = 2.5 pounds of formulation per acre

Percent of active ingredient in tank
If the recommended rate is a percentage of active ingredient in the tank, another formula is necessary. First find the number
of gallons of spray in the spray tank (either the tank capacity or gallons needed for job if less than tank capacity). Then:
Gallons in tank X % a.i. wanted X Weight of carrier (lbs. per gal.)

= Pounds formulation to add to tank
% a.i. in formulation
Example: Your directions call for a spray containing 1.25 percent active ingredient. You need to mix 4
gallons of spray for the job. The pesticide is a 60 percent SP and you will use water as the diluent. How much
formulation do you need to add to the tank?
Hint: Your product has 60 percent a.i. and your spray mixture is to be much less, only 1.25 percent. You
will need to add only a small amount of formulation per gallon.
Gal. in tank (4) X % a.i. needed (1.25) X Weight of water/gal (8.3)

= Pounds of formulation
% a.i. in formulation (60)
(4 X 1.25 X 8.3) ÷ 60 = 0.69 lbs. of formulation needed in tank
0.69 pounds X 16 ounces per pound = 11 ounces of formulation needed in tank
DILUTING LIQUID FORMULATIONS
Application rates for liquid formulations (EC, F, etc.) are often listed as pints, quarts, or gallons per 100 gallons of diluent or
per acre. To make these calculations, use the same formulas you use for calculating dilutions for dry formulations, but substitute
the appropriate liquid measure for "pounds" in the formulas.
Pints/quarts/gallons of formulation per 100 gallons

Use the following formula:
Gallons in tank X Amt. per 100 gal. recommended

= Amt. formulation needed in tank
100 gallons
Example: The labeling rate is 2 pints of pesticide formulation per 100 gallons of water. Your spray tank
holds 30 gallons. How much pesticide formulation do you need to add to the tank?
Hint: Since your tank holds about 1/3 of the 100 gallons, you will need about 1/3 of the 2 pints per 100
gallon rate.
Gallons in tank (30) X Pints per 100 gal. (2)

= Pints formulation needed in tank
100 gallons
(30 X 2) ÷ 100 = 0.6 pints of formulation needed in tank
0.6 pints X 16 ounces per pint = 9.6 ounces of formulation needed in tank

Pints/quarts/gallons of formulation per acre
Gallons in tank
Gallons applied per acre
Acres sprayed per tank X Amt. formulation per acre = Amt. formulation needed in tank
Example: Your sprayer applies 22 gallons per acre and your tank holds 400 gallons. The labeling rate is
1 1/2 quarts per acre. How much pesticide formulation should you add to make up a full tank?
Hint: 22 gallons per acre will treat just under 5 acres with 100 gallons, so 400 gallons will treat just under
20 acres. Therefore, your answer should be less than 20 acres X 1 1/2 quarts per acre, or less than 30 quarts.

400 ÷ 22 = 18.2 acres sprayed per tankful
Acres per tankful (18.2) X Amount of form. per acre (1.5 qts) = Amount form. needed in tank (27.3 qts.)
18.2 X 1.5 = 27.3 quarts (27 quarts plus 9.6 ounces) per acre
(1 qt. = 32 oz.; 32 oz. X .3 = 9.6 oz.)
Pints/quarts of formulation per 1,000 square feet

If the application rate is listed as pints or quarts of formulation per 1,000 square feet, use the following formula:
Amount in tank X Rate per 1,000 square feet

= Amount formulation needed in tank
Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet
Example: Your sprayer tank holds 10 gallons and applies 1 1/2 quarts of spray per 1,000 square feet. The
labeling directions indicate a rate of 5 tablespoons per 1,000 square feet. How much formulation do you need
to make a tankful of spray?
Hint: Your sprayer holds 10 gallons, which is 40 quarts, and 64 tablespoons = 1 quart.
Amount in tank (10 gal. = 40 qts.) X Rate per 1,000 square feet (5 Tbsp)
= Amount needed
Amount equipment applies per 1,000 square feet (1.5 quarts)
(40 X 5) ÷ 1.5 = 133 Tbsp
133 Tbsp ÷ 64 Tbsp per quart = 2 quarts plus 5 Tbsp (2.08 quarts) needed in the tank

Pounds of active ingredient per acre
The recommendation for the liquid formulation may be listed as pounds of active ingredient per acre. You must first
calculate how many gallons of formulation would be needed per acre to achieve that rate. The label of a liquid formulation always
tells exactly how many pounds of active ingredient are in a gallon of the concentrated formulation (4 EC has approximately 4
pounds of active ingredient per gallon; 6 EC contains approximately 6 pounds per gallon, etc.). Use the following formula:
Pounds a.i. to apply per acre

= Gallons of formulation per acre
Pounds a.i. per gallon formulation
Then use the formulas above under "pints/quarts/gallons per acre" to figure the dilution.
Example: The recommendation is for 1 pound of active ingredient per acre. You purchased an 8 EC that
contains 8 pounds of active ingredient per gallon. Your tank holds 500 gallons and is calibrated to apply 25
gallons per acre. How many acres per tankful can you treat? How much formulation would you need for a full
tank?
Pounds a.i. to apply per acre (1)

= Amount per acre
Pounds a.i. per gallon (8)
1 ÷ 8 = 0.125 Gallons per acre

= Acres per tankful
500 ÷ 25 = 20 acres per tankful
Acres per tankful (20) X Gallons per acre (0.125) = Gallons to add to tank
20 X 0.125 = 2.5 gallons to add to tank
Percent of active ingredient in tank

If the recommended rate is a percentage of active ingredient in the tank, use this formula:
Gallons in tank X % a.i. wanted X Weight of water (8.3 pounds per gallon)
= Gallons of formulation to add
Pounds a.i. per gallon of formulation X 100
Example: You want to make 100 gallons of a 1 percent spray, using water as the diluent. You have a 2 EC
formulation (pesticide label tells you that this is 2 pounds active ingredient per gallon). How many gallons of
the 2 EC should you add to the 100 gallons of water in the tank?
Gallons in tank (100) X % a.i. wanted (1%) X Weight of water (8.3)

= Gallons of formulation to add
Pounds a.i. per gallon of formulation (2) X 100
(100 X 1 X 8.3) ÷ (2 X 100) = 4.15 gals. of formulation to add to tank

MIXING CONCENTRATES FOR AIRBLAST SPRAYERS OR MIST BLOWERS
Spray mixtures used in an airblast sprayer or mist blower usually are 2, 3, 4, 5, or 10 times more concentrated than those used
in boom or hydraulic sprayers. If no recommended rate is listed for airblast or mist applications, simply figure the dilution as you
would for a boom or hydraulic sprayer and then multiply the last answer by the concentration factor (2X, 3X, 4X, 5X, or 10X). The
unit on Calibration has additional information on choosing an appropriate concentration and adjusting the equipment to apply
it correctly.
Pounds/gallons of form. per tank X Concentration factor = Pounds/gallons form. per tank in concentrate form
Example: The label lists the rate as 4 pounds formulation per 100 gallons of water for dilute application.
Your airblast sprayer tank holds 600 gallons. You want to apply a 5X concentration.
Gal. per tank (600) X Lbs per 100 gal. recommended (4) Lbs. needed in tank
=
100 gallons for hydraulic sprayer (24)
(600 X 4) ÷ 100 = 24
Pounds formulation per tank for hydraulic sprayer (24) X Concentration wanted (5X)
= Pounds of formulation to add to airblast tank (120)
24 pounds X 5 = 120 pounds
CONVERTING BETWEEN SQUARE FEET AND ACRES
If the application rate is given in pounds, pints, quarts, or gallons per 1,000 square feet, and you have calibrated your
equipment in terms of acres, you must convert the 1,000-square-foot rate to the rate per acre:
43,560 (sq. ft. in acre)

= 43.5
1,000 sq. ft.
Amt. form. per 1,000 sq. ft. X 43.5 = Amt. formulation to apply per acre
Or you may have calibrated your equipment in terms of 1,000 or 100 square feet when the application rate is given in pounds,
pints, quarts, or gallons per acre. To convert from the rate per acre to the rate per 1,000 square feet (or 100 square feet):
Amt. form. recommended per acre

= Amt. form. per 1,000 sq. ft. (or 100 sq. ft.)
43.5 (435 for 100 sq. ft.)

Pesticide Safety
and Site Security
The Environmental Protection and even sensitive business information. application equipment like aircraft and
Agency has issued an alert to all pesti- If you have mobile pest application equip- large trucks. The FBI has requested
cide industry organizations, facilities, and ment, particularly aerial application equip- that aerial applicators be vigilant to
handlers as a precaution during this ment, special precautions should be taken any suspicious activity relative to the
heightened state of security awareness. to protect both your equipment and the use, training in, or acquisition of
This appendix highlights some general se- surrounding community. dangerous chemicals or airborne
curity areas that companies may want to application of same, including threats,
review to ensure that appropriate mea- EVALUATING PESTICIDE unusual purchases, suspicious
sures are being implemented. Detailed SECURITY behavior by employees or customers,
Chemical Safety Alerts are available on the and unusual contacts with the public.
Web at: http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/ The security needs and critical con- Any suspicious circumstances or
nahs.html trol points will differ for every business information should be reported to the
and facility. However, some of the funda- FBI.
UNDERSTANDING mental security control points include: z Protecting confidential infor-
POTENTIAL THREATS z Securing buildings, manufac- mation. As business, safety, and
turing facilities, storage areas, security systems become more reliant
Businesses that manufacture, refor- and surrounding property. One of on computer and communications
mulate, sell, distribute, transport, store, or the most fundamental security needs technology, the need to secure these
apply pesticides have long known the im- is the prevention of intrusion to areas systems has grown. Such efforts
portance of reducing risk for the safety of used to manufacture or store pesti- include contingency planning for
their workers, their customers, and their cides and other toxic chemicals. power losses, effective monitoring of
communities. For manufacturers and Elements of an effective security plan access ports, adherence to password
reformulators, efforts focus on ensuring can range from basic fencing, and backup procedures, and other
that the facility is operated safely on a lighting, and locks, to intrusion mechanisms to maintain access for
day-to-day basis. Manufacturers must use detection systems, cameras, and authorized personnel only.
well-designed equipment, conduct preven- trained guards. For more information z Designing facilities and equip-
tive maintenance, implement up-to-date on basic tips on protecting your site, ment to minimize risk of dam-
operating procedures, and employ well- review EPA’s report A Chemical age. Whether an intrusion to a
trained staff. Those who distribute pesti- Accident Prevention: Site Security. computer by a hacker or a physical
cides have focused on safe storage and intrusion of your facility by a vandal
accurate labeling of their products. For the z Securing pesticide application
equipment and vehicles. or saboteur, it is important to take
pesticide user community, safety efforts steps to minimize the extent of
have focused on strictly reading and fol- Facilities and pesticide businesses
should ensure that they have damage. For example, in order to
lowing all label directions. Today, these prevent damage, the use of sturdy,
efforts are not necessarily enough. appropriate security protections to
prevent intruder access to equipment reliable, and potentially blast-proof
While many of the steps to ensure materials is essential in the construc-
an effective security program seem rou- used in mixing, loading, and applying
pesticides. Before operating pesticide tion of equipment used to transport
tine, they are critical to the health and and apply pesticides.
safety of your business, facility, and com- application tools and vehicles,
munity. Without effective security proce- handlers must have proper authoriza- z Developing procedures and
dures, your business may be vulnerable tion and identification. policies that support security
to both internal and external threats, pos- z Aerial application equipment. needs. Even the best hardware and
ing risks to yourself and employees, your Security awareness is particularly staffing budgets are only as effective
building and machinery, stored pesticides, important for large-scale pesticide as the procedures and policies that
control their use.
174 - Pesticide Safety and Site Security

z Effective hiring and labor relations
policies are important to obtain and
retain good employees who will
support and follow safety precau-
tions. For example, the hiring
process should ensure that pesti-
cide handlers have all requisite
training necessary to handle
pesticides safely. Background
checks of staff who have access to
secure areas, particularly those
areas where pesticides may be
stored, are also necessary.
z Inventory management policies can
help limit the amount of potentially
hazardous pesticides stored on site,
reducing the risks of accidental or
intentional release or theft.
z Effective advance emergency
response procedures can be critical,
helping ensure that business
officials and employees understand
how to respond and whom to
contact in the case of an emergency.
Aside from accidents, such plans
must also consider vandalism, bomb
threats, and potential terrorist
activity.
COORDINATING WITH
AUTHORITIES
If a breach of security or suspicious

activity does occur, timely cooperation
authorities is crucial. In addition to coop-
eration with your local police department,
the FBI requests that you expeditiously
report any threats or suspicious behavior
to your local FBI field office. These agen-
cies also must be informed if, as a regis-
trant, you are made aware of any reports
of adverse exposure under circumstances
that are incongruous with your pesticide
product’s normal use pattern. Information
on the location of the appropriate FBI of-
fice is available at www.fbi.gov.
Pesticide Safety and Site Security - 175

Glossary
ABSORPTION-The movement of a AEROSOL-A material stored in a con- ARACHNID-A wingless arthropod with
chemical into plants, animals (including tainer under pressure. An extremely fine two body regions and four pairs of jointed
humans), microorganisms, or soil. mist is produced when the material, dis- legs. Spiders, ticks, and mites are arach-
solved in a liquid, is released into the air nids.
ACARICIDE-A pesticide used to control from the pressurized container.
mites and ticks. A miticide is a type of ARTHROPOD-An invertebrate animal
acaricide. AGITATION-Process of stirring or mix- characterized by a jointed body and limbs
ing in a sprayer. and usually a hard body covering that is
ACTIVATED CHARCOAL-Charcoal molted at intervals. Insects, mites, and
which when finely ground adsorbs liq- ALGAE-Relatively simple plants that con- crayfish are arthropods.
uids and gases. tain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic.
ATROPINE (ATROPINE SULFATE) -
ACTIVATOR-An adjuvant added to a ALGAECIDE (ALGICIDE) - A pesticide An antidote used to treat organophos-
pesticide to increase its toxicity. used to kill or inhibit algae. phate and carbamate poisoning.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT-The chemical or ANNUAL-A plant that completes its life ATTRACTANT-A substance or device
chemicals in a product responsible for cycle in one year. to lure insects or other pests to a trap or
pesticidal activity. poison bait.
ANTAGONISM-The reduction of pesti-
ACUTE TOXICITY-The capacity of a cide activity when two or more different AVICIDE-A chemical used to kill or repel
pesticide to cause injury from a single ex- pesticides are mixed together. birds.
posure. LD50 and LC50 are common indi-
cators of the degree of acute toxicity. (See ANTIBIOTIC-Chemical produced by a BACTERIA-Microscopic organisms,
Chronic Toxicity) microorganism which is toxic to other some of which are capable of producing
microorganisms. Examples: Streptomy- diseases in plants and animals.
ADHERENCE-The property of a sub- cin, cycloheximide, and penicillin.
stance to stick to a given surface. BACTERICIDE-Chemical used to control
ANTICOAGULANT-A chemical which bacteria.
ADJUVANT-A substance added to a prevents normal bloodclotting. The ac-
pesticide to improve its effectiveness or tive ingredient in some rodenticides. BAIT-A food or other substance used to
safety. Same as additive. Examples: Pen- attract a pest to a pesticide or to a trap
etrants, spreader-stickers, and wetting ANTIDOTE-A practical treatment used where it will be destroyed.
agents. to counteract the effects of pesticide poi-
soning or some other poison in the body. BAND APPLICATION-Application of a
ADSORPTION-The process by which pesticide or other material in or beside a
chemicals are held or bound to a surface ANTI-SIPHONING DEVICE-A hose at- crop row rather than over the entire field
by physical or chemical attraction. Clay tachment designed to prevent backflow area. (See Broadcast Application)
and high organic soils tend to adsorb pes- into a water source. Used to prevent flow
ticides. of pesticide mix from spray tank. BASAL APPLICATION-Application to
plant stems or trunks at or just above the
ADULTERATED PESTICIDE-A pesti- ANTI-TRANSPIRANT-A chemical ap- ground line.
cide that does not conform to the pro- plied to a plant to reduce the rate of tran-
fessed standard or quality as documented spiration or water loss. BENEFICIAL INSECT-Insect that is
on its label or labeling. useful or helpful to humans. Examples are
pollinators and parasites and predators
of pests.
176 - Glossary
BIENNIAL-A plant that completes its life CARCINOGENIC-The ability of a sub- COMMON NAME-A name given to a
cycle in two years. stance or agent to induce malignant tu- pesticide active ingredient by a recog-
mors (cancer). nized committee on pesticide nomencla-
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL-Control of ture. Many pesticides are known by a
pests using predators, parasites, and dis- CARRIER-An inert liquid, solid, or gas number of trade or brand names but the
ease-causing organisms. May be naturally added to an active ingredient to make a active ingredient(s) has only one recog-
occurring or introduced. pesticide formulation. A carrier is also the nized common name. Example: The com-
material, usually water or oil, used to di- mon name for Sevin insecticide is car-
BIOMAGNIFICATION-The process lute the formulated product for applica- baryl.
where some organisms accumulate tion.
chemical residues in higher concentrates COMPATIBLE-Chemicals are compatible
than those found in the organisms they CAUSAL ORGANISMS-The organism if they can be mixed without reducing the
consume. (pathogen) that produces a given disease. effectiveness of any individual chemical.
BOTANICAL PESTICIDE-A pesticide CHEMICAL NAME-The scientific name COMPATIBILITY AGENTS-Adjuvants

produced from chemicals found in plants. of the active ingredient(s) found in the used to enhance the effective mixing of
Examples are nicotine, pyrethrum, and formulated product. This complex name two or more different pesticide products
strychnine. is derived from the chemical structure of and/or fertilizers.
the active ingredient.
BRAND NAME-The name, number, or CONCENTRATION-Refers to the
designation of a specific pesticide prod- CHEMIGATION-The application of fer- amount of active ingredient in a given
uct or device made by a manufacturer or tilizers or pesticides to soil or plants by volume or weight of formulated product.
formulator. inclusion in irrigation water.
CONTACT HERBICIDE-A chemical that
BROADCAST APPLICATION-The uni- CHEMTREC-The Chemical Transporta- kills primarily by contact with plant tis-
form application of a pesticide or other tion Emergency Center has a toll-free sue, with little or no translocation.
material over an entire field or area. number that provides 24-hour informa-
tion for chemical emergencies such as a CONTACT INSECTICIDE-A compound
BROADLEAF PLANTS-Plants with spill, leak, fire, or accident. 800-424- that causes death or injury to insects upon
broad, rounded, or flattened leaves with 9300. contact. It does not need to be ingested to
netted veins (examples: dandelion and be toxic to the insect.
rose). Different from the narrow blade- CHEMOSTERILANT-A chemical com-
like leaves with parallel veins of grasses, pound capable of preventing animal re- CONTAMINATION-The presence of an
sedges, rushes, and onions. production. unwanted substance in or on a plant, ani-
mal, soil, water, air, or structure. (See
BROAD-SPECTRUM PESTICIDE-A CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON-A Residue)
pesticide that is effective against a wide pesticide containing chlorine, carbon, and
range of pests. Usually refers to insecti- hydrogen. Many are persistent in the en- CORROSIVE POISON-A poison con-
cides and fungicides. vironment. Examples: Chlordane, DDT, taining a strong acid or base which will
methoxychlor. severely burn the skin, mouth, stomach,
BUFFERS-Adjuvants used to retard etc.
chemical degradation of some pesticides CHLOROSIS-The yellowing of a plant’s
by lowering the pH of alkaline water. normally green tissue. CURATIVE PESTICIDE-A pesticide
which can inhibit or kill a disease-caus-
CALIBRATE-CALIBRATION-To prop- CHOLINESTERASE-A chemical cata- ing organism after it is established in the
erly adjust equipment, to determine the lyst (enzyme) found in animals that re- plant or animal.
amount of material applied to the target duces the activity of nerve impulses.
area. DAYS TO HARVEST-The minimum
CHRONIC TOXICITY-The ability of a number of days permitted by law between
CARBAMATES-A group of pesticides material to cause injury from repeated, the last pesticide application and the har-
containing nitrogen, formulated as insec- prolonged exposure to small amounts. vest date. (Same as Preharvest Interval.)
ticides (Sevin, Furadan, Lannate), fungi- (See Acute Toxicity)
cides (Mancozeb, Maneb), and herbicides DAYS TO SLAUGHTER-The minimum
(IPC, CIPC). number of days permitted by law between
the last pesticide application and the date
the animal is slaughtered.
Glossary - 177
DECONTAMINATE-To remove or break DOSE, DOSAGE - quantity of pesticide EPA ESTABLISHMENT NUMBER-A
down a pesticide chemical from a surface applied to a given area or target. number assigned to each pesticide pro-
or substance. duction plant by EPA. The number indi-
DRIFT-The airborne movement of a pes- cates the plant at which the pesticide
DEFOLIANT-A chemical which initiates ticide spray or dust beyond the intended product was produced and must appear
the premature drop of leaves. contact area. on all labels of that product.
DEGRADATION-The process by which DRIFT RETARDANT-An adjuvant EPA REGISTRATION NUMBER-A

a chemical compound is broken down to added to a spray mixture to reduce drift. number assigned to a pesticide product
a simpler compound by the action of mi- by EPA when the product is registered
croorganisms, water, air, sunlight, or DUST-A finely ground, dry pesticide for- by the manufacturer or the designated
other agents. Degradation products are mulation containing a small amount of agent. The number must appear on all
usually, but not always, less toxic than active ingredient and a large amount of labels for a particular product.
the original compound. inert carrier or diluent such as clay or talc.
ERADICANT-A chemical or other agent
DEPOSIT-The amount of pesticide on the EMULSIFIABLE CONCENTRATE-A (steam, heat) used to eliminate an estab-
treated surface after application. pesticide formulation produced by dis- lished pest from a plant, animal, or spe-
solving the active ingredient and an emul- cific area (soil, water, buildings).
DERMAL TOXICITY-The ability of a pes- sifying agent in a suitable solvent. When
ticide to cause injury to a human or ani- added to water, a milky emulsion is ERADICATION-The complete elimina-
mal when absorbed through the skin. formed. tion of a pest from a site.
DESICCANT-A chemical that promotes EMULSIFYING AGENT (EMULSIFIER FETOTOXIC-The ability of a substance
drying or loss of moisture from a leaf or - A chemical which aids in the suspen- to cause harm to a developing fetus but
plant part. sion of one liquid in another which nor- not necessarily cause deformities. (See
mally would not mix together. Teratogenic.)
DETOXIFY-To render a pesticide active
ingredient or other poisonous chemical EMULSION-A mixture of two liquids FIELD SCOUT-A person who samples
harmless. which are not soluble in one another. One fields for pest infestations.
is suspended as very small droplets in the
DIAGNOSIS-The positive identification other with the aid of an emulsifying agent. FIFRA-The Federal Insecticide, Fungi-
of a problem and its cause. Example: Oil in water. cide, and Rodenticide Act; a federal law
dealing with pesticide regulations and
DILUENT-Any liquid or solid material ENCAPSULATED PESTICIDE-A pes- use.
used to dilute or carry an active ingredi- ticide formulation with the active ingre-
ent. dient enclosed in capsules of polyvinyl FLOWABLE-A pesticide formulation in
or other synthetic materials; principally which a very finely ground solid particle
DIP-Complete or partial immersion of a used for slow release. May also refer to a is suspended (not dissolved) in a liquid
plant, animal, or object in a pesticide. method of disposal of pesticides and pes- carrier.
ticide containers by sealing them in a
DISINFECTANT-A chemical or other sturdy, waterproof container to prevent FOAMING AGENT-An adjuvant de-
agent that kills or inactivates disease-pro- leakage of contents. signed to reduce drift by causing a pesti-
ducing microorganisms in animals, seeds, cide mix to form a thick foam.
or other plant parts. Also, commonly re- ENDANGERED SPECIES-Individual
fers to chemicals used to clean or surface- plants or animals with a population that FOAM RETARDANT-An adjuvant used
sterilize inanimate objects. has been reduced to the extent that it is to reduce the foaming of a spray mixture
near extinction. that results from agitation.
DISPERSING AGENT-An adjuvant that
facilitates mixing and suspension of a ENVIRONMENT-All the features that FOG TREATMENT-The application of
pesticide formulation in water. surround and affect an organism or group a pesticide as a fine mist or fog.
of organisms.
DORMANT SPRAY-A pesticide appli- FOOD CHAIN-Sequence of species
cation made in late winter or in early ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION within a community, each member of
spring prior to the resumption of active AGENCY (EPA) - The federal agency which serves as a food source for the spe-
growth by plants. responsible for implementing pesticide cies next higher in the chain.
rules and regulations, and registering pes-
ticides.
178 - Glossary
FORECASTING-The prediction of pest GROWTH REGULATOR-A chemical INSECTS-Arthropods characterized by
incidence using weather, host, and patho- which alters the growth processes of a a body composed of three segments and
gen characteristics. plant or animal. three pairs of legs.
FORMULATION-The pesticide product HARVEST AID CHEMICAL-Material INSECTICIDE-A pesticide used to con-
as purchased, containing a mixture of one applied to a plant prior to harvest to re- trol or prevent damage caused by insects.
or more active ingredients, carriers (inertduce the amount of plant foliage. (See De-
ingredients), and other additives diluted foliant.) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT-
for safety and ease of application. The use of all suitable pest control meth-
HEMOTOXIC-The ability of a substance ods to keep pest populations below the
FUMIGANT-A pesticide that forms gases or agent to cause blood disorders. economic injury level. Methods include
that are toxic to plants and animals when cultural practices, use of biological, physi-
absorbed or inhaled. HERBACEOUS PLANTS-Plants that do cal, and genetic control agents, and the
not develop woody tissues. selective use of pesticides.
FUNGI (SINGULAR FUNGUS) - Non-
chlorophyll-bearing plants, living as HERBICIDE-A pesticide used to kill or LABEL-All printed material attached to
saprophytes or parasites. Some infect and inhibit plant growth. or part of a pesticide container.
cause diseases in plants, animals, and hu-
mans or destroy wood and fiber products. HOST-A plant or animal on or in which a LABELING-Supplemental pesticide in-
Others are beneficial, e.g., decomposers pest lives. formation which complements the infor-
and human food source. (Examples: rusts, mation on the label, but which is not nec-
mildews, molds, smuts.) HYDROLYSIS-Breakdown of a chemical essarily attached to or part of the con-
in the presence of water. tainer.
FUNGICIDE-A chemical used to control
fungi. ILLEGAL RESIDUE-A quantity of pes- LARVAE (SINGULAR LARVA) - The
ticide remaining on the crop at harvest immature form of an insect or other ani-
FUNGISTATIC AGENT-A chemical that which is either above the set tolerance or mal that hatches from the egg.
prevents the germination of fungus which is not allowed on the crop. Also
spores or the growth of mycelium, but pertains to residues in livestock. LC50-The concentration of a pesticide,
does not kill the fungus. usually in air or water, which can kill 50
INCOMPATIBLE-Two or more materials percent of a test population of animals.
GENERAL USE PESTICIDE-A pesti- which cannot be mixed or used together. LC50 is usually expressed in parts per
cide which can be purchased and used by million (ppm). The lower the LC50 value,
the general public. (See Restricted Use INERT INGREDIENT-An inactive mate- the more acutely toxic the chemical.
Pesticide) rial in a pesticide formulation which does
not have pesticidal activity. LD50-The dose or amount of a pesticide
GERMINATION-Refers to the sprouting which can kill 50 percent of the test ani-
of a seed or the production of a germ tube INGREDIENT STATEMENT-The por- mals when eaten or absorbed through the
(mycelium) from a fungus spore. tion of the label on a pesticide container skin. LD50 is expressed in milligrams of
which gives the name and amount of each chemical per kilogram of body weight of
GPA-gallons per acre. active ingredient and the total amount of the test animal (mg/kg). The lower the
inert ingredients in the formulation. LD50, the more acutely toxic the chemi-
GPM-Gallons per minute. cal.
INHALATION-Taking in through the
GRANULE-A dry pesticide formulation. lungs; breathing in. LEACHING-The movement of a sub-
The active ingredient is either mixed with stance through soil with water.
or coated onto an inert carrier to form a INHALATION TOXICITY-The property
small, ready to use, low-concentrate par- of a pesticide to be poisonous to humans METABOLITE-In the case of pesticides,
ticle which does not normally present a or animals when breathed in through the a compound derived from changes in the
drift hazard. Pellets differ from granules lungs. active ingredient through chemical, bio-
only in their precise uniformity, larger logical, or physical reactions. The me-
size, and shape. INOCULUM-That portion of the patho- tabolite may be simpler or more complex
gen that can cause disease in a host. and may or may not be more poisonous
GROUNDWATER-Water sources lo- than the original chemical.
cated beneath the soil surface from which
well water is obtained or surface springs
are formed.
Glossary - 179
METAMORPHOSIS-A change in the NEMATODES-Microscopic, colorless, PERENNIAL-A plant that lives for more
shape, size, and/or form of an animal. wormlike animals that live as saprophytes than two years.
or parasites. Many cause diseases of
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION-Break- plants or animals. PERSISTENT HERBICIDE-A herbicide
down of a chemical by microorganisms. that when applied at the label rate will re-
NEUROTOXIC-The ability of a sub- main in the soil, often for years. Poten-
MICROBIAL PESTICIDE-Bacteria, vi- stance or agent to cause disorders of the tially harmful to rotational crops. (See
ruses, fungi, and other microorganisms nervous system. Residual Pesticide)
used to control pests. Also called
biorationals. NONPERSISTENT PESTICIDE-A pes- PERSISTENT PESTICIDE-A pesticide
ticide that does not remain active in the chemical (or its metabolites) that remains
MICROORGANISM-An organism that is environment more than one growing sea- active in the environment more than one
so small it cannot be seen without the aid son. growing season. These compounds
of a microscope. sometimes accumulate in animal and
NONSELECTIVE PESTICIDE-A pesti- plant tissues. Examples: DDT, chlordane,
MISCIBLE LIQUIDS-Two or more liq- cide that is toxic to a wide range of plants dieldrin.
uids which can be mixed and will remain or animals without regard to species. For
mixed under most conditions. Water and example, a nonselective herbicide can kill PEST-An undesirable organism (insect,
ethyl alcohol are miscible; water and oil or damage all plants it contacts. fungus, nematode, weed, virus, rodent)
are not. which is injurious to humans, desirable
NONTARGET ORGANISM-Any plant plants and animals, manufactured
MITE-A small arthropod similar to an in- or animal other than the intended target(s) products, or natural products.
sect but with eight legs. Its body is di- of a pesticide application.
vided into two parts and has no anten- PESTICIDE-A chemical or other agent
nae. NOXIOUS WEED-A plant defined by used to kill or otherwise control pests, or
law as being particularly troublesome, to protect from a pest.
MITICIDE-A pesticide used to control undesirable, and difficult to control.
mites; synonymous with acaricide. pH-A measure of the acidity/alkalinity of
ONCOGENIC-The property to produce a liquid; acid below pH7, basic or alkaline
MODE OF ACTION-The way in which a tumors (not necessarily cancerous) in liv- above pH7.
pesticide exerts a toxic effect on the tar- ing tissues. (See Carcinogenic.)
get plant or animal. PHEROMONE-A substance emitted by
ORAL TOXICITY-Ability of a pesticide an animal to influence the behavior of
MOLLUSCICIDE-A chemical used to to cause injury when taken by mouth. other animals of the same, species. Some
control snails and slugs. are synthetically produced for use in in-
ORGANOPHOSPHATES-A large sect traps.
MUTAGENIC-The ability of a substance group of pesticides which contain the el-
or agent to cause genetic changes in liv- ement phosphorus. Most are nonpersis- PHOTODEGRADATION-Breakdown of
ing cells. tent insecticides/miticides. Many are chemicals by the action of sunlight.
highly toxic. Examples: Malathion, par-
MYCELIUM-The mass of filaments that athion, diazinon. PHYTOTOXICITY-Injury to plants.
forms the body of a fungus.
OVICIDE-A material that destroys eggs. PISCICIDE-A chemical used to control
MYCOPLASMA-A microorganism pos- pest fish.
sessing many virus-like properties. Some PARASITE-A plant, animal, or microor-
cause plant diseases. ganism living in, on, or with another liv- POINT OF RUNOFF-When a spray
ing organism for the purpose of obtain- starts to run or drip from the leaves and
NECROSIS-Death of plant or animal tis- ing all or part of its food. stems of plants or the hair or feathers of
sues which results in the formation of dis- animals.
colored, sunken, or necrotic (dead) areas. PATHOGEN-A disease causing organ-
ism. POISON CENTER -An agency, gener-
NEMATICIDE-A pesticide used to con- ally a hospital, which has current infor-
trol nematodes. PENETRANT-An adjuvant added to a mation as to the proper first aid tech-
spray mixture to enhance the absorption niques and antidotes for poisoning emer-
of a pesticide. gencies. Listed in telephone directories.
180 - Glossary
POSTEMERGENCE-After the weed or PUPA- The intermediate developmental RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE- A
crop plants have appeared through the stage of some insects between larva and pesticide which can be purchased only
soil. Usually used to specify the timing of adult. by certified pesticide applicators and used
herbicide applications. only by certified applicators or persons
QUARANTINE- Regulatory method to directly under their supervision. Not avail-
POTENTIATION-Occurs when a pesti- control the introduction and dissemina- able for use by the general public because
cide becomes significantly more toxic tion of plant and animal pests (animals, of the high toxicities and/or environmen-
following combination with another pes- insects, weeds, and disease-causing or- tal hazards.
ticide. ganisms) into new areas. Involves inspec-
tions treatments, and destruction of con- RODENTICIDE- A pesticide used to
PPM-Parts per million. A means to express taminated organisms or their parts. control rodents.
amounts of chemicals in or on food,
plants, animals, water, soil, or air. One RATE OF APPLICATION - The amount RUNOFF- The movement of water and
part per million equals 1 pound in of pesticide applied to a plant, animal, unit associated materials on the soil surface.
500 tons. PPB is parts per billion. area, or surface; usually measured as per
acre, per 1,000 square feet, per linear feet, SAFENER- An adjuvant used to reduce
PRECIPITATE-A solid substance that or per cubic feet. the phytotoxic effects of a pesticide.
forms in a liquid and settles to the bot-
tom of a container. A material that no RCRA- The Resource Conservation and SAPROPHYTE- An organism which ob-
longer remains in suspension. Recovery Act; the federal law regulating tains its food from dead or decaying or-
the transport, storage, treatment, and dis- ganic matter.
PREDATOR- An animal that attacks, posal of hazardous wastes.
feeds on, and kills other animals. Ex- SEED PROTECTANT- A pesticide ap-
amples of predaceous animals are hawks, REENTRY INTERVAL- The length of plied to seeds prior to planting to protect
owls, snakes, fish, and many insects. time following an application of a pesti- them from insects, fungi, and other soil
cide when a person is required to wear pests.
PREEMERGENCE- Before the weed or protective clothing and equipment in a
crop plants have appeared through the treated field. SELECTIVE PESTICIDE- A pesticide
soil. Usually used to specify the timing that is toxic to some pests, but has little
of herbicide applications. REGISTERED PESTICIDES- Pesticide or no effect on other similar species. Ex-
products which have been registered by ample: Some fungicides are so selective
PREHARVEST INTERVALS- Same as the Environmental Protection Agency for that they control only powdery mildews
days to harvest. the uses listed on the label. and no other fungi.
PREMIX- A pesticide product formulated REPELLENT- A compound that keeps SERIAL APPLICATION - The applica-
with more than one active ingredient. insects, rodents, birds, or other pests away tion of one pesticide immediately or
from plants, domestic animals, buildings, shortly after the application of another.
PREPLANT PESTICIDE- A pesticide or other treated areas.
applied prior to planting a crop. SIGNAL WORDS- Required word(s)
RESIDUAL PESTICIDE- A pesticide which appear on every pesticide label to
PROPELLANT- The inert ingredient in that continues to remain effective on a denote the relative toxicity of the prod-
self-pressurized products that forces the treated surface or area for an extended uct. The signal words are either DAN-
active ingredient from the container. (See period following application. GER POISON used with a skull and
Aerosol) crossbones symbol for highly toxic com-
RESIDUE- The pesticide active ingredi- pounds, DANGER for skin and eye irri-
PROTECTANT- A pesticide applied to ent or its breakdown product(s) which tants, WARNING for moderately toxic,
a plant or animal prior to infection or at- remains in or on the target after treatment. or CAUTION for slightly toxic com-
tack by the pest in order to prevent infec- pounds.
tion or injury by the pest. RESISTANT- A population of organisms
that are uninjured or unaffected by a cer- SILVICIDE- A herbicide used to destroy
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT- Equip- tain dosage of pesticide chemical used to brush and trees such as in wooded areas.
ment intended to protect a person from control other populations of the same or-
exposure during the handling and appli- ganism successfully. Also, plants and ani- SLURRY- A thick suspension of a pesti-
cation of pesticides. Includes long- mals that are unaffected by a pest spe- cide made from a wettable powder and
sleeved shirts and long trousers, cover- cies. (See Tolerant) water.
alls, suitable hats, gloves, shoes, respira-
tors, and other safety items as needed.
Glossary - 181
SOIL DRENCH-To soak or wet the STICKER-An adjuvant used to improve TECHNICAL MATERIAL-The pesticide
ground surface with a pesticide. Large pesticide spray droplet adherence to a active ingredient in pure form, as it is manu-
volumes of the pesticide mixture are usu- plant, animal, or other treated surface. factured by a chemical company. It is com-
ally needed to saturate the soil to any bined with inert ingredients or additives
depth. STOMACH POISON-A pesticide that in formulations such as wettable powders,
must be eaten by an animal in order to be dusts, emulsifiable concentrates, or gran-
SOIL INCORPORATION-The mechani- effective; it will not kill on contact. ules.
cal mixing of a pesticide product with soil.
STRUCTURAL PESTS-Pests that at- TERATOGENIC-The property of a sub-
SOIL INJECTION-The placement of a tack and destroy buildings and other stance or agent able to produce abnor-
pesticide below the surface of the soil. structures, clothing, stored food, and malities or defects in living human or ani-
Common application method for fumi- manufactured/processed goods. Ex- mal embryos and fetuses. These defects
gants and termiticides. amples: Termites, cockroaches, clothes are not usually inheritable.
moths, rats, dry-rot fungi.
SOIL STERILANT-A chemical or agent TERMITICIDE-An insecticide used to
that prevents the growth of all organisms SUMMER ANNUAL-Plants that germi- control termites.
present in the soil; a nonselective pesti- nate in the spring or summer and com-
cide. Soil sterilization may be temporary plete their life cycle within one year. THICKENER-A drift control adjuvant
or permanent depending on the chemi- such as cellulose or gel used to promote
cal. SURFACTANT-A component of many the formation of a greater proportion of
adjuvants which improves the spreading, large droplets in a spray mixture.
SOLUBLE POWDER-A finely ground dispersing, and/or wetting properties of
dry pesticide formulation which will dis- a pesticide mixture. TOLERANCE-A regulation that estab-
solve in water or some other liquid car- lishes the maximum amount of pesticide
rier. SUSCEPTIBLE-A plant, animal, or site residue (active ingredient or certain me-
that is affected by a pest. Also refers to tabolites) that may legally remain in or on
SOLUTION-Mixture of one or more sub- pest populations that can be controlled a raw agricultural commodity (food or feed
stances in another substance (usually a by pesticides. product) at harvest or slaughter.
liquid) in which all the ingredients are
completely dissolved. Example: Sugar in SUSPENSION-A pesticide mixture con- TOLERANT-The property of organisms,
water. sisting of fine particles dispersed or float- including pests, to withstand a certain
ing in a liquid, usually water or oil. Ex- degree of stress, such as pest attack, poor
SOLVENT-A liquid such as water, oil, or ample: Wettable powders in water. weather, or pesticides.
alcohol which will dissolve another sub-
stance (solid, liquid, or gas) to form a so- SWATH-The width of the area covered TOXIC-Poisonous to living organisms.
lution. by one sweep of an airplane, ground
sprayer, spreader, or duster. TOXICANT-A poisonous substance
SPACE SPRAY-A pesticide which is ap- such as the active ingredient in a pesti-
plied as a fine spray or mist to a confined SYNERGISM-When the effect of two or cide formulation.
area. more pesticides applied together is greater
than the sum of the individual pesticides TOXICITY-The degree or extent that a
SPORE-The reproductive unit of a fun- applied separately. Example: chemical or substance is poisonous.
gus. A spore is analogous to a plant seed. Pesticide X kills 40 percent of an insect
population, Pesticide Y kills 20 percent. TOXIN-A naturally occurring poison pro-
SPOT TREATMENT-Application to When applied together, X and Y kill 95 duced by plants, animals, or microorgan-
small areas. percent. isms. Examples: The poison produced by
the black widow spider, the venom pro-
SPRAY DEPOSIT-The amount of pes- SYSTEMIC-A chemical that is absorbed duced by snakes, the botulism toxin.
ticide chemical that remains on a sprayed and translocated within a plant or animal.
surface after the droplets have dried. TRANSLOCATION-The movement of
TANK MIX-The mixture of pesticides (and materials within a plant or animal from
SPREADER-An adjuvant used to en- possibly fertilizers) in a spray tank. the site of entry. A systemic pesticide is
hance the spread of a pesticide over a translocated.
treated surface, thus increasing the area TARGET-The plants, animals, structures,
that a given volume of liquid will cover. areas, or pests at which the pesticide or
other control method is directed.
182 - Glossary
ULTRA LOW VOLUME (ULV)- sprays
that are applied at 0.5 gallon or less per
acre or sprays applied as the undiluted
formulation.
VAPOR PRESSURE-The property

which causes a chemical to evaporate.
The higher the vapor pressure, the more
volatile the chemical or the easier it will
evaporate.
VECTOR-An animal (insect, nematode,

mite) or plant (dodder) that can carry and
transmit a pathogen from one host to an-
other.
VERTEBRATE-Animal characterized by
a segmented backbone or spinal column.
VIRUS-Ultramicroscopic parasites com-

posed of proteins. Viruses can only mul-
tiply in living tissues and cause many ani-
mal and plant diseases.
VOLATILITY-The degree to which a sub-

stance changes from a liquid or solid state
to a gas at ordinary temperatures when
exposed to air.
WATER DISPERSIBLE GRANULE-A

dry, granular pesticide formulation that
forms a suspension in water.
WATER TABLE-The upper level of the

water saturated zone in the ground.
WEED- An unwanted plant.
WETTABLE POWDER-A dry pesticide

formulation in powder form which forms
a suspension when added to water.
WETTING AGENT-An adjuvant used to

reduce the surface tension between a liq-
uid and contact surface for more thorough
coverage.
WINTER ANNUAL-Plants that germi-

nate in the fall and complete their life cycle
within one year.
Glossary - 183
Answers to
Review Questions
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4
Introduction to Pest Managing Insects Weeds and Plant Diseases and
and Pest Management and Mites Weed Control Plant Health
1. False 1. True 1. True 1. True
2. True 2. d 2. False 2. c
3. True 3. Piercing-sucking 3. False 3. False
4. Biomagnification and chewing 4. d 4. True
5. False 4. e 5. True 5. False
6. True 5. e 6. True 6. False
7. c 6. a. egg, b. adult, 7. d 7. d
8. e c. pupa, d. larva. 8. a 8. False
9. False Sequence: a,d,c,b. 9. True 9. e
10. e 7. d 10. d 10. True
11. False 8. False 11. a 11. True
12. Integrated pest manage- 9. Stunting or curling 12. True 12. False
ment 10. False 13. False 13. False
13. True 11. False 14. c 14. True
14. True 12. True 15. e 15. True
15. Economic threshold 13. True 16. True
16. False 14. False 17. d
17. False 15. True 18. c
18. False 16. d 19. e
19. Genetic control 17. d
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7

Vertebrate Pest Pesticide The Pesticide
Management Formulations Label
1. True 1. Active 1. False
2. True 2. True 2. False
3. False 3. d 3. False
4. True 4. d 4. a
5. False 5. True 5. d
6. False 6. e 6. b
7. c 7. True 7. e
8. False 8. False 8. True
9. e 9. True 9. b
10. False 10. False 10. c
11. True 11. e 11. True
12. c 12. Incompatible 12. d
13. True 13. False 13. False
14. True 14. Waxy or hairy 14. True
15. d 15. False 15. Consult your
16. True telephone directory!
17. True
184 - Answers to Review Questions

CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11
Toxicity and Using Pesticides Pesticides and the Pesticide Application
Health Properly Environment Equipment
1. e 1. e 1. False 1. False
2. True 2. True 2. d 2. False
3. False 3. d 3. False 3. e
4. False 4. False 4. True 4. True
5. d 5. True 5. False 5. a
6. False 6. e 6. d 6. False
7. True 7. c 7. False 7. False
8. True 8. d 8. b 8. False
9. False 9. b 9. True 9. False
10. c 10. b 10. e 10. True
11. False 11. c 11. True 11. True
12. True; birds, fish, and bees 12. c 12. a 12. True
13. False 13. True 13. c 13. b
14. Long sleeved shirt and 14. d 14. e 14. e
long pants, waterproof 15. False 15. True 15. e
gloves, shoes and socks, 16. False 16. a
protective eyewear. 17. e
15. False 18. e
16. False
17. True
18. False
CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER 14

Public Pesticide Worker Protection
Relations Laws Standard
1. e 1. False 1. False
2. True 2. True 2. True
3. e 3. e 3. False
4. True 4. False 4. True
5. True 5. False 5. False
6. d 6. True 6. True
7. e 7. True 7. c
8. c 8. False 8. True
9. True 9. True
10. False 10. True
11. True 11. True
12. e 12. c
13. False 13. True
14. True 14. True
15. True 15. a
16. False
17. False
18. restricted entry interval
(REI)
19. True
20. True
Answers to Review Questions - 185

University of Maine Cooperative Extension
County Offices
Androscoggin and Hancock Somerset

Sagadahoc 63 Boggy Brook Road 7 County Drive,
24 Main St. Ellsworth, ME 04605-9540 Skowhegan, ME 04976-4209
Lisbon Falls, ME 04252-1505 (207) 667-8212 (207) 474-9622
(207) 353-5550 1-800-287-1479 (in Maine) 1-800-287-1495 (in Maine)
1-800-287-1458 (in Maine) FAX: (207) 667-2003 FAX: (207) 474-0374
FAX: 1-800-924-7508 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
e-mail: [email protected]
Kennebec Waldo
Aroostook 125 State St., 3rd Floor 992 Waterville Road
22 Hall St., Suite 101 Augusta, ME 04330-5692 Waldo, ME 04915-3117
Fort Kent, ME 04743-7131 (207) 622-7546 (207) 342-5971
(207) 834-3905 1-800-287-1481 (in Maine) 1-800-287-1426 (in Maine)
1-800-287-1421 (in Maine) FAX: (207) 621-4919 FAX: 1-800-924-4909
FAX: (207) 834-3906 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail:[email protected]
Knox and Lincoln Washington
Houlton Road 377 Manktown Road 2 Washington St.
PO Box 727 Waldoboro, ME 04572 Whitneyville, ME 04654
Presque Isle, ME 04769-0727 (207) 832-0343 (207) 255-3345
(207) 764-3361 1-800-244-2104 (in Maine) 1-800-287-1542 (in Maine)
1-800-287-1462 (in Maine) FAX: (207) 832-0377 FAX: (207) 355-6118
FAX: (207) 764-3362 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail:[email protected]
Oxford York
Central Building 9 Olson Rd. 21 Bradeen St., Suite 302
PO Box 8 South Paris, ME 04281-6402 Springvale, ME 04083
Houlton, ME 04730-0008 (207) 743-6329 (207) 324-2814
(207) 532-6548 1-800-287-1482 (in Maine) 1-800-287-1535 (in Maine)
1-800-287-1469 (in Maine) FAX: (207) 743-0373 FAX: (207) 324-0817
FAX: (207) 532-6549 e-mail:[email protected] e-mail:[email protected]
Penobscot Administrative Offices
Cumberland 307 Maine Ave. UMCE
PO Box 9300 Bangor, ME 04401-4331 5741 Libby Hall
15 Chamberlain Ave. (207) 942-7396 Orono, ME 04469-5741
Portland, ME 04104-9300 1-800-287-1485 (in Maine) (207) 581-3188
(207) 780-4205 FAX: (207) 942-7537 1-800-287-0274 (in Maine)
1-800-287-1471 (in Maine) e-mail: [email protected] TDD: 1-800-287-8957 (in Maine)
FAX: (207) 780-4382 FAX: (207) 581-1387
e-mail: [email protected] Piscataquis
Court House Complex, 59 E. Main St.
Franklin Dover-Foxcroft, ME
147 Farmington Falls Road, #2 04426-1396
Farmington, ME 04938-6403 (207) 564-3301
(207) 778-4650 1-800-287-1491
1-800-287-1478 (in Maine) FAX: 1-800-287-1491 (in Maine
FAX: 1-800-287-1478 e-mail:[email protected]
In case of suspected pesticide poisoning,
get prompt medical attention!
MAINE POISON CENTER — 1-800-442-6305
Maine Board of Pesticides Control — 207-287-2731

Cooperative Extension Pest Management Office — 1-800-287-0279
AMBULANCE
HOSPITAL
DOCTOR
FIRE DEPARTMENT
For chemical emergencies only, 24 hours a day:

Transportation Emergency Center (CHEMTREC) 1-800-424-9300
For information on pesticide products, health and environmental effects, safety, and clean-
up and disposal procedures, 9:30am-7:30pm EST, except holidays:
National Pesticide Information Center 1-800-858-7378

Pesticide Educational Manual U Maine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pesticide Educational Manual U Maine

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pesticide Educational Manual U Maine

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PESTICIDE

Edited by Don Barry and Gary Fish

Published and distributed in furtherance of Acts of Congress of

A Member of the University of Maine System

In complying with the letter and spirit of applicable laws and in

Where trade names are used, no discrimination is intended and

Revise and print Feb, 2002

Previous edition published Fall, 1989

Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 1

2 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

Biomagnification of DDT in the food chain

DDT enters the food chain at

Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 3

Climate. Weather can effectively Topography. Maine’s physical

4 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 5

The genes that control an

Biological control involves the introduction, encouragement, or ar-

The life cycle of an aphid parasite Lysiphlebus

Chemical controls involve the use of naturally derived or synthetic chemi-

6 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

Defoliants - chemicals that cause leaves or foliage

Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 7

8 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

5. Use thresholds - Public health, aesthetics and economics are

Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management - 9

a. fertilization 19. What type of control method incorporates the use of

9. All pesticides kill only the target pest.

10. The use of crop plants that are inherently resistant to

10 - Chapter 1 - Pests and Pest Management

An insect’s body is divided

Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 11

Egg < Immatures > Adult

Egg < Nymphs > Adult

Egg < Larvae > Pupa Adult

12 - Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites

Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 13

DAMAGE CAUSED BY INSECTS AND ARTHROPOD PESTS

White Grubs Cutworms Carpenter Ant

14 - Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites

Silverfish Face Fly Cockroach

Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 15

UMCE Insect and Plant Disease Diagnostic Lab

• Your name and address

16 - Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites

Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 17

Above, a larva has outgrown the tassel and

18 - Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites

Chapter 2 - Managing Insects and Mites - 19

20 - Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control

Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control - 21

22 - Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control

Mechanical Control Cultural Control

z Hand pulling/hoeing. Best for z Use weed free seed. In commer-

z Mowing. Reduces seed production. z Planting schedule. When pos-

Biological Control Chemical Control

Biological weed control involves the Herbicides are chemicals capable of

Chapter 3 - Weeds and Weed Control - 23