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Hall effect

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The Hall effect is the production of a


voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse
to an electric current in the conductor and
to an applied magnetic field perpendicular
to the current. It was discovered by Edwin
Hall in 1879.[1] For clarity, the original
effect is sometimes called the ordinary
Hall effect to distinguish it from other "Hall
effects" which have different physical
mechanisms.

The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio


of the induced electric field to the product
of the current density and the applied
magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the
material from which the conductor is
made, since its value depends on the type,
number, and properties of the charge
carriers that constitute the current.

Discovery
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The modern theory of electromagnetism
was systematized by James Clerk Maxwell
in the paper On Physical Lines of Force,
which was published in four parts between
1861-1862. While Maxwell's paper
established a solid mathematical basis for
electromagnetic theory, the detailed
mechanisms of the theory were still being
explored. One such question was about
the details of the interaction between
magnets and electric current, including
whether magnetic fields interacted with
the conductors or the electric current
itself. In 1879 Edwin Hall was exploring
this interaction, and discovered the Hall
effect while he was working on his
doctoral degree at Johns Hopkins
University in Baltimore, Maryland.[2]
Eighteen years before the electron was
discovered, his measurements of the tiny
effect produced in the apparatus he used
were an experimental tour de force,
published under the name "On a New
Action of the Magnet on Electric
Currents".[3][4][5]

Theory
The Hall effect is due to the nature of the
current in a conductor. Current consists of
the movement of many small charge
carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions
(see Electromigration) or all three. When a
magnetic field is present, these charges
experience a force, called the Lorentz
force.[6] When such a magnetic field is
absent, the charges follow approximately
straight, 'line of sight' paths between
collisions with impurities, phonons, etc.
However, when a magnetic field with a
perpendicular component is applied, their
paths between collisions are curved, thus
moving charges accumulate on one face
of the material. This leaves equal and
opposite charges exposed on the other
face, where there is a scarcity of mobile
charges. The result is an asymmetric
distribution of charge density across the
Hall element, arising from a force that is
perpendicular to both the 'line of sight'
path and the applied magnetic field. The
separation of charge establishes an
electric field that opposes the migration of
further charge, so a steady electric
potential is established for as long as the
charge is flowing.

In classical electromagnetism electrons


move in the opposite direction of the
current I (by convention "current"
describes a theoretical "hole flow"). In
some semiconductors it appears "holes"
are actually flowing because the direction
of the voltage is opposite to the derivation
below.

Hall effect measurement setup for electrons. Initially,


the electrons follow the curved arrow, due to the
magnetic force. At some distance from the current-
introducing contacts, electrons pile up on the left side
and deplete from the right side, which creates an
electric field ξy in the direction of the assigned VH. VH
is negative for some semiconductors where "holes"
appear to flow. In steady-state, ξy will be strong enough
to exactly cancel out the magnetic force, thus the
electrons follow the straight arrow (dashed).
Play media
Animation showing the simplified principle

For a simple metal where there is only one


type of charge carrier (electrons), the Hall
voltage VH can be derived by using the
Lorentz force and seeing that, in the
steady-state condition, charges are not
moving in the y-axis direction. Thus, the
magnetic force on each electron in the y-
axis direction is cancelled by a y-axis
electrical force due to the buildup of
charges. The vx term is the drift velocity of
the current which is assumed at this point
to be holes by convention. The vxBz term
is negative in the y-axis direction by the
right hand rule.

In steady state, F = 0, so 0 = Ey − vxBz,


where Ey is assigned in the direction of the
y-axis, (and not with the arrow of the
induced electric field ξy as in the image
(pointing in the −y direction), which tells
you where the field caused by the
electrons is pointing).
In wires, electrons instead of holes are
flowing, so vx → −vx and q → −q. Also
VH
Ey = − w . Substituting these changes
gives

The conventional "hole" current is in the


negative direction of the electron current
and the negative of the electrical charge
which gives Ix = ntw(−vx)(−e) where n is
charge carrier density, tw is the cross-
sectional area, and −e is the charge of
each electron. Solving for and plugging
into the above gives the Hall voltage:
If the charge build up had been positive
(as it appears in some semiconductors),
then the VH assigned in the image would
have been negative (positive charge would
have built up on the left side).

The Hall coefficient is defined as

where j is the current density of the carrier


electrons, and Ey is the induced electric
field. In SI units, this becomes
(The units of RH are usually expressed as
m3/C, or Ω·cm/G, or other variants.) As a
result, the Hall effect is very useful as a
means to measure either the carrier
density or the magnetic field.

One very important feature of the Hall


effect is that it differentiates between
positive charges moving in one direction
and negative charges moving in the
opposite. The Hall effect offered the first
real proof that electric currents in metals
are carried by moving electrons, not by
protons. The Hall effect also showed that
in some substances (especially p-type
semiconductors), it is more appropriate to
think of the current as positive "holes"
moving rather than negative electrons. A
common source of confusion with the Hall
effect is that holes moving to the left are
really electrons moving to the right, so one
expects the same sign of the Hall
coefficient for both electrons and holes.
This confusion, however, can only be
resolved by modern quantum mechanical
theory of transport in solids.[7]

The sample inhomogeneity might result in


spurious sign of the Hall effect, even in
ideal van der Pauw configuration of
electrodes. For example, positive Hall
effect was observed in evidently n-type
semiconductors.[8] Another source of
artifact, in uniform materials, occurs when
the sample's aspect ratio is not long
enough: the full Hall voltage only develops
far away from the current-introducing
contacts, since at the contacts the
transverse voltage is shorted out to zero.

Hall effect in semiconductors

When a current-carrying semiconductor is


kept in a magnetic field, the charge
carriers of the semiconductor experience a
force in a direction perpendicular to both
the magnetic field and the current. At
equilibrium, a voltage appears at the
semiconductor edges.

The simple formula for the Hall coefficient


given above is usually a good explanation
when conduction is dominated by a single
charge carrier. However, in
semiconductors the theory is more
complex, because in these materials
conduction can involve significant,
simultaneous contributions from both
electrons and holes, which may be present
in different concentrations and have
different mobilities. For moderate
magnetic fields the Hall coefficient is[9]
or equivalently

with

Here n is the electron concentration, p the


hole concentration, μe the electron
mobility, μh the hole mobility and e the
elementary charge.
For large applied fields the simpler
expression analogous to that for a single
carrier type holds.

Relationship with star


formation

Although it is well known that magnetic


fields play an important role in star
formation, research models[10][11][12]
indicate that Hall diffusion critically
influences the dynamics of gravitational
collapse that forms protostars.

Quantum Hall effect


For a two-dimensional electron system
which can be produced in a MOSFET, in
the presence of large magnetic field
strength and low temperature, one can
observe the quantum Hall effect, in which
the Hall conductance σ undergoes
quantum Hall transitions to take on the
quantized values.

Spin Hall effect

The spin Hall effect consists in the spin


accumulation on the lateral boundaries of
a current-carrying sample. No magnetic
field is needed. It was predicted by Mikhail
Dyakonov and V. I. Perel in 1971 and
observed experimentally more than 30
years later, both in semiconductors and in
metals, at cryogenic as well as at room
temperatures.

Quantum spin Hall effect

For mercury telluride two dimensional


quantum wells with strong spin-orbit
coupling, in zero magnetic field, at low
temperature, the quantum spin Hall effect
has been recently observed.

Anomalous Hall effect


In ferromagnetic materials (and
paramagnetic materials in a magnetic
field), the Hall resistivity includes an
additional contribution, known as the
anomalous Hall effect (or the
extraordinary Hall effect), which depends
directly on the magnetization of the
material, and is often much larger than the
ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect
is not due to the contribution of the
magnetization to the total magnetic field.)
For example, in nickel, the anomalous Hall
coefficient is about 100 times larger than
the ordinary Hall coefficient near the Curie
temperature, but the two are similar at very
low temperatures.[13] Although a well-
recognized phenomenon, there is still
debate about its origins in the various
materials. The anomalous Hall effect can
be either an extrinsic (disorder-related)
effect due to spin-dependent scattering of
the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect
which can be described in terms of the
Berry phase effect in the crystal
momentum space (k-space).[14]

Hall effect in ionized gases

The Hall effect in an ionized gas (plasma)


is significantly different from the Hall
effect in solids (where the Hall parameter
is always much less than unity). In a
plasma, the Hall parameter can take any
value. The Hall parameter, β, in a plasma is
the ratio between the electron
gyrofrequency, Ωe, and the electron-heavy
particle collision frequency, ν:

where

e is the elementary charge


(approximately 1.6 × 10−19 C)
B is the magnetic field (in teslas)
me is the electron mass (approximately
9.1 × 10−31 kg).
The Hall parameter value increases with
the magnetic field strength.

Physically, the trajectories of electrons are


curved by the Lorentz force. Nevertheless,
when the Hall parameter is low, their
motion between two encounters with
heavy particles (neutral or ion) is almost
linear. But if the Hall parameter is high, the
electron movements are highly curved.
The current density vector, J, is no longer
collinear with the electric field vector, E.
The two vectors J and E make the Hall
angle, θ, which also gives the Hall
parameter:
Applications
Hall probes are often used as
magnetometers, i.e. to measure magnetic
fields, or inspect materials (such as tubing
or pipelines) using the principles of
magnetic flux leakage.

Hall effect devices produce a very low


signal level and thus require amplification.
While suitable for laboratory instruments,
the vacuum tube amplifiers available in the
first half of the 20th century were too
expensive, power consuming, and
unreliable for everyday applications. It was
only with the development of the low cost
integrated circuit that the Hall effect
sensor became suitable for mass
application. Many devices now sold as
Hall effect sensors in fact contain both the
sensor as described above plus a high
gain integrated circuit (IC) amplifier in a
single package. Recent advances have
further added into one package an analog-
to-digital converter and I²C (Inter-
integrated circuit communication protocol)
IC for direct connection to a
microcontroller's I/O port.

Advantages over other


methods
Hall effect devices (when appropriately
packaged) are immune to dust, dirt, mud,
and water. These characteristics make
Hall effect devices better for position
sensing than alternative means such as
optical and electromechanical sensing.

Hall effect current sensor with internal integrated


circuit amplifier. 8 mm opening. Zero current output
voltage is midway between the supply voltages that
maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential. Non-zero current
response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is
espo se s p opo t o a to t e o tage supp ed a d s
linear to 60 amperes for this particular (25 A) device.

When electrons flow through a conductor,


a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is
possible to create a non-contacting
current sensor. The device has three
terminals. A sensor voltage is applied
across two terminals and the third
provides a voltage proportional to the
current being sensed. This has several
advantages; no additional resistance (a
shunt, required for the most common
current sensing method) need to be
inserted in the primary circuit. Also, the
voltage present on the line to be sensed is
not transmitted to the sensor, which
enhances the safety of measuring
equipment.

Disadvantages compared with


other methods

Magnetic flux from the surroundings (such


as other wires) may diminish or enhance
the field the Hall probe intends to detect,
rendering the results inaccurate. Also, as
Hall voltage is often on the order of
millivolts, the output from this type of
sensor cannot be used to directly drive
actuators but instead must be amplified by
a transistor-based circuit.
Ways to measure mechanical positions
within an electromagnetic system, such as
a brushless direct current motor, include
(1) the Hall effect, (2) optical position
encoder (e.g., absolute and incremental
encoders) and (3) induced voltage by
moving the amount of metal core inserted
into a transformer. When Hall is compared
to photo-sensitive methods, it is harder to
get absolute position with Hall. Hall
detection is also sensitive to stray
magnetic fields.

Contemporary applications
Hall effect sensors are readily available
from a number of different manufacturers,
and may be used in various sensors such
as rotating speed sensors (bicycle wheels,
gear-teeth, automotive speedometers,
electronic ignition systems), fluid flow
sensors, current sensors, and pressure
sensors. Common applications are often
found where a robust and contactless
switch or potentiometer is required. These
include: electric airsoft guns, triggers of
electropneumatic paintball guns, go-cart
speed controls, smart phones, and some
global positioning systems.

Ferrite toroid Hall effect current


transducer

Diagram of Hall effect current transducer integrated


into ferrite ring.

Hall sensors can detect stray magnetic


fields easily, including that of Earth, so
they work well as electronic compasses:
but this also means that such stray fields
can hinder accurate measurements of
small magnetic fields. To solve this
problem, Hall sensors are often integrated
with magnetic shielding of some kind. For
example, a Hall sensor integrated into a
ferrite ring (as shown) can reduce the
detection of stray fields by a factor of 100
or better (as the external magnetic fields
cancel across the ring, giving no residual
magnetic flux). This configuration also
provides an improvement in signal-to-
noise ratio and drift effects of over 20
times that of a bare Hall device.

The range of a given feedthrough sensor


may be extended upward and downward
by appropriate wiring. To extend the range
to lower currents, multiple turns of the
current-carrying wire may be made
through the opening, each turn adding to
the sensor output the same quantity; when
the sensor is installed onto a printed
circuit board, the turns can be carried out
by a staple on the board. To extend the
range to higher currents, a current divider
may be used. The divider splits the current
across two wires of differing widths and
the thinner wire, carrying a smaller
proportion of the total current, passes
through the sensor.
Multiple 'turns' and corresponding transfer function.

Split ring clamp-on sensor

A variation on the ring sensor uses a split


sensor which is clamped onto the line
enabling the device to be used in
temporary test equipment. If used in a
permanent installation, a split sensor
allows the electric current to be tested
without dismantling the existing circuit.

Analog multiplication

The output is proportional to both the


applied magnetic field and the applied
sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is
applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is
proportional to the product of the current
through the solenoid and the sensor
voltage. As most applications requiring
computation are now performed by small
digital computers, the remaining useful
application is in power sensing, which
combines current sensing with voltage
sensing in a single Hall effect device.

Power measurement

By sensing the current provided to a load


and using the device's applied voltage as a
sensor voltage it is possible to determine
the power dissipated by a device.

Position and motion sensing

Hall effect devices used in motion sensing


and motion limit switches can offer
enhanced reliability in extreme
environments. As there are no moving
parts involved within the sensor or
magnet, typical life expectancy is
improved compared to traditional
electromechanical switches. Additionally,
the sensor and magnet may be
encapsulated in an appropriate protective
material. This application is used in
brushless DC motors.

Hall effect sensors, affixed to mechanical


gauges that have magnetized indicator
needles, can translate the physical
position or orientation of the mechanical
indicator needle into an electrical signal
that can be used by electronic indicators,
controls or communications devices.[15]
Automotive ignition and fuel
injection

Commonly used in distributors for ignition


timing (and in some types of crank and
camshaft position sensors for injection
pulse timing, speed sensing, etc.) the Hall
effect sensor is used as a direct
replacement for the mechanical breaker
points used in earlier automotive
applications. Its use as an ignition timing
device in various distributor types is as
follows. A stationary permanent magnet
and semiconductor Hall effect chip are
mounted next to each other separated by
an air gap, forming the Hall effect sensor.
A metal rotor consisting of windows and
tabs is mounted to a shaft and arranged
so that during shaft rotation, the windows
and tabs pass through the air gap between
the permanent magnet and semiconductor
Hall chip. This effectively shields and
exposes the Hall chip to the permanent
magnet's field respective to whether a tab
or window is passing through the Hall
sensor. For ignition timing purposes, the
metal rotor will have a number of equal-
sized tabs and windows matching the
number of engine cylinders. This produces
a uniform square wave output since the
on/off (shielding and exposure) time is
equal. This signal is used by the engine
computer or ECU to control ignition timing.
Many automotive Hall effect sensors have
a built-in internal NPN transistor with an
open collector and grounded emitter,
meaning that rather than a voltage being
produced at the Hall sensor signal output
wire, the transistor is turned on providing a
circuit to ground through the signal output
wire.

Wheel rotation sensing

The sensing of wheel rotation is especially


useful in anti-lock braking systems. The
principles of such systems have been
extended and refined to offer more than
anti-skid functions, now providing
extended vehicle handling enhancements.

Electric motor control

Some types of brushless DC electric


motors use Hall effect sensors to detect
the position of the rotor and feed that
information to the motor controller. This
allows for more precise motor control.

Industrial applications

Applications for Hall effect sensing have


also expanded to industrial applications,
which now use Hall effect joysticks to
control hydraulic valves, replacing the
traditional mechanical levers with
contactless sensing. Such applications
include mining trucks, backhoe loaders,
cranes, diggers, scissor lifts, etc.

Spacecraft propulsion

A Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a relatively


low power device that is used to propel
some spacecraft, after it gets into orbit or
farther out into space. In the HET, atoms
are ionized and accelerated by an electric
field. A radial magnetic field established by
magnets on the thruster is used to trap
electrons which then orbit and create an
electric field due to the Hall effect. A large
potential is established between the end
of the thruster where neutral propellant is
fed, and the part where electrons are
produced; so, electrons trapped in the
magnetic field cannot drop to the lower
potential. They are thus extremely
energetic, which means that they can
ionize neutral atoms. Neutral propellant is
pumped into the chamber and is ionized
by the trapped electrons. Positive ions and
electrons are then ejected from the
thruster as a quasineutral plasma, creating
thrust.

The Corbino effect


Corbino disc – dashed curves represent logarithmic
spiral paths of deflected electrons

The Corbino effect is a phenomenon


involving the Hall effect, but a disc-shaped
metal sample is used in place of a
rectangular one. Because of its shape the
Corbino disc allows the observation of Hall
effect–based magnetoresistance without
the associated Hall voltage.
A radial current through a circular disc,
subjected to a magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the disc,
produces a "circular" current through the
disc.[16]

The absence of the free transverse


boundaries renders the interpretation of
the Corbino effect simpler than that of the
Hall effect.

See also
Capacitor
Transducer
Coulomb potential between two current
loops embedded in a magnetic field
Eddy current
Eric Fawcett
List of plasma (physics) articles
Nernst effect
Quantum Hall effect
Fractional quantum Hall effect
Quantum anomalous Hall effect
Senftleben–Beenakker effect
Spin Hall effect
Thermal Hall effect

References
1. Edwin Hall (1879). "On a New Action
of the Magnet on Electric Currents" .
American Journal of Mathematics. 2
(3): 287–92. doi:10.2307/2369245 .
JSTOR 2369245 . Archived from the
original on 2011-07-27. Retrieved
2008-02-28.
2. Bridgeman, P. W. (1939). Biographical
Memoir of Edwin Herbert Hall .
National Academy of Sciences.
3. Hall, E. H. (1879). "On a New Action of
the Magnet on Electric Currents".
American Journal of Mathematics.
JSTOR. 2 (3): 287.
doi:10.2307/2369245 . ISSN 0002-
9327 .
4. "Hall Effect History" . Retrieved
2015-07-26.
5. Ramsden, Edward (2006). Hall-Effect
Sensors. Elsevier Inc. pp. xi. ISBN 978-
0-7506-7934-3.
6. "The Hall Effect" . NIST. Retrieved
2008-02-28.
7. N.W. Ashcroft and N.D. Mermin "Solid
State Physics" ISBN 978-0-03-083993-
1
8. Ohgaki, Takeshi; Ohashi, Naoki;
Sugimura, Shigeaki; Ryoken, Haruki;
Sakaguchi, Isao; Adachi, Yutaka;
Haneda, Hajime (2008). "Positive Hall
coefficients obtained from contact
misplacement on evident n-type ZnO
films and crystals". Journal of
Materials Research. 23 (9): 2293.
Bibcode:2008JMatR..23.2293O .
doi:10.1557/JMR.2008.0300 .
9. Kasap, Safa. "Hall Effect in
Semiconductors" (PDF). Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2008-08-
21.
10. Mark Wardle (2004). "Star Formation
and the Hall Effect". Astrophysics and
Space Science. 292 (1): 317–323.
arXiv:astro-ph/0307086 .
Bibcode:2004Ap&SS.292..317W .
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.746.8082 .
doi:10.1023/B:ASTR.0000045033.800
68.1f .
11. Braiding, C. R.; Wardle, M. (2012). "The
Hall effect in star formation". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 422 (1): 261.
arXiv:1109.1370 .
Bibcode:2012MNRAS.422..261B .
doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2012.20601.x .
12. Braiding, C. R.; Wardle, M. (2012). "The
Hall effect in accretion flows". Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society. 427 (4): 3188.
arXiv:1208.5887 .
Bibcode:2012MNRAS.427.3188B .
doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2012.22001.x .
13. Robert Karplus and J. M. Luttinger
(1954). "Hall Effect in Ferromagnetics".
Phys. Rev. 95 (5): 1154–1160.
Bibcode:1954PhRv...95.1154K .
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.95.1154 .
14. N. A. Sinitsyn (2008). "Semiclassical
Theories of the Anomalous Hall
Effect". Journal of Physics: Condensed
Matter. 20 (2): 023201.
arXiv:0712.0183 .
Bibcode:2008JPCM...20b3201S .
doi:10.1088/0953-
8984/20/02/023201 .
15. Tank Sensors & Probes , Electronic
Sensors, Inc., retrieved August 8, 2018
16. Adams, E. P. (1915). The Hall and
Corbino effects . Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society. 54.
pp. 47–51.
Bibcode:1916PhDT.........2C .
ISBN 978-1-4223-7256-2. Retrieved
2009-01-24.

Sources
Introduction to Plasma Physics and
Controlled Fusion, Volume 1, Plasma
Physics, Second Edition, 1984, Francis F.
Chen

Further reading
Baumgartner, A.; Ihn, T.; Ensslin, K.; Papp, G.;
Peeters, F.; Maranowski, K.; Gossard, A. C.
(2006). "Classical Hall effect in scanning
gate experiments". Physical Review B. 74
(16). doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.74.165426 .
Annraoi M. de Paor. Correction to the
classical two-species Hall Coefficient using
twoport network theory . International
Journal of Electrical Engineering Education
43/4.
NIST The Hall Effect
University of Washington The Hall Effect
External links
Patents
U.S. Patent 1,778,796 , P. H. Craig,
System and apparatus employing the Hall
effect
U.S. Patent 3,596,114 , J. T. Maupin, E.
A. Vorthmann, Hall effect contactless
switch with prebiased Schmitt trigger
General
Understanding and Applying the Hall
Effect
Hall Effect Thrusters Alta Space
Hall effect calculators
Interactive Java tutorial on the Hall
effect National High Magnetic Field
Laboratory
Science World (wolfram.com) article.
"The Hall Effect ". nist.gov.
Table with Hall coefficients of different
elements at room temperature .
Simulation of the Hall effect as a
Youtube video
Hall effect in electrolytes
Bowley, Roger (2010). "Hall Effect" .
Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the
University of Nottingham.

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