v2.

Reference Guide

2019

Marketed and supported by:

ARK CLS Ltd, Bedford i-lab, Priory Business Park, Stannard Way, Bedford, MK44 3RZ, UK.
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1 AGL is ARKeX Geophysics Ltd a UK registered company

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 Table of Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 10
1.1 About XField ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.2 Using this Manual ................................................................................................................ 10
1.2.1 Scope of Manual ................................................................................................................. 10
1.2.2 Conventions ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.3 XField Basics ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.3.1 Starting XField ................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 Exiting XField ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.4 XField Icons ......................................................................................................................... 14
2 Viewing and Displaying a Model................................................................. 15
2.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................. 15
2.2 Opening a Project ................................................................................................................ 15
2.3 Setting Project Properties ................................................................................................... 15
2.4 Creating a New Model ....................................................................................................... 16
2.5 Item Display by Model Type ................................................................................................ 19
2.6 Opening a Model ................................................................................................................. 19
2.7 Opening a New Model from Current Model ....................................................................... 20
2.8 Backward Model, Forward Model ....................................................................................... 20
2.9 Saving a Model .................................................................................................................... 20
2.10 Saving a Model Revision ...................................................................................................... 21
2.11 Opening a Model Revision .................................................................................................. 21
2.12 Closing a Model ................................................................................................................... 22
2.13 Exporting Model Properties ................................................................................................ 22
2.14 Importing Observed Data .................................................................................................... 24
2.14.1 Importing Observed Data from Horizon .......................................................................... 24
2.14.2 Importing Observed Data from File ................................................................................. 25
2.15 Closing Observed Data ........................................................................................................ 26
2.16 Topography Data ................................................................................................................. 27
2.17 Depth QC horizon ................................................................................................................ 27
2.18 Save User Options to File .................................................................................................... 28
2.19 Load User Options from File ................................................................................................ 29
2.20 Open Lineations................................................................................................................... 29
2.21 Modifying the Model View .................................................................................................. 30
2.21.1 Fixed Display ranges for Model ........................................................................................ 30

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 2.21.2 Changing the Model Scaling ............................................................................................. 30
2.21.3 Zoom Controls .................................................................................................................. 31
3 XField Edit Tab............................................................................................ 32
4 XField View Options ................................................................................... 33
5 Profile Viewing Options .............................................................................. 34
5.1 Available Options ................................................................................................................ 34
5.1.1 Switching Off Profile ........................................................................................................... 34
5.1.2 Auto Offset ......................................................................................................................... 34
5.1.3 Auto Range ......................................................................................................................... 34
5.1.4 Set Range Offset ................................................................................................................. 34
5.1.5 Show Difference ................................................................................................................. 34
5.1.6 Show Current Body............................................................................................................. 35
5.1.7 Show Multiple Bodies ......................................................................................................... 35
5.1.8 Show Filtered...................................................................................................................... 36
5.1.9 Show Legend ...................................................................................................................... 36
5.1.10 Number of Profiles ........................................................................................................... 36
6 Model Options ........................................................................................... 37
6.1 Infinite Modelling (2D) ........................................................................................................ 37
6.1.1 Extending a Body/Bodies to Infinity ................................................................................... 37
6.1.2 Removing Infinity Points .................................................................................................... 38
6.2 Model Information .............................................................................................................. 38
6.3 Model Parameters ............................................................................................................... 38
6.4 Model Body Annotation ...................................................................................................... 40
6.5 Model Body Colouring ......................................................................................................... 40
6.5.1 Individual Colour Selection................................................................................................. 41
6.5.2 Chronostratigraphic Age .................................................................................................... 41
6.5.3 User Palette ........................................................................................................................ 41
6.5.4 Set an Individual Colour ..................................................................................................... 42
6.6 Model Response .................................................................................................................. 42
6.6.1 Auto Recalculation ............................................................................................................. 42
6.6.2 Real-time Response ............................................................................................................ 42
6.6.3 Recalculate Model Response ............................................................................................. 42
6.7 Model Validity Check ........................................................................................................... 42
6.8 Body Display ........................................................................................................................ 43
6.8.1 Show Current Body Corners ............................................................................................... 43
6.8.2 Show All Body Corners ....................................................................................................... 43
6.8.3 Show Current Body Outlines .............................................................................................. 43
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 6.8.4 Show Body Outlines ........................................................................................................... 43
6.8.5 Body Outline Thickness ...................................................................................................... 43
6.9 Field Stations ....................................................................................................................... 43
6.9.1 Show Gravity Field Stations ................................................................................................ 43
6.9.2 Show Magnetic Field Stations ............................................................................................ 43
6.10 Topography ......................................................................................................................... 43
6.10.1 Setting Flat Topography ................................................................................................... 43
6.10.2 Show Topography............................................................................................................. 44
6.11 Well Display ......................................................................................................................... 44
6.11.1 Select Wells and Tolerance .............................................................................................. 44
6.11.2 Set Wells Intersections ..................................................................................................... 44
6.11.3 Display Well Track, Markers and Marker Labels .............................................................. 44
6.12 Intersections ........................................................................................................................ 44
6.12.1 Show Intersecting Models ................................................................................................ 44
6.12.2 Show Extended Model Intersections ............................................................................... 45
6.12.3 Update Model Intersections ............................................................................................ 45
6.12.4 Display Seismic Intersections ........................................................................................... 45
6.13 Show Lineations................................................................................................................... 45
6.14 Body Properties ................................................................................................................... 45
6.15 Export Corners ..................................................................................................................... 46
6.16 Bodies .................................................................................................................................. 47
6.17 Corners ................................................................................................................................ 48
6.17.1 Display Model ................................................................................................................... 49
6.17.2 Display Seismic ................................................................................................................. 49
6.17.3 Display Horizon ................................................................................................................. 49
7 Profile Options ........................................................................................... 50
7.1 Profile settings ..................................................................................................................... 50
7.2 Filter Observed Data............................................................................................................ 50
7.3 Filter Calculated Data .......................................................................................................... 50
7.4 Set Filter Parameters ........................................................................................................... 50
7.5 Show Profiles ....................................................................................................................... 51
8 Seismic Options .......................................................................................... 52
8.1 Select Seismic ...................................................................................................................... 52
8.2 Select Horizon...................................................................................................................... 52
8.3 Reload Horizons................................................................................................................... 52
8.4 Edit Palettes......................................................................................................................... 52
9 Window Options ........................................................................................ 53

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 9.1 Open Depth Window ........................................................................................................... 53
9.2 Open Time Window............................................................................................................. 53
9.3 Close Window ...................................................................................................................... 53
9.4 Close All Windows ............................................................................................................... 53
10 Base map ................................................................................................... 54
10.1 Base Map Display ................................................................................................................ 54
11 Useful Modelling Methods and Tips ........................................................... 56
11.1 How to Start Setting Up a Modelling Space ........................................................................ 56
11.2 How to Start Model Building ............................................................................................... 59
11.3 Using Intersecting Models ................................................................................................... 62
12 Help Options .............................................................................................. 65
Appendix A. Gravity and Magnetics – The Basics ................................................. 66
A.1 What are gravity and magnetics good at? ............................................................................ 66
A.2 Evaluating Datasets ................................................................................................................ 67
A.3 Essentials of Gravity ............................................................................................................... 67
A.4 Essentials of Magnetics .......................................................................................................... 69
Appendix B. OpendTect Quick Guide................................................................... 71
B.1 Project Setup ............................................................................................................................ 71
B.2 Import Horizons ........................................................................................................................ 72

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 Table of Figures
Figure 1 : How to open XField from within OpendTect ..................................................................... 12
Figure 2 : XField initial view ............................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3 : XField, Project Properties Window .................................................................................... 15
Figure 4 : Creating a new model using 3D seismic data .................................................................... 16
Figure 5 : Creating a new model using 2D seismic data .................................................................... 17
Figure 6 : Extend model window ....................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7 : Creating a new model using an image ............................................................................... 18
Figure 8 : Creating a new model using no background image ........................................................... 19
Figure 9 : How to open a model ......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 10 : Saving a Model ................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 11 : Saving a model revision ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 12 : Opening a model revision ................................................................................................ 22
Figure 13 : Exporting properties as ASCII File .................................................................................... 22
Figure 14 : Exporting properties as SEGY file ..................................................................................... 23
Figure 15 : Exporting properties as SEGY file ..................................................................................... 24
Figure 16 : Opening an observed data file, option list ....................................................................... 25
Figure 17 : Loading observed data into XField ................................................................................... 25
Figure 18: Import observed gravity from file ..................................................................................... 26
Figure 19 : Viewing both observed and calculated data profiles in XField ........................................ 26
Figure 20 : Closing an observed data file ........................................................................................... 27
Figure 21 Saved user options in the View, Model and Profile menus ............................................... 28
Figure 22: Additional options saved to user options ......................................................................... 29
Figure 23 : Lineations functionality .................................................................................................... 30
Figure 24: Model display ranges ........................................................................................................ 30
Figure 25 : Model display scale .......................................................................................................... 31
Figure 26 : Zoom Instructions ............................................................................................................ 31
Figure 27 : Switching off a profile window ........................................................................................ 34
Figure 28: Show difference ................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 29 : Show current body profile ............................................................................................... 35
Figure 30 Show multiple bodies ......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 31 : Show legend ..................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 32 : Show number of profiles.................................................................................................. 36
Figure 33: Body Properties window ................................................................................................... 37
Figure 34 : Model Information ........................................................................................................... 38
Figure 35 : Model Parameters ........................................................................................................... 39
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Figure 36 : Model Body Annotation options...................................................................................... 40
Figure 37: Model Body Colouring ...................................................................................................... 41
Figure 38: Body Properties with colour selection .............................................................................. 41
Figure 39: User Palette....................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 40 : Setting a flat topography ................................................................................................. 44
Figure 41: Intersecting model lines .................................................................................................... 44
Figure 42 : Body Properties window .................................................................................................. 45
Figure 43: ChronostratigraphicAge .................................................................................................... 46
Figure 44: Pick corners to export ....................................................................................................... 47
Figure 45: Export Corners .................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 46: Floating bodies menu........................................................................................................ 48
Figure 47: Floating corner menu ........................................................................................................ 49
Figure 48 : Profile settings ................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 49 Profile filtering settings ...................................................................................................... 51
Figure 50: XField base map ................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 51: Base map options .............................................................................................................. 54
Figure 52 : Demo - OpendTect initial view......................................................................................... 56
Figure 53 : Demo - Setting up OpendTect project ............................................................................. 57
Figure 54 : Demo - Creating a new model in XField ........................................................................... 57
Figure 55 : Demo - Creating a new model in XField from 3D seismic data ....................................... 58
Figure 56 : Demo – Alter your XField view as desired ....................................................................... 58
Figure 57 : Demo – Open useful data prior to modelling .................................................................. 59
Figure 58 : Demo – Splitting the current body down ........................................................................ 60
Figure 59 : Demo – Model building by following an already interpreted seismic horizon ............... 60
Figure 60 : Demo – Adding body properties whilst model building .................................................. 61
Figure 61 : Demo - Adjusting the properties of bodies in a model .................................................... 61
Figure 62 : Demo – Comparing the fit between observed and calculated potential field data ........ 62
Figure 63 : Demo – Switch on intersecting model functionality ....................................................... 62
Figure 64 : Demo - Which intersecting model are you looking at? ................................................... 63
Figure 65 : Demo – Interpretation model for XLine 1070.................................................................. 63
Figure 66 OpendTect Survey Setup.................................................................................................... 71
Figure 67 SEG-Y Tool .......................................................................................................................... 72

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 Tables
Table 1 : List of XField manual conventions ....................................................................................... 11
Table 2 : XField Icons .......................................................................................................................... 14
Table 3 : Items that can be displayed during modelling. ................................................................... 19
Table 4 : Maximum gravity effects produced by example structures ............................................... 68
Table 5 : Real examples...................................................................................................................... 70

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 1 Introduction
1.1 About XField
XField is a plugin for OpendTect that computes 2D/2.5D potential field models (gravity, gravity
gradient and magnetics) using the Talwani (1959)* method.
2D or 3D seismic, interpreted horizons and lineations can be used in the model building process to
ensure all geophysical interpretations are included in the model.
Note that since the Talwani method assumes that the modelled anomaly is perpendicular to the
observed plane, the modelling result may become inaccurate when using curved 2D seismic lines.
* Talwani, M., Worzel, J.L. & Landisman, M., 1959. Rapid gravity computations for two-
dimensional bodies with application to the Mendocino submarine fracture zone. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 64(1), p.49.
Talwani, M., & Heirtzler, J. R, 1964. Computation of magnetic anomalies caused by two
dimensional structures of arbitrary shape.

1.2 Using this Manual

Welcome to XField. The tools within XField are designed so that the user is able to manipulate,
model and analyse potential field data accurately and efficiently. XField enables the user to
integrate a seismic interpretation workspace with potential field modelling capabilities so that
constrained geological models may be produced.

1.2.1 Scope of Manual

This XField reference manual is designed to help the user achieve optimum use and maximum
benefit from the software. It provides step-by-step procedures for all the tasks a user will
commonly perform. In addition, hints and tips on interpreting potential field data are included.
Each section covers a group of related tasks (for example, everything the user might need to know
to model a section). This introductory section covers the basics of XField, such as opening and
closing the software.
1.2.2 Conventions
Throughout this manual, certain conventions are used to explain how to access various features of
XField. A selection of the most frequently used actions are listed below.
Note: Button 1 – Left mouse button. Button 2 – Middle mouse button/wheel. Button 3 – Right
mouse button.

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 Table 1 : List of XField manual conventions

Move the cursor to the option or object

Click on specified and quickly press and release
button 1.
Press button 1 and hold it down
Press & drag while moving the cursor to the desired
option; then release button 1.
In a selection tree/drop down option list,
move the cursor to the desired option
Highlight and use button 1 to check or uncheck the
option. The option the user is referring
to will become highlighted for clarity.
Move the cursor to the option or object
Select
desired and click.
Click button 1 twice rapidly without
moving the mouse. The first click
Double-click highlights the option or object beneath
the cursor; the second click is equivalent
to pressing the OK button to accept the
selection.

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1.3 XField Basics
1.3.1 Starting XField
1. XField is started from OpendTect. OpendTect can be launched by double clicking the

OpendTect icon . The location of this icon is specified during installation.

2. XField is can be launched by clicking on the XField icon . This is found in the main
OpendTect tool bar (Figure 1).
Figure 1 : How to open XField from within OpendTect

3. The main modelling window (Figure 2) will appear.

Figure 2 : XField initial view

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1.3.2 Exiting XField
1. Ensure the working model is saved. (2.9 - Saving a Model)
2. To exit XField, select FILE from the Main Menu, then EXIT.

3. The user can also exit XField by clicking on . Found in the left XField tool bar.

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1.4 XField Icons
For fast access to frequently used menu options, icons are provided on the tool bar area in
XField. Clicking an icon is equivalent to selecting the option from the main menus.
The icons are summarized below:
Table 2 : XField Icons

New Model

Open Model

Close Model

Save Model

Save Model As

Show Time/Depth Model

Recalculate Model Response

Set Filter Parameters

Edit Palettes

Backward Model

Forward Model

Show Base Map

Exit

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 2 Viewing and Displaying a Model
2.1 Overview
XField allows the user to build gravity and magnetic earth models which can be saved for later
retrieval, display and exportation. The following section describes how to create a model.
Models can be created based on the location and sampling information from either 3D seismic
data, 2D seismic data, Image Files (png/bmp) or with no background constraint at all. In the latter
case the user is able to set start and end distances (m) / times (s) in order to create a model.
Models can either be displayed in time or depth within the Model View window of XField.
Also, more than one window of different domains (time or depth) can be open at the same
time for the same project.

2.2 Opening a Project

XField runs simultaneously with OpendTect. In this way the user has full functionality of a seismic
interpretation software suite alongside potential field modelling capabilities.
1. Ensure OpendTect is running.
2. Ensure all data chosen to aid potential field model building (such as 3D seismic, 2D
seismic, potential field data, previously interpreted horizons) are loaded into an
OpendTect project prior to modelling with XField.
3. If no datasets are to be used to aid model building, the project opened in OpendTect
is irrelevant. Simply open OpendTect and navigate directly to XField.

2.3 Setting Project Properties

Prior to creating a new model the user must set the project properties. To do this follow:
1. FILE >> PROJECT PROPERTIES
2. The following window will appear:
Figure 3 : XField, Project Properties Window

3. Select the horizontal distance unit for the modelling window (m/km/ft/kft)
4. Select the vertical distance unit for the modelling window (m/km/ft/kft)
5. Select the velocity unit to be used for the modelling window (m/s, km/s, ft/s, kft/s)
6. Select the X Scale and Z scale increments for both the time view XField modelling
window and depth view XField modelling window. Select which profiles the scale
selection will be applied to (gravity gradient, gravity, magnetic).
7. Click OK.
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2.4 Creating a New Model
To create a new XField Model:
1. Launch XField via the OpendTect tool bar. (1.3 - XField Basics)
2. With the XField Model View launched, to open a new model: FILE > NEW MODEL

Or, use the quick reference icon found in the tool bar .
3. The XField New Model window will appear (Figure 4). If using a 3D seismic dataset,
click on the 3D seismic tab.
Figure 4 : Creating a new model using 3D seismic data

This tab contains two sections.

Within Cube Selection the user may:
 Select Inline or Crossline.
 Select a seismic attribute via the stored cube selection button.
 Note that the line range automatically updates depending upon the seismic line
chosen.
Within Model Limits the user may:
 Specify a minimum time (s) and maximum time (s) limit for the model. By
default the full time range of your seismic data are automatically used as the
model depth limits. This option allows the user to increase or decrease this z –
range.
The lateral extent of the seismic line is automatically used as the model boundary.
Once settings are suitable select OK.
4. If using 2D seismic data click on the 2D seismic tab (Figure 5).

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 Figure 5 : Creating a new model using 2D seismic data

This tab contains two sections.

Within Line Selection the user may:
 Select which 2D line to model.
 Select desired attribute.
Within Model Limits the user may:
 Specify a minimum time (s) and maximum time (s) limit for the model. By
default the full time range of the seismic data are automatically used as the
model depth limits. This option allows the user to increase or decrease this Z –
range.
The lateral extent of the seismic line is automatically used as the model boundary. There
is also the possibility of extending the model laterally using x and y coordinates different
from the start and end of the seismic line with the help of Extend Model button (Figure
6).
Figure 6 : Extend model window

Once happy with the settings select OK.

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5. If modelling using an image, select the Image tab (Figure 7).
Figure 7 : Creating a new model using an image

 Firstly navigate to the image intended for use. Supported file formats include
(png, bmp).
 Input a complete set of X Y locations to create the model geometry. The
minimum number of XY points is two - this would create a straight model. The
user may wish to enter multiple XY locations (>2) in order to create a non-
straight model geometry.
 Specify the start and end trace values for the image.
 Specify the vertical range for the image. Time (s) or depth (m) may be chosen.
Once happy with the settings select OK.
XField will calculate the total length of the model and divide the image up evenly across
the length.
When saving a model with an image backdrop, the image file will be copied into the
same folder as the .xf2 file.
The .xf2 file contains the location of the image used in the model. If XField cannot find
the image (for example the image has been moved), a prompt for the user to locate the
image will appear. Simply locate the image and click ok.
If the user wishes to move the image model file, for example to a computer on a
different network, then both the .xf2 file and the image need to be moved. XField will ask
the user to locate the image file when opening the model for the first time in the new
location. Simply locate the image and click ok.

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 6. If modelling without any supporting background image (Figure 8).
Figure 8 : Creating a new model using no background image

 Specify the lateral dimension for the model by setting the start and end
distances (m).
 Set the vertical range for the model in time (s).

2.5 Item Display by Model Type

Not all display functionality is available for each model type. Table 3 shows a list of model types
and corresponding items which can be displayed during modelling.
Table 3 : Items that can be displayed during modelling.

3D Seismic 2D Seismic Image No seismic (or

image) mode
Horizons Yes Yes No No
Observed data Yes Yes Yes No
Lineations Yes Yes Yes No
Wells Yes Yes Yes No
Topography Yes Yes Yes No
Depth QC Horizon Yes Yes Yes No
Linked cursor Yes Yes Yes No
TIP - If the user wishes to utilise the functionality of the image model but does not have a specific
image for the seismic, a blank image can be used.

2.6 Opening a Model

There are two methods to open a saved model: from the quick reference icon in tool bar or

MODEL menu. The quick reference icon can be found in the tool bar . Alternatively,
1. Click on FILE >> OPEN >> MODEL.

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 2. The “Select a Model File” window will appear (Figure 9).
Figure 9 : How to open a model

3. Navigate to the saved model file.

4. Once the model file is selected, click OPEN.

2.7 Opening a New Model from Current Model

This option may be used as a short cut to create a new model based on the current working
model. In this way the user can continue working with the same seismic data and/or background
image. To start a new model, follow:
1. FILE >> NEW MODEL FROM CURRENT MODEL

2.8 Backward Model, Forward Model

The option to backward/forward model allows the user to revert back to the previous model,
conversely, the function to forward model allows the user to move forward again. This option is
especially useful when using the model intersection functionality available in XField (11.3 - Using
Intersecting Models). In this instance the option to forward and backward model enables the user
to move back and forth between models with ease.
Backward and Forward Model can be accessed in two ways:

1. Use the Backward Model icon and Forward Model icon available via the
tool bar.
2. Navigation to FILE >> BACKWARD MODEL (Alt+Left) /FORWARD MODEL(Alt+Right)
Tip: Hot keys are shown in brackets

2.9 Saving a Model

There are two ways to save a working model.
If the user wishes to save a model under a new and unique file name follow the steps below:

1. A quick reference icon can be found in the tool bar .

2. Alternatively, select FILE >> SAVE MODEL AS
3. The “Select an Output Model File” window will appear (Figure 10).
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 Figure 10 : Saving a Model

4. Navigate to the desired location to save the model. Assign a unique file name before
clicking SAVE.

2.10 Saving a Model Revision

If the user already has a model saved under a specific file name, it may be useful to save any
alterations or revisions made under the same model file name but assign a unique description
which allows the user to distinguish between different versions. In order to do this the user can
save a model revision.

1. The “Save Model” quick reference icon can be found in the tool bar .
2. Alternatively, select FILE >> SAVE MODEL
3. The “Save Model Data” window will appear (Figure 11).
4. Give the model revision a useful title, such as the current date or model edition, and
click OK once finished.
Figure 11 : Saving a model revision

2.11 Opening a Model Revision

Saving model revisions allows the user to update and alter models in an organised and
documented way. The user can easily access model revisions by following the steps below.
1. FILE >> OPEN >> MODEL REVISIONS
2. The “Select a Model Revision” window will be displayed (Figure 12).
3. Click on the model revision you wish to open and press SELECT.

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 Figure 12 : Opening a model revision

Revision
Description

2.12 Closing a Model

Closing a model enables the user to close the working model without closing XField entirely. This
may be achieved in two ways.

1. A quick reference icon can be found in the tool bar .

2. Alternatively, FILE >> CLOSE >> MODEL.

2.13 Exporting Model Properties

It is possible to export geological model properties from XField in two formats; as ASCII or SEGY.
This allows assigned model properties to be imported into a variety of seismic interpretation
software packages.
To export properties as an ASCII file:
1. FILE >> EXPORT PROPERTIES AS ASCII
2. This will open the “Export Properties As ASCII File” window, (Figure 13).
Figure 13 : Exporting properties as ASCII File

3. Specify the horizontal sampling limits of the export in distance, inline or crossline
number.
4. Specify the vertical sampling limits of the export in either time or depth.

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 5. Specify the property desired for exportation. This is indicated by selecting the
appropriate tick box.
6. Ensure an output directory and file name is specified.
7. Select OK.
To export properties as a SEGY file:
1. FILE >> EXPORT PROPERTIES AS SEGY
2. This will display the “Export Properties As SEGY File” window, (Figure 14).
Figure 14 : Exporting properties as SEGY file

3. Decide whether to export the model properties for the entire seismic line (match
seismic) or whether to specify certain limits (by entering limiting values).
4. To limit the extent of data to export, the user is able to set ranges in “Horizontal
Sampling” and “Vertical Sampling”.
5. Specify the property to export by using the drop down menu on the right hand side of
the exportation window.
6. Ensure the output directory for the file is specified. Enter a unique file name.
7. Select OK.
To export the profile data:
1. FILE >> EXPORT PROFILE DATA

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 2. This will display the “Export Profile Data” window, (Figure 15).
Figure 15 : Export Profile Data

3. Choose the profiles you need to export: all visible profiles will be listed for export.
4. Click Export
5. Ensure the output directory for the file is specified. Enter a unique file name.
6. Select Save.

2.14 Importing Observed Data

In order to model accurately the user must compare the calculated response, generated from the
model, against an observed dataset. There are 2 ways to import observed data: 1) from horizon or
2) from a column text file.

2.14.1 Importing Observed Data from Horizon

Horizons are loaded into XField from OpendTect. To be able to open an observed dataset (gravity
gradiometry, conventional gravity or conventional magnetics) from a horizon, the user must
preload the dataset in OpendTect.
See, “Appendix B” may prove useful as a starting point for general loading of data into
OpendTect.
Once all data required to aid model building has been imported into OpendTect, follow the steps
below.
To open observed data from a horizon:
1. FILE >> OPEN
2. The option list below will appear (Figure 16). Here the user can choose whether to
open –
a) Observed Gravity GZZ from Horizon
b) Observed Gravity from Horizon
c) Observed Magnetic from Horizon

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 Figure 16 : Opening an observed data file, option list

3. Irrespective of which data is to be loaded, a window similar to that shown below will
open (Figure 17).
Figure 17 : Loading observed data into XField

4. Firstly choose the horizon to display.

5. Then specify the attribute to display from the horizon. For example, the gravity horizon
may include a variety of tensor options such as Gxy, Gxz, Gzz etc.
6. Then select OK.
7. The observed data will be plotted alongside the calculated model response (Figure 19).
The observed data will be plotted as a blue line, the calculated data will be plotted as a
red line.

2.14.2 Importing Observed Data from File

Observed data can also be imported from a column text file. Import observed data from a file is
recommended only when using gravity or magnetics from profile data as OpendTect is not able to
import the profile in the correct way. The data are required to be arranged in a text column file
format “x y attribute”. To import the data from a text file:
1. FILE >> OPEN >> OBSERVED ‘DATA’ FROM FILE
The option list displayed in Figure 16 will appear. Choose which data to import. The
window below will then appear (Figure 18).

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 Figure 18: Import observed gravity from file

2. The user is required to select columns associated with the x,y and the corresponded
observed data within the text input file. Header rows in the text input file can be
skipped by using the ‘Start reading at line nr’ function. The user is also required to
set the tolerance. The tolerance is defined as the maximum x,y distance allowed
from the observed data to the modelled data.
** Hint – the “x y attribute” files should be in “space delimited” format.
Figure 19 : Viewing both observed and calculated data profiles in XField

2.15 Closing Observed Data

Whilst modelling, it may be useful to hide the observed data profile. To hide the observed data
profile, follow:
1. FILE >> CLOSE

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 2. The following window will appear (Figure 20). Select which observed data profile to
hide. Options include Gravity GZZ Data, Gravity Data, Magnetic Data, Topography Data.
Figure 20 : Closing an observed data file

2.16 Topography Data

There are two ways to open topography data, either from a horizon or from a column text file.
Import topography data from a file is recommended only when using profile data as OpendTect is
not able to import the profile in the correct way.
With topography data already loaded into an OpendTect project, it is possible to view this data in
XField. This can be achieved by following:
1. FILE >> OPEN >> TOPOGRAPHY DATA FROM HORIZON
2. The “Load Topography Data From Horizon” window will appear. Here the user can
choose a desired horizon (in this case topography), and a desired attribute.
3. Click OK.
Alternatively, the topography can be loaded from a column text file.
1. FILE >> OPEN >> TOPOGRAPHY DATA FROM FILE
2. The “Import Topography Data” window will appear. Here the user can choose a
desired file. The user is also required to define the tolerance. The tolerance is
defined as the maximum x,y distance allowed from the observed data to the
modelled data.
3. Click LOAD
To remove topography data from view in XField follow:
1. FILE >> CLOSE >> TOPOGRAPHY DATA

2.17 Depth QC horizon

When modelling in time, it is possible to load one auxiliary depth horizon to aid modelling. This
horizon is called the Depth QC horizon. To load the Depth QC horizon, the user can follow the
same procedure as to load the topography. The Depth QC horizon can be loaded either from a
horizon, a horizon attribute or from a column text file.
With the Depth QC horizon already loaded into an OpendTect project, this can be achieved by
following:
1. FILE >> OPEN >> DEPTH QC HORIZON FROM SURFACE
2. The “Load Depth QC Data From Horizon” window will appear. Here the user can
choose a desired surface or interpreted horizon.

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 3. Click OK.
Alternatively, the QC Depth Horizon can be loaded from a column text file.
1. FILE >> OPEN >> DEPTH QC HORIZON FROM FILE
2. The “Import Depth QC Horizon” window will appear. Here the user can choose a
desired file. The user is also required to define the tolerance. The tolerance is
defined as the maximum x,y distance allowed from the observed data to the
modelled data.
3. Click LOAD
To remove Moho data from view in XField follow:
1. FILE >> CLOSE >> DEPTH QC HORIZON

2.18 Save User Options to File

This option saves selected active users parameters from the View, Model and Profile menu to an
.xml file which can be opened by multiple users. For example, this functionality might be useful to
define master display parameters for a particular project. In this way, all team members could use
the User Options File to harmonise display parameters. Figure 21 shows the options saved to the
user file from the XField View, Model and Profile menus. The status of these options (on/off) will
be saved to the User Options file. Saving user options can be achieved by:

1. FILE >> SAVE USER OPTIONS TO FILE

Figure 21 Saved user options in the View, Model and Profile menus

Auto recalculation
and real time “Show and display”
response saved options saved to
User Options File

Show and display “Show and display”

options saved to options saved to
User Options File User Options File

In addition to the items from View, Model and Profile menu, the Profile View Options described in
5 Profile Viewing Options can also be saved to the User Options File. These include the viewing

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options for the individual gravity, gravity gradient and magnetic profiles (see Figure 22 below for
more details).
Figure 22: Additional options saved to user options

Height of each individual profile window

All options (except show multiple

bodies) in each profile window area
are saved to the User Options File
(Click mouse button 3 in profile to
display menu)

2.19 Load User Options from File

Using this option, the user can load saved user parameter files as described in (2.18 Save User
Options to File).
Loading saved user options can be achieved by:
1. FILE >> LOAD USER OPTIONS FROM FILE
2. Select file and click open.

2.20 Open Lineations

Lineations refer to linear data contained in ESRI shape files (.shp). The lineations function in XField
enables the user to display model-lineation intersections.
When .shp files have been selected using this function, the features that they contain are listed in
the “Lineations” panel and each are identified by a unique colour which can be altered by the user
(Figure 23). The lineations can be toggled on/off for display purposes. If displayed, the lineations
appear as vertical bars at the location where the path of the model intersects the linear features.
The colour of the lineation bar correlates to the colour of the feature in the lineation panel. As the
cursor is moved over a lineation, the lineation will become highlighted. Once highlighted, the
name of the feature is shown in the information area at the bottom of the screen.
To access the lineation panel follow:
1. FILE >> LINEATIONS

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 2. The lineation panel will appear (Figure 23)
Figure 23 : Lineations functionality

2.21 Modifying the Model View

2.21.1 Fixed Display ranges for Model
XField model window can be fixed in both horizontal and vertical ranges according to the user
preferences following the procedure:
1. VIEW>>SET DISPLAY RANGES…
2. This will open the Model Display Ranges window (Figure 24)
Figure 24: Model display ranges

3. Alter the Min and Max values for both horizontal and vertical ranges
4. The model display will be fixed in the desired ranges.

2.21.2 Changing the Model Scaling

When in the XField modelling view, the scales of the model may be altered in the following way:
1. VIEW >> SET MODEL SCALES

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 2. This will open the “Model Display Scale” window (Figure 25).
Figure 25 : Model display scale

3. Alter the X Scale and Z Scale values as required and click OK.
4. The model view will now be redrawn at the desired scaling.

2.21.3 Zoom Controls

Within the XField modelling view, the user may use zoom controls to display different portions of
the model. Model scroll bars, located at the bottom and right of the model view, can also be used
to move along the model.
1. Zooming in the Y-axis: Click in the specific profile view one wishes to zoom in on.
Hold keyboard SHIFT and CONTROL buttons together.
Whilst holding SHIFT and CONTROL, use mouse central scroll button to obtain the
desired zoom view.
2. Zooming Laterally: Click on the specific profile view one wishes to zoom in on.
Hold keyboard CONTROL and ALT buttons together.
Whilst holding CONTROL and ALT, use mouse central scroll button to obtain the
desired zoom view.
Further information regarding different ways to zoom can be found by following:
 VIEW >> ZOOM
This will open the zoom instructions window (Figure 26).
Figure 26 : Zoom Instructions

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 3 XField Edit Tab
Available within the XField edit tab are the options to undo (ctrl + z) and re-do (ctrl + y). These
options enable the user to easily undo and re-do any changes made. There is no limit to the
amount of times the user can apply either of these options.

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 4 XField View Options
Several options are available to alter the XField view. These options can be found through the
VIEW menu found on the main XField tool bar.
Options available include:
1. VIEW >> SET DISPLAY RANGES
The horizon and vertical ranges can be used to limit the model view as desired (Figure
24).
2. VIEW >> SET MODEL SCALES
Within the model display scale window the X Scale and Z scale of the modelling view can
be changed (Figure 25).
3. VIEW >> SCALE TO FIT
By selecting the scale to fit option the modelling view is automatically resized so that the
full extent of the model can be viewed in the current main window size.
4. VIEW >> SCALE TO PROJECT
By following the path FILE >> PROJECT PROPERTIES, it is possible to set a default model
scale for a project. This option enables the user to select this default model scale.
5. VIEW >> SHOW TOOLBAR
This option may be checked or unchecked and determines whether the tool bar is
displayed.
6. VIEW >> SHOW CROSSHAIRS
Option to display crosshairs. Crosshairs appear as a vertical and horizontal line with a
cross in the centre.
7. VIEW >> SHOW LINKED CURSOR
Whilst working in XField, the user is able to link the cursor with the interpretation view in
OpendTect. This option enables the user to turn on/off the ability to link the mouse
cursor from the XField view to the OpendTect view.

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 5 Profile Viewing Options
Within the main XField modelling window it is possible to right mouse click within individual
profiles to obtain a profile view menu. Options available within the gravity gradiometry, gravity
and magnetic profile view menu are discussed below.

5.1 Available Options

5.1.1 Switching Off Profile
The first option available within the profile view menu is to hide the profile in question. As shown
below (Figure 27) the profile name appears ticked as the profile is currently displayed. Should the
user click on this option, the tick will disappear and the profile will no longer be visible.
Figure 27 : Switching off a profile window

Click on option to
hide profile

5.1.2 Auto Offset

When active, the auto-offset option plots both the observed and calculated potential field profiles
at the same scale.
When creating a model the calculated response is not absolute. The auto-offset option re-scales
the calculated profile so that it may be accurately compared to the real-world observed data
profile.

5.1.3 Auto Range

The range of the model refers to the scale used in the profile display. If selected this option
ensures that the range is automatically set.

5.1.4 Set Range Offset

If selected this option opens a window titled “Set Range and Offset”. Here the user can manually
set the required range and offset required for a model. The “range” can be thought of as the scale
to use in the profile display. The “offset” refers to the offset required between the observed (blue)
and calculated (red) data profiles. Each data profile (e.g gravity, gravity gradiometry) should be
thought of independently, and hence range and offset values should be entered for each
separately.

5.1.5 Show Difference

By clicking on the Show Difference option from the profile view menu, a tick will appear next to
the option indicating it is active. When active, a red dashed line will appear on the profile view.
This dashed line indicates the difference between the observed data profile and the calculated
response generated from the current model. In this way it is possible to see how the model fits

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with the observed potential field data and it is possible to quickly note areas of good and poor fit
(Figure 28).
Figure 28: Show difference

Difference

5.1.6 Show Current Body

By selecting the ‘Show Current Body’ option, a new profile line will appear on the profile window.
This dark brown line shows the profile for the current active body. In this way, the user is able to
clearly assess the magnitude of each individual model body.
Figure 29 : Show current body profile

Brown line shows the effect of current

active body on calculated profile

Current active body in

model

5.1.7 Show Multiple Bodies

It is possible to view the calculated response from multiple model bodies in the same way as the
response from a single mode body (as above). To select multiple bodies for calculation, hold down
the CONTROL key and left click the desired bodies. A blue outline will appear on the body edges
contributing to the multiple body response (Figure 30). The bodies can be unselected by right-
clicking in the model window and selecting Clear Multiple Bodies from the profile view menu.

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 Figure 30 Show multiple bodies

Blue line shows the effect of

current active bodies on
calculated response

Multiple bodies selected

in model

5.1.8 Show Filtered

Filters can be applied to the observed and calculated profiles. To filter the data, ensure this option
is active (ticked) in the profile view menu. However, this option is only available if the PROFILE >>
FILTER CALCULATED RESPONSE, and/or PROFILE>> FILTER OBSERVED DATA, have been selected.
For further information on filtering please refer to - 7.4 Set Filter Parameters.

5.1.9 Show Legend

By selecting this option, a legend will appear displaying relevant profile information. An example is
shown in Figure 31 below.
Figure 31 : Show legend

Legend

5.1.10 Number of Profiles

Within this option, the user is able to select the number of calculated response profiles to display
simultaneously on the profile window. Each profile is assigned a different colour from yellow to
red (red = current profile, Figure 32). As a model is built, each change will display a new calculated
response profile. In this way it is possible to view exactly how each model change impacts the
calculated profile.
Figure 32 : Show number of profiles

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 6 Model Options
The MODEL menu found in the top tool bar contains options relating to the model parameter and
model display window. All available options are detailed below.

6.1 Infinite Modelling (2D)

For modelling purposes, bodies located at either end of the model should be extended to infinity.
This reduces edge effects in the calculated response and is a requirement of the theory for 2D
potential field calculations.
In addition to considering the extension at the ends of the model, the influence of the bodies
perpendicular to the 2D model needs to be considered. There are two options:
1. Assume that the model extends to infinity laterally. In which case, MODELLING >>
INFINITE MODELLING should be active.
2. Assign a half-width value to bodies that are assumed to be laterally limited. In which
case, MODELLING >> INFINITE MODELLING should not be active. For example, a salt
diapir is likely to have a limited extent perpendicular to the model. Assuming it
extends to infinity perpendicular to the model may adversely impact the modelling.
In order to overcome this, the half-width of the bodies can be specified in the Body
Properties window (Figure 33). The extent of the salt diapir perpendicular to the
model might be estimated as 1000m. In order to account for this, 1000m can be
specified as the Half-Width. Beyond the 1000m, the background parameters
specified in the Model Parameters (6.3 Model Parameters) will be used.
Figure 33: Body Properties window

Enter desired
Half-Width of
body

6.1.1 Extending a Body/Bodies to Infinity

It is possible to extend the edges of model bodies to infinity in different ways:
To extend a single body to infinity, the following steps may be applied:
1. Select the body to be extended.
2. Use mouse button 3 to click in the body, follow BODIES >> SET ONE INFINITY.
3. Move the cursor over the edge of the body to be extended to infinity. When the edge
is highlighted, click with mouse button 1.
4. The edge should extend laterally out of view.
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To extend several bodies to infinity, one after another, perform the following steps:
1. Use mouse button 3 to click within the model, follow BODIES >> SET INFINITIES
2. Select a body to extend.
3. Move the cursor over the desired edge of the current active body. When hovering over
an edge, it will become highlighted; use mouse button 1 to click on the edge.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the desired edges have been extended to infinity.

6.1.2 Removing Infinity Points

To remove a single infinity:
1. Select the body with infinities.
2. Use mouse button 3 and follow BODIES >> REMOVE ONE INFINITY
3. If the body has both left and right edges set to infinity (negative and positive), a dialog
box will appear asking which edges should be reset to their originally digitised
locations. Select Negative (left), Positive (right) or Both.
4. The body will be redrawn without the extension to infinity as desired.
To remove all of the infinities in the model follow:
1. Use mouse button 3 to click within the model
2. Follow BODIES >> REMOVE ALL INFINITIES
3. The model will be redrawn without any bodies extended to the left (negative) or the
right (positive).

6.2 Model Information

1. Follow MODEL>> MODEL INFORMATION…
2. This will open the “Model Information” window shown below (Figure 34).
Figure 34 : Model Information

The model information contains details of the x, y and t/z extent of the model.

6.3 Model Parameters

Before assigning the model bodies with individual properties, global properties regarding the
gravity and magnetic properties of the model should be assigned.

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The model parameters window allows the user to set the background density for the model, the
main field inclination and declination, the mainfield strength, the flight heights, the flight types
and the model azimuth.
1. Follow MODEL>> MODEL PARAMETERS
2. This will open the “Model Parameters” window (Figure 35).
Figure 35 : Model Parameters

3. Title – enter model name.

4. Model Azimuth – the model is assumed to point in the direction from its starting point
to its end point and does not account for bends in the profile. The model azimuth is
the angle subtended from geographic north. The model azimuth is set when a new
model file is created and is not normally changed. The azimuth must be entered in
decimal degrees subtended from geographic North. If x,y information is present in the
model when it was created (from 3D and 2D seismic or image), the azimuth is
automatically set.
5. Flight Height – this is set to the chosen display units of vertical distance. Note: Marine
surveys are assigned a flight height of zero.
6. Flight Type – select the flight type by using the drop down menu to choose between
either draped or barometric.
7. For magnetic modelling, insert the mainfield inclination (deg), mainfield declination
(deg) and mainfield strength (nT) so that the field is calculated for the appropriate
location.
8. Click on OK.
Magnetic declination is the angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic north (the direction
of the Earth's magnetic field lines) and true north (the direction along a meridian towards the
geographic North Pole). Magnetic declination varies spatially over the Earth's surface and changes
over time.
The range of declination in XField is from 0 to 360 degrees in clockwise direction from the
Geographic North. Some standards use positive and negative angles (or East and West) to define
declinations between -180 to 180. If using one of these standards, negative values should summed
to 360 degrees before use in XField.
The Earth's magnetic lines of force are not parallel to the surface. For example, the north end of a
compass needle will point downward in the northern hemisphere and upward in the southern

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hemisphere. The angle at which the magnetic field intersects the horizontal plane in the
orientation of magnetic north is called the magnetic inclination.
The range of magnetic inclination in XField is: −90 degrees (at the South Magnetic Pole) to +90
degrees (at the North Magnetic Pole).
When modelling magnetic data, the total magnetic anomaly is normally used as observed data.
The Mainfield Inclination, Declination and Strength must be filled with the information from the
appropriated survey location and acquisition time.
Reduction to the pole (RTP) and reduction to the equator (RTE) data can also be used as magnetic
observation data with the following recommendations:
 When using RTP, inclination must be set to 90 degrees and declination to 0 degrees.
 When using RTE, inclination must be set to 0 degrees and declination is the correct
declination of your survey area.

6.4 Model Body Annotation

Several model labelling options are available in XField. For example, the user may add density or
susceptibility labelling to individual bodies in the model. A full list of annotation options may be
found by following:
1. MODEL>> MODEL BODY ANNOTATION
2. By clicking on the box next to an option it will become active. The user may deselect
an option in the same way.
3. When the desired properties have been selected, click OK.
Figure 36 : Model Body Annotation options

6.5 Model Body Colouring

Three model colour palette options are available in XField: Individually, Chronostratigraphic Age
and User Palette. The user can also set the model transparency using a desired fixed value or the
slider (Figure 37).

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 Figure 37: Model Body Colouring

6.5.1 Individual Colour Selection

When selected, this option assigns the colour property defined in the Body Properties (6.14 Body
Properties) menu to the model bodies (Figure 38 Individual Colour Selection).
Figure 38: Body Properties with colour selection

Individual
colour
option

6.5.2 Chronostratigraphic Age

If this option is selected, all bodies in the model will be assigned colours based on the
International Chronostatigraphic Chart defined by the International Commission on Stratigraphy
(http://stratigraphy.org/). If a body has not been assigned a time period, the model body will
appear colourless. Details of how to assign chronostratigraphic age to a body can be found in 6.14
Body Properties. Note: the use of the chronostratigraphic age option will override Individual colour
selection and the User Palette options.

6.5.3 User Palette

The User Palette can be used to assign colour based on physical properties including density,
susceptibility and velocity. The property range can be limited as desired.

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6.5.4 Set an Individual Colour
This function allows the user to save the selected colour information to the model file. This
permits users without the specific colour palette to load the model with predefined colour (Figure
39).
Figure 39: User Palette

User can choose to

define colour scale
based on density,
susceptibility or velocity

Option to save
colours to model
file

6.6 Model Response

6.6.1 Auto Recalculation
If the auto recalculation is active, updates to the calculated profile will occur automatically when
the model is changed. If this option is deactivated, any alteration to the model will not be instantly
reflected on the calculated profile. In this case, the user must specifically choose to recalculate the
model response in order to show the effect of any alterations made to the model. The recalculate
icon is found on the tool bar. Or, follow MODEL >> MODEL RESPONSE >> RECALCULATE MODEL
RESPONSE.

6.6.2 Real-time Response

There are several instances in XField where a scrolling bar in a sub menu may be used to alter
various properties of the model. In order to view the effect of these changes in Real-time, the
Real-time Response option should be active.

6.6.3 Recalculate Model Response

If the “Auto Recalculation” option is unchecked in the MODEL menu, the user can use this option
to recalculate the model response following a change to the model.
In order to recalculate the model response follow:
1. MODEL >> MODEL RESPONSE >>RECALCULATE MODEL RESPONSE
2. The changes will then take effect on the calculated response profile.

6.7 Model Validity Check

On occasions, corner points can cross the boundaries of other bodies. In particular, this can occur
when testing velocities in the time domain on highly complicated models with thin layers. The
crossing nodes can adversely affect the forward calculation. The Model Validity Check allows the
user to check all corner points of the model.

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6.8 Body Display
6.8.1 Show Current Body Corners
This option allows the user to view all corner points that were chosen to create the specific body
which is currently active.

6.8.2 Show All Body Corners

This option enables the user to view the full density of marker points that have been created
whilst building an entire geological model. In this way it is possible to appreciate the detail and
complexity of each specific body built.

6.8.3 Show Current Body Outlines

This option outlines the current active body with a black line body allowing the current active body
to be differentiated from the non-active bodies in the model.

6.8.4 Show Body Outlines

Outlining the bodies in the model draws a black line around the perimeter of each body. This
allows the user to clearly see body limits.

6.8.5 Body Outline Thickness

This option allows the user to modify the outline thickness of the model bodies.

6.9 Field Stations

6.9.1 Show Gravity Field Stations
Field stations are only displayed when working in the depth modelling view. A field station
position represents a location that connects the observed data to the model. Field stations can
effectively be thought of as the resolution upon which a model is being created in respect to the
data profiles used. A greater number of field stations allows for better detail in the calculated
profile at the cost of a longer model recalculating/refreshing time.

6.9.2 Show Magnetic Field Stations

Similarly to the ability to switch on/off gravity field stations (detailed above), this option enables
the user to switch on/off magnetic field stations.

6.10 Topography
6.10.1 Setting Flat Topography
When working on a model in the depth domain (rather than the time domain), a specific and
uniform topography height can be set. This flat topography is useful when working with Bouguer
gravity instead of free air gravity as it is assumed for Bouguer gravity that the
topography/bathymetry has already been corrected for.
1. MODEL>> TOPOGRAPHY >> SET FLAT TOPOGRAPHY
2. Click on OK

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 Figure 40 : Setting a flat topography

6.10.2 Show Topography

This option allows the user to switch topography display on or off.

6.11 Well Display

6.11.1 Select Wells and Tolerance
The user can select wells loaded in the OpendTect database to show in XField models. The
intersection tolerance indicates how far outside the model the well header can be located to be
displayed in the model. The well header is displayed in both time and depth windows.

6.11.2 Set Wells Intersections

This function displays a well head symbol and names of wells loaded in the OpendTect project on
the model.

6.11.3 Display Well Track, Markers and Marker Labels

These functions display well tracks and markers in the depth window projected into XField model.
The colour and naming of the displayed features are defined in the OpendTect project.

6.12 Intersections
6.12.1 Show Intersecting Models
A key feature in XField is the ability to display intersecting models. This enables the user to fully
appreciate how different models intersect with each other. When this option is active, intersecting
models appear in the current model view as a solid vertical marker as shown in Figure 41.
Figure 41: Intersecting model lines

** Hint –For surveys containing many model lines, it may be beneficial to switch off “Show
Intersecting Models” and “Show Extended Model Intersections” until required as the calculations

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performed in the background regarding the geometry of the model intersections may
impede/slow down lower specification computers.

6.12.2 Show Extended Model Intersections

In order to prevent edge effects adversely impacting the model, the edges of a model can be
extrapolated to infinity as described in 6.1 Infinite Modelling. If the infinity section of an extended
model intersects a current model, the infinity intersection will show as a dashed intersection as
shown in Figure 41 (labelled Intersection 2). However, the user may not wish to show infinity
intersections on the 2D model display. In which case, the “Show Extended Model Intersections”
option can be switched off to hide the infinity model intersections.

6.12.3 Update Model Intersections

If running two sessions of OpendTect simultaneously, it is possible to edit two intersecting models
at the same time. To see changes on the first model updated on the second model, the user
should save the first model then select MODEL >> INTERSECTIONS >> UPDATE MODEL
INTERSECTIONS in the second model.

6.12.4 Display Seismic Intersections

When working with 2D seismic data, the Display Seismic data option displays the name of
intersection 2D seismic lines in the OpendTect project at the top of the current model displayed in
the 2D model view. If no XField models exist for the other seismic lines in the project, the name of
the seismic line will still be displayed/removed by using this option.

6.13 Show Lineations

Lineations may be viewed in XField by following the path FILE >> LINEATIONS >> ADD LINEATIONS.
Lineations may be switched on/off by MODEL >> SHOW LINEATIONS

6.14 Body Properties

Assigning properties to bodies in a model can be achieved by the following:
1. By right clicking in the relevant body of the model, a drop down menu will appear.
Scroll to the bottom of this menu and select “Body Properties”.
2. This window can also be found by either following MODEL >> BODY PROPERTIES
from the top toolbar, double-clicking a current model body in the XField model
window or by CONTROL+ B. In either case, the window below will appear (Figure 42).
Figure 42 : Body Properties window

Slider bars

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 3. Within this window the user is able to assign the density (g/cc), magnetic properties
(susceptibility, remanent inclination, remanent declination, Koeningsberger ratio),
velocity (m/s), the half-width of your model body and chronstratigraphic age. The
user may also assign a colour and add annotation.
** Hint - Gardner’s equation: This empirically derived equation relates seismic P-wave
velocity to the bulk density of the lithology. Should the user have either velocity or
density information, but not both, it is useful to use the Gardner’s equation button
within “Body Properties” to help assign the unknown property (velocity or density) to a
body.
4. Sliding bars are available within the body properties window so that the user may
experiment with property values. The response to changes made is visible on the
relevant observed data profile (e.g. Gz, Gzz etc).
5. Selecting the “Chronostraticgraphic Age” will open the following window. Simply
select the appropriate age for the selected body (Figure 43).
Figure 43: ChronostratigraphicAge

6.15 Export Corners

Corners, which form horizons in the model, may be exported from XField in either time (X, Y, Time)
or depth (X, Y, Z) format. To do this:
1. Select the body of the corner points to be exported (button 1 – left mouse button).
2. Either navigate via MODEL>> EXPORT CORNERS or right click on the body to be
exported and select EXPORT CORNERS.
3. A window will appear within which the user can select the range of corners to export
either via picking the corners or entering the minimum and maximum corner
numbers. To pick the corners simply click ‘Start Pick’ then click on the successive
corner points. A horizon will be displayed over the corners picked for export (Figure
44). To end the pick mode, click ‘End Pick’. The ‘Cancel Pick’ and ‘Undo Last Pick’
buttons can be used to undo undesired picks.

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 Figure 44: Pick corners to export
Start pick

End pick

Horizon showing corners picked

for export

** Hint: To accelerate the picking process, users can also pick non-consecutive corner
points – all corner points between the non-consecutive picks will be selected for export.
4. The corners may be exported to a new file or an existing file may be appended
(Figure 45).

The output data can be interpolated and exported in trace locations or regular
intervals set by the user (Figure 45).
5. Select whether to export in time, depth or both.
6. Navigate to the desired location of output file and choose an appropriate filename.
7. Click OK.
The user is able to select nodes from multiple bodies to export. To be able to pick within bodies,
the node intersecting the two adjacent bodies must be selected.
Figure 45: Export Corners

6.16 Bodies
Several body options are available to aid modelling:

1. MODELLING >> BODIES, or, use mouse button 3 to click in the relevant body and
select BODIES.

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 ** Hint: When using the mouse button 3 option, it is possible to tear off the BODIES
menu by clicking and dragging the dashed line at the top of the sub menu as shown in
Figure 46 .
Figure 46: Floating bodies menu

Click and drag to

tear off menu

2. The options available include:

a. ADD BODY – Here the user is able to free draw a body where desired in the
model. Take note of the hints shown in the status bar at the bottom of the
initial window that opens when in “add body” mode.
Tip – When this mode is active, the user may right click (mouse button 3) during the
operation. This will open a list of three useful options - Close body, Undo last corner and
Cancel add body.
b. SPLIT CURRENT BODY – With a body already selected, this option allows the
user to split the current body down. The point at which the split will start is
highlighted in red as the mouse cursor is moved over it.
Tip – When this mode is active, the user may right click (mouse button 3) during the
operation. This will open a list of two useful options - Undo last corner and Cancel split
body.
c. JOIN TO CURRENT BODY – Select a body prior to activating this option, then by
clicking on another body it will be added to the original body selected. This
option is only possible if the two bodies share a common edge.
d. DELETE CURRENT BODY – This option will delete the selected body.

6.17 Corners
Several options are available in XField to modify the corners of a body:
1. MODELLING >> CORNERS, or, by using mouse button 3 click in the active/current
body and select CORNERS. Note that the option selected will only affect the active
body.
**HINT: When using the mouse button 3 option, it is possible to tear off the CORNER
menu by clicking and dragging the dashed line at the top of the sub menu as shown in
Figure 47.

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 Figure 47: Floating corner menu

Click and drag to

tear off menu

2. Options found include:

 DELETE ONE CORNER – Having selected this option click on the body corner to
be deleted. The corner selected for deletion will be highlighted in red.
 INSERT ONE CORNER – Having selected this option click on the position to insert
one corner.
 DELETE CORNERS – Once selected this option allows the user to delete multiple
corners from the active body
 INSERT CORNERS – Once selected this option allows the user to insert multiple
corners into the active body
 LOCK CORNERS – By selecting this option, the user is able to lock one or
multiple corners of the active body by clicking on the desired corners. Locking a
corner ensures corner position remain fixed and cannot be mistakenly moved.
Note that a locked corner appears as a filled black circle.
 UNLOCK CORNERS – Selecting this option enables the user to unlock corners
that have already previously been locked.
In addition to the functions above, it is possible to disconnect nodes, which in turn splits bodies, by
holding ctrl and clicking on a node with mouse button 2. It should be noted that, unlike the “split
current body” function, the ctrl-mouse button 2 option leaves the background empty. Spaces in
between disconnected nodes are effectively voids which can be detrimental to gravity modelling.
However, this function can be useful when conducting purely magnetic modelling. Nodes can be
re-joined by simply dragging the one node over another until the nodes are highlighted in red then
releasing mouse button 1.

6.17.1 Display Model

The model being created may be switched on/off from view using this option.

6.17.2 Display Seismic

The seismic data used to model may be switched on/off using this option.

6.17.3 Display Horizon

This option enables the ability to switch horizons on/off.

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 7 Profile Options
7.1 Profile settings
When working on a model in the depth domain (rather than in time), field station markers are
placed along the top of the model. Field stations can effectively be thought of as the resolution
upon which a model is being created in respect to the data profiles being used. The user may alter
the positioning of field stations by following:
1. PROFILE>> PROFILE SETTINGS
2. Here the user is able to alter the extent of the modelled profile and the field station
spacing style between fixed number, fixed separation, co-located with observed
gravity and co-located with observed magnetic (Figure 48).
Figure 48 : Profile settings

7.2 Filter Observed Data

This function must be activated to enable filtering to be applied to any observed data in XField.

7.3 Filter Calculated Data

This function must be activated to enable filtering to be applied to the calculated response in
XField.

7.4 Set Filter Parameters

With the filtering options activated (above 7.2 Filter Observed Data and 7.3 Filter Calculated Data),
the filter parameters function will become available. Once active, this option allows filtering to be
applied to both the observed and calculated potential field profiles.
To open this function follow:
1. PROFILE >> SET FILTER PARAMETERS
2. The gravity/magnetic profile filter parameters window will appear (Figure 49).

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 Figure 49 Profile filtering settings

3. First select whether to filter either gravity or magnetic data.

4. Decide whether to use a Gaussian or Cosine filter taper.
5. The filter pass can be chosen as either Low Pass, High Pass or Band Pass.
6. The filter units may be chosen from m/Km/ft/Kft.
7. Use the sliding bars to select the desired filtering distance or, alternatively, type in
the value to use into the relevant box.
8. Click CLOSE.

7.5 Show Profiles

1. VIEW >> GRAVITY GRADIENT PROFILE
This option may be checked or unchecked and determines whether the gravity gradient
profile is displayed in XField.
2. VIEW >> GRAVITY PROFILE
This option may be checked or unchecked and determines whether the gravity profile is
displayed in XField.
3. VIEW >> MAGNETIC PROFILE
This option may be checked or unchecked and determines whether the magnetic data
profile is displayed in XField.

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 8 Seismic Options
Several options are available in the main tool bar to modify the horizon and seismic data view.

8.1 Select Seismic

SEISMIC >> SELECT SEISMIC
This option enables the user to choose which attribute of the seismic data to be
displayed in XField. Attributes must have been preloaded into the OpendTect project.

8.2 Select Horizon

SEISMIC >> SELECT HORIZON
Following this path opens up the “Select Horizons” window. From this window the user
may choose multiple horizons to view in XField. Horizons must have been preloaded into
the OpendTect project.
This option is especially useful as it can aid the creation of bodies consistent with
geologic interpretation. The mouse cursor, if placed close enough, will snap onto a
horizon. This enables the easy creation of bodies that follow interpreted horizons (e.g.
from seismic interpretations).

8.3 Reload Horizons

SEISMIC >> RELOAD HORIZONS
If changes are made to any of the horizons in OpendTect whilst modelling in XField this
option reloads the horizons already open in XField. In this way it is possible to view the
latest horizon versions in XField.

8.4 Edit Palettes

Edit palettes enables the user to change the colour palette used to display background seismic
data within XField. Follow:
1. SEISMIC >> EDIT PALETTES, or,

2. Select the edit palette icon found in the tool bar .

Within edit palettes the user can:
 Select differing palette options already saved
 Save new customised palette options
 Add custom colours to colour options
 Alter the colour distribution of model using the sliding bars
It should be noted that within the edit palettes window there is an option to “Show global
distribution”. If selected this option allows the user to ensure that the colour range of the palette
chosen best matches the range of values which exist within the active seismic data.

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 9 Window Options
Within XField a user is able to model in either the time (s) or depth (m) domain. However, the user
is not restricted to simply one domain view despite the requirement to initially setup an XField
model exclusively in one domain.
Follow the steps outlined below in order to open and switch between viewing a model in the time
or depth domain.

9.1 Open Depth Window

To open an XField model in a depth window follow:
WINDOWS >> OPEN DEPTH WINDOW

9.2 Open Time Window

To open an XField model in a time window follow:
WINDOWS >> OPEN TIME WINDOW

9.3 Close Window

To close the current XField window, within that window select:
WINDOWS >> CLOSE WINDOW

9.4 Close All Windows

In order to close all XField windows currently open select:
WINDOWS >> CLOSE ALL WINDOWS

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 10 Base map
10.1 Base Map Display
The base map can be displayed by clicking the XField base map icon situated in the tool bar
(1.4 XField Icons). All model lines located in the project folder will be displayed.
The XField base map tool is linked to the XField model window
 The model line currently displayed in the 2D model window is highlighted in green as
shown in Figure 50.
 It is possible to change model lines by double clicking on a non-active line (in black) on
the base map. If more than model line is available, a dialogue box stating the models
available (such as that in Figure 50) will appear. Simply click on the desired model
version.
Figure 50: XField base map

Green line= Line currently shown in

the XField 2D model window

Dialogue of models available

for the purple line – click on
model name to display

Right clicking the base map yields the Base map menu shown in Figure 51.
Figure 51: Base map options

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The following options are available:
 TURN LABELS OFF – turn off all model names
 SHOW SHARED CURSOR– this option links the cursor from the base map to the XField
model window.
 SHOW CROSSHAIR – shows crosshair on base map.
 ENABLE INDIVIDUAL NAMES–when hovering over a line on the base map, this function
displays the name of the model currently shown in the XField model window.

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 11 Useful Modelling Methods and Tips
This section is designed to offer guidance on how to begin working with XField. It may be useful to
follow these methodologies exactly or use them in order to obtain hints and tips that may work
alongside current methods.
This section uses examples from an XField demonstration presentation. All data and methods
shown within this section use the same demonstration dataset from offshore Nova-Scotia.
The demonstration dataset used, named Penobscot 3D – Survey, includes: 3D pre-stack time
migrated data, two wells, interpreted horizons and gravity gradiometry data.
The Penobscot 3D Survey demonstration dataset is available to download from the OpendTect
website. http://www.opendtect.org/index.php/share-seismic-data/osr.html

11.1 How to Start Setting Up a Modelling Space

Often when beginning to work within XField it is useful to set up a modelling space in a way which
will specifically suit the project requirements. Things to consider will include:
 What potential field data sets are available to model with?
 What seismic data are available?
 Are there any seismic horizons available that have already been interpreted?
 What well information is available?
 Is it desirable to model on available seismic data, on an image or on a blank
background?
 Is it more appropriate to model in a time or depth domain?
 Assess all the constraints in order to limit the non-unique nature of your model.
The example below illustrates a method to begin modelling:
1. Create an OpendTect Interpretation Workspace (1.3 XField Basics)
Figure 52 : Demo - OpendTect initial view

2. Load all available data into OpendTect prior to modelling. This should include any
data desired to be viewed in XField such as seismic data, already interpreted seismic
horizons, all potential field data, available topography etc.

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 Figure 53 : Demo - Setting up OpendTect project

3. Once an OpendTect Project has been created, open XField.

4. Start a new model in XField.
Figure 54 : Demo - Creating a new model in XField

5. Select the seismic line and attribute you wish to use to create a model.

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 Figure 55 : Demo - Creating a new model in XField from 3D seismic data

6. Alter the initial XField Modelling view to suit. This can be done by:
a. Adding legends to profiles
b. Close potential field profiles that are not required for use (e.g. magnetic data
profile)
c. Alter the view of the window through sizing and zoom options
Figure 56 : Demo – Alter your XField view as desired

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11.2 How to Start Model Building
Once an appropriate modelling space is set up, the user is able to start model building.
1. Load all relevant data that mat help modelling. Such data may include, but not be
limited to, gravity, gravity gradiometry and magnetic data, topographic data and
horizons. Figure 57 shows gravity gradiometry data and seismic horizons loaded into
XField.
Figure 57 : Demo – Open useful data prior to modelling

Default starting model

outline

2. The rectangle shown with a thick black outline in the XField modelling view is the
default starting model for creating models in XField (Figure 57).
Hint: A rule of thumb for model building in XField – Start with a complete polygon and
then subdivide this polygon so that no holes or overlapping bodies are accidentally
introduced into the model.
Figure 58 shows the menu that appears by right-clicking within the model space.
Selecting BODIES >> SPLIT CURRENT BODY enables the user to start dividing the model
into sections.

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 Figure 58 : Demo – Splitting the current body down

3. In this example model, horizons interpreted in OpendTect are traced to create

geologically consistent model layers (Figure 59).
Figure 59 : Demo – Model building by following an already interpreted seismic horizon

4. Once a body has been created and the polygon has been closed, the “Body
Properties” window will automatically appear. At this stage it is possible to add
properties such as density, magnetic properties and velocity to individual bodies
(Figure 60). Note that the default values within the body properties window for
velocity and density are 2500m/s and 2.5g/cc respectively.

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 Figure 60 : Demo – Adding body properties whilst model building

5. Model properties may be adjusted by either using the sliding bars within the body
properties window, or by inserting values into the available text boxes (Figure 61).
Figure 61 : Demo - Adjusting the properties of bodies in a model

6. As model building continues in this way, and as the correct properties of each of the
bodies are incorporated in the model, a better fit between observed data and
calculated response should become apparent (Figure 62).

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 Figure 62 : Demo – Comparing the fit between observed and calculated potential field data

7. It may be useful to activate the current body profile (5.1.6 - Show Current Body). This
may help the user understand which bodies have the greatest influence on the fit of
the data.

11.3 Using Intersecting Models

The intersecting model functionality can prove extremely useful when inspecting the consistency
and continuity of models. This function enables the user to view model intersections. To use this
useful function, follow the following workflow:
1. Firstly start by switching on the intersection function in XField. This can be achieved
by following the instructions outlined in - 6.12 Intersections
Figure 63 : Demo – Switch on intersecting model functionality

2. In Figure 63 (above) vertical markers show the locations of intersecting model lines
for Inline1300. By hovering the cursor over these markers it is possible to determine

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 which model they are referring to by looking at the bottom left hand corner of the
XField window (Figure 64). The colours used within the marker correspond to those
assigned within the intersecting model.
It is possible to switch to an intersecting model by holding down the CTRL key on the keyboard and
clicking within the desired vertical marker. The window will “jump” to the model selected.
Figure 64 : Demo - Which intersecting model are you looking at?

Current model name

Cursor on intersection

Intersection model name

3. By moving into an intersecting model the user is able to compare models easily. In
this example the user has moved into the model for XLine 1070 from Inline 1300
(Figure 65).
Figure 65 : Demo – Interpretation model for XLine 1070

4. By comparing the two intersecting models for XLine 1070 (Figure 65) and Inline 1300
(Figure 64) the user can see that correlation between the models is poor. Using this
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 function within XField it can clearly be seen that the model for XLine 1070 is
incomplete, further horizons still require modelling.
5. Further to this, it is possible to “drag and drop” the properties assigned to a body in
one model, into a body of the model currently being worked within.
To do this, simply press and click on the body which holds the properties you require
within the vertical marker of an intersecting model. Whilst continuing to hold down the
mouse button, drag these properties and release the mouse button once you are
hovering above the body you wish to “drop” these properties into. In order to check this
has worked correctly check the relevant body properties window (6.14 -Body Properties).

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 12 Help Options
Several options are available should help be required when using XField.
1) Navigate to a soft copy of the XField manual by following HELP >> REFERENCE GUIDE.
2) More information, can be found on the ARK CLS XField page
http://www.arkcls.com/software/xfield/
3) Contact ARKCLS Ltd who provide support and maintenance for XField users who have a
valid support and maintenance agreement.
ARKCLS Ltd contact details: [email protected]
+44 (0) 1234 834864

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 Appendix A. Gravity and Magnetics – The
Basics
A brief overview of the basics of gravity and magnetic methods and theory are covered within this
appendix.

A.1 What are gravity and magnetics good at?

Gravity and magnetic datasets have several particularly useful capabilities, these have been briefly
summarised below:

Regional studies
There are few areas of the world without gravity and magnetics data and in many countries
excellent coverage is available at an affordable rate. Basin scale or province scale studies can be
made using these data to extrapolate known fairways or identify new areas of interest.

Showing faults
Motion on faults can be difficult to recognise in seismic data but is often visible on gravity and
magnetic maps. In particular, gravity data can excel at highlighting regional fault trends.

Seeing through volcanics, salt and other seismically opaque layers

Depending on the surrounding lithology, high velocity rocks such as lava, salt and carbonates tend
to reflect a high proportion of seismic energy leaving little to transmit. As a result, it can be
difficult to obtain a good seismic image beneath high velocity rock. Conversely, gravity and
magnetic data are not hampered by high velocity layers and therefore can be used to provide
information on the structures beneath.

Deep structural information

Due to higher-signal-to-noise ratio and small angles of incidence, deep structures may be poorly
imaged by seismic data. Gravity and magnetic information can be crucial in helping to interpret
these regions.

Crustal studies
Although largely academic, crustal studies provide the global tectonic framework on which new
ideas for hydrocarbon generation and migration can be pinned. Gravity and magnetics have
always been influential in such studies.

Delineation of salt structures

One of the first applications of gravity surveying was to locate salt domes. The large density
contrast between salt and other rock types can cause large gravity anomalies over salt bodies.
Gravity exploration continues to provide useful information on salt structures.

Delineation of volcanics and dykes

Rift basins form many of the world's most important hydrocarbon regions. Rifting is usually
accompanied by basic volcanism. It is therefore important that extrusive rocks within the rift
sequence and intrusive rocks cutting the sequence are recognised, as they affect hydrocarbon
migration and trapping. Basic volcanics are nearly always magnetic, therefore magnetic data offers
an ideal method to map these rocks.

Mapping marker horizons

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Sedimentary sequences can contain ferruginous horizons which are weakly, but detectably,
magnetic. Magnetic maps can be used to track these sequences.

Objective testing of seismic interpretations

Gravity and magnetic modelling of interpreted seismic data provides an objective and
independent test of the interpretation. To make the process easier, the current generation of
modelling software is fully integrated into seismic interpretation workstations so that models can
be created using horizons picked on seismic sections.

A.2 Evaluating Datasets

As with all geophysical datasets, knowledge of acquisition methods, processing workflows and
techniques are essential in order to evaluate data quality.
No dataset can be thoroughly assessed unless the locations of the measurements are known.
Wherever possible, navigation data should be reviewed and compared to the expected positions.
Suspect data points, such as single point anomalies or steps in the data, can then be checked
against the measurement points to establish their validity.
It is good practice to review the raw data to check for noise spikes and areas of missing or nulled
samples. Comparison of the raw and final data profiles allows the effect of processing and filtering
to be assessed.
Processing can introduce problems if the processing parameters are badly chosen. Gridding is a
particular source of trouble - many of the gridding algorithms used in the 1970's and 1980's did
not honour the data amplitude distribution and introduced a high degree of smoothing. The use of
an inappropriate grid mesh size or an unsuitable algorithm can give poor results, particularly
where the sample density is variable or uneven.
Filtering can be problematical. There has been a tendency to over-filter marine gravity and
magnetic data. It may be better to leave some noise than to apply heavy filters.
In marine and airborne surveys, network adjustment is usually carried out to ensure that all survey
lines are referred to a single datum. Statistics of data at line crossing points, both before and after
adjustment are generated as part of this process and can be used to evaluate data quality.
Histograms or maps showing the crossover misfit statistics are useful, as they show the variance
of the misfit and any geographical clustering of bad data.

A.3 Essentials of Gravity

Densities of rocks
Gravity exploration maps the distribution of mass within the Earth. The mass of a volume of rock
depends on its density and hence gravity surveying relies on density differences between the
various rocks in the area of interest. In a given geological setting the density range for a particular
rock-type will normally be small and the contrasts between the different units will be more
significant.
To make numerical interpretations of gravity data, information about the densities of the rocks in
a study area is important (though not always essential). With complete density information,
quantities such as the thickness of a particular formation or the throw on a fault can be
determined with confidence. With incomplete density information, it will be possible only to place
wide limits on such quantities.
Density is usually given in units of grams per cubic centimetre (g/cc), which are numerically
equivalent to tonnes per cubic metre (Mg m-3).Kilograms per cubic metre is sometimes used.

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Gravity effects of geological structure
All geological bodies have mass and therefore exert a gravitational force. For example, a 10m thick
limestone produces a gravitational acceleration of about 1milliGal. It is the distribution of mass in
three dimensions, produced by variations in rock density, which allow us to use gravity surveys to
investigate geological structure.
Table 4 : indicates typical maximum gravity effects produced by example structures of interest in
exploration. The gravity effect of any target structure can be determined by numerical modelling.
Table 4 : Maximum gravity effects produced by example structures

Structures Maximum gravity effect (mGal)

Crustal thinning of 50% (30km to 15km) 100
Mesozoic basin, 4km thick, 30km wide 50
Basin margin fault, outcropping, 500m throw, 10
basement granite against Mesozoic sediments.
Mesozoic graben, 1km thick, 5km wide, buried 4
beneath 4km of layer-cake Tertiary sediments.
Basement horst, 0.5km high, 2km wide, buried 2
beneath 2km of uniform Mesozoic sediments.
Salt dome, 1km diameter, 2km tall, 1km deep to 2
top, in Mesozoic sediments.
Carbonate reef, 300m thick, 1km diameter, 1km 0.5
deep, within Tertiary sediments.
Massive sulphide ore body in Archaean gneiss, 30% 1
total sulphides, 50m thick, 30°dip, under 50m
overburden.

Subtracting non-geological gravity variations

The gravity effects of geological structures are only a small part of the total measured gravity,
from 500 parts per million in crustal studies to only 0.1 parts per million for a small fault or an ore
lens. Other variables such as latitude, altitude and topography produce comparable effects, and all
these must be subtracted to reveal the geological component of the gravity variations. They
include, in decreasing order of magnitude:
 The "whole Earth" gravity, which varies slightly with latitude.
 The variation of gravity with height above sea level.
 The gravity effects of topography and bathymetry.
 For gravity measurements made on a moving platform (ship or aircraft), the
accelerations of motion must be distinguished from gravitational
acceleration.
 Tidal gravity effects of the moon and sun.
 Instrumental effects.

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A.4 Essentials of Magnetics
The Earth's magnetic field
The Earth's iron/nickel core generates a magnetic field known as the main field or internal field,
which can be approximated by a dipole. The dipole field is slightly inclined with respect to the
Earth's axis of rotation. The main field also has a weak non-dipole component, but it is only 0.1%
of the total. The main field varies over the Earth's surface, from 30 000nT at the magnetic equator
to 70 000nT at the poles.
Although the main field originates in the Earth's iron core, the temperature in the core is too high
to permit permanent magnetisation. The main field must therefore arise from electrical currents
flowing in the outer core. The details of this process are uncertain but most models invoke a self-
excited dynamo, driven by convection in the outer core.
The inclination of the main field varies over the Earth’s surface, from vertical at the geomagnetic
poles to horizontal at the geomagnetic equator. As a consequence, the observed response of a
magnetic anomaly will vary with latitude.

Magnetism of rocks
The magnetic susceptibility of common rocks varies over a far greater range than density. In
common rock types, susceptibility varies over 5 orders of magnitude, from 0.00001 to 1 while
density varies only by a factor of about 2, from 1.8 to 3.3. A small volume of rock can therefore
give a large magnetic anomaly, whereas a large volume of rock is always needed to give a large
gravity anomaly.
The main magnetic minerals of importance in magnetic anomaly detection are magnetite, other
related iron or iron-titanium oxides and the iron sulphide pyrrhotite. In general, the susceptibility
of rocks depends on their magnetite content. However, this relationship is not simple as grain size
has also been observed to influence susceptibility. Mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks are
generally more magnetic than acid rocks.
The susceptibilities of sedimentary rocks are normally low but iron rich horizons containing detrital
magnetite or hematite can occur creating useful magnetic markers, particularly in high-resolution
magnetic surveys.
Magnetic susceptibilities above 1 x 10-4 (SI) can be measured by handheld instruments but below
this laboratory tests are required. Because susceptibility is not a bulk property like density but
depends on a minor constituent of the rock, susceptibility measurements on a particular unit show
a large variance. It is therefore often better to make a large number of measurements with lower
precision hand-held meters than to make a few precise determinations. Susceptible rocks "suck in"
the magnetic flux of the Earth's field and become magnetised by induction. However, some rocks
retain magnetisation even in the absence of an external field. In rocks, this magnetisation is called
remanent magnetisation and can arise in several ways.
Thermal remanence is acquired by igneous rocks as they cool below the Curie temperature. Basic
volcanics, dykes and sills commonly display strong thermal remanence. Detrital remanence results
from the alignment of magnetic mineral grains at the time of deposition. Chemical remanence
results from growth or recrystallisation of magnetite grains at low temperatures. All these
mechanisms "freeze-in" the amplitude and direction of the geomagnetic field at the time of
formation.
Remanence is often a significant component of total magnetisation but it usually has to be ignored
in exploration because of the difficulty and cost of measurement, which requires oriented samples
collected in situ. Most numerical modelling therefore makes the assumption of induced
magnetisation. In rare cases, remanent magnetisation is much stronger than induced
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magnetisation. For example Archaean banded iron formations give anomalies two or three times
higher than the Earth's field today.

Magnetic effects of geological structures

It is less easy to predict the size of likely magnetic effects of geological structures than it is to
predict gravity effects because susceptibility is much more variable than density. Table 5 gives
some real-life examples rather than theoretical anomalies.

Subtracting non-geological effects

Non-geological magnetic variations in space and time must be eliminated from the magnetic data
as far as possible. These include, in approximate order of magnitude:
 The Earth's internal field, which varies with both latitude and longitude.
 Diurnal effects caused by the Earth turning in the Solar wind.
 Other time-varying fields produced by solar magnetic events such as sunspots and
flares.
Table 5 : Real examples

Structure Magnetic effect (nT)

Magnetite facies banded iron formation of 20,000 to 70,000
southern Africa
Typical variations over outcropping crystalline 200 to 2000
basement
Ultramafic rocks 500 to 5000
Basement fault at 2km depth 10 to 100
Tertiary dyke cutting Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, 5 to 200
UK continental shelf
Basic volcanics at a depth of 2km within a sand- 10 to 100
stone / shale sequence
Volcanigenic sands at a depth of 3km within a 6km 2 to 10
Tertiary / Mesozoic sedimentary sequence in New
Guinea
Outcrop of the Upper Greensand, a thin but 1 to 2
extensive ferruginous sandstone lying beneath the
chalk reservoir formation in the Mesozoic oil and
gas fields of Southern England.

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 Appendix B. OpendTect Quick Guide
This OpendTect Quick Guide should not be used as a definitive guide to the methods and
functionality of OpendTect. Please use this appendix as a selection of hints and tips to help
complete certain tasks in OpendTect.

B.1 Project Setup

In order to import data or run XField, an OpendTect survey must first be created. If OpendTect
surveys already exist, OpendTect will automatically open the last survey accessed.
Note: An OpendTect survey essentially sets up a survey box to work within. Everything is tied into
a 3D (X,Y,Z) system regardless of whether 3D data are available. For a survey containing 2D seismic
data only a “fake” 3D box should be created.
To setup a new survey (2D/3D):
1. SURVEY >> SELECT/SETUP
2. Click on NEW. The Survey Setup window will open (Figure 66)
Figure 66 OpendTect Survey Setup

3. Enter the survey a name and select which survey type is most appropriate for the
data available.
4. Within the options available under ranges/coordinate settings the user may select to
“Scan SEGY” files. This is useful to determine the in-line and cross-line range for the
data if this information is unknown.
Note: Points 5-7 briefly outlines this method.
5. If “Scan SEGY” is chosen the SEGY-Y Tool window will open (Figure 67). Select which
SEGY file should be scanned and the appropriate options relevant to the data before
clicking NEXT.

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 Figure 67 SEG-Y Tool

6. Work systematically through the SEG-Y Tool wizard windows, clicking OK once a
window has been viewed.
7. The output received will be entitled “File”. Within which the X-coordinate range, Y-
coordinate range and Z range have been determined and documented. After the
scan is completed the survey ranges will be filled in automatically.
8. If the survey ranges are already known, the In-line range, Cross-line range and Z-
range can be entered manually within the Survey Setup window.
9. The coordinate settings are automatically setup if ‘Scan SEG-Y’ is used. If inserting
information manually, in the coordinate settings section fill in the corresponding XY-
transformation for the in-line and cross-line values entered.
10. Click OK.
**Important Note: When in the OpendTect “Survey Selection” window an option is available to
“Remove” an already created survey. Be aware that by removing a survey in this way you are not
only removing it from your OpendTect working area but you will delete it from your computer
entirely.

B.2 Import Horizons

Within OpendTect the ability to import horizons enables the user to import:
 Horizons interpreted on 2D and 3D seismic data.
 Attribute grids (e.g. potential field data grids). These are referred to as “Surface Data”.
This function is reached by following:
1. SURVEY >> IMPORT >> HORIZONS >> ASCII within OpendTect
2. Three choices are available, Geometry 3D (for importing horizons interpreted on a
3D grid), Attributes 3D (for importing an attribute grid as surface data) and Geometry
2D (for importing horizons interpreted upon 2D lines).
3. Irrespective of which option is chosen an “Import Horizon” window will open (this
window varies slightly depending on the choice made).
4. Navigate to and select the desired input file.

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 5. Examine the setup of the file to confirm which columns should be assigned values.
E.g. X-value, Y-value, attribute value.
6. Define the format of the file to be imported.
7. Other information that may be required include the file header (if any), the attribute
name and output horizon name.
8. Once all relevant fields are completed click OK.
Note: The standard format for importing horizons is ASCII. Files should be prepared in column form.

Recap -
Datasets which may prove useful to aid modelling includes, but may not be limited to:
 Seismic Sections
 Seismic horizons
 Gravity and Magnetic data (marine, satellite, land, airborne)
 Topography (SRTM/marine/land/airborne)
 Well data
 Interpreted seismic horizons
 Known geological horizons (such as the Moho)
 Public domain structural elements
 Culture files

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