national academy of sciences

Leonard eugene Dickson

1874—1954

A Biographical Memoir by
A. A. Albert

Any opinions expressed in this memoir are those of the author(s)

and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Academy of Sciences.

Biographical Memoir

Copyright 1994
national academy of sciences
washington d.c.
 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON
January 22, 1874-January 17, 1954
BY A. A. ALBERT

L EONARD EUGENE DICKSON was born in Independence,

Iowa on January 22, 1874. He was a brilliant under-
graduate at the University of Texas, receiving his B.S. de-
gree as valedictorian of his class in 1893. He was a chemist
with the Texas Biological Survey from 1892-1893. He served
as a teaching fellow at the University of Texas, receiving
the M.A. degree in 1894. He held a fellowship at the
University of Chicago from 1894 to 1896 and was awarded
its first Ph.D. in mathematics in 1896. He spent the year
1896-1897 in Leipzig and Paris, was instructor in math-
ematics at the University of California 1897-1899, associ-
ate professor at Texas 1899-1900, assistant professor at Chicago
1900-1907, associate professor 1907-1910, and professor
in 1910. He was appointed to the Eliakim Hastings Moore
Distinguished Professorship in 1928, and became profes-
sor emeritus in 1939. He served as visiting professor at the
University of California in 1914, 1918, and 1922.
Professor Dickson was awarded the $1,000 A.A.A.S. Prize

Reprinted from the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society,

vol. 61, no. 4, July 1955.

89
90 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

in 1924 for his work on the arithmetics of algebras. He

was awarded the Cole Prize of the American Mathematical
Society in 1928 for his book Albegren und Ihre Zahlentheorie.
He served as editor of the Monthly 1902-1908, and the
Transactions from 1911 to 1916, and he was president of
the American Mathematical Society from 1916-1918. He
was elected to membership in the National Academy of
Sciences in 1913 and was a member of the American Philo-
sophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences, and the London Mathematical Society. He was also
a foreign member of the Academy of the Institute of France,
and an honorary member of the Czechoslovakian Union of
Mathematics and Physics. He was awarded the honorary
Sc.D. degree by Harvard in 1936 and Princeton in 1941.
Professor Dickson died in Texas on January 17, 1954.
Dickson was one of our most prolific mathematicians.
His bibliography (prepared by Mr. Richard Block, a stu-
dent at the University of Chicago) contains 285 titles. Of
these eighteen are books, one a joint book with Miller and
Blichfeldt. One of the books is his major three-volume
History of the theory of numbers which would be a life's work
by itself for a more ordinary man.
Dickson was an inspiring teacher. He supervised the
doctorate dissertations of at least fifty-five Chicago Ph.D's.
He helped his students to get started in research after the
Ph.D. and his books had a world-wide influence in stimu-
lating research.
Attention should be called to the attached bibliography.
It includes Dickson's books with titles listed in capitals. It
does not include Dickson's portion of the report of the
Committee on Algebraic Number Theory, nor does it in-
clude Dickson's monograph on ruler and compass con-
 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 91

structions which appeared in Monographs on Modern Math-

ematics.
We now pass on to a brief discussion of Dickson's re-
search.

1. Linear groups. Dickson's first major research effort

was a study of finite linear groups. All but seven of his first
forty-three papers were on that subject and this portion of
his work led to his famous first book [44]. The linear
groups which had been investigated by Galois, Jordan, and
Serret were all groups over the fields of p elements. Dickson
generalized their results to linear groups over an arbitrary
finite field. He obtained many new systems of simple groups,
and he closed his book with a still valuable summary of the
known systems of simple groups.
Dickson's work on linear groups continued until 1908
and he wrote about forty-four additional papers on the
subject. In these later papers he studied the isomorphism
of certain simple groups and questions about the existence
of certain types of subgroups. He also derived a number
of theorems on infinite linear groups.
2. Finite fields and Chevalley's Theorem. In [44] Dickson
gave the first extensive exposition of the theory of finite
fields. He applied his deep knowledge of that subject not
only to linear groups but to other problems which we shall
discuss later. He studied irreducibility questions over a
finite field in [113], the Galois theory in [114], and forms
whose values are squares in [139]. His knowledge of the
role of the non-null form was shown in [155]. In [142]
Dickson made the following statement: "For a finite field
it seems to be true that every form of degree m in m + 1
variables vanishes for values not all zero in the field." This
result was first proved by C. Chevalley in his paper Demonstration
92 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

d'une hypothese de M. Artin, Hamb. Abh, vol. 11 [1935) pp.

73-75. At least the conjecture should have been attributed
to Dickson who actually proved the theorem for m = 2, 3.
3. Invariants. Several of Dickson's early papers were
concerned with the problems of the algebraic geometry of
his time. For example, see [4], [48], [54]. This work led
naturally to his study of algebraic invariants and his inter-
est in finite fields to modular invariants. He wrote a basic
paper on the latter subject in [141], and many other pa-
pers on the subject. In these papers he devoted a great
deal of space to the details of a number of special cases.
His book, [172], on the classical theory of algebraic invari-
ants, was published in 1914, the year after the appearance
of his colloquium lectures. His amazing productivity is
attested to by the fact that he also published his book,
[173], on linear algebras in 1914.
4. Algebras. Dickson played a major role in research on
linear algebras. He began with a study of finite division
algebras in [105]s [115], [116], and [117]. In these pa-
pers he determined all three and four-dimensional (non-
associative) division algebras over a field of characteristic
not two, a set of algebras of dimension six, and a method
for constructing algebras of dimension mk with a subfield
of the dimension m. In [126] he related the theory of
ternary cubic forms to the theory of three-dimensional di-
vision algebras. His last paper on non-associative algebras,
[268], appeared in 1937 and contained basic results on
algebras of degree two.
Reference has already been made to Dickson's first book
on linear algebras. In that text he gave a proof of his
result that a real Cayley division algebra is actually a divi-
sion algebra. He presented the Cartan theory of linear
associative algebras rather than the Wedderburn theory but
 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 93

stated the results of the latter theory in his closing chapter

without proofs. The present value of this book is enhanced
by numerous bibliographical references.
Dickson defined cyclic algebras in a Bulletin abstract of
vol. 12 (1905-1906). His paper, [160], on the subject did
not appear until 1912 where he presented a study of alge-
bras of dimension 16.
Dickson's work on the arithmetics of algebras first ap-
peared in [204]. His major work on the subject of arithmetics
was presented in [213] where he also gave an exposition of
the Wedderburn theory. See also [237] and [238].
The text [231] is a German version of [213]. However,
the new version also contains the results on crossed prod-
uct algebras which had been published in [223], and con-
tains many other items of importance.
5. Theory of numbers. Dickson always said that mathemat-
ics is the queen of the sciences, and that the theory of
numbers is the queen of mathematics. He also stated that
he had always wished to work in the theory of numbers
and that he wrote his monumental three-volume History of
the theory of numbers so that he could know all of the work
which had been done in the subject. His first paper, [28],
contained a generalization of the elementary Fermat theo-
rem which arose in connection with finite field theory. He
was interested in the existence of perfect numbers and
wrote [166], and [167] on the related topic of abundant
numbers. His interest in Fermat's last theorem appears in
[190], [136], [137], [138], and [144]. During 1926-1930
he spent most of his energy on research in the arithmetic
theory of quadratic forms, in particular on universal forms.
Dickson's interest in additive number theory began in
1927 with [229]. He wrote many papers on the subject
during the remainder of his life. The analytic results of
94 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

Vinogradov gave Dickson the hope of proving the so-called

ideal Waring theorem. This he did in a long series of
papers. His final result is an almost complete verification
of the conjecture made by J. A. Euler in 1772. That con-
jecture stated that every positive integer is a sum of/ nth
powers where we write 3" = 2nq + r,J= 2" > r> 0, and/= 2n + q-
2 Dickson showed that if n > 6 this value is correct unless
q+ r+3 > 2". It is still not known whether or not this last
inequality is possible but if it does occur the number g(n)
of such nth powers required to represent all integers if
/ + / or J+f-1, according as fq + f+ q=2n or fq + f+q>2n
where / i s the greatest integer in (4/3) n .
6. Miscellaneous. We close by mentioning Dickson's in-
terest in the theory of matrices which is best illustrated by
his text, Modern algebraic theories. His geometric work in
[179], [181], [182], [183], [184], [185], and [186] must
also be mentioned, as well as his interesting monograph
[219] on differential equations from the Lie group stand-
point.
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 95
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96 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 97
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98 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 99
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100 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 101
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102 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
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Appl. Math. vol. 39 (1908) pp. 316-33.
132. On higher congruences and modular invariants, Bull. Am. Math.
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133. On the factorization of large numbers, Am. Math. Monthly vol.
15 (1908) pp. 217-22.
134. Criteria for the irreducibility of a reciprocal equation, Bull. Am.
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135. Invariantive reduction of quadratic forms in the GF[2n], Am. J.
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136. On the last theorem of Fermat, Messenger of Mathematics vol.
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137. On the last theorem of Fermat, II, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math,
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138. On the congruence xn+yn+zn=0 (mod p), J. Reine Angew. Math,
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139. Definite forms in a finite field, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 10
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140. Rational reduction of a pair of binary quadratic forms; their modu-
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141. General theory of modular invariants, Trans. Am. Math. Soc.
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142. On the representation of numbers by modular forms, Bull. Am.
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143. (with M. Kaba), On the representation of numbers as the sum of
two squares, Am. Math. Monthly vol. 16 (1909) pp. 85-87.
144. Lower limit for the number of sets of solutions of xe+ye+ze=0 (mod
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145. On commutative linear groups, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. vol.
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146. A theory of invariants, Am. J. Math. vol. 31 (1909) pp. 337-54.
 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 103
147. Equivalence of pairs of bilinear or quadratic forms under rational
transformation, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 10 (1909) pp. 347-60.
148. Combinants, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. vol. 40 (1909) pp.
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149. On certain diophantine equations, Messenger of Mathematics
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150. Modular invariants of a general system of linear forms, Proc. Lon-
don Math. Soc. vol. 7 (1909) pp. 430-44.
151. On the factorization of integral functions with p-adic coefficients,
Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 17 (1910) pp. 19-23.
152. An invariantive investigation of irreducible binary modular forms,
Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 12 (1911) pp. 1-18.
153. A fundamental system of the general modular linear group with a
solution of the form problem, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 12 (1911) pp.
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154. Note on modular invariants, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. vol. 42
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155. On non-vanishing forms, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math, vol. 42
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156. Binary modular groups and their invariants, Am. J. Math. vol.
33 (1911) pp. 175-92.
157. Notes on the theory of numbers, Am. Math. Monthly vol. 18 (1911)
pp. 109-10.
158. On the negative discrimnants for which there is a single class of
positive binary quadratic forms, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 17 (1911)
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159. Note on cubic equations and congruences, Ann. Math. vol. 12
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160. Linear algebras, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 13 (1912) pp. 59-
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161. Amicable number triples, Am. Math. Monthly vol. 20 (1913) pp.
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162. On the rank of a symmetrical matrix, Ann. Math. vol. 15 (1913)
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163. Theorems and tables on the sum of the divisors of a number, Quart.
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164. Proof of the finiteness of the modular covariants, Trans. Am. Math.
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104 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
165. On binary modular groups and their invariants, Bull. Am. Math.
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166. Finiteness of the odd perfect and primitive abundant numbers with
n distinct prime factors, Am. J. Math. vol. 35 (1913) pp. 413-22.
167. Even abundant numbers, Am. J. Math. vol. 35 (1913) pp. 423-
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168. The invariants, seminvariants and linear covariants of the binary
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169. Linear associative algebras and Abelian equations, Trans. Am.
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170. ON INVARIANTS AND THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, Am. Math.
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171. ELEMENTARY THEORY OF EQUATIONS, New York, Wiley,
1914, 5 + 184 pp.
172. ALGEBRAIC INVARIANTS, New York, Wiley, 1914, 10 + 100
pp. (1914) (Mathematical monographs, edited by M. Merriman and
R. S. Woodward, No. 14.)
173. LINEAR ALGEBRAS, Cambridge University Press, 1914, 8 +
73 pp. (Cambridge Tracts in Math, and Math. Physics, No. 16.)
174. The points of inflection of a plane cubic curve, Ann. Math. (2)
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175. Invariants in the theory of numbers, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol.
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176. On the trisection of an angle and the construction of regular poly-
gons of 7 and 9 sides, Am. Math. Monthly vol. 21 (1914) pp. 259-62.
177. Modular invariants of the system of a binary cubic, quadratic and
linear form, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. vol. 45 (1914) pp. 373-84.
178. Recent progress in the theories of modular and formal invariants
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179. Projective classification of cubic surfaces modulo 2, Ann. Math,
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180. Invariants, seminvariants, and covariants of the ternary and qua-
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pp. 174-79.
181. Invariantive theory of plane cubic curves modulo 2, Am. J. Math,
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182- Quartic curves modulo 2, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 16 (1915)
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 105
183. Classification of quartic curves, modulo 2, Messenger of Math-
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184. The straight lines on modular cubic surfaces, Proc. Natl. Acad.
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185. Geometrical and invariantive theory of quartic curves modulo 2,
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186. Invariantive classification of pairs of conies modulo 2, Am. J.
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187. On the relation between linear algebras and continuous groups,
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188. (with G. A. Miller and H. F. Blichfeldt), THEORY AND AP-
PLICATIONS OF FINITE GROUPS, New York, Wiley, 1916, 17+390
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189. An extension of the theory of numbers by means of correspondences
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190. Fermat's last theorem and the origin and nature of the theory of
algebraic numbers, Ann. Math. (2) vol. 18 (1917) pp. 161-87.
191. On quarternions and their generalization and the history of the
eight square theorem, Ann. Math. vol. 20 (1919) p p . 155-71, 297.
192. Mathematics in war perspective, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 25
(1919) pp. 289-311.
193. Applications of the geometry of numbers to algebraic numbers, Bull.
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194. HISTORY OF THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, vol. I, DIVISIBIL-
ITY AND PRIMALITY, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publica-
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195. HISTORY OF THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, vol. II, DIOPHAN-
TINE ANALYSIS, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication
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196. Les polynomes egaux a des determinants, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
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197. Some relations between the theory of numbers and other branches of
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198. Homogeneous polynomials with a multiplication theorem, Comptes
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1920, Toulouse, H. Villat, 1921, pp. 215-30.
199. Algebraic theory of the expressibility of cubic forms as determinants,
106 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
with application to diophantine analysis, Am. J. Math. vol. 43 (1921)
pp. 102-25.
200. Quaternions and their generalizations, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
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201. Fallacies and misconceptions in diophantine analysis, Bull. Am.
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202. Determination of all general homogenous polynomials expressible as
determinants with linear elements, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 22 (1921)
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203. A new method in diophantine analysis, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol.
27 (1921) pp. 353-65.
204. Arithmetic of quaternions, Proc. London Math. Soc. vol. 20
(1921) pp. 225-32.
205. Rational triangles and quadrilaterals, Am. Math. Monthly vol.
28 (1921) pp. 244-50.
206. Reducible cubic forms expressible rationally as determinants, Ann.
Math. vol. 23 (1921) pp. 70-74.
207. A fundamental system of covariants of the ternary cubic form, Ann.
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208. La composition des polynomes, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris vol. 172
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209. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY WITH PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS,
Chicago, Sanborn, 1922, 12+176+35 pp.
210. A FIRST COURSE IN THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS, New
York, Wiley, 1922, 6+168 pp.
211. Impossibility of restoring unique factorization in a hypercomplex arith-
metic, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 28 (1922) pp. 438-42.
212. The rational linear algebras of maximum and minumum ranks,
Proc. London Math. Soc. (2) vol. 22 (1923) pp. 143-62.
213. ALGEBRAS AND THEIR ARITHMETICS, Chicago, University
of Chicago Press, 1923, 12+214 pp.
214. HISTORY OF THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, Vol. Ill, QUA-
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215. A new simple theory of hypercomplex integers,]. Math. Pure Appl.
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216. Integral solutions of x2-my2=zw, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 29
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 107
217. On the theory of numbers and generalized quaternions, Am. J.
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218. Algebras and their arithmetics, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 30
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219. Differential equations from the group standpoint, Ann. Math. vol.
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220. Quadratic fields in which factorization is always unique, Bull.
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221. Algebres nouvelles de division, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris vol. 181
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222. Resolvent sextics of quintic equations, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol.
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223. New division algebras, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 28 (1926)
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224. MODERN ALGEBRAIC THEORIES, Chicago, New York, Bos-
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225. All integral solutions of ax2+bxy+cy2=w1w2. . .wn, Bull. Am. Math.
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226. Quadratic forms which represent all integers, Proc. Natl. Acad.
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227. Quaternary quadratic forms representing all integers, Am. J. Math,
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228. Integers represented by positive ternary quadratic forms, Bull. Am.
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229. Extensions ofWaring's theorem on nine cubes, Am. Math. Monthly
vol. 34 (1927) pp. 177-83.
230. A generalization of Waring's theorem on nine cubes, Bull. Am.
Math. Soc. vol. 33 (1927) pp. 299-300.
231. ALGEBREN UNDIHRE ZAHLENTHEORIE, Zurich, Orell Fiissli,
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232. Extensions ofWaring's theorem on fourth powers, Bull. Am. Math.
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233. Singular case of pairs of bilinear, quadratic, or Hermitian forms,
Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 29 (1927) pp. 239-53.
234. Generalization of Waring's theorem on fourth, sixth, and eighth
powers, Am. Math. Soc. vol. 49 (1927) p p . 241-50.
235. Ternary quadratic forms and congruences, Ann. Math. (2) vol.
28 (1927) pp. 333-41.
108 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
236. All positive integers are sums of values of a quadratic function of x,
Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 33 (1927) pp. 713-20.
237. Outline of the theory to date of the arithmetics of algebras, Pro-
ceedings of the International Mathematical Congress held in Toronto,
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238. Further development of the theory of arithmetics of algebras, Pro-
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239. A new theory of linear transformations and pairs of bilinear forms,
In: Proceedings of the International Mathematical Congress held in
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240. Simpler proofs ofWaring's theorem on cubes with various generali-
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241. Additive number theory for all quadratic functions, Am. J. Math,
vol. 50 (1928) pp. 1-48.
242. Generalizations of the theorem of Fermat and Cauchy on polygonal
numbers, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 34 (1928) pp. 63-72.
243. Extended polygonal numbers, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 34 (1928)
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244. Quadratic functions or forms, sums of whose values give all posi-
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245. New division algebras, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 34 (1928) pp.
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246. Universal quadractic forms, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 31 (1929)
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247. The forms ax2+by2+cz2 which represent all integers, Bull. Am. Math.
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248. INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, Chicago,
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249. Construction of division algebras, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 32
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250. STUDIES IN THE THEORY OF NUMBERS, Chicago, The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press (The University of Chicago Science Series),
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251. Proof of a Waring theorem on fifth powers, Bull. Am. Math. Soc.
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 LEONARD EUGENE DICKSON 109
252. MINIMUM DECOMPOSITION INTO FIFTH POWERS, Vol. Ill,
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254. Minimum decompositions into n-th powers, Am. J. Math. vol. 55
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255. Recent progress on Waring's theorem and its generalizations, Bull.
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256. Waring's problem for cubic functions, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol.
36 (1934) pp. 1-12.
257. Waring's problem for ninth powers, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 39
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258. Universal Waring theorem for eleventh powers, J. London Math.
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259. Two-fold generalizations of Cauch'y lemma, Am. J. Math. Soc.
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260. The converse of Waring's problem, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 40
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261. A new method for universal Waring theorems with details for sev-
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262. A new method for Waring theorems with polynomial summands,
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263. Polygonal numbers and related Waring problems, Quart. J. Math.
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264. Congruences involving only e-th powers, Acta Arithmetica vol. 1
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265. Cyclotomy and trinomial congruences, Trans. Am. Math. Soc.
vol. 37 (1935) pp. 363-80.
266. Cyclotomy, higher congruences, and Waring's problem, Am. J. Math,
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267. Cyclotomy, higher congruences, and Waring's problem, II., Am. J.
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268. Linear algebras with associativity not assumed, Duke Math. J.
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269. Cyclotomy when e is composite, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. vol. 38
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270. Universal Waring theorems with cubic summands, Acta Arithmetica
110 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
vol. 1 (1935) pp. 184-96 and Prace Mathematyczno-Fizyczne vol. 43
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271. Waring theorems of new type, Am. J. Math. vol. 58 (1936) pp.
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272. On Waring's problem and its generalization, Ann. Math. vol. 37
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273. A new method for Waring theorems with polynomial summands, II,
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274. Universal Waring theorems, Mh. Math. Phys. vol. 43 (1936) pp.
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275. The ideal Waring theorem for twelfth powers, Duke Math. J. vol. 2
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276. Proof of the ideal Waring theorem for exponents 7-180, Am. J.
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277. Solution of Waring's problem, Am. J. Math. vol. 58 (1936) pp.
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278. A generalization of Waring's problem, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. vol.
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279. The Waring problem and its generalizations, Bull. Am. Math.
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280. New Waring theorems for polygonal numbers, Quart. J. Math. Ox-
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281. Universal forms ^ajx" and Waring's problem, Acta Arithmetica
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282. NEW FIRST COURSE ON THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS, New
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283. All integers except 23 and 239 are sums of eight cubes, Bull. Am.
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284. MODERN ELEMENTARY THEORY OF NUMBERS, Chicago,
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285. Obituary: Hans Frederick Blichfeldt, 1873-1945. Bull. Am. Math.
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