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4 Hamilton's Equations

The document summarizes Hamilton's formulation of mechanics. It begins by describing how the Hamiltonian formulation is related to but differs from the Lagrangian formulation by using generalized coordinates and momenta rather than positions and velocities. It then shows how to derive Hamilton's equations of motion by transforming the Lagrangian into a Hamiltonian through a Legendre transformation. Examples are provided to demonstrate applying the Hamiltonian formulation to problems involving a free particle and a particle under Hooke's law force.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
243 views40 pages

4 Hamilton's Equations

The document summarizes Hamilton's formulation of mechanics. It begins by describing how the Hamiltonian formulation is related to but differs from the Lagrangian formulation by using generalized coordinates and momenta rather than positions and velocities. It then shows how to derive Hamilton's equations of motion by transforming the Lagrangian into a Hamiltonian through a Legendre transformation. Examples are provided to demonstrate applying the Hamiltonian formulation to problems involving a free particle and a particle under Hooke's law force.

Uploaded by

RM Fakhar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit-4

Hamilton’s Equations
Of
Motion
Hamiltonian Formulation
 Newtonian → Lagrangian → Hamiltonian

 Describe same physics and produce same results


 Difference is in the viewpoints
 Flexibility of coordinate transformation

 Hamiltonian formalism linked to the development of

 Hamilton-Jacobi theory
 Classical perturbation theory
 Quantum mechanics
 Statistical mechanics
Lagrangian → Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian formulation  closer to Lagrangian formulation

For most systems of interest:


L = T −V (difference of kinetic and potential energies)

Lagrange’s equations for n coordinates


2nd order differential
d  ∂L  ∂L
  − =0 i = 1, …..n equations, n variables
dt  ∂q&i  ∂qi
 n equations

Lagrangian, L  n generalised coordinates (q1, q2 ,...., qn )


n generalised velocities (q&1, q&2 ,...., q&n )
and time t

L = L(qi , q&i , t ) Function of


2n+1 variables
 Can we do with 1st-order differential equations?
 Yes, but you’ll need 2n equations
 We keep qi and replace q&i with something similar
 We take the conjugate momenta
 Consider conservative system → F = −∇V
 V  independent of velocities
 Constraints  independent of time
⇒ L not an explicit function of t
 Consider system of mass points under influence of F
L = T −V
∂L ∂T ∂V
= − =


∂x&i ∂x&i ∂x&i ∂x&i 2
( )
1 m x& 2 = m x& = p
i i i i ix

∂L
Using generalised velocity q&i ⇒
= pi
∂q&i
Configuration Space

 We considered (q1 , q2 ,...., qn ) as a point in an n-dim. space

 Called configuration space

 Motion of the system →


A curve in the config space

 When we take variations,


we consider qi and q&i as
independent variables

 i.e., we have 2n independent variables in n-dim. space


 Isn’t it more natural to consider the motion in 2n-dim space?
Phase Space

 Consider coordinates and momenta as independent

 State of the system is given by (q1 ,...., qn , p1 ,...., pn )

 Consider it a point in the 2n-dimensional phase space

 We are switching the


independent variables

(qi , q&i , t ) → (qi , pi , t )


Hamiltonian
Lagrangian describing a system where angular momentum is
conserved, does not depend on time explicitly, i.e.

dL
=0
dt
we can express the dynamics in terms of the 2n + 1
variables qi, pi, and t.

The Lagrangian: L = L(qi , q&i , t )


Therefore, differentiating w.r.t. time:
dL ∂L ∂L
= ∑ q&i + ∑ q&&i (1)
dt i ∂qi i ∂q&i
∂L d  ∂L 
Lagrange’s equation: =  
∂qi dt  ∂q&i 

dL d  ∂L  ∂L
So (1) → = ∑   q&i + ∑ q&&i (2)
dt i dt  ∂q&i  i ∂q&i
Equation (2) is simply the result of differentiation of a product of two
functions,
dL d  ∂L 
therefore = ∑  q&i 
dt i dt  ∂q&i 

d  ∂L  dL
∑ dt  q&i ∂q&  − dt = 0
i  i

d   ∂L  
or  ∑ q&i  − L  = 0 (3)
dt  i  ∂q&i  
Integrating equation (3):

 ∂L 
∑ q&i − L = H (constant) (4)
i  ∂q &i 
∂L
The generalised momenta pi are defined as: pi =
∂q&i
So (4) → ∑ {q&i pi } − L = H
i
Therefore, H (qi , pi , t ) = ∑ q&i pi − L(qi , q&i , t ) (5)
i

 Transformation of formulation of mechanics (Independent


coordinates are generalised coordinates and generalised velocities )
→ a formulation in which the independent coordinates are generalised
coordinates and generalised momenta.
Hamilton’s Equations
 So the Hamiltonian is: H = H (qi , pi , t ) (6)

 The total derivative:

∂H ∂H ∂H
dH = ∑ dqi + ∑ dpi + dt (7)
i ∂qi i ∂pi ∂t
 Also from equation (5):

∂L ∂L ∂L
dH = ∑ pi dq&i + ∑ q&i dpi − ∑ dqi − ∑ dq&i − dt (8)
i i i ∂qi i ∂q&i ∂t
∂L d  ∂L  ∂L
 because: pi = ⇒   = p& i =
∂q&i dt  ∂q&i  ∂qi
∂L
dH = ∑ q&i dpi − ∑ p& i dqi − dt (9)
i i ∂t
 Equating (7) and (9):
∂L ∂H ∂H ∂H
∑ q&i dpi − ∑ p& i dqi − ∂t dt = ∑ ∂q dqi + ∑ ∂p dpi + ∂t dt
i i i i i i

 Comparing coefficients, we get 2n + 1 relations:

∂H
q&i =
∂pi Canonical equations (10)
∂H of Hamilton
− p& i = (conforming to well established
∂qi rule or procedure)

∂L ∂H
and − = (11)
∂t ∂t
∂H ∂H
 We find = q&i = − p& i and ∂H = − ∂L
∂pi ∂qi ∂t ∂t

 2n equations replacing the n Lagrange’s equations


 1st order differential instead of 2nd order
 “Symmetry” between q and p is apparent

 There is nothing new – We just rearranged equations

 First equation links momentum to velocity

 This relation is “given” in Newtonian formulation

 Second equation is equivalent to Newton’s/Lagrange’s


equations of motion
How to apply Hamiltonian formulation?

1. Choose the generalized coordinates qi and construct the


Lagrangian L ( qi , q&i , t )
∂L
2. Obtain canonical momenta using the relations pi = (qi , q&i , t )
∂q&i
to express q& as a function of ( qi , pi , t ) .

3. Construct the Hamiltonian H as a function of ( qi , pi , t ) .


4. Derive Hamilton’s equations of motion.
Examples
 Free particle in one-dimension
Lagrangian: L(q, q& , t ) = 12 mq& 2
Momentum conjugate to q is:
∂L
p= = mq&
∂q&
p
or q& =
m
Transformation equation: H ( qi , pi , t ) = ∑ q&i pi − L( qi , q&i , t )
i
the corresponding Hamiltonian:

H (q, p ) = pq& − L
mq& 2 p 2 mp 2 p 2
= pq& − = − 2
=
2 m 2m 2m
p2
So we can write: H ( q, p ) =
2m
L and H assume same values  both equal to the kinetic energy
But they are different functions  depend on different variables

Carrying out partial differentiation → the equations of motion are:

∂H p
q& = =
∂p m

∂H
p& = − =0
∂q
So p is a constant of motion.
 Particle under Hooke’s law force F = –kx

L = T −V
∂L
L= 1 mx& 2 − 12 kx 2 p= = mx&
2 ∂x&
p 2 p 2 kx 2
Hamiltonian H = px& − L = − +
m 2m 2
p 2 kx 2
H= +
2m 2
Hamilton’s equations:

∂H p ∂H
x& = = p& = − = − kx
∂p m ∂x
Conservation Theorems
and Physical Significance of Hamiltonian

 Some problems involve cyclic coordinates  Hamiltonian procedure


is adapted to treatment of such problems

Cyclic coordinates
A coordinate q j which does not appear in the Lagrangian.
Then Lagrange’s equations → its conjugate momentum p j is
constant.

∂L ∂H
Then p& j = =− =0
∂q j ∂q j
⇒ A cyclic coordinate will also be absent from H
Conversely  if a generalised coordinate does not occur in H,
then its conjugate momentum is conserved.

Let cyclic coordinate  qn


then L = L(qi .....qn−1 , q&i .....q& n , t )
still, the problem to be solved is of n degrees of freedom.

Hamiltonian formulation  a cyclic coordinate can also be labelled as


ignorable coordinate
Let the conjugate momentum pn is some constant α
H = H ( qi .....qn−1 , pi ..... pn−1 , α , t )
Now problem involves n – 1 coordinates  can be solved ignoring the
cyclic coordinate
 As a cyclic coordinate in L is also cyclic in H ⇒ conservation
theorems also apply in Hamiltonian formulation

 Just like in case of Lagrangian  Physical significance of


Hamiltonian also lies in the fact  if H is not an explicit function
of t then H is a constant of motion

If Hamiltonian is: H = H (qi , pi , t )

dH  ∂H ∂H  ∂H
Then time derivative: = ∑  q&i + p& i  +
dt  ∂qi ∂pi  ∂t
∂H ∂H
as q&i = and p& i = −
∂pi ∂qi

dH  ∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H  ∂H
then = ∑  −  +
dt i  ∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi  ∂t
⇒ dH ∂H ∂L
= =− ⇒ H is a constant of motion
dt ∂t ∂t
⇒ Hamiltonian is a conserved quantity if it does not
explicitly contain time

 In many problems, canonical momenta are obvious from physical


considerations and Hamiltonian is also equal to total energy.

The Hamiltonian: H = q&p − L = mv 2 − L


In a conservative system: L = T −V
so H = 2T − T + V
or H = T +V
Example
 Motion of a particle in 2-dim. in a central force field.

The total energy is then: H = T + V (r )


where, V(r) is central potential, and K.E. is:
T = 12 mv 2 = 12 m( r& 2 + r 2θ& 2 )
Hamiltonian formulation → r,θ converted to conjugate momenta pr,pθ

So we have:
pr = mvr = mr& (linear momentum)
pθ = mrvθ = mr 2θ& (angular momentum)
In terms of momenta and generalised velocities:

pr pθ
r& = and θ= 2
&
m mr
 p 2
r 2 2
pθ 
therefore: 1 
T = 2 m 2 + 2 4 
r
m m r 
pr2 pθ2
= +
2m 2mr 2
2 2
p
Hamiltonian: H = r +
pθ θ is cyclic
2
+ V (r )
2m 2mr
pθ = constant=l
Hamilton’s equations:

∂H pr ∂H pθ2 ∂V
r& = = p& r = − = 3−
∂pr m ∂r mr ∂r

Cyclic variable drops off by itself


Derivation of Hamilton’s Equations from
Variational Principle

 Variational principle  Hamilton’s principle →


useful in derivation of Lagrange’s equations

t2
Hamilton’s principle δI = δ ∫t Ldt = 0 (12)
1

 Lagrangian formulation  qi and q&i independent variables in


configuration apace
 Hamiltonian formulation  q and p independent coordinates in
phase space
 express Hamilton’s principle in terms of q and p

Hamiltonian H (qi , pi , t ) = ∑ q&i pi − L(qi , q&i , t )


i

L(qi , q&i , t ) = ∑ q&i pi − H (qi , pi , t ) (13)


i

 Substituting in Hamilton’s Principle:

δI = δ ∫tt12  ∑ q&i pi − H (qi , pi , t ) dt


Modified Hamilton’s
(14)
principle  i 
Review  δ - variation process:

 Configuration space formed by n generalised coordinates

 The initial and final configurations of the system, at times t1 and t2


 each represented by a point
 “variation of the integral” ⇒ variation in the value of integral
as we change the path traversed by the system between two
end points.
 Variation occurring in constant time ⇒ end point times are fixed

⇒ “Travel time” between two configurations is same for all paths


 The variation of integral about actual path is zero ≡ integral has an
extremum for this path
 Integral I  function of parameter α → δ is identified with
change dα ∂
δ → dα (a)
∂α
Hamilton’s Equations

t2  
Modified Hamilton’s
δI = δ ∫t  ∑ q&i pi − H (qi , pi , t ) dt (14)
Principle: 1
 i 
In terms of α:
∂I ∂ t2  
δI = dα = dα ∫ 
 ∑ q&i pi − H (qi , pi , t ) dt = 0
∂α ∂α t1  i 
Since, the end-point times are not varied ⇒ they are not functions of α

∂  
 ∑ q&i pi − H (qi , pi , t ) dt = 0
t2
dα ∫
t1 ∂α  i 

t2  ∂q&i ∂pi ∂H ∂qi ∂H ∂pi 


dα ∫ ∑  ∂α pi + q&i ∂α − ∂q ∂α − ∂p ∂α  dt = 0 (15)
t1
i  i i 
First term can be written as:

t2 ∂q&i t2 d ∂qi
∫t pi dt = ∫ pi dt
1 ∂α t1 dt ∂α
t (16)
∂qi 2 t2 ∂qi
= pi − ∫ p& i dt
∂α t1 t1 ∂α

= 0 Q ∂qi ∂α vanishes at the end-points


Equation (15) takes the form:

t2  ∂pi ∂qi ∂H ∂qi ∂H ∂pi 


dα ∫ ∑  q&i ∂α − p& i ∂α − ∂q ∂α − ∂p ∂α  dt = 0 (17)
t1
i  i i 
t2  ∂pi ∂qi ∂H ∂qi ∂H ∂pi 
dα ∫ ∑  q&i ∂α − p& i ∂α − ∂q ∂α − ∂p ∂α  dt = 0 (17)
t1
i  i i 
Using correspondence in equation (a):
∂qi ∂pi
dα = δqi and dα = δpi
∂α ∂α
t2  ∂H ∂H 
∫t ∑  q&iδpi − p& iδqi − ∂q δqi − ∂p δpi  dt = 0
1
i  i i 
t2   ∂H   ∂H  
or ∫t ∑  δpi q&i − ∂p  − δqi  p& i + ∂q   dt = 0 (18)
1
i   i  i 
As variations δpi and δqi are independent, integral can only vanish if
coefficients vanish separately.
∂H ∂H Required Hamilton’s
therefore: q&i = and p& i = − (20)
∂pi ∂qi Equations
Applications of Hamilton’s Equations
Example-1:
Use Hamiltonian method to find equations of motion of a particle
constrained to move on the surface of a cylinder defined by x2 + y2 =
R2. The particle is subjected to a force directed toward the origin and
proportional to the distance of the particle from the origin: F = -kr

Solution: z

The potential corresponding to force is:


V = − ∫ F(r )dr R

= − ∫ − krdr r
y

V = 12 kr 2 θ
So
x

as r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
V = 12 k ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
= 12 k ( R 2 + z 2 )
If the particle traces a path s in x,y plane, then:
ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (i)
In cylindrical coordinates: x = R cosθ
y = R sin θ
Find dx, dy, dz, substitute in (i):

therefore ( ds ) 2 = (dR) 2 + R 2 (dθ ) 2 + (dz ) 2


Dividing by ( dt ) 2 :

2  dθ 
2 2 2 2
 ds   dR   dz 
We get: =
    + R    +
 dt   dt   dt   dt 
or v 2 = R& 2 + R 2θ& 2 + z& 2
As R is constant: v 2 = R 2θ& 2 + z& 2
Therefore the K.E. is: T = 12 m( R 2θ& 2 + z& 2 )

Now we can write the Lagrangian as:

L = T − V = 12 m( R 2θ& 2 + z& 2 ) − 12 k ( R 2 + z 2 )

Generalised coordinates are θ and z → generalised momenta then:


∂L
pθ = = mR 2θ&
∂θ& (ii)

∂L
and pz = = mz& (iii)
∂z&
conservative system  equations of transformation between rectangular
and cylindrical coordinates do not involve time explicitly,
⇒ Hamiltonian is just total energy, expressed in terms of θ, pθ , pz, z
(θ is cyclic)

so H ( z , pθ , p z ) = T + V = 12 mR 2θ& 2 + 12 mz& 2 + 12 kR 2 + 12 kz 2
pθ2 p z2 1 2 1 2
Using (ii) and (iii): H= 2
+ + kR + kz
2mR 2m 2 2
∂H
now p& θ = − =0 (iv)
∂θ
∂H
p& z = − = − kz (v)
∂z
∂H p
θ& = = θ2
∂pθ mR (vi)

∂H p z
z& = = (vii)
∂p z m
Equations (iv) and (vi) give:
pθ = mR 2θ& = Constant

⇒ angular momentum about the z-axis is constant of motion

From equations (v) and (vi): m&z& = − kz


or &z& + ω02 z = 0
k
where ω02 =
m
Therefore, motion in z-direction is simple harmonic motion.
Example-2:
Use the Hamiltonian method to find the equations of motion for a
spherical pendulum of mass m and length b .
Solution: z

The generalized coordinates are θ and φ . x

Using spherical polar coordinates:


x = b sin θ cos φ θ
b
y
y = b sin θ sin φ
φ
z = b cosθ
K.E. is given by: T = 12 m( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2 ) mg

and P.E. : V = − mgz

Perform simple calculations to transform the K.E. and P.E. equations


using spherical coordinates.
The results are: T = 12 m(b 2θ& 2 + b 2φ& 2 sin 2 θ )
V = − mgb cosθ
The Lagrangian is: L = T −V
therefore L = 1 m(b 2θ& 2 + b 2φ& 2 sin 2 θ ) + mgb cosθ
2
The generalised momenta are:
∂L
pθ = = mb 2θ& (i)
∂θ&
∂L
pφ = = mb 2φ& sin 2 θ (ii)
∂φ&
Since the system is conservative and that the transformation from
Cartesian to spherical coordinates does not involve time, we have:
H = T +V
H = 12 mb 2θ& 2 + 12 mb 2φ& 2 sin 2 θ − mgb cosθ (iii)
Using (i) and (ii) in (iii):
2
pθ2 pφ
H= + − mgb cosθ
2mb 2mb sin θ
2 2 2

∂H p
Finally, the equations of motion are: θ& = = θ2
∂pθ mb
∂H pφ
φ=
& =
∂pφ mb 2 sin 2 θ
∂H pφ2 cosθ
p& θ = − = − mgb sin θ
∂θ mb sin θ
2 3

∂H
p& φ = − =0
∂φ
Because φ is cyclic (or ignorable), the generalized momentum pφ about
the symmetry axis is a constant of motion. pφ is actually the component
of the angular momentum along the z-axis .
Example-3:

Consider a particle of mass m moving freely in a conservative force field,


whose potential function is V. Find the Hamiltonian function and show
that the canonical equations of motion reduce to Newton’s equations. Use
rectangular coordinates.
Solution:
For a particle moving freely in a conservative field:
K.E.: T = 12 m( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2 )
P.E.: V = V ( x, y , z )
The Lagrangian is: L = T −V
= 12 m( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2 ) − V ( x, y, z )
Generalised momenta are then:

∂L ∂L ∂L
px = = mx& , py = = my& , pz = = mz&
∂x& ∂y& ∂z&
The Hamiltonian can be written as: H = T +V
H = 12 m( x& 2 + y& 2 + z& 2 ) + V ( x, y, z )
p x2 p 2y
p z2
= + + + V ( x, y , z )
2m 2m 2m
Canonical equations of motion are:
∂H ∂V ∂H ∂V ∂H ∂V
p& x = − =− , p& y = − =− , p& z = − =−
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
however, F = −∇V
∂V ∂V ∂V
therefore: Fx = − , Fy = − , Fz = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
so p& x = Fx , p& y = Fy , p& z = Fz
which are simply Newton’s equations of motion.
Example-4:
Determine the Hamiltonian and Hamilton’s equations of motion for a
simple pendulum of mass m and length l.
Solution: x

The K.E. of the system is: T = 12 mv 2


θ
and P.E.: V = − mgy l

Here the velocity v is related to angular velocity ω


v = lω = lθ&
and y = l cosθ y

Therefore, we write the lagrangian:


L = T − V = 12 mv 2 + mgy
= 12 ml 2θ& 2 + mgl cosθ
∂L pθ
now pθ = = ml 2θ& → θ= 2
& (i)
∂θ& ml
Now the Hamiltonian can be written as: H = pθ θ& − L
H = ml 2θ& 2 − 12 ml 2θ& 2 − mgl cosθ
= 12 ml 2θ& 2 − mgl cosθ
Substituting from (i): pθ2
H= 2
− mgl cosθ
2ml
So the equations of motion are:
∂H pθ
θ=
& = 2
∂pθ ml
∂H
p& θ = − = − mgl sin θ ⇒ ml 2θ&& = − mgl sin θ
∂θ
g
or θ = − sin θ
&&
l
For small θ : sin θ ≈ θ g
so θ =− θ
&&
l

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