Math 102

Basic Algebra and Trigonometry
MTH 102
Virtual University of Pakistan

Knowledge beyond the boundaries
General Mathematics VU
Table of Contents
Lecture 1-3 ............................................................................................................................. 3

Lecture 4-7 ............................................................................................................................. 8
Lecture 8-12 ......................................................................................................................... 17
Lecture 13-15 ....................................................................................................................... 26
Lecture 16 .......................................................................................................................... 29
Lecture 17 ............................................................................................................................. 29
Lecture 18 ............................................................................................................................. 29
Lecture 19 - 20 .................................................................................................................... 30
Lecture 21 ............................................................................................................................. 33
Lecture 22-24 ....................................................................................................................... 35
Lecture 24-30 ....................................................................................................................... 39
Lecture 31 ............................................................................................................................. 53
Lecture 32- ........................................................................................................................... 53
Lecture 33- ........................................................................................................................... 53
Lecture 34- ........................................................................................................................... 53
Lecture 35- .......................................................................................................................... 53
Lecture 36 ............................................................................................................................. 54
Lecture 37 ............................................................................................................................. 58
Lecture 38-40 ....................................................................................................................... 63
Basic Algebra and Trigonometry VU
Lecture 1-3
Sets and Numbering Systems
The study of Mathematics begins with a study of sets and the development of the numbering
systems. Every mathematical system can be represented as a “set”; therefore, it is important for us
to understand the definitions, notations and properties of “sets”
• Definition: A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects. Objects in the collection are called
elements of the set.
• Examples:
o The collection of persons living in Lahore is a set.
 Each person living in Lahore is an element of the set.
o The collection of all towns in the Punjab province is a set.
 Each town in Punjab is an element of the set.
o The collection of all quadrupeds is a set.
 Each quadruped is an element of the set.
o The collection of all four-legged dogs is a set.
 Each four-legged dog is an element of the set.
o The collection of counting numbers is a set.
 Each counting number is an element of the set.
o The collection of pencils in your bag is a set.
 Each pencil in your bag is an element of the set.
• Notation: Sets are usually designated with capital letters. Elements of a set are usually designated
with lower case letters.
o D is the set of all four legged dogs.
o An individual dog might then be designated by d.
• The roster method of specifying a set consists of surrounding the collection of elements with
braces. For example the set of counting numbers from 1 to 5 would be written as
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• Set builder notation has the general form {variable | descriptive statement }.
The vertical bar (in set builder notation) is always read as “such that”.
© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3

Set builder notation is frequently used when the roster method is either inappropriate or
inadequate.
For example, {x | x < 6 and x is a counting number} is the set of all counting numbers less than 6.
Note this is the same set as {1,2,3,4,5}.
• Other Notation: If x is an element of the set A, we write this as x ∈ A. x ∉ A means x is not an

element of A.
If A = {3, 17, 2 } then 3 ∈ A, 17 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A and 5 ∉ A.

If A = { x | x is a prime number } then 5 ∈ A, and 6 ∉ A.
• Definition: The set with no elements is called the empty set or the null set and is designated with
the symbol ∅.
• Definition: The universal set is the set of all things pertinent to a given discussion and is
designated by the symbol U
For example, when dealing with all the students enrolled at the Virtual University, the Universal
set would be
U = {all students at the Virtual University}
Some sets living in this universal set are:
A = {all Computer Technology students}
B = {first year students}
C = {second year students}
• Definition: The set A is a subset of the set B, denoted A ⊆ B, if every element of A is an element
of B.
If A is a subset of B and B contains elements which are not in A, then A is a proper subset of B.
It is denoted by A ⊂ B.
If A is not a subset of B we write A ⊄ B to designate that relationship.
• Definition: Two sets A and B are equal if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. If two sets A and B are
equal we write A = B to designate that relationship.
In other words, two sets, A and B, are equal if they contain the same elements
• Definition: The intersection of two sets A and B is the set containing those elements which are
elements of A and elements of B. We write A ∩ B to denote A Intersection B.
• Example: If A = {3, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} then A ∩ B = {3, 6}
• Definition: The union of two sets A and B is the set containing those elements which are
elements of A or elements of B. We write A ∪ B to denote A Union B.
• Example: If A = {3, 4, 6} and B = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
• Algebraic Properties of Sets:

o Union and intersection are commutative operations. In other words, A ∪ B = B ∪ A and

A∩B=B∩A
o Union and intersection are associative operations. In other words,
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = B ∩ (A ∩ C)
Union and Intersection are distributive with respect to each other. In other words
A ∩ ( B ∪ C )= (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) and A ∪ ( B ∩ C )= (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
• A few other elementary properties of intersection and union.

A ∪ ∅ =A, A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∪ A = A, A ∩ A = A.
• Numbering Systems:
• Counting numbers are called Natural numbers and the set of Natural numbers is denoted by N =
{1,2,3…}
• Integers are Natural numbers, their opposites and zero. The set of integers is denoted by Z = {…-
3, -2, -1, 0,1,2,3…}
• Rational numbers such as 2/3, -31/2 0.3333, are numbers that can be written as a ratio of two
integers. The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q. This set includes
o Repeating decimals, terminating decimals and fractions
o Integers are also rational numbers since every integer a can be written as a fraction a/1
• Irrational numbers are numbers that can’t be written as fractions.
o 3. 45455455545555… has a pattern but doesn’t repeat. It isn’t rational. It can’t be written
like a fraction.
o Square root of 2, π (Pi) and e are also irrational.
• The Union of the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers is the set of Real
numbers, denoted by R
• N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R
• Definition: Cardinality refers to the number of elements in a set

o A finite set has a countable number of elements
o An infinite set has at least as many elements as the set of natural numbers
• Notation: |A| represents the cardinality of Set A
• History: Initially numbers were used for counting and the natural numbers did that job well.
However there were no solutions for equations of the form x + 4 = 0.
To resolve this, the natural numbers were extended by inventing the negative integers.
This was done by attaching a symbol “-” (which we now call the minus sign) to each natural
number and calling the new number the “negative” of the original number. This was further
extended to all real numbers.
Now people had solutions for equations of the form x + 4 = 0, but equations of the form x2 + 4 =
0 still had no solutions. There is no real number whose square is -4.
The numbering system had to be extended once again to accommodate for square roots of
negative numbers. A symbol, = √−1 , was invented and it was called the “imaginary unit”. The
real numbers were extended by attaching this imaginary unit to each number and calling it the
“imaginary copy” of the real numbers.

• Definition: Numbers of the form a + bi are called complex numbers.

o a is the real part
o b is the imaginary part
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C
• Examples : 2 - 4i , -3 + 5i and -5 + 3/4i are all complex numbers
• Graphical Representation: Recall that real numbers are represented on a line. A complex number
has a representation in a plane. Simply take the x-axis as the real numbers and y-axis as the
imaginary numbers. Thus, giving the complex number a + bi the representation as point P with
coordinates (a,b) as the following diagram shows:
• Properties of Complex Numbers:

o Addition and Subtraction: For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,
(a + bi ) + (c + di ) = (a + c) + (b + d )i
(a + bi ) − (c + di ) = (a − c) + (b − d )i
o Examples
 (4 − 6i) + (−3 + 7i) = [4 + (−3)] + [−6 + 7]i = 1 + i
 (10 − 4i) − (5 − 2i) = (10 − 5) + [−4 − (−2)]i = 5 − 2i
o Multiplication of Complex Numbers: For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,
(a + bi )(c + di ) = (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc)i.
o The product of two complex numbers is found by multiplying as if the numbers were
binomials and using the fact that i2 = −1.
o Example: (2 − 4i)(3 + 5i)
=2(3) + 2(5i ) − 4i (3) − 4i (5i )

=6 + 10i − 12i − 20i 2
=6 − 2i − 20(−1)
= 26 − 2i

• Definition: Given a complex number z = a + ib, its conjugate is defined as z*= a – ib
• Properties of conjugates:
o (z*)* = z
o z.z* = a2 + b2 (real)
o z + z* = 2a (real)
o z - z* = 2ib (imaginary)
• Division of Complex Numbers: For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,

(a + bi ) (a + bi ) (c − di )
= x
(c + di ) (c + di ) (c − di )
(ac + bd ) (bc − ad )
= +i 2
c2 + d 2 c + d2
The quotient of two complex numbers is found by multiplying and dividing by the conjugate of
the denominator.
• 3 + 11i −1 + 2i (3 + 11i )(−1 + 2i ) −3 + 6i − 11i + 22i 2 −3 − 5i + 22(−1)

Example : * = = =
−1 − 2i −1 + 2i (−1 − 2i )(−1 + 2i ) 1 − 2i + 2i − 4i 2 1 − 4(−1)
−3 − 5i − 22 −25 − 5i −25 5i
= = = − =−5 − i
1+ 4 5 5 5
• Definition: The absolute value or modulus of a complex number is the distance the complex
number is from the origin on the complex plane.
• If you have a complex number =

z (a + bi ) the absolute value can be found using
=
|z| a 2 +b 2
• Example: −2 + 5i = (−2) 2 + (5) 2= 4 + 25 = 29

Lecture 4-7
Functions and Quadratics
• Definition: A mapping between two sets A and B is simply a rule for relating elements of one set
to the other. A mapping is also called a relation.
• Types of Relations:
o One-One Relations are mappings where each member of the pre-image is mapped to
exactly one member of the image.
1 
5
2
3
6
4 
7
5
8
 9
o Many – Many Relations are the mappings where many members of the image are
images of more than one member of the pre-image, and members of the pre-image are
mapped to more than one image.

Ahmed Paris

Peter London
Ali Dubai
Jaweria New York

Hamad Cyprus
Has Visited
o Many - One Relations are the mappings where two or more members of the pre-image
are mapped to exactly one member of the image.

Person Has A Mass of Kg
Bilal  62
Peter
Salma 64
Alaa
George
 66
Aziz




o One-Many Relations are mappings where one member of the pre-image is mapped to
two or more members of the image.

cm Is the length of object
 Pen
 Pencil
14
Ruler
30
Needle
Stick


• Definition: Many-One and One-One relationships are called functions.
• Definition: The set consisting of members of the pre-image or inputs of a function is called its
domain. For a given domain the set of possible outcomes or images of a function is called its
range.
o It is important to note that to define a function we need two things: One, the formula for
the function, and two, the domain.
• Examples:
o f ( x=
) 2 x + 1 ; Domain: x = R, Range: f(x) = R
1
o g ( x) = ; Domain: x = R – {2}, Range: g(x) = R
x−2
o h( =
x) x − 3 ; Domain: {x ϵ R | x ≥ 3}, Range: h(x) ≥ 0
o q ( x) = ( x + 1) + 2 ; Domain: x = R, Range: q(x) ≥ 2

2
• Definition: A function is called an even function if its graph is symmetric with respect to the
vertical axis, and it is called an odd function if its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

• Theorem:
o If f(-x) = f(x), then f is an even function
o If f(-x) = -f(x), then f is an odd function
• Example: f ( x) = x 2 is an even function
Example: f ( x) = x is an odd function

3
•
• Definition: The sum, difference, product and quotient of the functions f and g are the functions
defined by
o (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
o (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
o (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x)
o (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x), provided g(x) ≠ 0
• Definition: Given functions f and g, then the function fog is a composite function, where g is
performed first and then f is performed on the result of g.
• Example: Consider 2 function s f ( x=

) 3 x + 2 and g ( x) = x 2 . The function fog may be found
using a flow diagram as follows:
x x2 3x 2 Add 2
square Multiply by 3
f =
g 3x 2 + 2
g f
Thus
• Remember, the domain of fog is the set of all real numbers x in the domain of g where g(x) is in
the domain of f.
The domain of fog cannot always be determined simply by examining the final form of (fog)(x). Any
numbers that are excluded from the domain of g must also be excluded from the domain of fog.
• Example: Given and g ( x=

) 3 − x find ( f  g )( x) and its domain.
f ( x=
) 4 − x2
Solution: Now Domain of f: -2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and Domain of g: x ≤ 3.
( f  g=
)( x) f ( g=
( x)) f ( 3 − x )
= 4 − ( 3 − x )2 = 4 − (3 − x) = 1+ x
1 + x © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 12

Even though is defined for all x ≥ -1, we must restrict the domain of fog to those values
that are also in the domain of g. Thus, Domain fog: -1 ≤ x ≤ 3
• Definition: If f is a one-one function, then the inverse of f, denoted by f-1, is the function obtained
by reversing the order of f. In other words, if f(a) = b then f-1(b) = a.
• If a function is to have an inverse which is also a function then it must be one-one. This means
that a horizontal line will never cut the graph more than once; i.e. we cannot have f(a) = f(b) if a
≠ b. Two different inputs (x values) are not allowed to give the same output (y value).
• Example: f(x) = x2 with domain x∈ℜ is not one to one. So, for example, the inverse of 4 would
have two possibilities: -2 or 2. This means that the inverse is not a function. We say that the
inverse function of f does not exist. However, if the Domain is restricted to x ≥ 0, then the
function would be one to one and its inverse would be f-1(x) = √x , x ≥ 0
• Properties of Inverse Functions:

o Domain of the inverse is equal to the Range of f.
o Range of inverse is equal to the Domain of f.
• Steps for finding inverse of a function f:

o Find the domain of f and verify that f is one-to-one. If f is not one-to-one, then stop as the
inverse does not exist.
o Solve the equation y = f(x) for x. i.e. make x the subject.
o Interchange x and y in step two. This will give the inverse function in terms of x.
o Find the domain of the inverse function.
o Check that the inverse function is correct.
• Example: Find the inverse of the function y = f(x) = (x-2)2 + 3 , x ≥ 2. Sketch the graphs of y =
f(x) and y = f-1(x) on the same axes showing the relationship between them.
Solution
o Step 1: In order for the function to be one to one, we must restrict its domain to x ≥ 2.
The Range of f is y ≥ 3 and so the domain of f-1 will be x ≥ 3.
o Step 2: Make x the subject. y – 3 = (x-2)2  √(y –3) = x-2 x = 2 + √(y –3)
o Step 3: Interchange x and y in the above equation to get y = 2 + √(x –3). So Final
Answer is: f-1(x) = 2 + √(x –3) , x ≥ 3
o Step 4: Verification: f[f-1(x)] = f[2 + √(x –3)] = {[2 + √(x –3)] -2}2 + 3
= [√(x –3)] 2 + 3 = (x –3) + 3 = x. And f-1[f(x)] = f-1[(x-2)2 + 3] = 2 + √([(x-2)2 + 3] –
3) = 2 + √(x-2)2 = 2 + (x-2) = x
Graph: Reflect in y = x to get the graph of the inverse function.

• Definition: A function of the type y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, and c are called the coefficients, is
called a quadratic function.
The graph of a quadratic function will form a parabola. Each graph will have either a maximum
or minimum point. There is a line of symmetry which will divide the graph into two halves.
• What happens if we change the value of a and c?
• When a is positive, the graph concaves downward.
• When a is negative, the graph concaves upward.
• When c is positive, the graph moves c units up.
When c is negative, the graph moves c units down
• Solving Quadratic Equations: Since y = ax2 + bx +c, by setting y=0 we set up a quadratic equation.
To find the solutions means we need to find the x-intercept. Since the graph is a parabola, there will
be at most two solutions.
• Graphing Method: In this method, we use a scientific calculator and graph the equation. Then we
read the x-intercepts from the graph.
•
o Example: x2 - 2x = 0
o To solve the equation, write y = x2 - 2x into your graphing calculator. Find the x-
intercepts. The two solutions are x=0 and x=2.

2
y=x -2x
• Factorization Method: To solve a quadratic equation we get it in the standard form y = ax2 + bx
+c and see if it will factorize.
o Example: x= 2
5x − 6  x2 − 5x + 6 =0  ( x − 3)( x − 2 ) = 0
 x− =3 0 or x −=
2 0
 x = 3 and x = 2
• Completing the Square Method: For this method we need the coefficient of x2 to be 1. We then
divide the take the coefficient of x and add and subtract the square of half of the coefficient of x
from the equation to form a perfect square on one side of the equation.
o Example: x + 6 x + 3 =
2
0. . This does not factorize. So we will use the completing the
square method here.
−.3The coefficient of x is 6. So, the square of 6/2 is 9.
x 22 + 6 x =
x + 6 x + 9 =−3 + 9 . We added 9 to both sides of the equation
x2 + 6 x + 9 =
6 . The left side becomes a perfect square.
( x + 3) 6  x + 3 =± 6  x =−3 ± 6
=
2
x = −3 + 6 ≈ −0.55 And x = −3 − 6 ≈ −5.45

• Formula Method: Using the completing the square method, we get the general quadratic
formula. Given ax + bx + c =
2
0, the quadratic formula is:
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
o Example: x 2 + 6 x + 3 = 0
Here, a = 1, b = 6 and c = 3. So, using the formula, we get:
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −6 ± 62 − 4(1)(3) −6 ± 24
x= = = =−3 ± 6
2a 2(1) 2
• Note that the expression b2 – 4ac under the square root – called the discriminant -
determines how many solutions (if any) the quadratic equation will have.
o If b − 4ac > 0, there will be two distinct real solutions.

2
o If b 2 − 4ac = 0, there will be exactly one real solution.

o If b 2 − 4ac < 0, , there will be no real solutions.
• Examples: In each of the following cases determine if the equations has one, two or zero real
solutions.
o 2x2 + 7 x + 4 = 0
b 2 − 4ac = 7 2 − 4(2)(4) = 49 − 32 = 17 > 0
Therefore, there are two distinct real solutions
o 2x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
b 2 − 4ac = 42 − 4(2)(2) = 16 − 16 = 0
Therefore, there is exactly one real solution
o 3x 2 + 4 x + 2 =0
b 2 − 4ac =42 − 4(3)(2) =16 − 24 =−8 < 0
Therefore, there are no real solutions.

Lecture 8-12
Matrices and Determinants
• Definition: A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows and columns. The

order of a matrix is the number of the rows and columns. The entries are the numbers in the
matrix.
• Notation: A matrix A is written as follows:

 a11 a12 ... a1n 
 a a ... a 
=A = 21 22 2n 
... ... ... ........ 

(a )
ij
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 
where ars represents the entry in the rth row and sth column. A matrix with m rows and n
columns is said to have order m x n.
• Operations on Matrices:
o Addition of Matrices: To add two matrices, they must have the same order. To add,
we simply add corresponding entries.
o Example:
 5 −3  −2 1  5 + (−2) −3 + 1   3 −2 
 −3 4  +  3 0  =  −3 + 3 4 + 0  =  0 4 
    
 0 7   4 −3  0 + 4 7 + (−3)   4 4 
o Subtraction of Matrices: To subtract two matrices, they must have the same order.
We simply subtract corresponding entries.
o Example:
 9 −2 4   4 0 7   9−4 −2−0 4−7 
5 0 
6 − 1  
5 − 4 =  5 − 1 0−5 6 − (−4)

 1 3 8  − 2 3 2  1 − (−2) 3−3 8 − 2 
 5 − 2 − 3
=  4 −©5Copyright
10  Virtual University of Pakistan 17
 3 0 6 
o Multiplication by a Scalar: In matrix algebra, a real number is often called a scalar.

To multiply a matrix by a scalar, we multiply each entry in the matrix by that scalar.
o Example:
− 2 0  4(−2) 4(0)   −8 0 
4 = =
4 − 1   4(4) 4(−1)  16 −4 
o Matrix Multiplication: Given an r x c matrix A and an s x d matrix B, we can multiply

A with B to form the matrix AB if c = s. The resulting matrix will have dimension r x
d.
To multiply two matrices, we multiply each row in the first matrix by each column in
the second matrix. An example is shown below:
a a  b11 b12 b13 
A =  11 12  B= 
 a21 a22  b21 b22 b23 
, ,
We can multiply to form the matrix C = AB since the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B. The multiplication is carried out as follows:
 a11b11 + a12b21 a11b12 + a12b22 a11b13 + a12b23 

= = 
C AB 
 a21b11 + a22b21 a21b12 + a22b22 a21b13 + a22b23 
o Example:
 2 3
1 1 1 
=A 1= 1  and B  
1 0  1 0 2 
(2)(1) + (3)(1)= 5 (2)(1) + (3)(0)= 2 (2)(1) + (3)(2)= 8  5 2 8 

  
C =AB =(1)(1) + (1)(1) = 2 (1)(1) + (1)(0) =1 (1)(1) + (1)(2) =3  = 2 1 3
(1)(1) + (0)(1)= 1 (1)(1) + (0)(0)= 1 (1)(1) + (0)(2)= 1   1 1 1 
• Definition: A Square matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere is called an
identity matrix. It is denoted by I.
• Example: The 4 x 4 identity matrix is:

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
I =
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
• Definition: Given a square matrix B, if there exists a matrix D such that BD = DB = I, then D
is called the inverse of B, and is denoted by D = B-1.

n
• Given a system of equations ∑a x =b
j =1
ij j i , it can be written as a matrix equation Ax = b ,
where A is the matrix of the coefficients, 𝑥 is the column matrix of the variables and 𝑏 is the
column matrix of the constants. i.e.
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
𝑏1 𝑥1  a a ... a 
𝑏2 𝑥2 A =  21 22 2n 
, 𝑏 = � �, 𝑥=� ⋮ � ... ... ... ........ 
⋮
𝑏𝑚 𝑥𝑛  
 am1 am 2 ... amn 
If A-1 exists then the system has a unique solution given by x = A−1 b
• Definition: A matrix is in echelon form if it has the following properties

o Every non-zero row begins with a 1 (called a leading 1)
o Every leading one in a lower row is further to the right of the leading one above it.
o If there are zero rows, they are at the end of the matrix
A matrix is in reduced echelon form if in addition to the above three properties it also has
the following property:
o Every other entry in a column containing a leading one is zero
• Methods for finding Solutions of Equations:

o Using Row Operations: Recall that when we are solving simultaneous equations, the
system of equations remains unchanged if we perform the following operations:
 Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant

 Add a multiple of one equation to another equation
 Interchange two equations.
We have seen that any system of equations can be written as a matrix system. i.e. the
two systems are equivalent.
So, given a system Ax = b we can form the augmented matrix (Ab) by attaching an
additional column at the end of the matrix A with entries from matrix b. Since the
original system of equations remains unchanged as described above, the system
described by the augmented matrix (Ab) also remains unchanged under the following
row operations:
 Multiply a row by a non-zero constant

 Add a multiple of one row to another row
 Interchange two rows.
Using row operations, we will change the matrix (Ab) to an Echelon form or a
reduced Echelon form. Once that is achieved, the solution will be easily found.
Example: Solve the following system of equations:

x + 2y + z = 1
2x + 2 y = 2
3x + 5 y + 4 z =1
Solution: The system can be written in matrix form as:

1 2 1   x  1 
2 2 0  y  = 2
    
 3 5 4   z  1 
The augmented matrix is
1 2 1 1  R −2 R 1 2 1 1  R 1 2 1 1
=( Ab) 2 2 0 2  ~
2 1
0 −2 −2 0  ~ 0
23
−1 1 −2 
 R −3 R

 3 5 4 1  3 1 0 −1 1 −2  0 −2 −2 0 
1
− R2
2 1 1  R − 2 R 1 0 3 −3 − R /4 1 0 3 −3
 −1 2  ~ 0
1 2
−1 2  ~ 0 1
3
−1 2 
~ 0 1
R +2 R
1
0 −2 −2 0  3 2 0 0 −4 4  0 0 1 −1
R1 −3 R3
1 0 0 0 
0 1 0 1 
~
R2 + R3
 
0 0 1 −1
This gives the solution: x = 0, y = 1, z = -1
o Solving Equations using Inverse: If we could find A-1, we could also solve the system
−1
by using x = A b. One way to find inverse is as follows:
o Theorem: Given a nxn matrix A, if the augmented matrix (AI), where I is the nxn
identity matrix, can be row reduced to a matrix (IB), then B is the inverse of A. If (AI)
cannot be reduced to (IB), then A does not have an inverse.
o Example: Solve the system of equations:

2x − 2 y + 2z =
1
2y − z = 1
2x + 3y = −1
Solution: The matrix A of the coefficients is

 2 −2 2 
 0 2 −1
 
 2 3 0 
To find A-1 we use the above theorem

 2 −2 2 1 0 0  R − R  2 −2 2 1 0 0
( AI ) =  0 2 −1 0 1 0  3 1  0 2 −1 0 1 0 
  ~ 
 2 3 0 0 0 1   0 5 −2 −1 0 1 
1 −1 1 1 0 0 1 −1 1 1 0 0
R1 /2  2  R2 − 2 R3  2 
~ 0 5 −2 −1 0 1  ~ 0 1 0 −1 −2 1
R23    
0 2 −1 0 1 0  0 2 −1 0 1 0

1 0 1 −1 −2 1  1 0 0 3 3 −1
R1 + R2  2  R1 + R3  2 
~  0 1 0 −1 −2 1  ~  0 1 0 −1 −2 1 
R3 − 2 R2   − R3  
0 0 −1 2 5 −2 
 

0 0 1 −2 −5 2 

So,
3 3 −1
 2 
A−1 = −1 −2 1 
 
 −2 −5 2 
This gives the solution

3 3 −1  1   3 + 3 + 1 11 
 x  2   2   2
   −1 −2 1   1  =  −1 − 2 − 1  =  −4 
x =  y  = A−1 b =
z        
   −2 −5 2   −1  −2 − 5 − 2   −9 
 
• Definition: Let M be the set of all square matrices. Then the Determinant is a function from M to
the set of real numbers. i.e. the determinant is a process of attaching a real number to every
square matrix.
• Notation: If A is a square matrix, then determinant of A is denoted by detA or |A|
1 2 1 2
• Example: det� �=� �
3 4 3 4
• Second Order Determinant: A 2 x 2 determinant can be found using the following method:
a11 a12
= a11a22 − a21a22
a21 a22

−1 2
• Example: = (−1)(−4) − (−3)(2) = 4 + 6 = 10
−3 −4
• Definition: The Minor of an element in a third-order determinant is a second-order determinant

obtained by deleting the row and column that contains the element.
a11 a12 a13

• Example: Given a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12
The Minor of a23 =
a31 a32
a11 a13
The Minor of a32 =
a21 a23
i+ j
• Definition: The Cofactor of aij = (−1) (Minor of aij )
• The cofactor of aij is denoted by Cij
• Thus, the cofactor of an element is nothing more than a signed minor.
a11 a12 a13

• Example: Given a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a a
The Cofactor of a23 = (−1) 2+3
C23 = =
− 11 12
a31 a32 a31 a32
a22 a23 a22 a23

The Cofactor of a11 = (−1)1+1
C11 = =
a32 a33 a32 a33
• Theorem: The value of a determinant of order 3 is the sum of three products obtained by
multiplying each element of any one row (or each element of any one column) by its cofactors.
• Note: The above theorem and definitions of minor and cofactor generalize completely for
determinants of order higher than 3
2 −2 0
• Example: Evaluate −3 1 2
1 −3 −1

Solution: We expand by the first row to get:

2 −2 0
−3 1 2 =
1 −3 −1
 1 2   1+ 2 −3 2   1+1 −3 1 
2 (−1)1+1  + (−2) (−1)  + (0) (−1) =
 −3 −1   1 −1   1 −3 
(2)(1)[(1)(−1) − (−3)(2)] + (−2)(−1)[(−3)(−1) − (1)(2)] + 0 =
(2)(5) + (2)(1) = 12
• Finding Inverse Using Determinants
• Definition: Given a matrix A, the transpose of A denoted AT is the matrix obtained by

interchanging the rows of A with its columns.
 8 −1 3  8 0 10 
•

Example: The transpose of A = 0 0 2  is AT =  −1 0 4 
 
10 4 −3  3 2 −3
• Definition: Given a matrix A, calculate all the cofactors of A. We then form the matrix (Cij ) of
the cofactors. The Adjoint or Adjugate of A is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors. i.e.
=
adj =
( A) (Cij )
T
(C ji )
−1 1
• The inverse of A is then found by the formula: A = adj ( A)
| A|
• Example: Find the inverse of the following matrix using determinant.
 −2 1 3
A=  0 −1 1 
 1 2 0 
Solution: We need to first find all the cofactors.
−1 1 0 1 0 −1
(−1)1+1
C11 = =
−2 (−1)1+ 2
C12 = =
1 (−1)1+3
C13 = =
1
2 0 1 0 1 2
1 3 −2 3 −2 1
(−1) 2+1
C21 = =
6 (−1) 2+ 2
C22 = = (−1) 2+3
−3 C23 = =
5
2 0 1 0 1 2
1 3 −2 3 −2 1
(−1)3+1
C31 = =
4 (−1)3+ 2
C32 = =
2 (−1)3+3
C33 = =
2
−1 1 0 1 0 −1

C21 C31   −2 6
T
 C11 C12 C13   C11 4 
=
Now, adj ( A)  C21 C22 C=
23 
 C
 12 C32   1 −3
C22 = 2  . And

 C31 C32 C33   C13 C23 C33   1 5 2 
−2 1 3
−1 1 0 1 0 −1
det( A) = 0 −1 1 =−2 −1 +3 =−2(−2) − 1(−1) + 3(1) =8
2 0 1 0 1 2
1 2 0
 −2 6 4
1
2 
1
−1
=
Therefore, A =
adj ( A) 1 −3
det( A) 8
 1 5 2 
• Cramer’s Rule for Solving Systems of Equations: Suppose we are given a system of 2 equations
in 2 unknowns as follows:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 =
b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 =
b2
∆1 ∆ b1 a12
Then, the solution is given by: x1 = and x2 = 2 , where ∆ =det( A) , ∆1 = and
∆ ∆ b2 a22
a b
∆ 2 = 11 1
a21 b2
Similarly, for a system involving three unknowns and three equations:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 =

b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 =
b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x2 =
b3
∆1 ∆ ∆ a11 a12 a13
x1 = x2 = 2 x3 = 3
The solution is given by ∆, ∆ and ∆ , where ∆ = a21 a22 a23 ,
a31 a32 a33
b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
∆1 =b2 a22 a23 , ∆ 2 =a21 b2 a23 and ∆ 3 =a21 a22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
• Example: Solve using Cramer’s Rule:

x1 + 2 x2 + x3 =
1
2 x1 + 2 x2 =
2
3 x1 + 5 x2 + 4 x3 =
1

Solution:
1 2 1 1 2 1
2 0 2 0 2 0
2 2 2 0 2 2
=∆ 2 2=0 1 −2 +1 = ∆1 2 2 =
0 1 −2 +1
5 4 3 4 3 5 , 5 4 1 4 1 5
3 5 4 1 5 4
=1(8) − 2(8) + 1(4) =8 − 16 + 4 =−4 = 1(8) − 2(8) + 1(8) = 8 − 16 + 8 = 0
1 1 1
2 0 2 0 2 2
= ∆2 2 2 =
0 1 −1 +1
, 1 4 3 4 3 1 , and
3 1 4
=1(8) − 1(8) + 1(−4) =8 − 8 − 4 =−4
1 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
=
∆3 2 2 =
2 1 −2 +1
5 1 3 1 3 5
3 5 1
=1(−8) − 2(−4) + 1(4) =−8 + 8 + 4 =4
∆1 0 ∆ 2 −4 ∆ 4
So, by Cramer’s Rule: =
x1 = = 0, =
x2 = = 1 , x3 = 3 = = −1 .
∆ −4 ∆ −4 ∆ −4

Lecture 13-15
Sequences and Series
• Definition: Rows of numbers are called sequences, and the separate numbers are called terms of
the sequence.
• Notation: Usually the terms of the sequence are denoted by

a1 = First term of the sequence
a2 = second term of the sequence
…
an = nth term of the sequence
• Definition: An Arithmetic Sequence (or Arithmetic Progression) is a sequence in which each

term after the first term is found by adding a constant, called the common difference (d), to the
previous term.
• The inductive definition of an arithmetic sequence has the form

a1 = a and =an an −1 + d
• Formula: The formula for finding any term in an arithmetic sequence is an = a + (n-1)d.
All you need to know to find any term is the first term in the sequence (a) and the common
difference, d.
• Example: Given the sequence, 1500, 3000, 4500, 6000, …, find the 16th term.
Solution: a = 1500, d = 1500, n -1 = 16 - 1 = 15 .
So a16 = 1500 + 1500(15) = 24000
• Definition: An Arithmetic Series is the sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence.
• Example: Arithmetic sequence: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
Corresponding arithmetic series: 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10

• To find the sum of the first n terms on arithmetic sequence, we can use the formula:
Sn = n/2(a + an) = n/2(a + a + (n-1)d) = n/2(2a + (n-1)d)
• Example: Find the sum of the first 50 terms of an arithmetic series with a = 28 and d = -4
Solution: We need to know n, a, and a50. n= 50, a = 28, d = -4. The formula is Sn = n/2(2a + (n-
1)d) So, S50 = 50/2(2(28) + (50-1)(-4)) = 25(56 + 49 (-4)) = 25(56 – 196) = 25(-140) = -3500
• Definition: A sequence in which each term after the first is found by multiplying the previous
term by a constant value called the common ratio, is called a Geometric Sequence (or
Geometric Progression).
• The formula for finding any term of a geometric sequence is an = arn-1
• Example: Find the 10th term of the geometric sequence with a = 2000 and a common ratio of 1/2.
• Solution: a10 = 2000• (1/2)9 = 2000 • 1/512 = 2000/512 = 500/128 = 250/64 = 125/32
• Definition: A Geometric Series is the sum of the terms in a arithmetic sequence.
• The formula for fining the sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is given by
a (1 − r n )
Sn =
1− r
4
• Example: Find the sum ∑ −3(2)
n =1
n −1
Solution: This is a geometric series with first term -3 and common ratio 2.
−3(1 − 24 ) −3(1 − 16)

S4 = = = −45
1− 2 −1
• Definition: If a sequence of numbers approaches (or converges) to a finite number, we say that
the sequence is convergent. If a sequence does not converge to a finite number it is called
divergent.
a (1 − r n )
• For the sequence of the geometric series, we know that S n = and it is the expression r n
1− r
that determines if the series converges or diverges: If | r |> 1 then | r | increases indefinitely and
n
the series is divergent. However, if | r |< 1 then | r | tends to zero as n tends to infinity. So the
n
a (1 − 0) a a
=
sum tends to S n = . It is conventional to write S∞ =
1− r 1− r 1− r
∞ n −1
 1
• Example: Evaluate ∑ 35  − 
n =1  4

Solution: This is an infinite geometric series with a = 35 and r = -1/4. So,

35 35
=
S∞ = = 28
1 − (−1/ 4) (5 / 4)

Lecture 16 – Review Sets
Lecture 17 – Review Functions
Lecture 18 – Review Matrices

Lecture 19 - 20
Permutations and Combinations
• Multiplication Principle: If two operations A and B are performed in order, with n possible
outcomes for A and m possible outcomes for B, then there are n x m possible combined outcomes
of the first operation followed by the second.
• Example: Basket A contains a mango (m) and a banana (b). Basket B contains an apple (a), an
orange (o) and a grapefruit (g). You draw one fruit from A and then one fruit from B. How many
different pairs of fruits can you have?
Solution: ma, mo, mg, ba, bo, bg = 6. Or, (2 from A) x (3 from B) = 6 according to the
multiplication principle.
• Difference between permutations and combinations: Both are ways to count the possibilities. The
difference between them is whether order matters or not. Consider a poker hand:
A♦, 5♥, 7♣, 10♠, K♠
Is that the same hand as:
K♠, 10♠, 7♣, 5♥, A♦
Does the order the cards are handed out matter?
o If yes, then we are dealing with permutations
o If no, then we are dealing with combinations
• Permutation Rules:
o To arrange n distinct objects in a row, the number of different arrangements is n! = n(n-

1)(n-2)…3.2.1
o The number of different permutations of r objects which can be made from n distinct
objects is given by
o The number of different permutations of n objects of which p are identical to each other,
and then q of the remainder are identical, and r of the remainder are identical is
o To arrange n objects in a line in which r of the objects have to be together we have r!( n
– r + 1)! Permutations
o To arranging n objects in a circle in which arrangements are considered to be the same if

they can be obtained from each other by rotation, we get n!/n = (n – 1)! Permutations.

• Example: Suppose you have 4 pictured cards that have the pictures of the letters A, B, C and D,
and you want to arrange them in a row to form “words”. How many 4-letter words are there?
Solution: here we are arranging four distinct objects in a line. The number of permutations is 4! =
24
• Example: Eight runners are hoping to take part in a race, but the track has only six lanes. In how
many ways can six of the eight runners be assigned to lanes.
Solution: This is a permutation of six lane assignments from 8 people:

8! 8! 8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1
8
P= = = = 20160
(8 − 6)! 2!
6
2.1
• Example: Find the number of distinct permutations of the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI
Solution: The total number of letters = 11, Number of S’s = 4, Number of I’s = 4, Number of P’s
11!
= 2. The total number of distinct permutations is = 34650
4!4!2!
• Example: Five people, A, B, C, D and E are arranged randomly in a line. Find the possible
permutations when A and B are next to each other
Solution: Imagine A and B are stuck together in the order AB. Treat them as one unit. Then there
are 4 unites to permute (AB, C, D and E) in a line and we know there are 4! = 24 ways to arrange
4 units. But A and B could also be stuck together in the order BA, and there will be another 4!
arrangements in that case. Therefore, there will be a total of 2 x 4! = 48 arrangements of the 5
people in the line where A and B are always together.
• Example: How many ways are there to sit 6 people around a circular table, where seatings are
considered to be the same if they can be obtained from each other by rotating the table?
Solution: First, place the first person in the north-most chair. This has only one possibility. Then
place the other 5 people. There are 5P5 = 5! = 120 ways to do that By the product rule, we get
1x120 =120.
Alternatively, there are 6P6 = 720 ways to seat the 6 people around the table. For each seating,
there are 6 “rotations” of the seating. Thus, the final answer is 720/6 = 120
• Formula for Combinations: In general, to find the number of combinations of r objects taken
from n objects, we divide the number of permutations nPr by r!. The total number of
n n
Pr n!
combinations is given by: n=
Cr  = =
r r ! r !(n − r )!
• Example: The manager of a football team has a squad of 16 players. He needs to choose 11 to
play in a match. How many possible teams can be chosen?

Solution: This is a combination problem as the order in which the teams are chosen is not
16!
=
important. The number of combinations is 16C11 = 4368
11!5!

Lecture 21
Binomial Theorem
• In mathematics we are always looking for generalization of ideas. For example, we know the
formula for
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
But it is hard to remember formulas for higher powers. We need a mechanism that would help us
expand (x + y)n for any values of n
• Pascal’s Triangle:
Expression Coefficients
(x + y)1 = x + y 11
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 121
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 1331
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4 14641
(x + y)5 = x5 + 5x4y + 10x3y2 + 10x2y3 + 5xy4 + y5 1 5 10 10 5 1
Each value inside the triangle is obtained by adding the two values above it
1
1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

• Example: Expand (a + x)6
Solution: Remember the 5th row of the Pascal’s triangle: 1 5 10 10 5 1
Coefficients of the 6th row will be will be: 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6 and 1
So expansion will be (a + x)6 = a6 + 6a5x + 15a4x2 + 20a3x3 + 15a2x4 + 6ax5 +x6
• We note that the Pascal’s triangle is inefficient in finding the coefficient of big expansions such
as the coefficient of x9y6 in the expansion of (x + y)15. What is needed is a formula in terms of n
and r for the coefficient of xn-ryr in the expansion of (x + y)n. We note the following connection
between the binomial coefficients and the Pascal’s triangle:
0
C0
1 1
C0 C1 1
2 2 2
C0 C1 C2 1
3 1 3
3
C0
3
C1 3
C2 C3
1 4
n
The n-th row is Ck , k = 0, 1, …, n
• Binomial Theorem: If n is a natural number, then
n
(x + y)n = nC0 xn + nC1 xn-1 y + nC2 xn-2 y2 + nC3 xn-3 y3 + nC4 xn-4 y4 + ... + nCn yn = ∑
k =0
n
Ck x n − k y k
n!
The binomial coefficients are given by Cr =
n
r !(n − r )!
• Example: Calculate the coefficient of x11y4 in the expansion of (x+y)15

Solution: By the binomial theorem the coefficient is given by

15! 15.14.13.12
=
15
C4 = = 1365
4!11! 4.3.2.1
• Example: Use the Binomial Theorem to calculate 1.018
Solution: 1.018 = (1 + 0.01)8 = 1 + 8(0.01) + 28(0.01)2 + 56(0.01)3 + 70(0.01)4 + 56(0.01)5 +

28(0.01)6 + 8(0.01)7 + (0.01)8 = 1 + .08 + .0028 + .000056 + .00000070 + .0000000056 +
.000000000028 + .00000000000008 + .0000000000000001 = 1.0828567056280801.
Lecture 22-24
Coordinate Geometry
• Distance Between Two Points: Given any two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), the distance between
them is given by AB = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
• Example: Given points A(2, 3) and B(5, 7), find the distance between A and B.
Solution: AB = (5 − 2) 2 + (7 − 3) 2 = (3) 2 + (4) 2 = 5
• Mid-Point between two points: Given any two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), the mid-point M has
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
coordinates ( , )
2 2
• Example: Given points A(4, 3) and B(10, 7). Let M be the mid-point of AB. Find the coordinates of M
4 + 10 3 + 7
Solution: M = ( , ) = (7,5)
2 2
• Definition: Given any two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), the gradient or slope of the line segment
joining A and B is the ratio of the change in y with respect to the change in x. It is denoted by m, and
y2 − y1
is defined as m = .
x2 − x1
• Properties of Gradient:
o The bigger the gradient’s magnitude is, the steeper the line segment.
o Negative gradient means line is facing downwards.

o Positive gradient means the line is facing upwards.

o The slope gives the average rate of change in y per unit change in x, where the value of y
depends on x.
o Two line segments that are parallel will have the same slope.
• Example: Find the slope of the line through the points (2,-1) and (-5,3)
rise y2 − y1 3 − (−1) 4 4
Solution: slope = m = = = = = −
run x2 − x1 (−5) − 2 −7 7
• Equation of a Line: The equation of a line or a curve is a rule for determining whether or not the point
with coordinates (x, y) lies on the line or curve. The equation of a line through a fixed point (x1, y1)
with gradient m is given by
y − y1
=m
x − x1
⇔ y − y1= m( x − x1 )
⇔ y = mx + y1 − mx1
⇔ y = mx + c
where c = y1 – mx1
• The last form of the line is called the slope-intercept form of a straight line where m is the slope and
c is the y-intercept.
• Example: Find the slope of the line given 3x – 4y = 12
Solution: Writing the equation in the slope-intercept form, we get:
3x − 4 y = 12
−4 y = −3 x + 12
3
=
y x −3
4
Therefore, the slope is ¾.

• Two Lines in a Plane: In a plane, two lines either intersect or are parallel. If the gradients are the
same, the lines are parallel and do not intersect. If the gradients are not the same, the lines intersect.
• Example: Given the equations of the lines 2x – y = 4 and 3x + 2y = -1. Do these lines intersect? If
they do, find the point of intersection.
Solution: Since these two lines have different gradients, they must intersect. To find the point of
intersection we need (x, y) which lie on both the lines, i.e. which satisfy the two equations
simultaneously. We need to solve the equations simultaneously. Solving the equations simultaneously
we get x = 1 and y = -2.
• Perpendicular Lines: If a line has gradient m, then the gradient of a line perpendicular to this line is -
1/m. Two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular if m1.m2 = -1, or m1=-1/m2
• Example: Are the lines 3x + 5y = 6 and 5x - 3y = 2 parallel, perpendicular, or neither?

3 6
Solution: For Line 1: x + 5 y =6 ⇔ 5 y =−3 x + 6 ⇔ y =− x+
5 5
So, its slope is -3/5.
5 2
5 x - 3 y = 2 ⇔ −3 y = −5 x + 2 ⇔ y = x−
For Line 2: 3 3
So, its slope is 5/3, which is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the first line. Therefore,
the two lines are perpendicular.
• Equation of a Circle: The equation of a circle with center (h, k) and radius r in standard form
is: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
• Example: Identify the center and radius of the given circle and sketch the graph:
( x + 4 ) + ( y − 3) =
2 2
25
Solution: Comparing the given equation with standard form, we see that its center is (-4, 3)
and radius is 5. The graph is as follows:

- - - - - - - 01 23 4 56 7 8
7 654 32 1
• Example: Find the center and radius of the circle with equation x2 + y2 + 6x -4y = 23
Solution: We transform the equation into the form (x - h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 by completing the square
relative to x and relative to y. Then from this standard form we can determine the center and
radius.
We want to write x2 + y2 + 6x -4y = 23 as

(x2 + 6x )+ (y2 - 4y ) = 23
(x + 6x + 9)+ (y2 - 4y + 4) = 23 + 9 + 4
2
(x+3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 36

(x – (-3))2 + (y – 2)2 = 62
The center is (-3, 2) and the radius is 6
Lecture 24-30
Trigonometry
• Basic Functions:
o Cosine Function: Consider a circle of radius 1.

P(x, y)
O θ Q A X
Let P(x, y) be any point making an angle θ with the horizontal x-axis.
Then Cosθ = OQ/OP = x/1 = x
i.e. the value of Cosθ is the x-coordinate of P as P travels along the circumference of the
circle, starting from the point A.
o Properties of the Cosine Function:

 The cosine function has “period” 360o as it repeats itself after each revolution of 360o
 Cos(-θ) = Cosθ as the x-coordinate of P doesn’t change when we reflect across the x-
axis.
 Cos (180 - θ) = - Cosθ as the x-coordinate changes signs when reflected across the y-
axis.
 Cos (θ - 180) = - Cosθ as the x-coordinate changes signs when reflected across the
origin.
 Cosθ is positive in the first and the fourth quadrant (as the x coordinate of P is positive),
and negative in the second and the third quadrant as the x-axis is negative there.
 The range of the cosine function is between -1 and 1. The maximum value of 1 is taken
when θ = 0o, ±360o, ±720o, …, and the minimum value of -1 is at θ = ±180o, ±540o, …,
o Definition: The functions with the property that they keep repeating themselves are called
periodic functions. The smallest interval for which the function repeats itself is called its
period.

o Graph of the Cosine Function:
o Sine Function: Using the same diagram as before, we consider a circle of radius 1. Let P(x, y) be
any point making an angle θ with the horizontal x-axis. Then Sinθ = PQ/OP = y/1 = y
i.e. the value of Sinθ is the y-coordinate of P as P travels along the circumference of the
circle, starting from the point A.
o Properties of the Sine Function:

 Sin(-θ) = -Sinθ as the y-coordinate of P changes sign when we reflect across the x-axis.
 Sinθ is positive in the first and the second quadrant (as the y coordinate of P is positive), and
negative in the third and the fourth quadrant as the y coordinate is negative there.
 Sin(180 - θ) = Sin θ because as we reflect across the y-axis the y-coordinate doesn’t change.
 Sin(θ - 180) = - Sinθ as the y-coordinate changes signs when reflected across the origin.
 Like the cosine function, the sine function is also periodic, with period 360 degrees, and
range between -1 and 1.
o Graph of the Sine Function:

o Tangent Function: Using the same diagram as before, we consider a circle of radius 1.
Let P(x, y) be any point making an angle θ with the horizontal x-axis.
Then Tanθ = PQ/OQ = y/x = sinθ / cosθ
o Properties of the Tangent Function:

 Tan(-θ) = -Tanθ as the y-coordinate of P changes sign when we reflect across the x-axis but
the x-coordinate doesn’t change sign.
 Tanθ is positive in the first and the third quadrant (as the x and y coordinates of P have the
same signs in these quadrants), and negative in the second and the fourth quadrant as the x
and y coordinates have opposite signs in these quadrants.
 Tan(180 -θ) = -Tanθ as the x-coordinate of P changes sign when we reflect across the y-axis
but the y-coordinate doesn’t change sign
 The domain of tanθ does not include the angles for which x is 0, namely, for θ = ±90, ±270,
…
 Like the cosine and sine functions, the tangent function is also periodic, but its period is 180.
i.e. tan(θ + 180) = tanθ and tan(θ - 180) = tanθ
o Graph of the Tangent Function:

• Basic Properties of Trigonometric Functions:
• Definition: The Amplitude of a function is the height from the mean (or the rest) value of the
function to its maximum or minimum value.
o The amplitude of the function f(x) = ASinBx is |A| and the period is 2π/|B|
o The amplitude of the function g(x) = ACosBx is |A| and the period is 2π/|B|

• Changing Trigonometric Graphs:
o y= k Cosx & y = k Sinx: The amplitude of the function is “k” .
+k
-k
o y = Coskx & y = Sinkx: The period of the function is “360 ÷ k”.
3
6
0
o y= Cos x + k & y = Sin x + k: Translates the graph + k or – k parallel to the y-axis.

+k
-k
o y = - Cos x & y = - Sin x: Reflects the graph in the x-axis.
y = - Cos x
o Combining the Effects: Draw the graph of y = 4sin2x + 3.
 Step 1: Draw the graph of y = sin x

 Step 2: Draw the graph of y = 4 sin x

 Step 3: Draw the graph of y = 4 sin 2x
 Step 4: Draw the graph of y = 4 sin 2x + 3

o Phase Shift:
 Shown below is the graph of y = sin xo
 Now compare it with the graph of y= sin( x - 60o)

The graph is translated 60o to the right parallel to the x axis.
o From the previous example we can now see that the equation y = cos ( x - k ) and
y = sin ( x - k) translate the graphs ko to the right parallel to the x-axis and the equations
y = cos ( x + k ) and y = sin ( x + k) translate the graph ko to the left parallel to the x-
axis.
o Note that the functions Sine, Cosine and Tangent are not one-to-one. So, they don’t have
inverses unless we restrict the domains of the definitions.
• Definition: The inverse sine function is defined by y = arcsin x if and only if sin y =
x. The domain of y = arcsin x is [–1, 1]. The range of y = arcsin x is [–π/ , π/2].
• Example: arcsin 1 = π since π is the angle whose sine is 1 .

2 6 6 2
• Example: sin −1 3 = π since sin π = 3
2 3 3 2
• Definition: The inverse cosine function is defined by y = arccos if and only if cos y =
x. The domain of y = arccos x is [–1, 1]. The range of y = arccos x is [0, π].
• Definition: The inverse tangent function is defined by y = arctan x if and only if tan y = x. The
domain of y = arctan x is (−∞, ∞) . The range of y = arctan x is [–π/2, π/2].

• Solving Trigonometric Equations
o To solve cos θ = k
 Find cos–1(k) = θ
– Use symmetry property to get cos(- θ) = cos (θ) to get -θ as a solution.
– Use the periodic property [cos(θ ± 360) = cos θ] to find all the solutions
in the required interval.
 Example: Given that cos (70.52) = 1/3, solve cos θ = 1/3, giving all the roots in 0
≤ θ ≤ 360
– Find cos–1 (1/3) = 70.52
– Use symmetry property to get cos(- 70.52) = cos (70.52) to get -70.52 as
a solution.
– Note that -70.52 is not in the required interval. Now use the periodic
property cos(-70.52) = cos(-70.52 + 360) = cos(289.48). So another
solution is 289.48 degrees
– All the solutions are 70.52º and 289.48º
 To solve Sinθ = k
– Find sin–1(k) = θ
– Use symmetry property to get sin(180 - θ) = sin(θ) to get another
solution.
– Use the periodic property [sin(θ ± 360) = cos θ] to find all the solutions
in the required interval.
 Example: Given that sin(44.42 º) = 0.7, solve sinθ = -0.7, giving all the roots in -
180 ≤ θ ≤180
– Find sin–1(-0.7) = -44.42
– Use symmetry property to get sin(180 – (-44.42)) = sin (-44.42) to get
224.42 as a solution.
– Note that 224.42 is not in the required interval. Now use the periodic
property sin(224.42) = sin(224.42 - 360). So another solution is -135.58
degrees
– All the solutions are -44.42º and -135.58º
 To solve Tan θ = k
– Find Tan–1(k) = θ
– Use the periodic property tan(180 ± θ) = tan(θ) to get other solutions in
the required interval.
 Example: Given that tan(63.43°) = 2, Solve tanθ = -2, giving all the roots in 0 ≤
θ ≤ 360
– Find tan–1(-2) = -63.43°,
– Note that -63.43°is not in our range. Now use the periodic property tan(-
63.43°) = tan(-63.43° - 180°) to get 116.56. Now use the periodic
property tan(116.56°) = tan(116.56° + 180°) to get 296.56°.
– The solutions are is 116.6º and 296.6°

o Definition: Two functions f and g are said to be identically equal if f(x) = g(x) for every
value of x for which both functions are defined. Such an equation is referred to as an
identity. An equation that is not an identity is called a conditional equation.
o Basic Trigonometric Identities:
 Reciprocal Identities:
 Quotient Identities
 Periodic Properties
 Even-Odd Properties
 Pythagorean Identities
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ =
1
o Example: Verify that the following equation is an identity:

tan t −cot t
= sec2 t − csc2 t
sin t cos t
Solution: LHS = tan=t −cot t tan t cot t
−
sin t cos t sin t cos t sin t cos t
1 1
= tan t ⋅ − cot t ⋅
sin t cos t sin t cos t

sin t 1 cos t 1
= ⋅ − ⋅
cos t sin t cos t sin t sin t cos t
1 1
= −
cos 2 t sin 2 t
= sec2 t − csc2 t
= RHS
o Sum and Difference Formulas:

 cos(A-B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
cos(A+B) = cosAcosB - sinAsinB
 sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB

sin(A-B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB
tan A + tan B
 tan( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
tan( A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B
o Double Angle Formulas:
 sin 2 A = sin(A+ A) = sinAcosA+ sinAcosA = 2sinAcosA

 cos 2 A = cos(A+ A) = cosAcosA- sinAsinA = cos 2 A- sin 2 A
tanA+ tanA 2 tanA
 tan 2 A = =
1- tanAtanA 1- tan 2 A
o Example: Find the exact value of Cos 165o.
=
Solution: cos(165 °) cos(210° −=
45°) cos 210° cos 45° + sin 210° sin 45°
− 3 2 1 2 − 6 2 −( 6 − 2)
= ⋅ +− ⋅= −=
2 2 2 2 4 4 4
Using the trigonometric identities find the value of cos(75°)

Lecture 31- Review Sequence and Series
Lecture 32- Review Permutation and Combination, Binomial Theorem
Lecture 33- Review Binomial Theorem, Coordinate Geometry
Lecture 34- Coordinate Geometry, Trigonometry
Lecture 35- Application of Mathematics in different Fields

Lecture 36
Statistics
• Definition: Methods of collection, organization and analysis of numerical information are collectively
called statistics. Pieces of numerical and non-numerical information are called data. In order to
collect data, you need to observe or measure some property; this property is called a variable.
• Definition: A variable is qualitative if it is not possible for it to take a numerical value. A variable is
quantitative if it can take a numerical value. A quantitative variable which can take any value in a
given range is called a continuous variable. A quantitative variable which has clear steps between its
possible values is called a discrete variable.
• Types of Statistics: Descriptive Statistics comprises those methods concerned with collection and
describing a set of data so as to yield meaningful information.
o Example: Summarized large amounts of data collected from the pool games of 2011 cricket
world cup to provide immediate meaningful information concerning the performance of each
team.
• Inferential Statistics comprises those methods concerned with analysis of a subset of data leading to
predictions or inferences about the entire set of data.
o Example: Suppose we collected data for 30 years regarding the average rainfall in the month
of July in Lahore, and the amount came to be 3.3 centimeters. We make the inference that
next year in the month of July we can expect between 3.2 and 3.4 centimeters of rain.

Where can Statistics Contribute?
• Business and Industry

o Manufacturing
 Improve product quality
 Increase efficiency of processes
o Marketing
 Conduct sample surveys
 Determine product viability
 Estimate advertisement effectiveness
o Engineering
 Make consistent product
 Predict product life
o Banking
 Estimate the risk of a company defaulting on loan
 Determine effective asset allocation for portfolios
• Health and Medicine

o Epidemiology
 Calculate cancer incidence rates
 Monitor disease outbreaks
 Study risk factors for various diseases
o Public Health
 Design community efforts
 Education programs
o Pharmacology
 Drug discovery, development, and approval
 Ensure validity of results in clinical trials
o Genetics
 Identify potential indicators for specific diseases or traits
 Test gene modification for treatment of diseases
• Natural Resources
o Agriculture
 Evaluate differences in crop management
 Evaluate the best combinations of fertilizers, pesticides and densities of planting.
o Ecology
 Study changes in local and global climate
 Develop strategies to improve the environment
 Study the impact of new industrial plants on surrounding ecology
o Geography
 Evaluate the amount of rainfall one can expect for a given area based on longitude,
latitude and distance from the sea.
• Social and Natural Sciences

o Physics
 Determine when an increase in the density of cosmic rays signals the presence of a
supernova
 Conducting tests to determine existence of new particles.

o Chemistry
 Predict shape of large molecules
 Analysis of mass spectrometry data
o Biology
 Seek to better understand why insects cluster
 Identify genes related to a particular disease
o Sociology
 Estimate the chances of a major war in the next five years
 Study the increase in rates of marriage failure
 Determine the characteristic of prisoners to study risk of them repeating criminal
behavior.
o Psychology
 Study the effects of narcotics on schizophrenia
 Determine if the existence of extrasensory perception can be demonstrated
 Evaluate the relationship between shyness and loneliness
o Anthropology
 Determine the age of an archaeological site
 Analyze the percentage difference in body fat between urban and rural dwellers in
Pakistan
o Zoology
 Evaluate the differences in behavior of caged animals when they are outdoors and
when they are indoors
 Determine what techniques are more effective in counting a given species of bird.
• Education
o Develop effective teaching strategies
o Research appropriate and informative evaluation (testing) instruments
o Identify risk factors for bullying, dropping out, failing
o Identify factors contributing to a decrease/increase in student achievement
o Study the proportion of graduates of various programs subsequently employed in their field
of study
• Government Media and Law

o Government Agencies
 Design and implement effective sampling strategies
 Estimate the unemployment rate
 Track and report changes in the economy
 Regulations on stock trading, drug approval, pollution
o Journalism
 Effective communication of statistical ideas to a broad audience
 Participation in education efforts
o Expert Witness
 Testify in court cases involving DNA evidence, salary discrepancies, discrimination,
and disease clusters
• Definitions: A population is defined as the set of all possible members of a stated group.
A cross-section of the returns of all of the stocks traded on the New York Stock
Exchange (NYSE) is an example of a population.

• Definition: A sample is defined as a subset of the population of interest. Once a

population has been defined, a sample can be drawn from the population, and the
sample’s characteristics can be used to describe the population as a whole.
• Definition: A measure used to describe a characteristic of a population is referred to as a

parameter.
• Definition: It is frequently too costly or time consuming to obtain measurements for

every member of a population, if it is even possible. In this case, a sample may be
used. In the same manner that a parameter may be used to describe a characteristic of a
population, a sample statistic is used to measure a characteristic of a sample.
• Measurements Scales:
o Nominal scale: Observations are classified or counted with no particular order.

It consists of assigning items to groups or categories. No quantitative information
is conveyed and no ordering of the items is implied. Nominal scales are therefore
qualitative rather than quantitative.
 Religious preference, race, and gender are all examples of nominal
scales.
o Ordinal scale: All observations are placed into separate categories and the
categories are placed in order with respect to some characteristic. Differences
between values makes no sense.
 Political parties on left to right spectrum given labels 0, 1, 2; restaurant
ratings, etc, are examples of ordinal scales.
o Interval scale: This scale provides ranking and assurance that differences
between scale values are equal. Difference makes sense, but ratio doesn’t; and
there is no natural zero.
 temperature (C,F) and dates are examples of interval scale
o Ratio scale: These represent the strongest level of measurement. In addition to

providing ranking and equal differences between scale values, ratio scales have a
true zero point as the origin.
 Height, weight, age and length are all examples of ratio scale.

Lecture 37
Representation of Data
• Definition: A frequency distribution is a tabular presentation of statistical data that aids

the analysis of large data sets. Frequency distributions summarize statistical data by
assigning it to specified groups, or intervals.
Three steps are required to construct a frequency distribution:

o Define the intervals.
o Tally the observations.
o Count the observations.
• Definition: Relative frequency is calculated by dividing the frequency of each interval

by the total number of observations. Simply, relative frequency is the percentage of total
observations falling within each interval.
• Definition: Cumulative Frequency is calculated by summing the frequencies starting at

the lowest interval and progressing through the highest. Cumulative frequency for any
given interval is the sum of the frequencies up to and including the given interval.
• Example:
• Definition: A Bar chart graphically represents the data sets by representing the
frequencies as heights of bars.

• Example: Genderwise groupings of students.
• Definition: A Bar chart which represents continuous data is called a histogram if

o The bars have no spaces between them (though there may be bars with zero
height, which could look like spaces).
o The area of each bar is proportional to the frequency.
o If all the bars have the same width, then the height is proportional to the
frequency.
• Example: Height ranges of students in centimeters.

• Definition: Frequency Density is defined as the ratio between the frequency of a class
and the class width. i.e. Frequency Density = Frequency/Class Width
• Example:
• Histogram: Frequency Density of height ranges of students
• Cumulative Frequency Graphs: Another way of representing continuous data is to draw a

cumulative frequency graph. The cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper
class boundaries of the corresponding class
• Example: The grouped frequency distribution in the following table summarizes the
masses in kilograms, measured to the nearest kilogram, of a sample of 38 students.
Represent the data using a cumulative frequency graph

• We can use the cumulative frequency graph to get other information also. For example, what
proportion of the students has mass less than 60 kg?
From the graph the frequency is about 8.8.The proportion under 60 kg = 8.8/38 = 0.23 or 23%
• Pie Charts: Pie charts are useful for representing percentage allocation data.
For example, the budget of a household can be represented effectively through a pie chart.
Pie charts can be thought of as circle graphs. To calculate the quantities represented by each
slice of the pie chart we need to take the angular fraction of the given total. i.e. If a particular
frequency is x, and n is the total number, then the allocation angle for that class will be (x/n).360

• Example: In a survey, 90 people were asked to indicate which one of five musical instruments
they played. The information is given in the following table.
Represent the data on a pie chart
Solution: We first calculate the allocation angle for each group:

Lecture 38-39, part of 40
Measures of Central Tendency
• Focus of Statistics:
We are concerned in statistics with three things:
o Measures of Location: where the data is clustered or centered. Also called measures of
central tendency.
o Measures of Dispersion: How the data is spread out from the center.
o Measures of Shape: How the data sways and peaks.
• Measures of Central Tendency: The central tendency is measured by averages. These describe
the point about which the various observed values cluster. In mathematics, an average, or central
tendency of a data set refers to a measure of the "middle" or "expected" value of the data set.
• We will be studying the following measures of central tendency: Arithmetic Mean, Geometric
Mean, Weighted Mean, Harmonic Mean, Median, and Mode.
• Definition: The Arithmetic Mean is the sum of the observation values divided by the number of
observations. It is the most widely used measure of central tendency, and is the only measure
where the sum of the deviations of each value from the mean is always zero. The formula for
n
x + x2 + x3 + ............. + xn ∑x i
calculating the arithmetic mean of n values is: x = 1 or, x = i =1
.
n n
• Arithmetic Mean of Grouped Data: If z1 , z2 , z3 ,.........., zk are the mid-values and

f1 , f 2 , f3 ,........, f k are the corresponding frequencies, where the subscript ‘k’ stands for the
number of classes, then the mean is z =

∑fz i i
.
∑f i
• Example: The math exam scores of 9 students are given below: 59, 66, 65, 74, 71, 67, 71, 62, 77.
59 + 66 + 65 + 74 + 71 + 67 + 71 + 62 + 77 612
The mean score is:=x = = 68
9 9
• Definition: The Geometric Mean is often used when calculating investment returns over multiple
periods, or to find a compound growth rate. It is computed by taking the nth root of the product of
n values. In general, when we are dealing with numbers that need to be multiplied, the geometric
mean gives a more realistic picture than the arithmetic mean. The geometric mean for n values is:
𝑛
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑛�𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 = (∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 )

• Geometric Mean of Grouped Data: If the “n” non-zero and positive variable values
x1 , x2 ,........, xn occur f1 , f 2 ,......., f n times, respectively, then the geometric mean of the set of
1
 n fi  N1 n
=
observations is defined by: GM =
x1 f1 x2 f2  xn fn  ∏ i 
 i =1
x

Nwhere N = ∑
i =1
fi
• Example (a): Company A has grown over the last 3 years by 10 million, 12 million and 14
million dollars. What is the average annual growth amount?
This is arithmetic mean = (10 + 12 + 14)/3 = 12 million dollars.
• Example (b): The profit of Company B has grown over last three years by 2.5%, 3%, and 3.5%.
What is the average growth rate?
1
This is geometric mean = [(1.025)(1.030)(1.035)] 3
= 2.9992%
• Definition: The Weighted mean is a special case of the mean that allows different weights on
different observations. Formally, the weighted mean of a non-empty set of data, x1,x2, …, xn, with
𝑤1 𝑥1 + 𝑤2 𝑥2 + … 𝑤𝑛 𝑥𝑛
non-negative weights w1, w2, …, wn, is the quantity calculated by 𝑥̅ =
𝑤1 + 𝑤2 +⋯ 𝑤𝑛
Note: The arithmetic mean is weighted mean where all the weights equal 1
• Example: Given two school classes, one with 20 students, and one with 30 students, the grades in
each class on a test were:
Morning class = 62, 67, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 79, 80, 80, 81, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 89, 93, 98
Afternoon class = 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 89, 90, 90, 90, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92,
92, 93, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99
What is the average score of all the students if the average for the morning class is 80 and the
average of the afternoon class is 90?
Solution: The straight average of 80 and 90 is 85, the mean of the two class means. However, this
does not account for the difference in number of students in each class, and the value of 85 does
not reflect the average student grade (independent of class). The average student grade can be
4300
obtained by either averaging all the numbers without regard to classes = = 86 , or
as x
50
20(80) + 30(90)
weighting the class means by the number of students =
in each class: x = 86 .
20 + 30
• Definition: The Harmonic mean is often used by investors to find the average cost of shares
purchased over time. In certain situations, especially many situations involving rates and ratios,
the harmonic mean provides the truest average. Formally, for a set of positive data values, x1,x2,
…, xn, the harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals:

𝑛 𝑛
𝐻𝑀 = 1 1 1 = 1 .
+ +⋯+ ∑𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑖
• Example (c): You go on a 100 km trip. Suppose you travel half the time at 40 km/h and half the
time at 60 km/h. What is the average speed?
This is Arithmetic mean = (40 + 60)/2 = 50 km/hr
• Example (d): You go on a 100 km trip. Suppose you travel half the distance of your trip at 40
km/h, and the remaining half at 60 km/h. What is the average speed?
This is Harmonic mean = 2/(1/40 + 1/60) = 48 km/hr
• Definition: The median is the middle value of the observations such that the number of
observations above it is equal to the number of observations below it. If the number of values, n is
odd, then the median is the middle value, i.e. M e = x1 ; if n is even, then the median is the
( n +1)
2
1 
average of the middle two values, i.e.=
Me  x n + x n +1 
2 2 2 
h n 
• Median of Grouped Data: For grouped data the median is given by: M e =+
Lo  − F ,
fo  2 
where
o L0 = Lower class boundary of the median class
o h = Width of the median class
o f0 = Frequency of the median class
o F = Cumulative frequency of the pre-median class
• Steps to Find the Median of Grouped Data:
o Compute the less than type cumulative frequencies.
o Determine n/2 , one-half of the total number of cases.
o Locate the median class for which the cumulative frequency is more than N/2 .
o Determine the lower limit of the median class. This is L0.
o Sum the frequencies of all classes prior to the median class. This is F.
o Determine the frequency of the median class. This is f0.
o Determine the class width of the median class. This is h.
o Apply the Formula.

• Definition: Mode is the value of a distribution for which the frequency is maximum. In other
words, mode is the value of a variable, which occurs with the highest frequency.
• Example: The mode of the list (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4) is 3. The mode is not necessarily well defined.
The list (1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5) has the two modes 2 and 3.
• Mode of Grouped Data: The formula for finding mode from grouped data is
∆1
M= L1 + h , where
∆1 + ∆ 2
0
o L1 = Lower boundary of modal class
o Δ1 = difference of frequency between modal class and class before it
o Δ2 = difference of frequency between modal class and class after
o h = class interval
• Example: A commuter who travels to work by car has a choice of two different routes, V and W.
He decides to compare his journey times for each route. So, he records the journey times, in
minutes, for 10 consecutive working days, for each route. The results are:
o Calculate the means and medians for the two routes respectively.
o Which average do you think is more suitable for comparing the time taken on each route?
• Solution: For Route V: Mean = (53+52+48+51+49+47+42+48+57+53)/10 = 500/10 = 50

Arranging in ascending order, we get: 42, 47, 48, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 53, 57. So, the Median is (49
+ 51)/2 = 50
For Route W: Mean = (43+41+39+108+52+42+38+45+39+51)/10 = 498/10 = 49.8. Arranging in

ascending order, we get: 38, 39, 39, 41, 42, 43, 45, 51, 52,108. So, the Median is (42 + 43)/2 =
42.5
Route W is quicker.
• Example: Consider the two sets of data A and B
A: 48, 52, 60, 60, 60, 68, 72
B: 0, 10, 60, 60, 60, 110, 120
For both sets of data the mean = median = mode = 60. Are the two data sets the same?

• If you were given nothing but the measures of location, you might be tempted to think that the
two sets of data are similar. But B is much more spread out than A. It is necessary for us to devise
some new measures to summarize the spread of data.

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What are the different types of measures of central tendency discussed?

What are the different types of measures of central tendency discussed?

What is the difference between the arithmetic and harmonic means?

What is the difference between the arithmetic and harmonic means?

Basic Algebra and Trigonometry

Virtual University of Pakistan

Lecture 1-3 ............................................................................................................................. 3

Sets and Numbering Systems

o The collection of persons living in Lahore is a set.

 Each person living in Lahore is an element of the set.

o The collection of all towns in the Punjab province is a set.

 Each town in Punjab is an element of the set.

o The collection of all quadrupeds is a set.

 Each quadruped is an element of the set.

o The collection of all four-legged dogs is a set.

 Each four-legged dog is an element of the set.

o The collection of counting numbers is a set.

 Each counting number is an element of the set.

o The collection of pencils in your bag is a set.

 Each pencil in your bag is an element of the set.

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3

• Other Notation: If x is an element of the set A, we write this as x ∈ A. x ∉ A means x is not an

If A = {3, 17, 2 } then 3 ∈ A, 17 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A and 5 ∉ A.

If A is not a subset of B we write A ⊄ B to designate that relationship.

• Example: If A = {3, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} then A ∩ B = {3, 6}

• Example: If A = {3, 4, 6} and B = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 6} then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

• Algebraic Properties of Sets:

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 4

o Union and intersection are commutative operations. In other words, A ∪ B = B ∪ A and

• A few other elementary properties of intersection and union.

• Definition: Cardinality refers to the number of elements in a set

• Notation: |A| represents the cardinality of Set A

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5

• Definition: Numbers of the form a + bi are called complex numbers.

• Examples : 2 - 4i , -3 + 5i and -5 + 3/4i are all complex numbers

• Properties of Complex Numbers:

o Example: (2 − 4i)(3 + 5i)

=2(3) + 2(5i ) − 4i (3) − 4i (5i )

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 6

• Definition: Given a complex number z = a + ib, its conjugate is defined as z*= a – ib

• Division of Complex Numbers: For complex numbers a + bi and c + di,

• 3 + 11i −1 + 2i (3 + 11i )(−1 + 2i ) −3 + 6i − 11i + 22i 2 −3 − 5i + 22(−1)

• If you have a complex number =

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7

Functions and Quadratics

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Person Has A Mass of Kg

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cm Is the length of object

• Definition: Many-One and One-One relationships are called functions.

o q ( x) = ( x + 1) + 2 ; Domain: x = R, Range: q(x) ≥ 2

© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11

o If f(-x) = f(x), then f is an even function

o If f(-x) = -f(x), then f is an odd function

• Example: f ( x) = x 2 is an even function

Example: f ( x) = x is an odd function

o (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

o (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)