Introduction To Dam Construction.

Definition:-
 A dam may be defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across a river or
stream. At the back of this barrier ,water gets collected ,forming a pool of
water. The side on which water gets collected is called the up stream
side, and the other side of barrier is called the down stream side. The lake
of water which is formed upstream is often called a reservoir, or a dam
reservoir, or a river reservoir.
 A dam is a barrier that restricts or stops the flow of water, helps
suppress floods, as well as providing irrigation, industrial, and
aquaculture uses.
 Dams are Artificial structures, made across a river or stream.

Need, Purpose and use:-

 Irrigation Dams mostly design or build to increase the water level around
the cultivated filed, and to complete the requirement of irrigation also.
The water collected in reservoir can be supplied for irrigation farm lands
through a system of canal network ,or may be supplied for drinking
purposes. The lake so formed can be used for recreation of uses. The
energy of this collected water can be used to turn a mill to grind wheat or
to turn the blades of a turbine to generate electrical power. A dam
which is constructed from concrete or stone masonry and design to hold
back water primarily using the weight of the material alone to resist the
horizontal pressure of water pushing against it. Dams are important
because they provide water for domestic, industry and irrigation
purposes .Dams often also provide power production and river
navigation. Dams and their reservoir provide recreation areas for fishing
and boating. They help people by reducing or preventing floods

Geotechnical Investigations for Dam and reservoir sites

Geotechnical Investigations for Dam and reservoir sites

Dams are classified by their height, purpose and

material used.

Classification of dams

Size(m) <15 15-30 50-150 >150

Type Small Large dam Major Dam Big Dam
dam
Purpose To stop Diverting To impound To
of Dam sediments water and Huge impound
and mine Canalisation. amount of Huge
Tailings water for amount of
flood control water for
and Hydro flood
power control and
generation. Hydro
power
generation.

Type Check Barrage/weir Multi- Multi-

dams purpose purpose
dams dams
Material Earth Rock Concrete/ Different
material
 The type of dam will be depend upon the rock foundation
is present their.If we gave very week rocks then we will
go for Earthen Dams.
 If we have very strong rock in foundation then we will go
for gravity dams.
 Streta will define the type of dam for that site.
 To protect the foundation from seepage we normally
construct a wall just only heel of dam.
 Base should be impermeable
 Region should be free from earth quake
 Self weight of dam will resist all the forces acting on it.
History of Dam Construction
Although dams have been built in the world since times immemorial, large dam
construction was earlier not possible though needed, because of lack of
adequate design knowledge, construction equipment, new materials like
cement and concrete and technology of construction. Also, economic conditions
and institutional capacity existing in countries that needed large dams, did not
enable them to take them up. The large dam construction became possible
during the 20th century mainly because of advances made in Science and
Technology, which enabled mechanization of construction processes and
speedier construction. Improved design procedures and new construction
materials enabled the design of larger dams and their components to take on
much higher loads and stresses. Also, the needy countries had mobilised
finances and built up their capacity by then. Large dams, distinct from smaller
ones, enable larger storage of water at suitable places, thus saving on
multiplicity of efforts which would be needed to construct several smaller ones.
Larger water storages were also found to be necessary by the society in
response to the needs of the growing urban and industrial centres, generation
of hydropower or for agricultural support.

It is very difficult to say as where and when the first man made dam was built.
Archaeological evidences help in estimating that the very first man made dam is
at least 3000-5000years old. Whenever it was built , that first dam was almost
certainly an irrigation dam.

Construction of Modern Dam:

The first modern dam of world is was perhaps constructed on the Nile river, in
Egypt at Aswan. It was completed in 1902 and was a major engineering project.
This famous Aswan Dam was designed primarily to control the flooding of the
Nile River, to promote irrigation in the Nile Valley, and to further navigation
along the river. Aswan is 1200 km from the mouth of the Nile. The site was
chosen because the river at Aswan is shallow and has a granite bed, on which a
firm foundation could be erected.

Affected people
Plans and efforts have been made during the last 2 - 3 decades to see that the
people that are adversely affected due to dams are involved in the development
process and are treated as stakeholders. However, there are people and
organizations who feel strongly that not enough is being done by governments
and society while building dams to mitigate their hardships and conserve or
improve the environment and ecology. The affected people, undoubtedly, have
to be considered major stakeholders along with those who are benefited from
the dams.

Dam builders, funding agencies and professionals

The planners and builders of dams, users of water, supported by sociologists,
economists, politicians who promote dams form another group of stakeholders.
There are several associations of these stakeholders. Three majors of such world
bodies are :

* International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) established in 1928;

* International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) established in

1950;

* International Hydropower Association (IHA) established in 1995.

There are some 10 similar world-wide associations of professionals dealing with

some of the aspects of dams which can extend help in the matter, wherever
required. Recently (1998) the World Commission on Dams (WCD) has been
established.

ICID

Sustainable irrigated agriculture, drainage of rainfed crops and of irrigated land,

and flood control and management - comprise the main action thrusts of the
ICID. All these are directed to ensure continued food security through
improvement and extension of irrigated and drained areas, increase in
productivity and transformation of the rural development scenario throughout
the world. A recent report from the

After several decades of evolving dam construction activity, even today’s needs
are far from satisfied in many developing regions.

The affected people, undoubtedly, have to be considered major stakeholders

alongwith those who are benefited from the dams.

International Water Management Institute (IWMI) indicates that even with best
irrigation efficiency, the world needs an extension of irrigated areas by building
more dams and storages. To achieve these objectives, ICID acts through its
country membership, which at present includes 87 countries. Together they
account for 95% of the total irrigated area which contributes about 40% of the
world food production. It has more than 25 work bodies comprising
international experts dealing with some of the issues related to the role of dams
for irrigation, drainage and flood control. The themes covered by these bodies
include Environmental Impacts of Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Control
Projects, Socio-economic Impacts and Policy Issues, Research and Development,
Irrigation and Drainage Performance, Sustainable Use of Natural Resources for
Crop Production, etc. The ICID gathers world wide experience through these
work bodies, draws lessons and builds them in its strategy for future action.

ICID aims to provide better management for the agricultural lands of the world
through the application of science and techniques of irrigation, drainage and
flood control measures. In pursuing its aims, ICID embraces the sound principles
of socio-economic values and environmental management. The welfare of the
people and preservation of nature are at the heart of it’s concerns. Dams of all
sizes - small, medium and large are an essential component of overall and
integrated water management systems. They divert water, they retain it over
long periods of time to use it effectively and they attenuate floods and alleviate
impacts of droughts. They relieve drainage congestion, and they provide for the
timely and continuous supply of irrigation water needed to meet the demands
of crops and livestock. Existing and new dams will continue to play a major role
in the management systems.

Large dams
Under what situations large storages are necessary and feasible for promoting
irrigation, drainage or flood control vary according to agroclimatic setting. All
dams store behind them flood-waters, primarily for the benefit of human
beings. ICOLD defines large dams as those more than 15 m in height, while
including smaller dams up to 10 m height as well, if they are otherwise
significant with respect to storage volume, density of population, etc. The
classification is notional. But because of the effects of scale the larger a dam is,
the lower will be the cost of a unit of water stored.

Choice and size

The storage of water enables removal of mismatch between variable availability
and supply, but usually more is demanded round the year. For this purpose,
many reservoirs are designed to carry over storage to the next season as well.
The variability, if not taken care of by such storages, results in droughts and/or
floods. All dams - large and small and mega to micro, ameliorate such conditions
and serve similar purposes. All dams facilitate transport of water to deficit areas
by means of open canals, tunnels or closed pipelines. In a river basin, a judicious
combination of large and small dams may be required to store water for
facilitating withdrawal and use with minimum transport distance to demand
regions. The choice of large or small dams and location for each dam depends
on several factors including technical feasibility, location of water deficit regions
that need to be serviced and alternatives available for the purpose. Besides, the
balance of advantages and disadvantages due to a particular dam in
socioeconomic and environmental aspects helps in decision making.

Storage and quantities for beneficial uses

Not all the water stored behind dams is withdrawn for use. A top depth varying
from 1 to 2 meters depending on local climate, is annually lost to atmosphere
due to evaporation. At the bottom, some depth serves as a dead storage for
accommodating sediment brought in

Storages provide insurance against uncertainty due to climatic variability, can

help reduce variability in season’s low flows in rivers and basically save societies
from economic upheavals and losses due to flood and drought.

by inflow. Similarly some silt does accumulate in higher reaches where inflows
merge into the reservoir periphery, gradually building up small deltas of
sediment. Gated crests obviate this loss of storage to a significant extent by
allowing opening of gates when inflows contain higher levels of sediment. The
remaining volume minus the seepage from the bed of the reservoir and that
across the dam foundation and body, is available for transport and supply for
different beneficial uses. Dead storage size depends upon the catchment area
characteristics but similar to evaporation losses, tends to be proportionately
more in case of a smaller dam.

Storages provide insurance against uncertainty due to climatic variability, can

help reduce variability in season’s low flows in rivers and basically save societies
from economic upheavals and losses due to flood and drought.

Disadvantages
Every dam causes partly temporary and partly permanent submergence of land
in the upstream and displacement of resident persons and their property
generally, along-with submergence of plant life and disruption to animal life. As
reservoir levels recede, the submerged land - rich with fertile soil and silt
deposits can produce valuable crops. Also downstream of dams, such effects are
caused by ancillary facilities on a similar but much smaller scale. The
consequent social and economic loss is generally assessed and compared with
benefits due to the dam. The downstream uses are met with mostly from flow
by gravity or regulated releases into the river, whereas in the upstream, lifting
of water is involved.

All these disadvantages have to be assessed in advance to plan ameliorative

measures. During implementation of the plan and during operation, each
disadvantage calls for careful management and monitoring.

Withdrawal for irrigation

A major portion of water stored behind dams in the world is withdrawn for
irrigation which mostly comprises consumptive use, that is, evapotranspiration
(ET) needs

All the disadvantages of dams have to be assessed in advance to plan

ameliorative measures.

of irrigated crops and plantations. On the submerged land, there are often
possibilities for seasonal irrigation. A majority of dams built in the world are
multipurpose in nature, but irrigation is the largest user of the waters
withdrawn. This does not necessarily mean that irrigation is also the biggest
user of storage. The dams were responsible a few decades ago, for bringing
under cropping, additional areas and ushering in the green revolution through
high yielding crops and application of fertilisers, imparting food security in the
face of evergrowing population. Water used in excess of ET needs, however
appears in the system as surface or ground water, albeit with degradation in
quality, mainly due to fertilisers and pesticides, besides minerals drawn from
soils. Such waste has to be minimised. But for riparians dependent on lean
season flows, the deficit has to be made good with supplies from upstream
withdrawals.

Non-irrigation withdrawals
A much smaller portion of storage is withdrawn from reservoirs and supplied for
drinking, municipal and industrial purposes, hydropower generation, etc. Of this
withdrawal, only a very small portion is consumed by evapotranspiration. A
larger portion is not consumed and is returned to the system. Wastewater from
municipal and industrial withdrawals is of degraded quality. Such wastewater
has to be treated for quality improvement and reuse to increase availability for
downstream uses. These uses are mounting with economic development round
the world and are considered on priority while planning withdrawals for
different uses from a limited storage. Even in ultimate stage, these uses will
remain low and can be taken care of through recycling of waste waters. Drinking
water requirement is given top priority by most of the countries in their policy
documents. Similarly, use of stored or diverted waters for hydropower
generation is considered most eco-friendly, because of its non-consumptive
nature and because the resource is renewable and can be used again and again
in the downstream for power generation.

Floods
The total quantum of flow and size and frequency of peak floods in the flood
season reduce in the downstream

A majority of the dams built in the world are multipurpose in nature, but
irrigation is the largest user of the waters withdrawn.

due to a dam, reducing flood hazard due to inundation of land, crop and
property which might result into economic upheavals. It also reduces
congestion of runoff in plains and coastal lands. Dams, reservoirs, flood levees,
embankments, and river training works constitute structural measures for
better flood management. However, non-structural measures like monitoring of
precipitation, river and reservoir stages and flow measurements, forecasting,
early warning, appropriate disaster warning and strategy, also are important in
flood management. In the lean season, the river flow in the downstream
reduces depending on withdrawals from dams through canals or pipelines,
however, it can be augmented with supplies from upstream withdrawals.
Reduced frequencies of floods and reduced peak flows reduce the agricultural
and non-agricultural losses. On the other hand, if storage is used for generation
of hydropower in the river bed, then seasonal flow is enhanced ameliorating
several difficulties downstream. Intensive economic developments have been
realised, for instance in the areas of Damodar, Mississippi, Missouri, Nile, and
Tennessee rivers, only because of flood protection by the dams.

Effectiveness of dams for development

Large or small dams, if built without adequate preparatory work, can fail to
deliver expected results. Any dam could thus prove less effective than planned.
It is therefore necessary to select cases of success or failure of both large and
small dams. Lessons are to be drawn from failures to guide future action. The
owners of such dams have to be approached first for their assessments. If a new
dam is identified, a bench-mark status if not available at the time of
construction, might have to be ascertained to realistically assess its
effectiveness. Where much depends on how the delivery system is operated,
the dam is hardly the reason for any loss of efficiency. Greater attention is
necessary in the irrigation sector to bring about and maintain perfection in the
delivery systems.

Storages of various magnitudes are a requirement for practically whole of the

developing world and dams of various sizes fulfill that necessity. It is therefore,
imperative that such a development process is supported by effective
procedures to minimise negative effects, if any, and enhance benefits. Large
dams contribute significantly to the productive efficiency of irrigation, in
addition to giving ancillary and intangible benefits. The large dams built in the
past have provided water supplies to needy areas for growing food, for drinking
water, for reducing flooding, and for generation of hydropower at lowest of
costs from amongst various options. Smaller a dam, more is the cost per unit of
water stored, but every size has its role in development of basin resources. They
are complementary to each other. They cannot replace each other.

Assessment of options and decision making framework

Environmental issues
Compensatory packages

Every human activity modifies the environment. Some changes are for the good,
some are not, but the awareness in the society about size and scope of the
adverse impacts plays an increasing role in decision making. Effort is made to
mitigate and compensate such effects while increasing the positive impacts, so
that sustainability of development is maintained and the natural resource base
is not eroded. The challenge is to ensure that the positive effects on
environment outweigh negative effects. Mitigation/enhancement measures
have been evolved, over a period of time, by concerned professionals. ICOLD
and ICID have prescribed detailed listings, criteria and guidelines for study of
environmental impacts and their mitigation. Many countries have developed
appropriate policies and measures for compensating negative impacts. While
respecting the privilege of countries/governments to develop their water
resources plans and priorities, it will be only fair to expect that adequate
compensatory packages are provided by them to the adversely affected people
and to ensure that such people are better off after the project implementation
than before it.

Adverse impacts with and without a dam

In the developing world, land and water development is required to take care of
the population pressures and the poverty level of societies. As development
reduces the poverty level and improves the standard of living mainly by
providing employment generation, this in itself has positive effects. While
adverse impacts of a dam can be taken care of, the availability of freshwater

A sovereign country no doubt will preserve its basic right of deciding its own
priority of developmental needs and most suited options. Global criteria can at
best indicate guidelines.

ICOLD and ICID have prescribed detailed listings, criteria and guidelines for
study of environmental impacts and their mitigation.
on the other hand reduces environmental degradation. The positive impacts on
environment are manifold. In absence of a dam or a water withdrawing facility,
the environmental degradation continues unabated especially in less developed
regions because of population pressures. Environmental impact studies
therefore have to be carried out for both, with and without dam scenarios. The
environmental cost of constructing a dam is normally smaller than that in a
situation without the dam, if the continued degradation in absence of a dam
due to poverty and population pressures during the life of the dam, is
considered. It is often to be concluded that the environmental cost of building
and using a dam in a developing country is smaller than that of not doing that
dam project. The extent of submergence and evaporation loss from a large
storage project is lesser than that from a series of equivalent small storage
projects.

Apart from assessment of adverse impacts with and without a dam, it is

sometimes required to carry out the assessment for situations before and after
completion of a dam project as one time exercise. Both assessments are
important as they provide important insight into the environmental concerns
and their containment.

Types of Dam
1. Earth Dams :
Earth dams are made up of soil that is pounded down solidly. It is built in areas where
foundation are not strong enough to withstand the weight of concrete dam and where
the earth is easily available. some of the examples of Earth dams are given below :

 Green Mountain Dam in U.S.A which is located on Colorado river.

 Swift dam in Washington, U.S.A.
2. Rock-fill Dam :
Rock-fill dams are constructed from loose rocks and boulders piled in river bed. A
slab of R.C.C is often laid across the upstream side to make the dam water tight.
Examples of this types of dams are given below :

 The salt spring dam, California, U.S.A..

 San Gabriel dam in U.S.A.
3. Gravity Dam :
Gravity dams are one of the most expensive dams to be constructed. They are
more durable and solid than rock-fill and earth dam. They can be constructed on
site, where the natural foundation is strong enough to bear the self-weight of
dam.

 Bhakra dam in Himachal Pradesh, India.

 Hoover dam in Nevada, U.S.A.
4. Hollow Masonry Dam :
The construction of hollow masonry dam is similar to that of gravity dam. They
contain less concrete or masonry about 30% to 40%. Generally the weight of
water is carried by deck of R.C.C or by arch action. These types of dams are
difficult to built are are adopted only when the skilled labour is available.

5. Steel Dams :
These types of dams are not used for major works. Steel dams are often used as
temporary coffer dams needed for the construction of permanent dams. Steel
cofferdams are usually reinforced with timber or earth fill.

6. Timber Dam :
Timber dam is basically constructed with framework of timber struts and beams.
These types of dams are one kind of a temporary dam, although a well designed
timber dam may exist for more than 20 years. This types of dams needs to be
regularly maintained.

7. Arch Dam :
This types of dams are curved in plan and carries at major part of its water load
horizontally to the abutment by arch action. Arch dams are very complicated in
design and even for construction. It is preferred when the site is extremely high
and narrow valley portion is available.

8. Buttress Dam :
This types of dams are built across number of piers or buttresses. This types of
dams requires skilled labours for its construction.

Site Selection Criteria for Dam

  Suitable foundation must be available.
 For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible and for
given height it should store maximum amount of water.
 A suitable site for the spillway should be available in or nearby vicinity.
 The bed level at the dam site should preferably be higher than that of the
river basin. This will reduce the height of the dam and will facilitate the
drainage problem.
 The reservoir basin should be reasonably water-tight.
 Material required for the construction of the dam should be easily available
locally.
 The value of the land and property submerged by the proposed dam
should be as low as possible.
 The dam site should be easily accessible, such that it can be economically
connected to important towns.
 Site for establishing labour colonies and healthy environment should be
available near by vicinity.
Selection of Type of Dam
1. Topography :
 A narrow U-shaped valley flowing between high rocky walls would suggest
a concrete dam.
 A low-rolling plane country would suggest an earth fill dam.
 A narrow V-shaped valley indicates choice of an arch dam.
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions :
The foundation strata should be strong enough to carry weight of dam. Hence
the dam site must be surveyed by geologists so as to detect the thickness of
foundation strata, presence of faults, fissured material etc. The various types of
foundations generally encountered are :-

 Solid-rock foundation :
Similar like granite, gnesis etc. Almost every type of dam can be built as it is
strong enough to withstand the self weight of the dam and external forces acting
on the dam.

 Gravel foundation :
 This type of foundation is suitable for earth and rock fill dams. For this
foundation, low concrete gravity dams upto height of 15 meter may also be
suggested.

 Silt and fine sand foundation :

This type of foundation suggests the adoption of earth or very low gravity dam,
upto height of 8 meter.

 Clay foundation :
This foundation may be accepted for earthen dam after special treatment.

3. Availability of Materials :
In order to achieve economy in the dam, the materials required for its
construction must be available locally at short distance from the construction site.

4. Spillway size and location :

The cost of constructing a separate spillway may be enormous or sometimes
suitable site for construction of spillway may not be available. In such cases
combining the spillway and dam into one structure may be desirable.

5. Earthquake zone :
If dam is located in earthquake zone, its design must include the earthquake
forces.

6. Height of Dam :
Earthen dams are usually not provided for height more than 30 meter. Hence for
greater height, gravity dams are generally preferred.

Selection of Dam Site

 Suitable foundation must be available.
 For economy, the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a given
height, it should store the maximum volume of water.
 The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin.
Problem in dam construction
one of the first problems with dams is the erosion of land. Dams hold back the
sediment load normally found in a river flow, depriving the downstream of this. In order
to make up for the sediments, the downstream water erodes its channels and banks. ...
A major example of soil erosion problems is the Aswan Dam.

INTRODUCTION
The geotechnical problems of a dam site may be many and varied in nature.
!COLD (1973) has recorded several cases of dam incidents in different parts of the
world due to geological defects of dam foundation. In India also there are
instances of mishaps in some old dams due to adverse foundation condition
(Mehta and Pradhan, 1972) • From engineering consideration, these problems
may be stated as stability, subsidence, settlement, slide, seepage, leakage, piping,
uplift etc. In fact, most of these problems of dam construction are geologic or
geology-dependent. A detailed geological study of the site is very important to
recognise these problems prior to final selection of the site for dam construction.
The geological set-up of dam sites and associated geotechnical problems are
variable from place to place. Thick mantle of overburden and weathered rock,
presence of soft layered strata, structural defects l:ike fault, thrust, shear zones
and joints are some of the common geotechnical problems faced during dam
construction. Old slides, deep zones of kaolinisation, permeable boulder bed,
buried channel and karstic condition are adverse geological features of
a dam site. To construct a dam in such a geologically adverse situation,
it may involve expensive foundation treatment, ln some cases of highly
problematic sites, the cost of treatment may be so prohibitive that it
may affect the very feasibility of the project. Inspite of the presence of
adverse geological features under varied geological set-up, numerous
dams have been constructed iii the vast terrain of the eastern India
including a part of the Himalayas for the purpose of irrigation, hydel
power-generation, flood moderation etc. Of these, only some typical
cases are presented in this paper to highlight the various types of geotechnical
problems faced in the dam building history of eastern India and to show how
these problems were solved.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEMS
Engineering geological investigation of a dam site is essential to evaluate its
precise geological conditions before the site is taken up for construction. Such
investigation is generally done in different stages. At the initial stage,
photogeological study of the site is undertaken followed by reconnaissance of the
site. Engineering geological mapping of the site is then prepared to identify and
record the lithological and structural set-up including all the visible geologic
defects at the surface (Gangopadhyay, 1978), In the subsequent stages,
exploratory drilling and sometimes geophysical works are done to identify the
subsurface weakness of the site. In some sites with weak foundation or adverse
geological structures, in-situ shear test is conducted to evaluate the rock/soil
behaviour under stress condition. In the words of Deere ( 1973) , "Engineering
Geologist is not responsible for the presence of adverse geology of a site but he is
responsible for finding out that such adverse features do occur". In fact, it is the
responsibility of engineering geologist to detect all the possible defects of a dam
site and record them in a very clear manner understandable to the construction
engineers for adopting suitable measures to rectify the defects and design the
dam ensuring its safety and stability. THE PROBLEMS WITH CASE HISTORIES The
problems actually experienced while working in different dam projects of Eastern
India have been outlined under ten headings (i) weak structural features, (ii) thick
mantle of overburden, (iii) deep 'weathering of bed rock, (iv) karstic condition and
cavities, ( v) permeable boulder bed, (vi) soft sedimentary rock, (vii) buried
channel, (viii) Kaolinisation, (ix) old slides and (x) reservoir siltation. Case histories
of dam sites of Eastern India representing each type of these adverse site
conditions are given in the following paragraph to show the seriousness of the
problems and their rational solution. Third International Conference on Case
Histories in Geotechnical