From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the kind of algebraic structure, see Algebra over a field.

The quadratic formula expresses the solution of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a is not zero, in
terms of its coefficients a, b and c.

Algebra (from Arabic "al-jabr", literally meaning "reunion of broken parts"[1]) is one of
the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In
its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for
manipulating these symbols;[2] it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics.[3] It
includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such
as groups, rings, and fields. The more basic parts of algebra are called elementary algebra;
the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra
is generally considered to be essential for any study of mathematics, science, or
engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a
major area in advanced mathematics, studied primarily by professional mathematicians.
Elementary algebra differs from arithmetic in the use of abstractions, such as using letters
to stand for numbers that are either unknown or allowed to take on many values. [4] For

example, in { the letter { is unknown, but applying additive

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2Different meanings of "algebra" e e
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3Algebra as a branch of mathematics
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• 4.1Early history
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• 4.2Modern history
} of algebra c
• 5Areas of mathematics with the} }word algebra in their name
• 6Elementary algebra
• 6.1Polynomials
• 6.2Education
• 7Abstract algebra
• 7.1Groups
• 7.2Rings and fields
• 8See also
• 9References
• 9.1Citations
• 9.2Works cited
• 10Further reading
• 11External links

Etymology

The name of algebra comes from the title of a book by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi[5]

("al-jabr lit. "the reunion of broken parts) ‫ الجبر‬The word algebra comes from the Arabic
from the title of the book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala by the Persian mathematician and
astronomer al-Khwarizmi. The word entered the English language during the fifteenth
century, from either Spanish, Italian, or Medieval Latin. It originally referred to the surgical
procedure of setting broken or dislocated bones. The mathematical meaning was first
recorded in the sixteenth century.[6]

Different meanings of "algebra"

The word "algebra" has several related meanings in mathematics, as a single word or with
qualifiers.
• As a single word without an article, "algebra" names a broad part of mathematics.
• As a single word with an article or in plural, "an algebra" or "algebras" denotes a specific
mathematical structure, whose precise definition depends on the author. Usually, the
structure has an addition, multiplication, and a scalar multiplication (see Algebra over a
field). When some authors use the term "algebra", they make a subset of the following
additional assumptions: associative, commutative, unital, and/or finite-dimensional.
In universal algebra, the word "algebra" refers to a generalization of the above concept,
which allows for n-ary operations.
• With a qualifier, there is the same distinction:
• Without an article, it means a part of algebra, such as linear algebra, elementary
algebra (the symbol-manipulation rules taught in elementary courses of mathematics as
part of primary and secondary education), or abstract algebra (the study of the algebraic
structures for themselves).
• With an article, it means an instance of some abstract structure, like a Lie algebra,
an associative algebra, or a vertex operator algebra.
• Sometimes both meanings exist for the same qualifier, as in the sentence: Commutative
algebra is the study of commutative rings, which are commutative algebras over the
integers.
Algebra as a branch of mathematics

Algebra began with computations similar to those of arithmetic, with letters standing for
numbers.[4] This allowed proofs of properties that are true no matter which numbers are
involved. For example, in the quadratic equation
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12-Field theory and polynomials, 13-Commutative algebra, 15-Linear and multilinear
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algebra; matrix theory, 16-Associative rings and algebras, 17-Nonassociative
0rings and algebras, 18-Category theory; homological algebra, 19-K-theory and 20-Group
,theory. Algebra is also used extensively in 11-Number theory and 14-Algebraic geometry.
}
History

Main articles: History of algebra and Timeline of algebra

Early history of algebra

A page from Al-Khwārizmī's al-Kitāb al-muḫtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala

The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians,[8] who developed an
advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in
an algorithmic fashion. The Babylonians developed formulas to calculate solutions for
problems typically solved today by using linear equations, quadratic equations,
and indeterminate linear equations. By contrast, most Egyptians of this era, as well
as Greek and Chinese mathematics in the 1st millennium BC, usually solved such
equations by geometric methods, such as those described in the Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus, Euclid's Elements, and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. The
geometric work of the Greeks, typified in the Elements, provided the framework for
generalizing formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general
systems of stating and solving equations, although this would not be realized
until mathematics developed in medieval Islam.[9]
By the time of Plato, Greek mathematics had undergone a drastic change. The Greeks
created a geometric algebra where terms were represented by sides of geometric objects,
usually lines, that had letters associated with them.[4] Diophantus (3rd century AD) was
an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and the author of a series of books
called Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations,[10] and have led,
in number theory to the modern notion of Diophantine equation.
Earlier traditions discussed above had a direct influence on the Persian mathematician
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. 780–850). He later wrote The Compendious Book on
Calculation by Completion and Balancing, which established algebra as a mathematical
discipline that is independent of geometry and arithmetic.[11]
The Hellenistic mathematicians Hero of Alexandria and Diophantus[12] as well as Indian
mathematicians such as Brahmagupta continued the traditions of Egypt and Babylon,
though Diophantus' Arithmetica and Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta are on a
higher level.[13][better source needed] For example, the first complete arithmetic solution
(including zero and negative solutions) to quadratic equations was described by
Brahmagupta in his book Brahmasphutasiddhanta.[citation needed] Later, Persian and Arabic
mathematicians developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of sophistication.
Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly special ad hoc methods to solve
equations, Al-Khwarizmi's contribution was fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic
equations without algebraic symbolism, negative numbers or zero, thus he had to
distinguish several types of equations.[14]
In the context where algebra is identified with the theory of equations, the Greek
mathematician Diophantus has traditionally been known as the "father of algebra" and in
context where it is identified with rules for manipulating and solving equations, Persian
mathematician al-Khwarizmi is regarded as "the father of algebra".[15][16][17][18][19]
[20] A debate now exists whether who (in general sense) is more entitled to be known as
"the father of algebra". Those who support Diophantus point to the fact that the algebra
found in Al-Jabr is slightly more elementary than the algebra found in Arithmetica and
that Arithmetica is syncopated while Al-Jabr is fully rhetorical.[21] Those who support Al-
Khwarizmi point to the fact that he introduced the methods of "reduction" and "balancing"
(the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the
cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation) which the term al-
jabr originally referred to,[22] and that he gave an exhaustive explanation of solving
quadratic equations,[23] supported by geometric proofs, while treating algebra as an
independent discipline in its own right.[18] His algebra was also no longer concerned "with
a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in
which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which
henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study". He also studied an equation
for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the
course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of
problems".[24]
Another Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations
of algebraic geometry and found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation. His
book Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra (1070), which laid down the
principles of algebra, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually
transmitted to Europe.[25] Yet another Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, found
algebraic and numerical solutions to various cases of cubic equations. [26] He also
developed the concept of a function.[27] The Indian
mathematicians Mahavira and Bhaskara II, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji,[28] and the
Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie, solved various cases of cubic, quartic, quintic and
higher-order polynomial equations using numerical methods. In the 13th century, the
solution of a cubic equation by Fibonacci is representative of the beginning of a revival in
European algebra. Abū al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412–1486) took "the first steps
toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism". He also computed ∑n2, ∑n3 and used the
method of successive approximation to determine square roots. [29]
Modern history of algebra

Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in
his 1545 book Ars magna.
François Viète's work on new algebra at the close of the 16th century was an important
step towards modern algebra. In 1637, René Descartes published La Géométrie,
inventing analytic geometry and introducing modern algebraic notation. Another key event
in the further development of algebra was the general algebraic solution of the cubic and
 quartic equations, developed in the mid-16th century. The idea of a determinant was
developed by Japanese mathematician Seki Kōwa in the 17th century, followed
independently by Gottfried Leibniz ten years later, for the purpose of solving systems of
simultaneous linear equations using matrices. Gabriel Cramer also did some work on
matrices and determinants in the 18th century. Permutations were studied by Joseph-Louis
Lagrange in his 1770 paper "Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des
équations" devoted to solutions of algebraic equations, in which he introduced Lagrange
resolvents. Paolo Ruffini was the first person to develop the theory of permutation groups,
and like his predecessors, also in the context of solving algebraic equations.
Abstract algebra was developed in the 19th century, deriving from the interest in solving
equations, initially focusing on what is now called Galois theory, and
on constructibility issues.[30] George Peacock was the founder of axiomatic thinking in
arithmetic and algebra. Augustus De Morgan discovered relation algebra in his Syllabus of
a Proposed System of Logic. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed an algebra of vectors in three-
dimensional space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices (this is a
noncommutative algebra).[31]

Areas of mathematics with the word algebra in their name

Some areas of mathematics that fall under the classification abstract algebra have the
word algebra in their name; linear algebra is one example. Others do not: group
theory, ring theory, and field theory are examples. In this section, we list some areas of
mathematics with the word "algebra" in the name.
• Elementary algebra, the part of algebra that is usually taught in elementary courses of
mathematics.
• Abstract algebra, in which algebraic structures such
as groups, rings and fields are axiomatically defined and investigated.
• Linear algebra, in which the specific properties of linear equations, vector
spaces and matrices are studied.
• Boolean algebra, a branch of algebra abstracting the computation with the truth
values false and true.
• Commutative algebra, the study of commutative rings.
• Computer algebra, the implementation of algebraic methods as algorithms and computer
programs.
• Homological algebra, the study of algebraic structures that are fundamental to
study topological spaces.
• Universal algebra, in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied.
• Algebraic number theory, in which the properties of numbers are studied from an algebraic
point of view.
• Algebraic geometry, a branch of geometry, in its primitive form specifying curves and
surfaces as solutions of polynomial equations.
• Algebraic combinatorics, in which algebraic methods are used to study combinatorial
questions.
• Relational algebra: a set of finitary relations that is closed under certain operators.
Many mathematical structures are called algebras:
• Algebra over a field or more generally algebra over a ring.
Many classes of algebras over a field or over a ring have a specific name:
• Associative algebra
• Non-associative algebra
• Lie algebra
• Hopf algebra
• C*-algebra
• Symmetric algebra
• Exterior algebra
• Tensor algebra
• In measure theory,
• Sigma-algebra
• Algebra over a set
• In category theory
• F-algebra and F-coalgebra
• T-algebra
• In logic,
• Relation algebra, a residuated Boolean algebra expanded with an involution called
converse.
• Boolean algebra, a complemented distributive lattice.
• Heyting algebra

Elementary algebra

Main article: Elementary algebra

Algebraic expression notation:

1 – power (exponent)
2 – coefficient
3 – term
4 – operator
5 – constant term
x y c – variables/constants
Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught to students who are
presumed to have no knowledge of mathematics beyond the basic principles of arithmetic.
In arithmetic, only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, −, ×, ÷) occur. In
algebra, numbers are often represented by symbols called variables (such
as a, n, x, y or z). This is useful because:
• It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as a + b = b + a for
all a and b), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of
the real number system.
• It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of equations and the study
of how to solve these. (For instance, "Find a number x such that 3x + 1 = 10" or going a
bit further "Find a number x such that ax + b = c". This step leads to the conclusion that it
is not the nature of the specific numbers that allows us to solve it, but that of the
operations involved.)
• It allows the formulation of functional relationships. (For instance, "If you sell x tickets,
then your profit will be 3x − 10 dollars, or f(x) = 3x − 10, where f is the function, and x is
the number to which the function is applied".)
Polynomials
Main article: Polynomial
 The graph of a polynomial function of degree 3.
A polynomial is an expression that is the sum of a finite number of non-zero terms, each
term consisting of the product of a constant and a finite number of variables raised to
whole number powers. For example, x2 + 2x − 3 is a polynomial in the single variable x.
A polynomial expression is an expression that may be rewritten as a polynomial, by
using commutativity, associativity and distributivity of addition and multiplication. For
example, (x − 1)(x + 3) is a polynomial expression, that, properly speaking, is not a
polynomial. A polynomial function is a function that is defined by a polynomial, or,
equivalently, by a polynomial expression. The two preceding examples define the same
polynomial function.
Two important and related problems in algebra are the factorization of polynomials, that is,
expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials that can not be factored
any further, and the computation of polynomial greatest common divisors. The example
polynomial above can be factored as (x − 1)(x + 3). A related class of problems is finding
algebraic expressions for the roots of a polynomial in a single variable.
Education
See also: Mathematics education
It has been suggested that elementary algebra should be taught to students as young as
eleven years old,[32] though in recent years it is more common for public lessons to begin
at the eighth grade level (≈ 13 y.o. ±) in the United States.[33] However, in some US
schools, algebra is started in ninth grade.

Abstract algebra

Main articles: Abstract algebra and Algebraic structure

Abstract algebra extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra
and arithmetic of numbers to more general concepts. Here are listed fundamental
concepts in abstract algebra.
Sets: Rather than just considering the different types of numbers, abstract algebra deals
with the more general concept of sets: a collection of all objects (called elements) selected
by property specific for the set. All collections of the familiar types of numbers are sets.
Other examples of sets include the set of all two-by-two matrices, the set of all second-
degree polynomials (ax2 + bx + c), the set of all two dimensional vectors in the plane, and
the various finite groups such as the cyclic groups, which are the groups of
integers modulo n. Set theory is a branch of logic and not technically a branch of algebra.
Binary operations: The notion of addition (+) is abstracted to give a binary operation, ∗
say. The notion of binary operation is meaningless without the set on which the operation
is defined. For two elements a and b in a set S, a ∗ b is another element in the set; this
condition is called closure. Addition (+), subtraction (−), multiplication (×),
and division (÷) can be binary operations when defined on different sets, as are addition
and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials.
Identity elements: The numbers zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of
an identity element for an operation. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is
 the identity element for multiplication. For a general binary operator ∗ the identity
element e must satisfy a ∗ e = a and e ∗ a = a, and is necessarily unique, if it exists. This
holds for addition as a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a and multiplication a × 1 = a and 1 × a = a.
Not all sets and operator combinations have an identity element; for example, the set of
positive natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) has no identity element for addition.
Inverse elements: The negative numbers give rise to the concept of inverse elements.
For addition, the inverse of a is written −a, and for multiplication the inverse is
written a−1. A general two-sided inverse element a−1 satisfies the property
that a ∗ a−1 = e and a−1 ∗ a = e, where e is the identity element.
Associativity: Addition of integers has a property called associativity. That is, the
grouping of the numbers to be added does not affect the sum. For example: (2 + 3) + 4 =
2 + (3 + 4). In general, this becomes (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c). This property is shared by
most binary operations, but not subtraction or division or octonion multiplication.
Commutativity: Addition and multiplication of real numbers are both commutative. That
is, the order of the numbers does not affect the result. For example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. In
general, this becomes a ∗ b = b ∗ a. This property does not hold for all binary operations.
For example, matrix multiplication and quaternion multiplication are both non-
commutative.
Groups
Main article: Group (mathematics)
See also: Group theory and Examples of groups
Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics:
a group. A group is a combination of a set S and a single binary operation ∗, defined in
any way you choose, but with the following properties:
• An identity element e exists, such that for every member a of S, e ∗ a and a ∗ e are both
identical to a.
• Every element has an inverse: for every member a of S, there exists a member a−1 such
that a ∗ a−1 and a−1 ∗ a are both identical to the identity element.
• The operation is associative: if a, b and c are members of S, then (a ∗ b) ∗ c is identical
to a ∗ (b ∗ c).
If a group is also commutative – that is, for any two members a and b of S, a ∗ b is
identical to b ∗ a – then the group is said to be abelian.
For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group,
the identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element a is its negation, −a. The
associativity requirement is met, because for any integers a, b and c, (a + b) + c = a +
(b + c)
The non-zero rational numbers form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity
element is 1, since 1 × a = a × 1 = a for any rational number a. The inverse of a is 1/a,
since a × 1/a = 1.
The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is
because, in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example,
4 is an integer, but its multiplicative inverse is ¼, which is not an integer.
The theory of groups is studied in group theory. A major result in this theory is
the classification of finite simple groups, mostly published between about 1955 and 1983,
which separates the finite simple groups into roughly 30 basic types.
Semi-groups, quasi-groups, and monoids are structures similar to groups, but more
general. They comprise a set and a closed binary operation, but do not necessarily satisfy
the other conditions. A semi-group has an associative binary operation, but might not have
an identity element. A monoid is a semi-group which does have an identity but might not
have an inverse for every element. A quasi-group satisfies a requirement that any element
can be turned into any other by either a unique left-multiplication or right-multiplication;
however the binary operation might not be associative.
All groups are monoids, and all monoids are semi-groups.
Examples
Rational
Natural Integers modu
Set Integers Z numbers Q (also real R and complex C number
numbers N {0, 1, 2}
s)
× (w/o × (w/o × (w/o ÷ (w/o
Operation + + + − +
zero) zero) zero) zero)
Closed Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Identity 0 1 0 1 0 N/A 1 N/A 0

0, 2, 1,
Inverse N/A N/A −a N/A −a N/A 1/a N/A
respectively

Associative Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes

Commutativ
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes
e
abelia
monoi monoi monoi abelian quasi- abelian quasi-
Structure n abelian group
d d d group group group group
group
Rings and fields
Main articles: Ring (mathematics) and Field (mathematics)
See also: Ring theory, Glossary of ring theory, Field theory (mathematics), and Glossary of
field theory
Groups just have one binary operation. To fully explain the behaviour of the different types
of numbers, structures with two operators need to be studied. The most important of these
are rings, and fields.
A ring has two binary operations (+) and (×), with × distributive over +. Under the first
operator (+) it forms an abelian group. Under the second operator (×) it is associative, but
it does not need to have identity, or inverse, so division is not required. The additive (+)
identity element is written as 0 and the additive inverse of a is written as −a.
Distributivity generalises the distributive law for numbers. For the integers (a + b)
× c = a × c + b × c and c × (a + b) = c × a + c × b, and × is said to be distributive over
+.
The integers are an example of a ring. The integers have additional properties which make
it an integral domain.
A field is a ring with the additional property that all the elements excluding 0 form
an abelian group under ×. The multiplicative (×) identity is written as 1 and the
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multiplicative inverse of a is written as a−1.
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The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers are all examples of
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