Chapter 4
Operational Amplifier Characteristics
Mohd Riduwan bin Ghazali (Grad.IEM)
5.3
IDEAL OP-AMP
Ideal Op-Amp
As discussed previously, an op-amp is a very high
gain amplifier with:
– high input impedance, Ri (in MΩ)
– low output impedance, Ro (below 100 Ω)
This is shown by its AC equivalent network:
Ideal Op-Amp
For an ideal op-amp, it will have:
– infinite input impedance (Ri act like an open
circuit)
– zero output impedance (Ro act like a short circuit)
– infinite voltage gain
Basic Op-Amp Connection
The basic op-amp connection (configuration):
This configuration is called inverting amplifier which results in
output having the opposite phase (polarity) as input
Basic Op-Amp Connection
The op-amp’s voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage at
output terminal to the difference of voltage at input terminal
As Rf and R1 is included in the configuration, they need to be
considered. The new gain by ratio of Vo/V1 can be calculated by
applying nodal analysis at node Vi:
+ −
I= I= 0
V1 − Vx Vx − Vo
=
R1 Rf
(V1 − Vx ) R f =
(Vx − Vo ) R1
+ −
V=
x V=
x 0
V1 R f = −Vo R1
Vo Rf
= −
V1 R1
Unity Gain
If Rf = R1, the gain becomes:
Vo Rf Rf
=− =− = −1
V1 R1 Rf
This means that the output results in
repeating back the input voltage with an
opposite polarity (1800 phase shift)
Constant-Magnitude Gain
If Rf is some multiple of R1, the gain is a
constant. For example, if Rf = 10R1:
Vo Rf 10 R1
=− =− = −10
V1 R1 R1
This means that the configuration provides a
voltage of exactly 10 with a phase shift of
1800 from the input
Virtual Ground
Recall the voltage gain equation Vo/V1 = - Rf/R1
If the gain is very high, Vi will becomes very low,
almost to zero voltage. For an example, an output
voltage -10V is a result from a gain of 20,000:
Vo
Av = − ⇒ Vi = −
Vo
=−
(− 10 )
= 0.5 mV
Vi Av 20000
Virtual Ground
When the Av becomes larger, Vi will becomes smaller. This
value will becomes small enough near to zero, but will not
becomes zero
This phenomena is called virtual ground, where Vi will be virtual
grounded in the circuit, but no current will flow through the
virtual ground, only the
voltage is zero
By applying nodal
analysis at node Vi with
assuming that Vi = 0:
V1 − 0 0 − Vo Vo Rf
= ⇒ =−
R1 Rf V1 R1
5.4
OP-AMP SPECIFICATION
Op-Amp Specification
There will be some parameters that will be
used to define the operation of the op-amp
These specification includes dc and
frequency operating features
5.4.1
DC OFFSET PARAMETERS
Offset Currents and Voltages
An op-amp should produce 0 V at the output terminal
when the input terminal is also 0 V
However, in actual operation, there will some offset
voltage at the output which is unwanted
The manufacture will specifies the input offset
voltage, then the output voltage will be determine by
that input offset and the gain of the amplifier
The output offset voltage can be effected by this two
conditions:
– Input Offset Voltage, VIO
– Input Offset Current, IIO
Input Offset Voltage, VIO
Manufacturer will provides VIO value
To determine the effect of input voltage on the output, the
configuration is:
By applying the virtual ground concept:
Vi = 0 = V+ − V−
∴V+ = V−
As clearly seen, V+ is equal to VIO
By applying nodal − V− = V− − Vo
analysis at node V−: R1 Rf
R1
∴V− = Vo
R1 + R f
Input Offset Voltage, VIO
Inserting both the equation from V+ and V− into the virtual
ground equation: R
VIO = 1
Vo
R1 + R f
R1 + R f Rf
∴Vo = VIO = 1 + VIO
R1 R1
The output voltage, Vo(offset) is the output offset voltage
resulting from the input offset voltage VIO
Example 10.8
Given: VIO = 1.2 mV
Determine the output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.8
The output offset voltage is given by:
150k
Vo (offset ) = 1 + (1.2m ) = 91.2 mV
2k
Input Offset Current, IIO
The output offset voltage can also be effected by the difference
in dc bias currents at both input terminals
As the input current for + terminal is given by IIB+ while for –
terminal is IIB−, the input offset current is the difference between
those two input current: I = I + − I −
IO IB IB
Input Offset Current, IIO
The current IIB+ can also be written as: I + = − V+
IB
RC
The current IIB− can also be written as:
− V− Vo − V−
I IB =− +
R1 Rf
R1 R f I IB = − R f V− + R1Vo − R1V− = −(R f + R1 )V− + R1Vo
−
− (R f + R1 )V− = R1 R f I IB − R1Vo
−
−
R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
V− =
R f + R1
Input Offset Current, IIO
By applying the virtual ground concept which results in V+ = V−:
−
+ R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
− RC I IB =
R f + R1
− RC (R f + R1 )I IB = R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
+ −
Since the compensating resistance RC ≈ R1 and Rf >> R1:
( +
)
− R f + R1 I IB = Vo − R f I IB
−
+ −
− R f I IB = Vo − R f I IB
( +
Vo = − R f I IB − I IB
−
)=R I
f IO
The output voltage, Vo(offset) is the output offset voltage
resulting from the input offset current IIO
Example 10.9
Given: I IO = 100 nA
Determine the output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.9
The output offset voltage is given by:
Vo (offset ) = (500k )(100n ) = 15 mV
Total Output Offset Voltage
As the output offset voltage is effected by the
input offset voltage VIO and input offset
current IIO, the total output offset voltage is
the addition of both factors:
Rf
Vo (offset ) = 1 + VIO + R f I IO
R1
Example 10.10
Given: VIO = 4 mV
I IO = 150 nA
Determine the
output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.10
The total output offset voltage is given by:
500k
Vo (offset ) = 1 + (4m ) + 500k (150n ) = 479 mV
5k
Input Bias Current, IIB
As discussed in previous topic, IIB+ and IIB− are dc bias current
at + and – input terminal
The average bias current between both terminals can be
+ −
defined as: I IB + I IB
I IB =
2
As for that, both of the current IIB+ and IIB− can be calculated
when the values of IIB and IIO are given:
+ I IO
I IB = I IB +
2
− I IO
I IB = I IB −
2
Example 10.11
Given: I IO = 5 nA
I IB = 30 nA
Calculate the input bias currents at each
input terminal
Solution to Example 10.11
The input bias currents at each input terminal
are given by:
+ 5n
I IB = 30n + = 32.5 nA
2
− 5n
I IB = 30n − = 27.5 nA
2
Inverting Amplifier
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier:
As discussed before:
Vo Rf Rf
=− ⇒ Vo = − V1
V1 R1 R1
Example 11.1
Given input of 2.5 mV
Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.1
The output of an inverting op-amp is given
by:
Rf
Vo = − V1 = −
200k
(2.5m ) = −250 mV
R1 2k
Non-inverting Amplifier
The terms non-inverting relates to the output produce by this
configuration has similar polarity as the input (not inverted)
V+ − V− =
0
Recall the virtual ground concept:
∴V+ =
V−
Non-inverting Amplifier
Apply nodal analysis at node V−: Vo − V− V−
=
Rf R1
R1
∴V− = Vo
R1 + R f
With V+ = V1, the equation becomes: V+ = V−
R1
V1 = Vo
R1 + R f
R1 + R f Rf
∴Vo = V1 = 1 + V1
R1 R1
Example 11.2
Given input of 120 μV
Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.2
The output of a non-inverting op-amp is
given by:
Rf 240k
Vo = 1 + V1 = 1 + (120 µ ) = 12.12 mV
R1 2.4k
Example 11.3
Given:
– Rf = 470 kΩ, R1 = 4.3 kΩ, R2 = 33 kΩ, R3 = 33 kΩ
and an input of 80 μV
Determine the output voltage
5.6
OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Multiple-stage Gains
Given:
– Rf = 470 kΩ, R1 = 4.3 kΩ, R2 = 33 kΩ, R3 = 33 kΩ
and an input of 80 μV
Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.3
For multiple stage op-amp, the gain will be multiplied (as
learned in previous topic)
Hence, the gain for each stage needs to be calculated first
The first stage is a non-inverting op-amp, while the second and
third stage is an inverting op-amp
The overall gain and Av = Av1 × Av2 × Av3
output voltage will be: R R R
= 1 +
f
− f − f
R1 R2 R3
470k 470k 470k
= 1 + − −
4.3k 33k 33k
= 22.37k
∴Vo = AvVi = (22.37 k )(80 µ ) = 1.79 V
Practice 1
Calculate the output voltage in the circuit below
Practice 2
Show the connection of three-stage amplifier
with gains of 10, 18, and 27. Use a 270-k
feedback resistor for all three circuits. What
output voltage will result for an input of 150
V?
Solution
Practice 3
Show the connection of three op-amp stages
to provide outputs that are -10, -20, and -50
times larger than the input. Use a feedback
resistor of Rf 500 k in all stages.
Solution
The resistor component for each stage is calculated to be
5.6.2
VOLTAGE SUMMING
Voltage Summing
A summing op-amp will sum all the inputs to produce its output
Voltage Summing
By applying the concept of virtual ground for Vi (V+ = V−), the
circuit can be written as (nodal analysis at node Vi):
V1 − V− V2 − V− V3 − V− V− − Vo
+ + =
R1 R2 R3 Rf
× R1 R2 R3 R f :
R2 R3 R f V1 − R2 R3 R f V− + R1 R3 R f V2 − R1 R3 R f V− + R1 R2 R f V3 − R1 R2 R f V−
= R1 R2 R3V− − R1 R2 R3Vo
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
= −(R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f )V−
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
∴V− = −
R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f
Voltage Summing
Due to V+ = 0, the virtual ground equation becomes:
V+ = V− = 0
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
− =0
R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f
− (R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo ) = 0
− (R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 ) = R1 R2 R3Vo
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 Rf Rf Rf
∴Vo = − = − V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
Example
Solution
Example 11.6
Given: V1 = 50 mV sin (1000t )
V2 = 10 mV sin (3000t )
Determine the
output voltage
Solution to Example 11.6
The output of a summing op-amp is given by:
Rf Rf
Vo = − V1 + V2
R1 R2
330k
= − (50m sin 1000t ) + 330k
(10m sin 3000t )
33k 10k
= −(0.5 sin 1000t + 0.33 sin 3000t ) V
Example
Calculate the output voltage developed by
the circuit below for Rf 330 kΩ.
Voltage Subtraction
Voltage subtraction operation can also be
perform by a summing amplifier with a few
modification
There are two most popular voltage
subtraction configuration
– Combination of an inverting op-amp with a
summing op-amp
– A modification of a summing op-amp
Voltage Subtraction
Combination of an inverting op-amp with a summing op-amp
result in a configuration of:
Vo1
Voltage Subtraction
If the output of the inverting op-amp is noted as Vo1, the overall
output can be written as:
Rf
Vo1 = − V1 ...[1]
R1
Rf Rf
Vo = − V2 + Vo1 ...[2]
R2 R3
[1] → [2] :
Rf Rf Rf Rf Rf Rf
Vo = − V2 + −
V1 = − V2 − V1
R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 R1
Example 11.7
Given:
– Rf = 1 MΩ, R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 = 50 kΩ, R3 = 500 kΩ
Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.7
The output of a subtracting op-amp using the
combination of an inverting op-amp with a summing
op-amp is given by:
Rf Rf Rf 1M 1M 1M
Vo = − V2 − V1 = − V2 − V1
R2 R3 R1 50k 500k 100k
= −(20V2 − 20V1 ) = −20(V2 − V1 )
It seems that this configuration gives a difference
between V1 and V2, but with a gain factor of 20 and a
reversed polarity
Voltage Subtraction
For a voltage subtraction operation using a modification of a
summing op-amp, the configuration is:
By applying virtual ground:
V+ = V− ...[1]
Applying nodal analysis at
node V+:
V1 − V+ V+
=
R1 R3
R3
V+ = V1 ...[2]
R1 + R3
Voltage Subtraction
Applying nodal analysis at node V−: V2 − V− V− − Vo
=
R2 R4
R4V2 + R2Vo
V− = ...[3]
R2 + R4
Solving both the equation [2] and [3] with equation [1]:
[2] & [3] → [1] :
R3 R V + R2Vo
V1 = 4 2
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R3 R2 + R4 R4
∴Vo =
V1 − V2
R2 R1 + R3 R2
Example 11.8
Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.8
The output of a subtracting op-amp using a
modification of a summing op-amp is given by:
R3 R2 + R4 R4
Vo =
V1 − V2
R2 R1 + R3 R2
20k 100k + 100k 100k
= 1
V − V2
100k 20k + 20k 100k
= V1 − V2
This configuration gives a subtraction of V1 to V2,
which is straight forward and a more simpler
configuration
Practice 1
Determine the output voltage for the circuit below
5.6.3
VOLTAGE BUFFER
Voltage Buffer (Unity Follower)
Voltage buffer or unity follower circuit
provides a gain of unity (1) with no inverted
polarity
∴Vo = V1
Example 11.9
Show the connection of a 741 as a unity-gain
circuit
Solution to Example 11.9
The connection of a voltage buffer amplifier:
Practice 1
Calculate the output voltage, Vo, in the circuit below.
Practice 2
Calculate Vo in the circuit below
71
Integrator
The output is the integral of the input.
Integration is the operation of summing the area under a waveform or
curve over a period of time.
Useful in low-pass filter circuits and sensor conditioning circuits.
1
vo(t) = −
RC ∫ v1(t)dt
Integrator
Summing Intergarator
More than one input may be applied to an integrator.
Example
Calculate Vo V1 = 50 mV sin (1000t )
V2 = 10 mV sin ( 3000t )
V3 = 15 mV cos ( 2000t )
75
Differentiator
The differentiator takes the derivative of the input.
The output is the differential of the input where the scale
factor is -RC
Useful in high-pass filter circuits.
dv1(t)
vo(t) = − RC
dt
