Chapter 1 2016

Chapter 1

1.1. Introduction to database system

What is a database system?

It is a computerized record keeping system, which stores related data in an organized way. The
overall purpose of a database system is to store information and to allow users to add, delete,
retrieve, search, query and update that information upon request. The information concerned can
be anything that is deemed to be of significance to the individual or organization the system is
intended to serve. That is, needed to assist in the general process of running the business of that
individual or organization.
A database system is basically a computerized record keeping system. Users of the database can
perform a variety of operations. Such as:
Adding new data to empty file
Adding new data to existing file
Retrieving data from existing file
Modifying data to existing file
Deleting data from existing file
Searching for target information
Data handling approaches
Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the
development in technology and services. These levels could be best described by categorizing
the levels into three levels or types of development/approach. Even though there is an advantage
and a problem overcome at each new data handling approach/level, all methods or approaches of
data handling are in use to some extent. The major three approaches/levels are discussed as
follows:
1. Manual Approach
In the manual data handling approach, data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and
traditional way of data/information handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose.
Typing the data on paper and put in a file cabinet. The data storage and retrieval will be
performed using human labour. This approach Works well if the number of items to be stored is
small.

Compiled By :G.W Page 1

 Chapter 1 2016

Limitations of the Manual approach

o Prone to error
o Data loss: due to damaged papers or unable to locate it.
o Redundancy: multiple copies of the same data within the organization.
o Inconsistency: Modifications are not reflected on all multiple copies
o Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
o You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
o Limited to small size information
o Cross referencing is difficult
An alternative approach of data handling is a computerized way of dealing with the information.
The computerized approach could also be either decentralized or centralized base on where the
data resides in the system.
2. File based Approach
After the introduction of computer for data processing to the business community, the need to
use the device for data storage and processing increase. File based data handling approaches
were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system. There were, and still are, several
computer applications with file based processing used for the purpose of data handling. It is a
collection of application programs that performs services for the end users. In such systems,
every application program that provides service to end users define and manage its own data.
Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the organization.
And this approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
Limitations of the File Based approach
As business application become more complex and demanding more flexible and reliable data
handling methods, the shortcomings of the file based system became evident. These
shortcomings include, but not limited to:
Separation/Isolation of data
When data is isolated in separate files, it is difficult to access data that should be available. This
is because; there is no concept of relationship between files. Therefore, we need to create a
temporary file for the participating files.
Duplication of data (Redundancy)
This is concerning with storage of similar information in multiple files.

Compiled By :G.W Page 2

 Chapter 1 2016

The following are some of the disadvantage of redundancy:

 It costs time and money to enter the data
 It takes up additional storage space (memory space)
 Inconsistency: this is loss of data integrity. For instance, if modification in the child table
is unable to be reflected on the parent table.
Data Dependence
Changes to an existing structure are difficult to make. Example: change in the size of Student
Name (from 20 characters to 30 characters) requires a new program to convert student file to a
new format. The new program opens original student file, open a temporary file, read records
from original student file and write to the temporary file, delete the original student file and
finally rename the temporary file as student file. It is time consuming and Prone to error.
Incompatible file formats
The structure of file is dependent on the application programs. Incompatibility of files makes
them difficult to process jointly. Example: consider two files with in the same enterprise but in
different departments, or in different branches: If the first file is constructed using COBOL and
the second file is written using C++, then there will be a problem of integrity.
3. Database Approach
What is a Database?
A database is a collection of related data in an organized way. Most of the time, organization is
in tabular form. E.g. book database

The organization of the database becomes necessary when the data is voluminous. Otherwise,
managing data will be very difficult.
E.g. A Manufacturing Company with product data
A Bank with account data
A Hospital with patients
A University with Students
A government with planning data

Compiled By :G.W Page 3

 Chapter 1 2016

Thus in database approach:

 Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
 Database is a repository for collection of computerized data files.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information
needs of an organization. Since it is a shared corporate resource, the database is integrated
with minimum amount of or no duplication.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data comprises:
entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an organization's information.
 In addition to containing data required by an organization, database also contains a
description of the data which called as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems
Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
 Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self descriptive
collection on integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update
that information on demand.
 Database is designed once and used simultaneously by many users.
 Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading,
Updating and Deleting data.

The advantages of a database approach over the traditional and paper-based methods of record
keeping will include the following:
Compactness: no need for possibly voluminous paper files.
Speed: the machine can retrieve and change data faster than a human can. In particular, ad hoc,
spur-of-the-moment queries
(“Do we have more red screws than blue ones?”) can be answered quickly without any need for
time consuming manual or visual searches.
Accuracy: timely, accurate and up-to-date information is available on demand at any time.

Compiled By :G.W Page 4

 Chapter 1 2016

The foregoing benefits apply with even more force in a multi-user environment where the
database is likely to be much larger and much more complex than in the single user case. In a
multi-user environment the database system provides the enterprise with centralized control of its
data. The centralized approach has the following advantages:
Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing data in
redundant manner for each user.
Redundancy can be reduced: In non database or non centralized systems each application or
department keeps its own private files. The files may hold common data elements that exist as
part of the enterprises data. This will lead to considerable redundancy in stored data, with
resultant waste in storage space. For example, a personnel application and an education records
application might both own a file that includes department information for employees. Note that,
this is not to say we should eliminate all redundancies. Sometimes there are sound reasons for
maintaining several copies of the same data.
Inconsistency can (to some extent) avoided: If there are a number of files which store similar
data elements among other sorts of data then when a change is made to a particular data (among
the common ones) this change need to be done throughout the system where there is such data
stored. This is not, often, the case. Some of the data might be updated and others left as they are
which results in inconsistent information about the same phenomena.
Standards can be enforced: Standardizing data representation is particularly desirable as an aid
to data interchange or migration of data between systems. Likewise, data naming and
documentation standards are also very desirable as they facilitate data sharing and
understandability.
Security restrictions can be applied: Since the data is stored in one place/area all accesses to
the data can be regulated by the system through some defined rules built into the system. The
system ensures that the only means of access to the database is through proper channels.
Different rules can be established for each type of access (retrieve, insert, delete, etc.) to each of
information to the database.
Integrity can be maintained The problem of integrity is the problem of ensuring the data in the
database is accurate. Inconsistency between two entries that represent the same “fact” is an
example of lack of integrity. It is more serious in a multi-user environment where one user may
enter bad data and other users may go on working on the updated data as if it were a correct one.

Compiled By :G.W Page 5

 Chapter 1 2016

Conflicting requirements can be balanced: knowing the overall requirements of the enterprise
the Database Administrator (DBA) can structure the system so as to provide an overall service
that is best for the enterprise. For example, a representation can be chosen for the data in storage
that gives fast access for the most important applications (possibly at the cost of poorer
performance for certain other applications).
Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems are
implanted in a full scale DBMS.
Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision making.
Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand much
resource.
Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at one
repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level

Compiled By :G.W Page 6

 Chapter 1 2016

Limitations and risk of Database Approach

o Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
o Complexity in designing and managing data
o The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
o High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
o Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective
o Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency
o High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central system.

Components of a Database System

A database system involves four major components, namely, data, hardware, software and users
and designers of database. A brief discussion will follow on each of these components.
Data: The actual data stored in the database system may be stored as a single database or
distributed in many distinct files and treated as one. Is the system a single-user or multi-user
one? How are we going to achieve the utmost possible performance concerning the data storage
and maintenance? What other benefits or drawbacks do we expect as the result of placement or

Compiled By :G.W Page 7

 Chapter 1 2016

structure of the database?. These and similar issues might be concerned with the way the data
stored in the system.
Hardware: This portion of the system consists of secondary storage media (disks, tapes and
optical media) that are used to hold the stored data and associated device controllers (hard disk
controller, etc.); and the processor(s) and associated main memory that are used to support the
execution of the database system software.
Software: This is the software, Database Management System (DBMS) that is responsible for
the overall management of communications between the user and the database. It is found
between the data and the users, which, in other words, means the data is entirely covered or
shielded by the DBMS software. The DBMS provides facilities for operating on the database.
This is the most important software component in the overall system that allows the user to
interact with the data.
Users and Designers of Database: As people are one of the components in DBS environment,
there are group of roles played by different stakeholders of the designing and operation of a
database system.
1. Data Base Administrator (DBA)
 Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources (the database itself,
the DBMS and other related software)
 Authorizing access to the database
 Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
 Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software resources
 Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of the system
 Involves in all steps of database development
 We can have further classifications of this role in big organizations having huge
amount of data and user requirement.
 Data Administrator (DA): is responsible on management of data resources.
Involves in database planning, development, maintenance of standards policies
and procedures at the conceptual and logical design phases.

Compiled By :G.W Page 8

 Chapter 1 2016

 Data Base Administrator (DBA): is more technically oriented role. Responsible

for the physical realization of the database. Involves in physical design,
implementation, security and integrity control of the database.
Database Administrator a person that is responsible for all technical operations or
details of the database system. The user that controls the enterprises data resource.
The functions of the DBA include the following.
o Defining the conceptual schema: Will directly participate or help on the
process of identifying the content of the database, i.e., what information is
to be held in the database and create the corresponding conceptual schema
using the conceptual DDL.
o Defining the internal schema: The DBA must also decide how the data is
to be represented in the stored database and then create the corresponding
storage structure definition (the internal schema) using the internal DDL
(including associated mapping between the internal and conceptual
schema).
o Liaising with users: By communicating with users the DBA will ensure
that the data they require is available, and to write (or help users write) the
necessary external schemas using the applicable external DDL. Other
functions include consulting on application design, providing technical
education, assisting with problem determination and resolution, and
similar system related professional services.
o Defining security and integrity rules: Since security and integrity rules
are part of the conceptual schema, the conceptual DDL should include
facilities for specifying such rules.
o Defining backup and recovery procedures: In the event of damage to
any portion of a database, caused by human error or failure in the
hardware or operating system, it is essential to be able to repair the data
concerned with the minimum of delay and with as little effect as possible
on the rest of the system. The DBA should define and implement
appropriate backup and recovery scheme.

Compiled By :G.W Page 9

 Chapter 1 2016

o Monitoring performance and responding to changing requirements:

Periodic performance analysis should be done by the DBA and based on
the results obtained propose for improved systems and or do the
modifications on the existing data definitions
2. Database Designer (DBD)
 Identifies the data to be stored and choose the appropriate structures to represent and
store the data.
 Should understand the user requirement and should choose how the user views the
database.
 Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the database system.

We have two distinctions of database designers, one involving in the logical and conceptual
design and another involving in physical design.

 Logical and Conceptual DBD

 Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the
organization
 Identifies constraints on each data
 Understand data and business rules in the organization
 Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual level and
consider one specific data model at logical design phase.
 Physical DBD
 Take logical design specification as input and decide how it should be
physically realized.
 Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect to tables and
integrity constraints. (DBMS dependent designing)
 Select specific storage structure and access path to the database
 Design security measures required on the database

Compiled By :G.W Page 10

 Chapter 1 2016

3. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst

 System analyst determines the user requirement and how the user wants to view the
database.
 The application programmer implements these specifications as programs; code, test,
debug, document and maintain the application program.
 Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update and delete data in
the database.
 The application could use any high level programming language according to
the availability, the facility and the required service.

Application programmers who are responsible for writing application programs that use
the database using some programming language such as COBOL, Pascal, or a
programming language built-in to the DBMS.
4. End-users: These are those people who are engaged on processing different types of
operations on the database system. Users are workers, whose job requires accessing the
database frequently for various purpose. There are different group of users in this
category.
 Naïve Users:
 Sizable proportion of users
 Unaware of the DBMS
 Only access the database based on their access level and demand
 Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
 Sophisticated Users
 Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the
DBMS.
 Have complex requirements
 Have higher level queries
 Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business analysts, etc
 Casual Users
 Users who access the database occasionally.
 Need different information from the database each time.

Compiled By :G.W Page 11

 Chapter 1 2016

 Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.

 Are most of the time middle to high level managers.

Generally, End users are those that interact with the system from online workstations or
terminals that use an application program developed by application programmers or those that
query the system through an interface provided by the DBMS.

These users can be again classified as “Actors on the Scene” and “Workers Behind the Scene”.
Actors On the Scene:
 Data Administrator
 Database Administrator
 Database Designer
 End Users
Workers Behind the Scene
 DBMS designers and implementers: who design and implement different DBMS
software.
 Tool Developers: experts who develop software packages that facilitates database
system designing and use. Prototype, simulation, code generator developers could be an
example. Independent software vendors could also be categorized in this group.
 Operators and Maintenance Personnel: system administrators who are responsible for
actually running and maintaining the hardware and software of the database system and
the information technology facilities.

Compiled By :G.W Page 12