UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING

HISTORY OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
In the year 1832 the first Railway running on steam engine, was launched in England.
Thereafter on 1st of August, 1849 the Great Indian Peninsular Railways Company was
established in India. On 17th of August 1849, a contract was signed between the Great Indian
Peninsular Railways Company and East India Company. As a result of the contract an
experiment was made by laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56 Kms).
On 16th April, 1853, the first train service was started from Bombay to Thane.
On 15th August, 1854, the 2nd train service commenced between Howrah and Hubli.
On the 1st July, 1856, the 3rd train service in India and first in South India
commenced between Vyasarpadi and Walajah Road and on the same day the section
between Vyasarpadi and Royapuram by Madras Railway Company was also opened.

INTRODUCTION:
The rail mode of transportation is the cheapest and longest mode of transport when it
is compared to other mode of transportation.
It is also called a mass transportation system.
Rail transport is a means of convergence of passengers and goods on wheeled
vehicles running on rails.
All the nationalized railways of the world Indian railways are next only to the Russian
railways.
The first railway in India was laid in 1853 and the first train with four coaches with
locomotive was run between Bombay and thane.
The Indian railway act is formed in 1980, From 1980 the total railway construction,
operation is under the executive authority of central govt.
For the purpose of efficient administration the railway system in India has been
divided into 9 railway zones.
Zone Headquarters
1) Central railway(C.R) Bombay
2) Eastern railway(E.R) Kolkata
3) Northern railway(N.R) Delhi
4) Southern railway(S.R) madras
5) North eastern railway(N.E.R) Gorakpur
6) South central railway(S.C.R) Secundrabad
7) South eastern railway(S.E.R) Kolkata
8) Western railway(W.R) Bombay
9) North east frontier railway(N.E.F.R) Maligaon (Guwahati)
Railways are given separate budget provision and the total assets of the railways are
more than Rs 5000 cr.

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ADVANTAGES OF RAILWAYS
1. POLITICAL ADAVANTAGES
Railways have united the people of different castes, religions customs and traditions.
With the adequate network of railways, the central administration has become more
easy and effective.
The role of railways during emergencies in mobilising troops and war equipment has
been very significant.
Railways have helped in the mass migration of the population.

2. SOCIAL ADAVATNAGES
The feeling of isolation has been removed from the inhabitants of the Indian villages.
Railway has made it easier to reach places of religious importance
Railways provide a convenient safe mode of transport for the country.

3. ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES
Mobility of people has increased, thereby the congested areas can be relieved of
congestion and the sparsely populated areas can be developed.
Mobility of labour has contributed to industrial development.
During famines, railways have played the vital role in transporting food and clothing
to the affected areas.
Growth of industries has been promoted due to transportation of raw materials
through railways.
Speedy distribution of finished product is achieved through railways.
Railways provide employment to millions of people and thus help in solving the
unemployment problems of the country.
Land values have increased due to industrial development, which ultimately result in
the increase of national wealth.

4. TECHNO-ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES
Cost saving in transportation of long hauls bulk traffic.
Energy-Efficiency (railways consume one-seventh of fuel used by the road sector).
Environment friendliness.
Higher safety (fatal accidents one-tenth of road sector in India)
Efficient Land use and ease in capacity expansion

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PERMANENT WAY COMPONENTS
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and subgrade is
called the railway track or permanent way.
In a permanent way, the rails are joined in series by
by fish plates and bolts and then they
are fixed to sleepers by different types of fastenings.
The sleepers properly spaced, resting on ballast, are suitably packed and boxed with
ballast.
The layer of ballast rests on the prepared subgrade called the formation.
formation.

Railway track is also known as a permanent way.

Following are the components of a permanent way
i. rails
ii. sleepers
iii. ballast
iv. sub-grade
v. fixture and fastenings

Fish Plate and Bolts

The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load to the sleepers.
Thee sleepers hold the rails in proper position with respect to the proper tilt, gauge and
level, and transmit the load from rails to the ballast.
The ballast distributes the load over the formation and holds the sleepers in position.

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 On curved tracks, super elevation is maintained by ballast and the formation is levelled.
Minimum ballast cushion is maintained at the inner rail, while the outer rail gets kept
more ballast cushion.
Additional quantity of ballast is provided on the outer cess of each track for which the
base width of the ballast is kept more than for a straight track.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PERMANENT WAY

1) The gauge should be correct and uniform.
2) The rails should be in proper level. In a straight track, two rails must be at the same
level. On curves, the outer rail should have proper super elevation and there should be
proper transition at the junction of a straight and a curve.
3) The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case of curves, a proper
transition should be provided between the straight track and the curve.
4) The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient
should be followed by a proper vertical curve to provide a smooth ride.
5) The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb the shocks and vibration of
running trains.
6) The track should have good lateral strength so that it can maintain its stability despite
variations in temperature and other such factors.
7) The radius and super elevation on curves should be properly designed and maintained.
8) The track should have a good drainage system so that the stability of the track is not
affected by water logging.
9) All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and fastenings, etc.
should satisfy the design requirements.
10) If there is trouble from the creep, the preventionary measures should be to prevent it.
11) All the fixtures and fastenings such as chairs, bearing plates, fish plates, fish bolts,
spikes etc. should be strong enough to withstand the stresses occurring in the track.
12) There should be provisions for easy replacement and renewal of the various track
components.
13) The track should have such a structure that not only is its initial cost low, but also its
maintenance cost is minimum.

CAPACITY OF A RAILWAY TRACK

It is the number of trains that can be run safely on a track per hour.
The track capacity can be increased by the following ways.
By achieving faster movement of trains on a track and
By decreasing the distance between successive trains.

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GAUGE
The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two rails
forming a track is known as Gauge.

VARIOUS GAUGES ON WORLD RAILWAYS

Type of gauge Gauge (mm) Countries

Standard gauge 1435 England, USA, Canada, Turkey, Persia, and China
Broad gauge 1676 India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Argentina
Broad gauge 1524 Russia, Finland
Cape gauge 1067 Africa, Japan, Java, Australia, and New Zealand
Metre gauge 1000 India, France, Switzerland, and Argentina
23 various other Different gauges Various countries
gauges

DIFFERENT GAUGES ON INDIAN RAILWAYS

The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge of 1435 mm in India
also. This proposal was, however, challenged by W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to
the Government of India, who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm.
The Government of India wanted to construct cheaper railways for the development
of the country and 1000 mm metre gauge was introduced.
In due course of time, two more gauges of widths 762 mm and 610 mm were
introduced for thinly populated areas, mountain railways, and other miscellaneous
purposes.

Various gauges on Indian Railways as on 31.03.2011

Name of gauge Width (mm) Route (km) % of route (km)

Broad gauge (BG) 1676 55,188 85.6
Metre gauge (MG) 1000 6809 10.6
Narrow gauge (NG) 762 2463 3.8
610
Total all gauges 64,460 100

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1. BROAD GAUGE
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming
a track is 1676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G)
This gauge is also known as standard gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of the
world.

SUITABILITY :Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:-

1) When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.
2) When the prospects of revenue are very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used for
tracks in plain areas which are densely populated i.e. for routes of maximum
traffic, intensities and at places which are centres of industry and commerce.

2. METRE GAUGE
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails
forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G)

SUITABILITY:- Metre Gauge is suitable under the following conditions:-

1) When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
2) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used
for tracks in under-developed areas and in interior areas, where traffic intensity is
small and prospects for future development are not very bright.

3. NARROW GAUGE
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails
forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge
(N.G).
The other countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India‘s
railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.

SUITABILITY: - Narrow gauge is suitable under the following conditions:-

1) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the
provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.
2) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used
in hilly and very thinly populated areas. The feeder gauge is commonly used for
feeding raw materials to big government manufacturing concerns as well as to
private factories such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

CHOICE OF GAUGE
The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge and all new
railway lines are constructed to adhere to the standard gauge. However, the following
factors theoretically influence the choice of the gauge:

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 Cost considerations There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a
wider gauge is adopted. In this connection, the following points are important
(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land, earthwork, rails,
sleepers, ballast, and other track items when constructing a wider gauge.
(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and runnels increases only marginally due
to a wider gauge.
(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters, level
crossings, signals, etc., associated with the railway network is more or less the
same for all gauges.
(d) The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for carrying the
same volume of traffic.

Traffic considerations The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and
the speed and hauling capacity of the train. Thus, the following points need to be
considered.
(a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically carry
more traffic.
(b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed is a function
of the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge.
As a thumb rule, diameter of the wheel is kept 75 per cent of gauge width.
(c) The type of traction and signalling equipment required are independent of the
gauge.

Physical features of the country It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper
curves for a narrow gauge as compared to a wider gauge.

Uniformity of gauge The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth,

speedy, and efficient operation of trains. Therefore, a single gauge should be adopted
irrespective of the minor advantages of a wider gauge and the few limitations of a
narrower gauge.

PROBLEMS OF MULTI GAUGE SYSTEM

A number of problems have cropped up in the operation of the Indian Railways
because of the multi-gauge system (use of three gauges).

Inconvenience to passengers: Due to change of gauge, passengers have to change

trains mid-journey along with their luggage, which causes inconvenience such as the
following:
(a) Climbing stairs and crossing bridges
(b) Getting seats in the compartments of the later trains
(c) Missing connections with the later trains in case the earlier train is late
(d) Harassment caused by porters
(e) Transporting luggage from one platform to another.

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 Difficulty in trans-shipment of goods: Goods have to be trans-shipped at the point
where the change of gauge takes place. This causes the following problems:
(a) Damage to goods during trans-shipment
(b) Considerable delay in receipt of goods at the destination
(c) Theft or misplacement of goods during trans-shipment and the subsequent claims
(d) Non-availability of adequate and specialized trans-shipment labour and staff,
particularly during strikes

Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic: Due to change in the
gauge, traffic cannot move fast which becomes a major problem particularly during
emergencies such as war, floods, and accidents.

Additional facilities at stations and yards: Costly sheds and additional facilities
need to be provided for handling the large volume of goods at trans-shipment points.
Further, duplicate equipment and facilities such as yards and platforms need to be
provided for both gauges at trans-shipment points.

Difficulties in balanced economic growth: The difference in gauge also leads to

unbalanced economic growth. This happens because industries set up near MG/NG
stations cannot send their goods economically and efficiently to areas being served by
BG stations.

Difficulties in future gauge conversion projects: Gauge conversion is quite

difficult, as it requires enormous effort to widen existing tracks. Widening the gauge
involves heavy civil engineering work such as widening of the embankment, bridges
and tunnels, as well as tracks; additionally, a wider rolling stock is also required.
During the gauge conversion period, there are operational problems as well, since the
traffic has to be slowed down and even suspended for a certain period in order to
execute the work.

PLANNING OF UNI-GAUGE PROJECTS

The gauge-conversion programme has been accelerated on Indian Railways since
1992. In the eighth Plan (1993-97) itself, the progress achieved in gauge-conversion
projects in five years was more than the total progress made in the past 45 years.

Year Progress in gauge conversion (kms) Remarks

1947-1992 2500 Approx. figure
1993-1997 6897 Actual
1998-2004 3787 Actual
2005-2011 6564 Actual
The current position is that the gauge-conversion project still pending on Indian
Railways is 8855 kms which is likely to be completed in next five years. Execution of
a gauge conversion project is quite a tricky job and lot of planning is to be done for
the same.

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 RAILS
INTRODUCTION
Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an unchanging,
continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains.
The rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the purpose of carrying axle
loads.
They are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.
Flat-footed rails are mostly used in railway track

FUNCTION OF RAILS
1) Rails provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for passage of heavy moving
loads with a minimum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels.
2) Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and braking
forces and thermal stresses.
3) The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid replacement
charges and failures of rails due to wear.
4) Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce pressure on ballast and
formation below.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL SECTION

1. They should be of proper composition of steel as given above and should be
manufactured by open hearth or duplex process.
2. The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit the load to several sleepers
underneath. The height of rail should, therefore adequate.
3. Rails should be capable of withstanding later forces. Large width of head and foot
endows the rails with high lateral stiffness.
4. The head must be sufficient deep to allow for an adequate margin of vertical wear.
The wearing surface should be hard.
5. Web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it and should
provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane.
6. Foot should be high enough so that rails are stable against overturning especially on
curves.
7. Bottom of the head and foot of rails should be so shaped as to enable the fish plates to
transmit the vertical load efficiently from the heat to the foot at rail joints.
8. Relative distribution of material of rail in head, web and foot must be balanced, for
smooth transmission of loads.
9. The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid-height so that
maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
10. The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be less than 72 kg/m2.
11. The rail specimen should withstand the blow of “Falling Weight Test or Tup Test” as
specified by Indian Railway Standards without fracture.

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TYPES OF RAILS
1. Double
Headed Rails
2. Bull Headed
Rails
3. Flat-footed
Rails

1. Double Headed Rails

This type of rail consists of three parts –
upper table, web, and lower table;
Both the upper and lower tables were
identical;
They were introduced with the hope of
doubling the life of rails;
When the upper table was worn out, the
rails can be reversed in the chair and thus,
the lower table can be brought into use;
However, this idea soon turned out to be wrong because it was observed that long
contact with chairs made the surface of lower table very rough and smooth running of
trains was then impossible.
Thus, these rails are nowadays practically out of use;

2. Bull Headed Rails

These rails consist of head, web and foot and
are made of steel;
The head is larger than the foot and the foot is
designed only to properly hold the wooden
keys with which the rails are secured to chairs;
The two cast-iron chairs are required per each
sleeper when these rails are adopted.
These rails are extensively used in England
and in some parts of Europe.
Merits
(i) They keep better alignment and give more solid and smoother track
(ii) The rails are easily disconnected from sleepers as they have no direct
connection with the latter
(iii)The heavy chairs with larger bearing on sleepers give longer life to
wooden sleepers and greater stability to the track

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 Demerits
(i) They require additional cost of iron chairs
(ii) They have less strength and stiffness
(iii)They require heavy maintenance cost

3. Flat-footed Rails
In this type of rail, the foot is spread out
to form a base;
This form of rail was invented by
Charles Vignoles in 1836 and hence,
these rails are sometimes known as
Vignoles rails;
At present, about 90% of the railway
track in the world is laid with this form
of rails.
Merits
(i) They have more strength and stiffness, both vertically and laterally, then Bull
headed rails
(ii) Fitting of rails with sleepers is simpler, so they can be easily laid and relaid.
(iii) No chairs or keys are required as in case of B.H. Rails
(iv) In points and crossings, the arrangements are simpler than B.H. rails
Demerits
The fittings get loosed more frequently than in case of B.H. Rails. The impact
of rolling wheels directly affects the fittings.
The straightening of bent rails, replacing of rails and de-hogging of battered
rails are difficult.

COMPARISION OF RAILS

S. Point of Bull-headed Rails and

Flat-footed rails
No comparison Double-headed rails
These have more strength and
Strength and These have less strength and
1 stiffness for the same weight,
Stiffness stiffness
both laterally and vertically.
The fitting of these rails is
Fitting of these rails is simpler
Laying and difficult and time-consuming
2 and so can be easily laid and
Relaying as they are supported on
relaid. No chairs are required.
chairs
Arrangements at
points, crossing The arrangements are The arrangements are simpler
3
and at sharp complicated and difficult. and easy.
curves
These rails when fitted on In this, impact of rolling wheels
Alignment and chairs, provide a more solid, affects the fittings and the
4
stability of track smooth track and better stable loosening of fittings disturbs the
alignment. alignment and gives less

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 stability.
They require more and costly These rails require lesser and
5 Initial cost fastenings and hence initial cheaper fastenings, so the initial
cost is more cost is less
These rails without hairs These rails can be used, without
cannot be used on inferior bearing plates on sleepers as
6 Rigidity type of sleepers, being less these rails are strong to
strong against vertical loads. withstand vertical loads. Hence
Hence they are less rigid they are more rigid
In case of B.H. or D.H. rails, Daily inspection is not
7 Inspection daily inspection of wooden necessary as no special risk is
keys is necessary. involved.
These rails can be changed In F.F. rails, the dog spikes
easily by driving out the keys have to be taken out in addition
Replacement of
8 and taking out fish bolts and to fish bolts and fish plates to
rails
fish plates, without disturbing change the rail. So replacement
sleepers. is difficult.
It requires heavy maintenance
9 Maintenance cost The maintenance cost is less
cost.
These are more suitable when
These are more suitable due to
lateral loads are more
10 Suitability better stability, economy,
important rather than vertical
strength and stiffness
loads

SELECTION OF RAILS
A rail is designated by its weight per unit length. The various important factors to be
considered in deciding the weight of rail to be used are as follows:
1) Speed of the train
2) The gauge of the track
3) The axle load and nature of traffic.
4) Type of rails, i.e., whether D.H. or B.H. or F.F. rails
5) Spacing of sleepers
6) Maximum permissible wear on top of rails. (5% of the weight of rail is
allowed).
It is evident that heavier the rail bigger would be the section and higher would be its
load carrying capacity.
A general rule adopted is to specify a certain constant value of the ratio between the
weight of the rail and the locomotive axle load. In India this ratio is 510.
(Weight of the rail in tonnes / Locomotive axle load in tonnes) = (1 / 510)
Thus, for a locomotive of axle load of 22.86 tonnes, the weight of rail required will be
= (22.86 x 1000) / 510 = 44.8 kg
This 44.8 kg section includes 5 % wear.
Heavier rails are preferred to light rails due to the following reasons.
1) More powerful locomotives with electric and diesel traction are being
increasingly used on Indian Railways.

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 2) From maintenance point of view also, it is desirable to provide heavier rail
section with bigger span between sleepers.
3) A loaded wheel depresses a rail between the two sleepers. For a given load,
the deflection is less for a heavier rail than a lighter rail. Lower the deflection,
lesser is the pulling power required.
The research experiments have proved that rail sections of 60 kg/m and 52 kg/m are
more economical, durable and suitable.

LENGTH OF RAILS
The rails of larger length are preferred to smaller length of rails, because they give
more strength and economy for a railway track.
The weakest point of a track is the joint between two rails. Lesser the number of
joints, lesser would be the number of fish plates and this would lead to lesser
maintenance cost.
Though the long length of the rails is desired, however, the length is governed by the
following factors
The length of the rails is so chosen that the manufacturing cost is most
reasonable
It depends upon the transportation facilities, so only those lengths of rails are
possible which can be transported by longest wagons available on the
railways.
To some extent, the length is also limited by the facilities of lifting and
handling, during the loading and unloading of wagons.
On Indian Railways the standard lengths are the following:
12.80 (say 13 m) for Broad gauge
11.89 (say 12 m) for Meter gauge
In countries like U.S.A and U.K., etc. a length of 30 m is commonly used.
The other alternative to increase the length of rails of rails, is to weld the rails at the
site as it eliminates the difficulty of transportation, handling and lifting.

RAIL JOINTS
INTRODUCTION
Rail joints are necessary to hold together the adjoining ends of the rail in the correct
position, both in horizontal and vertical planes.
Rails joints form the weakest part of the track. It is observed that strength of a rail
joint is only 50 percent of the strength of a rail.

ILL EFFECTS OF A RAIL JOINT

A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. At a joint, there is a break in the continuity
of the rail in both the horizontal and the vertical planes because of the presence of the
expansion gap and imperfection in the levels of rail heads.
The fittings at the joint also become loose, causing heavy wear and tear of the track
material. Some of the problems associated with the rail joint are as follows.

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 Maintenance effort: Due to the
impact of moving loads on the
joint, the packing under the sleeper
loosens and the geometry of the
track gets distorted very quickly
because of which the joint requires
frequent attention. It is generally
seen that about 30 per cent extra
labour is required for maintenance
of a joint.

Bonded main line 6-bolt rail joint on a segment of 76.9 kg/m rail. Note how bolts are
oppositely oriented to prevent complete separation of the joint in the event of being
struck by a wheel during a derailment.

Lifespan The life of rails, sleepers, and fastenings gets adversely affected due to the
extra stresses created by the impact of moving loads on the rail joint. The rail ends
particularly get battered and hogged and chances of rail fracture at joints are
considerably high due to fatigue stresses in the rail ends.

Noise effect A lot of noise pollution is created due to rail joints, making rail travel
uncomfortable.

Sabotage chances Wherever there is a rail joint, there is a potential danger of the
removal of fish plates and rails by miscreants and greater susceptibility to sabotage.

Impact on quality The quality of the track suffers because of excessive wear and tear
of track components and rolling stock caused by rail joints.

Fuel consumption The presence of rail joints results in increased fuel consumption
because of the extra effort required by the locomotive to haul the train over these
joints.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAIL JOINT

Holding the rail ends: An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail ends in their
precise location in the horizontal as well as the vertical planes to provide as much
continuity in the track as possible. This helps in avoiding wheel jumping or the
deviation of the wheel from its normal path of movement.
Strength: An ideal rail joint should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent
rails it joins.
Expansion gap: The joint should provide an adequate expansion gap for the free
expansion and contraction of rails caused by changes in temperature.

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 Flexibility It should provide flexibility for the easy replacement of rails, whenever
required.
Provision for wear: It should provide for the wear of the rail ends, which is likely to
occur under normal operating conditions.
Elasticity: It should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to longitudinal
forces so as to ensure a trouble-free track.
Cost: The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.

TYPES OF RAIL JOINTS

The nomenclature of rail joints depends upon the position of the sleepers or the joints.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO POSITION OF SLEEPERS

Three types of rail joints come under this category.

Supported joint
In this type of joint, the ends of
the rails are supported directly on the
sleeper. It was expected that supporting
the joint would reduce the wear and tear
of the rails, as there would be no
cantilever action. In practice, however,
the support tends to slightly raise the
height of the rail ends. As such, the run on a supported joint is normally hard. There is
also wear and tear of the sleeper supporting the joint and its maintenance presents quite a
problem. The duplex sleeper is an example of a supported joint (Fig. below).

Suspended joint
In this type of joint, the ends of
the rails are suspended between
two sleepers and some portion of
the rail is cantilevered at the joint.
As a result of cantilever action,
the packing under the sleepers of
the joint becomes loose
particularly due to the hammering
action of the moving train loads. Suspended joints are the most common type of joints
adopted by railway systems worldwide, including India.

Bridge joints
The bridge joint is similar to the suspended joint except that the two sleepers on either
side of a bridge joint are connected by means of a metal flat [Fig. (a)] or a corrugated
plate known as a bridge plate [Fig. (b)]. This type of joint is generally not used on
Indian Railways.

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Fig. (a) Bridge joint with metal flat Joint Fig. (b) Bridge joint with bridge plate

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE POSITION OF THE JOINT

1. Square joint
In this case, the joints in one rail are
exactly opposite to the joints in the
other rail. This type of joint is most
common on Indian Railways (Fig.
below).

2. Staggered joint: In this case, the joints in one

rail are somewhat staggered and are not opposite the
joints in the other rail. Staggered joints are normally
preferred on curved tracks because they hinder the
centrifugal force that pushes the track outward.

WELDING OF RAILS
WELDING A RAIL JOINT
The purpose of welding is to join rail ends together by the application of heat and thus
eliminate the evil effects of rail joints.

PURPOSE OF WELDING
1) To increase the length of the rail by joining two or more rails and thus to reduce the
number of joints, and requirements of fish plates, which lead to economy and strength.
2) To repair the worn out or damaged rails and thus increase their life.
3) To built up the burnt portion of rail head which is caused due to slippage of wheels over
the rails or other defects or spots in rail steel.

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ADVANTAGES OF WELDING RAILS
It satisfies the condition of a perfect joint and hence increases the life of the rail, as also
the reduction in maintenance cost of track by about 20 to 40 percent.
Due to discontinuity of joints, a source of track weakness is reduced. The defects, such as
hammering at rail joints, displacement of joints, disturbance in alignment and running
surface, which result in bad riding quality, are eliminated.
Welding increases the life of rails due to decrease in the wear of rails at joints.
Welding facilities track circuiting on electrified tracks

METHODS OF WELDING RAILS

There are four welding methods used in railways.
(a) Electric arc or metal arc welding (or Metal Arc Welding)
(b) Gas pressure welding (or Oxy-acetylene welding)
(c) Flash butt welding
(d) Chemical or Thermit welding

Electric arc or metal arc welding (or Metal Arc Welding)

In this method, the current is passed through the rail and at the same time through a
thin rod known as electrode.
As the electrode approaches the rail an electric arc is formed and with its heat the
electrode gets melted, and finally the molten metal of the electrode gets deposited on
the rail, providing a firm bond.
Mobile electric arc welding plants are available which are easy to handle. This plant
consists of an engine, generator and some accessories.
This method of welding is used for building up worn out points and crossings,
damaged rails and for other small welding operations. Gas shield prevents entering of
impurities and air into the molten metal.

Gas pressure welding (or Oxy-acetylene welding)

In this method intense heat is produced by combining the oxygen and acetylene gas,
which melts the electrode and deposits the molten metal on the rail.
This plant consists of two cylinders (one for oxygen and other for acetylene). This is
best from mobility point of view.
This method is like electric arc welding is used for repairing worn out or damaged
parts of points and crossings. This is especially useful for cutting of steel.

Flash butt welding

In this, powerful current is passed through two rails, the ends of which are to be
joined together. The width of the gap between two rails is varied till both the ends get
heated up to a required temperature.
Then, they are brought in contact with each other resulting in flash. Finally, the
current is stopped and rails are pressed together under a pressure of 20 tonnes.

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 This method of welding, being most satisfactory, is used for welding of the rails in
workshop. This method of welding involves heavy welding plant and that too
immobile and hence uneconomical for small jobs at site.
For large jobs at site, this is economical method of welding of rails.

Chemical or Thermit welding

This involves the use of chemicals, like aluminium and iron oxide. In this method,
Aluminium and iron oxide are mixed in powder and ignited. On ignition, the chemical
reaction takes place and produces intense heat because this reaction is exothermic in
nature.
After the reaction, Fe gets separated and is deposited in the gap of the rail ends which
are preheated. Actually, these two ends with chemical mixture in between the gap are
entrapped in a mould to prevent the flow of mixture.
The heating of the two ends is done by use of a furnace placed at the bottom of the
rail joint. After the mixture solidifies, the mould is removed and surface grinding is
done.
The chemical welding is generally adopted in the process of renewal of rails. This
plant is mobile in nature and can be used at site as well for welding of rails.

CREEP OF RAIL
INTRODUCTION
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers
in a track.
Rails have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic.
Creep is common to all railway tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from
place to place; the rail may move by several centi-meters in a month at few places,
while at other locations the movement may be almost negligible.

INDICATIONS OF CREEP
Occurrence of creep can be noticed from the following observations:
(i) Closing of successive expansion spaces at rail joints in the direction of creep
and opening out of joints at the point from where the creep starts.
(ii) Marks on flanges and webs of rails made by spike heads, by scraping or
scratching as the rails slide.

THEORIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREEP

Various theories have been put forward to explain the phenomenon of creep and its
causes, but none of them have proved to be satisfactory.
The important theories are briefly discussed in the following subsections.

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1. Wave Motion Theory
According to wave motion theory,
wave motion is set up in the resilient
track because of moving loads,
causing a deflection in the rail under
the load.
The portion of the rail immediately
under the wheel gets slightly
depressed due to the wheel load.
Therefore, the rails generally have a wavy formation.

2. Percussion Theory
According to percussion theory,
creep is developed due to the impact
of wheels at the rail end ahead of a
joint.
As the wheels of the moving train
leave the trailing rail at the joint, the
rail gets pushed forward causing it to
move longitudinally in the direction
of traffic, and that is how creep
develops.
Though the impact of a single wheel may be nominal, the continuous movement of
several wheels passing over the joint pushes the facing or landing rail forward,
thereby causing creep.

3. Drag Theory
According to drag theory, the backward thrust of the driving wheels of a locomotive
has the tendency to push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the other wheels of the
locomotive and trailing wagons pushes the rail in the direction in which the
locomotive is moving.
This results in the longitudinal movement of the rail in the direction of traffic, thereby
causing creep.

CAUSES OF CREEP
The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows.
Ironing effect of the wheel The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves
formed in the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in
creep.
Starting and stopping operations When a train starts or accelerates, the backward
thrust of its wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows

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 down or comes to a halt, the effect of the applied brakes tends to push the rail
forward. This in turn causes creep in one direction or the other.

Changes in temperature Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature

resulting in the expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during
hot weather conditions.
Unbalanced traffic In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e.,
each track is unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a
single-line section, even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of traffic
in each direction is normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of
predominant traffic.
Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to poor maintenance
of the track, also contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows: •
Improper securing of rails to sleepers
Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the
movement of sleepers
Improper expansion gaps
Badly maintained rail joints
Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track
Rails too light for the traffic carried on them
Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels
Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing,
uneven spacing of sleepers

EFFECTS OF CREEP
Sleepers out of square The sleepers move out of their position as a result of creep
and become out of square. This in turn affects the gauge and alignment of the track,
which finally results in unpleasant rides.
Expansion in gaps get disturbed Due to creep, the expansion gaps widen at some
places and close at others. This results in the joints getting jammed. Undue stresses
are created in the fish plates and bolts, which affect the smooth working of the switch
expansion joints in the case of long welded rails.
Distortion of points and crossings Due to excessive creep, it becomes difficult to
maintain the correct gauge and alignment of the rails at points and crossings.
Difficulty in changing rails If, due to operational reasons, it is required that the rail
be changed, the same becomes difficult as the new rail is found to be either too short
or too long because of creep.
Effect on interlocking The interlocking mechanism of the points and crossings pets
disturbed by creep.
Possible buckling of track If the creep is excessive and there is negligence in the
maintenance of the track, the possibility of buckling of the track cannot be ruled out.

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 Other effects There are other miscellaneous effects of creep such as breaking of bolts
and kinks in the alignment, which occur in various situations.

MEASUREMENT OF CREEP
Creep can be measured with the help
of a device called creep indicator.
It consists of two creep posts, which
are generally rail pieces that are
driven at 1 km intervals on either side
of the track. For the purpose of easy
measurement, their top level is
generally at the same level as the rail.
Using a chisel, a mark is made at the side of the bottom flange of the rail on either
side of the track. A fishing string is then stretched between the two creep posts and
the distance between the chisel mark and the string is taken as the amount of creep.
According to the prescribed stipulations, creep should be measured at intervals of
about three months and noted in a prescribed register, which is to be maintained by
the permanent way inspector (PWI).
Creep in excess of 150 mm (6 in.) should not be permitted on any track and not more
than six consecutive rails should be found jammed in a single-rail track at one
location.
There should be no creep in approaches to points and crossings.

REMEDIES OR PREVENTION OF CREEP

1. Pulling back the Rails

If creep is distinctly visible, the remedy is to pull back the rails to their original
position.
For doing this, first inspect the track, note the extent of pulling back distance and
determine the point from which to begin.
Now start pulling the rails back to their original positions by means of crow bars and
hooks provided through the fish bolts holes of rail. In pulling back, the positions of
joints relative to sleepers must be maintained, and both the rail joints must be in their
relative positions.
Pulling back the rails is a very slow and tedious process and is only possible when a
small length is to be dealt.

2. Provision of Anchors or Anti creepers

The creep of the track can be prevented by use of Anchors and sufficient crib ballast.
For creep of 7.5 cm to 15 cm, in a month 4-anchors per rail and for creep of 22.5 cm
to 25 cm 6-anchors per rail are used in the Indian practice.
Anchors are fastened to the foot of rail and kept in perfect contact with the side of the
sleeper being the side opposite to the direction of creep.

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 If creep occurs in both directions, anti creepers are provided on both the sides of
sleepers, starting from the centre of the rail and should never be fixed near the joints.
Anchors are fixed to rails either
By welding action
By clamping By a spring grip
3. Use of steel sleepers
Sleepers should be of such a type and with such fittings that they effectively
prevent the rail from creeping on them.
Secondly, the sleepers must have good grip with the ballast to resist movement of
the sleepers in the ballast.
Steel through sleepers are the best for this purpose.
Increase in the number of sleepers will therefore help in the prevention of creep.

SLEEPERS

INTRODUCTION
Sleepers are members generally laid transverse to the rails on which the rails are
supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.

FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS
(a) Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment
(b) Giving a firm and even support to the rails
(c) Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast
(d) Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads
(e) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way
(f) Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life

REQUIREMENTS OF SLEEPERS
(a) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.
(b) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
(c) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix
and remove the rails easily.
(d) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not
crushed.
(e) The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge
properly
(f) The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing.
(g) The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.
(h) The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the
passage of fast moving trains,
(i) The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features.

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SLEEPER DENSITY AND SPACING OF SLEEPERS
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length.
It is specified as (M + x) or (N + x), where M or N is the length of the rail in metres
and x is a number that varies according to factors such as
(a) Axle load and speed,
(b) Type and section of rails,
(c) Type and strength of the sleepers,
(d) Type of ballast and depth of ballast cushion
(e) Nature of formation.

If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13
m, it implies that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail length of the track on that
route.
The number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the number of
sleepers per kilometre of the track, for example, 1540 sleepers/km. This specification
becomes more relevant particularly in cases where rails are welded and the length of
the rail does not have much bearing on the number of sleepers required. This system
of specifying the number of sleepers per kilometre exists in many foreign countries
and is now being adopted on Indian Railways as well.
The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is not
kept uniform throughout the rail length.
It is closer near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of moving
loads on them.
There is, however, a limitation to the close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space is
required for working the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers.
The standard spacing specifications adopted for a fish-plated-track on Indian

CLASSIFICATION OF SLEEPERS

Sleepers can be classified according to the materials used in their construction, in the
following categories:
1) Wooden sleepers
2) Metal sleepers

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 23

 a. Cast iron (CI) sleepers,
b. Steel sleepers, and
3) Concrete sleepers
a. Reinforced concrete sleepers
b. Pre stressed concrete sleepers
WOODEN OR TIMBER SLEEPERS
The life of timber sleepers
depends upon their ability to resist
wear, Decay, Attack by Vermin
i.e. white ants and Quality of timer
used.
Size of wooden sleepers in mm :
B.G. : For ordinary track 2750 x
250 x 130
Life of Sleeper: Durable 19 years
(B.G.)/ 31 years (M.G.)

ADVANTANGES:
1) They have proved very useful for heavy loads and high-speed trains.
2) They are cheap and easy to manufacture.
3) They can be handled easily without any damage.
4) They maintain the correct alignment.
5) They are most suitable for track circuiting.
6) They can be used with or without ballast.
7) They can be used for gauntlet tracks.
8) They are suitable in the areas having yielding formations.

DISADVANTAGES
1) They are easily subjected to wear and decay due to various factors, i.e. vermin,
white ants, rail-cutting, warping, etc. Hence, these have a short life.
2) They do not maintain the gauge accurately.
3) They easily develop cracks with beater packing.
4) They require the highest maintenance cost as compared to other types of sleepers.
5) They get easily disturbed from their positions under heavy loads.
6) They need special treatment for fire protection.
7) Their scrap value is low.

METAL SLEEPERS

1. STEEL SLEEPERS
They are in the form of steel trough
on which rails are fixed by keys or
nuts or bolts

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 Advantages of Steel of Sleepers
1) They are manufactured by a simple operation.
2) They can be easily handled as theses are light in weight as compared to other types of
sleepers. Hence, damages during handling and transporting are less.
3) Less number of fastenings are required and that too simple in nature.
4) The maintenance and adjustment of gauge are easy as compared to the other of
sleepers.
5) These sleepers are rolled sections in one piece.
6) Their life is longer than that of other types of sleepers.
7) They provide better lateral rigidity to the track.
8) They are not attacked by vermin’s.
9) They are not susceptible to fire hazards.
10) Their scrap value is good.

Disadvantages of Steel of Sleepers

1) They get easily rusted and corroded.
2) They develop cracks at rail seats or near lugs.
3) Their lugs get broken easily.
4) The steel sleepers do not provide effective track circuiting
5) The steel sleepers can only be for the type of rails for which theses are manufactured.
6) These develop the tendency to become centre bound because of slope at both ends.
7) The overall cost of steel sleepers is more than that of timber sleepers.

2. CAST IRON SLEEPERS

Sleepers made of cast iron are called cast iron
sleepers
Type of Cast Iron Sleepers :
C. I. Pot Sleepers
C S T-9 Sleepers

Advantages of Cast Iron Sleepers

1) Long life upto50-60 years
2) High scrape value as they can be remoulded
3) Can be manufactured locally
4) Provided sufficient bearing area
5) Much stronger at the rail seat
6) Prevent and check creep of rail
7) They are not attacked by vermin

Disadvantages Cast Iron Sleepers

1) They are prone to corrosion and cannot be used in salty formations and coastal areas
2) Not suitable for track circuited portions of railways
3) Can badly damage under derailment
4) Difficult to maintain the gauge as the two pots are independent

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 5) Require a large number of fastening materials
6) Difficult to handle and may be easily damaged
7) Lack of good shock absorber
8) They are expensive

CONCRETE SLEEPERS
R.C.C and pre-stressed
concrete sleepers are now
replacing all other types of
sleepers except to some
special circumstances such
as crossing bridges etc here
timber sleepers are used.
They were first of all used in
France round about in 1914
but are common since 1950.
They may be a twin block sleepers joined by an angle iron.
It may be a single block pre-stressed type.
Concrete sleepers are much heavier than wooden ones, so they resist movement
better.

Advantages Concrete Sleepers

1) Durable with life range from 40-50 years
2) They can be produced on large quantities locally by installing a plant
3) Heavier than all other types thus giving better lateral stability to the track
4) Good insulators and thus suitable for use in track circuited lines
5) Efficient in controlling creep
6) They are not attacked by corrosion
7) Free from attacks of vermin and decay, suitable for all types of soils
8) Most suitable for welded tracks
9) Prevent buckling more efficiently
10) Initial cost is high but proves to be economical in long run
11) Effectively and strongly hold the track
to gauge
12) Inflammable and fire resistant

Disadvantages Concrete Sleepers

1) Difficult to be handled
2) Difficult to be manufactured in different
sizes thus cannot be used in bridges and
crossing
3) Can be damaged easily while loading
and unloading

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 26

PRE STRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS
The concrete is put under a very high initial compression.
All the disadvantages of RC sleepers have been eliminated by pre stressing
sleepers
Two types of pre stressed sleepers
a. Pre-tensioned sleeper
b. Post tensioned sleeper

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SLEEPERS

Characteristics Type of sleeper

Wooden Steel Cast Iron Concrete
Service life (years) 12-15 40-50 40-50 50-60
Weight of sleeper 83 79 87 267
for BG (kg)
Handling Manual Manual handling; Manual No manual
handling; no no damage to handling; handling; gets
damage to sleeper while liable to break damaged by
sleeper while handling by rough rough
handling handling handling
Type of Manual or Manual or Manual Mechanized
maintenance mechanized mechanized only
Cost of maintenance High Medium Medium Low
Gauge adjustment Difficult Easy Easy No gauge
adjustment
possible
Track circuiting Best Difficult; Difficult; Easy
insulating pads insulating pads
are necessary are necessary
Damage by white Can be No damage by Can be No damage by
ants and corrosion damaged by white ants but damaged by white ants or
white ants corrosion is corrosion corrosion
possible
Suitability for Suitable for Suitable for CF Suitable for CF Suitable for
fastening CF* and EFf and EF only EF only
Track elasticity Good Good Good Best
Creep Excessive Less Less Minimum
Scrap value Low Higher than High None
wooden

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 RAIL FASTENINGS AND TRACK FITTINGS
A rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to railroad ties.
The terms rail anchors, tie plates, chairs and track fasteners are used to refer to parts or all
of a rail fastening system.
The fittings and fastenings commonly used in Indian Railways are listed below

Joining rail to rail Fish plates, junction fish plates, fish bolts and nuts
Dog spikes, round spikes, screw spikes, fang bolts,
Joining rail to wooden sleepers
bearing plates
Joining rail to steel though sleepers Loose jaws and keys
Joining rail to cast-iron sleepers Cotters and tie-bars
Joining B.H rail to sleepers Chairs
Elastic Fastenings Pandrol clip, spring steel clip
Joining sleepers to bridge girders Hook bolts or dog bolts
Other fittings Malleable cast iron inserts, rubber pads

IMPORTANT REQUIREMENTS OF A RAIL FASTENING

Has to absorb shocks and vibrations from impact loads
Has to maintain gauge and alignment correctly
Should be easy to fix and adjust, with minimum number of parts.
Should not affect the rail and the sleeper adversely.
Should be so designed to prevent sabotage
Should have the minimum overall cost including maintenance.

FISH PLATES:
A fish plate, splice bar or joint bar is a metal bar that is bolted to the ends of two rails
to join them together in a track
The top and bottom edges are tapered inwards so the device wedges itself between the
top and bottom of the rail when it is bolted into place.
In rail transport modelling, a fishplate is often a small copper or nickel silver plate
that slips onto both rails to provide the functions of maintaining alignment and
electrical continuity

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Junction Fish Plates
Junction fish plates are combination
fish plates are used to connect rails of
different sections.
They are made to cover the rail section
at either end and adequately up to the
centre where the rail section changes.
Another feature is the elimination of the
expansion gap in order to increase the
strength.
A uniform system of marking is used to identify junction plates- right in, right out,
left in, and left out, based on their position with the direction from the lighter rail to
the heavier rail.

Fish Bolts:
Made up of medium or high carbon steel.
Fish bolts have to undergo shear due to heavy
transverse stresses.
Length depends on the type of fishplate used
For 44.70Kg rail, a bolt of 2.5cm dia and 12.7cm
length is used
These bolts get loose by the traffic variations and
require tightening from time to time

SPIKES:
A rail spike (also known as a cut spike or crampon) is a large nail with an offset
head that is used to secure rails and base plates to railroad ties in the track.

Dog Spikes
These are simple fastenings to fix rails to wooden sleepers.
The dog spikes get their name because the head of these spikes
Dog Spike
appear similar to dog’s ear.

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 The number of dog spikes required is 2 (one on either side staggered) on straight
track, 3 (two outside and one inside) on curved track, and 4 (two each on outside and
inside) on joint sleepers and bridges.
The section of the spike is 16 mm square and the length varies from 120 mm to 160
mm for BG, depending on location.

Round Spikes
These are used in conjunction with anti-creep bearing plates, as also for fixing
switches to wooden sleepers.
They have a circular section of diameter 18 mm
Not using in recent times.

Screw Spikes
There are two types of screw spikes: Plate screws of
20mm-diameter spikes and rail screws of 22 mm
diameter developed by the Indian Railways for
specific uses.
Plate screws are used to fix rails with the help of
bearing plates

Fang Bolts
These are employed under the switches for fixing slide
chairs to the sleepers; sleepers gauge is preserved better
by using these bolts

Bearing plates:

Rectangular plates made up of mild steel or

cast iron
Used below flat footed rails to
distribute the load on a larger area
Prevents damage of the sleepers due
to rubbing action
Holds the spike firmly to the sleepers
Three types of bearing plates used on
Indian Railways and are described
here.

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 1. Mild steel canted bearing plates: These are used on
all joints and curves to provide a larger bearing are to
the rails. They are made to a cant of 1 in 20 and with
a groove in the middle to prevent rocking. The usual
size is 260 X 220 X 18 mm for a 52 kg rail.
2. MS bearing plates of flat type: This type is used at
points and crossing of a turnout. No cant is provided.
The usual size is 260 X 220 X 19 mm for a 52 kg
rail.
3. Cast- iron anti-creep bearing plates: These are
provided at locations susceptible to develop rail
creep. A cant of 1 in 20 is given at the rail seat. The
size 285 X 205 mm for B.G tracks.

Loose jaws
Loose jaws, along with key are used to hold the rails to steel trough sleepers. They are
manufactured using spring steel: each jay weighs 288 g

Two-way Keys
Two-way keys have universal use for fixing steel trough sleepers, and cast-iron
sleepers of the pot type and the CST-9 type to the rail.
A two way taper is provided at both ends: as such the key can be driven in either
direction.
A special rolled section is used in the manufacture of these keys. The length is about
190 mm with a taper of 1 in 32 for use on BG tracks.
Cotters
These are used for fixing tie-bars to cast iron sleepers. Four different types of cotters,
based on the method of their splitting, are used on Indian Railways.
Two of them – centre split cotter and bent plate cotter. The other types are side-split
and solid end split cotters.

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MS Tie bars
These are used for holding the two plates of CI-CST-9 sleepers together. The normal
section of a tie bar is 50 mm X 12 mm with length of 2720 mm for broad gauge (The
corresponding dimensions for meter gauge are 45 mm X 10 mm and 1870 mm
respectively).

Chairs and Keys:

Chairs are required to hold bull headed rails and double headed rails in position
Made of cast iron and help in distributing the load from the rails to thee sleepers
It consists of two jaws and a rail seat.
The web of the rail is held tightly against the inner jaws of the chair and a key is
driven between the rail and the outer jaw of the chair
The chair are fixed with the sleepers by means of spikes
The shapes of chairs depend upon the type of rails used.

Blocks:
They are wedge-shaped wooden or metal pieces. They keep the rail in proper position
Wooden keys are cheaper but liable to be attacked by vermin’s, the initial cost of
metal key is more but their life is ten to 15 times more than wooden keys.
To hold the check rail at the required
distance, small blocks of steel are
inserted in between two rails
These blocks may touch either the
webs or the fishing faces or both

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Elastic fastenings:
A rail fastening system is a means of fixing rails to
railroad ties
The conventional rigid fastenings are not able to
meet the higher stresses. Therefore elastic
fastenings are used
This may protest against the shocks, vibrations

Requirements of Elastic fastenings:

It should have sufficient elasticity
It should provide longitudinal and lateral rigidity to the track
It should be able to use all types of sleepers
It should be durable
It should be easy to insert and remove

Pandrol Clip
Also known as elastic rail clip, and is a standard type of elastic fastenings used on
Indian Railways.
It requires very little attention towards its maintenance and is a fit-and-forget type.
This clip is made of a silico-manganese spring steel bar with a diameter of 20.6 mm
and is heat treated.
It exerts a tie load of 710 kg for a nominal deflection of 11.4 m. This load adequate to
grip the rail to the sleeper.
The Pandrol clip can be fixed on wooden, steel, cast-iron inserts are punched directly
into the sleepers during their manufacture, the Pandrol clip is fixed in the holes of the
CI insert.
Disadvantages:
(i) Lack of facility for gauge adjustment.
(ii) Small contact area at the rail foot causing indentation.
(iii)Easily removable with hammer, with possible room for sabotage.

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Spring Steel Clip
Spring steel clip, being tried with pre-stressed concrete sleepers on Indian Railways.
The rails rest on a grooved rubber pad and are held in the correct position by a pair of
spring clips.
The clip is pressed by means of a nut tightened on a 22 mm bolt, which is inserted
from the underside of the sleepers.
The nut is tightened to a torque of 13.5 kg.cm, to obtain a resisting force of 1 tonne
per pair of clips

Rubber Pads
A rubber pad is an integral part of an elastic
fastening. It is provided between the rails and the
sleepers.
The functions of a rubber pad are:
Absorbing shock
Dampening vibrations
Resisting lateral movement of rail
Providing electrical insulation between the
rails.
Preventing abrasion of the button surface of
the rail.
Grooved rubber pads of 4.5 mm thickness made of special quality rubber are used by
Indian Railways.
The function of the grooves is to limit the lateral expansion of rubber under the
pressure of dynamic loads: they also aid in uniform distribution of load on the
sleepers.
While 4.5 mm thick rubber pads have given a service life of only six to seven years. 6
mm thick rubber pads have been shown to give a service life of 15 to 20 years.

CERTAIN SPECIFIC ASPECTS RELATED TO RAILS AND SLEEPERS

Under this head, the following specific aspects will be considered
(a) Coning of wheels
(b) Tilting of rails
(c) Adzing of sleepers

CONING OF WHEELS

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 The tread of the wheels of a railway vehicle (a locomotive, a coach or a wagon) is not
made horizontal, but sloped in the form of the frustum of a cone; this is to enable the
vehicle to move smoothly on the track both on straights and on horizontal curves.
On straight reaches, the circumference of the treads of both the wheels is equal, as the
wheels are aligned centrally on a straight and level surface.
However, on a horizontal curve, the outer wheel has to negotiate more distance than
the inner one. The vehicle also tends to move in the outward radial direction due to
the centrifugal force acting on it while negotiating the curve. To counteract this, the
circumference of the tread of the outer wheel is made greater than of the inner wheel;
this is achieved by making the wheel tread slope downwards from inside to outside of
the track. Coning of the wheel helps this to be realised
Because of the extra distance to be traversed by the outer wheel on the horizontal
curve of a rail track, the outer wheel tens to slide as it is connected to the inner wheel
by the axle.
Coning of the wheels prevents the flange of the wheel touching the side of the rail,
thus preventing jerks and an uncomfortable ride. This also reduces the wear and tear
of the wheel flange.

TILTING OF RAILS
Rails are tilted inward at an angle of 1 in 20 to match the slope of coning of the
wheels of a railway vehicle. This is intended to reduce the wear and tear of the rails as
well as of the tread of the wheels.
There is heavy wear of the rails as the pressure from the wheel acts near the inner face
of the rail. Further, eccentric loading of rails causes lateral bending stresses. This
uneven loading may cause damage to the sleepers too.
To counteract these effects, rails are tilted at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the slope
of the wheel cone. The tilting of rails may be achieved in two ways: by ‘adzing’ the
wooden sleeper or by providing canted bearing plates to suit this slope.

ADZING OF WOODEN SLEEPERS

For making the rails to be tilted inwards at a cant of 1 in 20, wooden sleepers have to
be cut to this slope at the rail seat before laying them in position to take on the rails.
This procedure of cutting the wooden sleeper at a slope of 1 in 20 (to match the
coning of the wheels) so that the rails are tilted accordingly is known as ‘adzing’. It
has to be done with great care since any variation of this slope from sleeper of sleeper
causes rough ride.
The adzed surface of a wooden sleeper is treated with coal tar or creosote oil to ensure
protection of the surface
It must be noted that adzing of a wooden sleeper is done only when a bearing plate is
not used. In case a bearing plate is used, irrespective of the type of sleeper, the top
surface of the bearing plate is made to a slope of 1 in 20 to achieve the desired
purpose.

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 BALLAST

INTRODUCTION
It is a layer of broken stones, gravel or any other such gritty material laid and packed
below and around sleepers.
The material used as an elastic cushion between the sleeper and the top of the
formation, is called ‘Ballast’

FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST
1) It provides a hard and level bed for the sleepers.
2) It holds the sleepers in proper position during the passage of moving trains.
3) It provides to some extent an elastic bed for the track.
4) It transmits and distributes the moving load of the trains from the sleepers to the
formation uniformly.
5) It protects the formation surface from direct exposure to sun, rain and frost.
6) It provides a proper drainage to the track, keeping the sleepers in dry condition.
7) It obstructs the growth of vegetations at the track formation.
8) It provides proper super elevation to the outer rail on curves.
9) It provides an easy means for correcting the unevenness of the track.
10) It provides the lateral and longitudinal stability to the track
11) It protects the sleepers from capillary moisture of formation.
12) It provides a media for absorption of all impacts caused by rolling stock.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BALLAST

1) It should resist crushing under dynamic loads.
2) The designed depth of the ballast should be able to distribute the weight of passing
trains on the formation underneath uniformly.
3) It should not make the track dusty due to powder formation under dynamic wheel
loads.
4) It should be reasonably elastic.
5) It should have resistance to abrasion and weathering
6) It should be non-porous to provide durability to the ballast.
7) It should hold the sleepers laterally and longitudinally under all conditions traffic,
especially on the curves.
8) It should be able to facilitate easy drainage to rain water

TYPES OF BALLAST
Keeping in vies the availability, workability, durability and strength of the ballast
different materials have been used as ballast. The most important types of ballast
materials used in.

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 36

 1) Broken stones 5) Cinder (or ash)
2) Gravels 6) Brick bats
3) Sand 7) Kankar
4) Moorum 8) Ballast earth.
(1) Broken stone:
Best material for railway track.
Due to high interlocking action it holds the track to the correct alignment and gradient
Granite, Quartzite, hard stones, lime stones are some of the varieties of stones

(2) Gravel:
Obtained from river beds or pits
Cheaper than broken stone
Has excellent drainage property
Requires screening before use

(3) Ashes and Cinder:

Residue obtained from coal used in locomotives is cinder
Has good drainage property
Corrosive property
Should not be used where steel sleepers are used

(4) Sand:
Best materials for ballast
Good for packing of cast iron pot sleepers
Gives silent track
Good drainage property

5) Moorum:
Decomposed laterite rocks
Under heavy loads crumbles to powder
Red in colour
Used in sidings and embankments

(6) Kankar:
Found in the form of nodules of varying size
Useful for metre gauge and narrow gauge tracks with light traffic

(7) Brick ballast:

Over burnt bricks are broken in to small pieces, used as ballast
Fairly good enough drainage property
Becomes powder under heavy traffic and tracks become dusty.

(8) Selected earth:

Good quality earth can be used for newly laid tracks and sidings

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 37

Table Comparison of different types of ballast

Type of Advantages Disadvantages Suitability

ballast
Good drainage properties Causes excessive wear Suitable for CI pot
sleeper tracks
Cheap Blows off easily Not suitable for
No noise produced on the Poor retentively of high-speed tracks
Sand ballast track packing
Good packing material Track cannot be
for CI sleepers maintained to high
standards

Cheap, if locally Very soft and turns into Used as a sub-

available dust ballast
Moorum
ballast
Prevents water from Maintenance of track is Initial ballast for
percolating difficult new construction
Provides good aesthetics Quality of track average

Easy availability on Harmful for steel sleepers Normally used in

railways yards and sidings
Very cheap Corrodes rail bottom and Suitable for repairs
steel sleepers of formations
Coal ash or during floods and
cinder emergencies
Good drainage Soft and easily pulverized Not fit for high-
speed tracks

Maintenance is difficult

Hard and durable when Initial cost is high Suitable for

procured from hard rocks packing with track
machines
Broken stone Good drainage properties Difficulties in procurement Suitable for high
ballast speed tracks
Stable and resilient to the Angular shape may injure
track wooden sleepers
Economical in the long
run

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 38

SIZE OF THE BALLAST:
The size of the ballast material has been universally adopted to be 50 mm for all types
of sleepers on Indian Railways
Special locations such as points and crossings are subject to greater impact loads, this
requires ballast with greater frictional resistance, better amenability to packing, finer
degree of adjustments and improved compaction.
It has been considered that a size of 25 mm for ballast particles satisfies these
requirements.

DESIGN OF BALLAST SECTION The design of the ballast section includes the
determination of the depth of the ballast cushion below the sleeper and its profile. These
aspects are discussed as follows.

Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion

The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the ballast to the
formation.
The pressure distribution in the ballast section depends upon the size and shape of the
ballast and the degree of consolidation.
Though the lines of equal pressure are in the shape of a bulb as discussed in, yet for
simplicity, the dispersion of load can be assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical.
In order to ensure that the load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the
ballast should be such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other.
For the even distribution of load on the formation, the depth of the ballast is
determined by the following formula: Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 x
depth of ballast

1. INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAY ENGINEERING Page 39

 FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Subgrade is the naturally occurring soil which is prepared to receive the ballast.
The prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, along with sleeps and
rails, is called the formation.
The formation is an important constituent of the track, as it supports the entire track
structure.
It has the following functions:
(a) It provides a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.
(b) It bears the load transmitted to it from the moving load through the ballast
(c) It facilitates drainage.
(d) It provides stability to the track.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORMATION

The formation can be in the shape of an embankment or a cutting. When formation is
in the shape of a raised bank constructed above the natural ground, it is called an
embankment. The formation at a level below the natural ground is called a cutting.
Normally, a cutting or an excavation is made through a hilly or natural ground for
providing the railway line at the required level below the ground level.
The formation is prepared either by providing additional earthwork over the existing
ground to make an embankment or by excavating the existing ground surface to make
a cutting.
The formation can thus be in the shape of either an embankment or a cutting. The
height of the formation depends upon the ground contours and the gradients adopted.
The side slope of the embankment depends upon the shearing strength of the soil and
its angle of repose.
The width of the formation depends upon the number of tracks to be laid, the gauge,
and such other factors.

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