State of Florida

Department of Transportation

A 30-Year Performance Evaluation of a

Two-Layer Concrete Pavement System
FDOT Office
State Materials Office

Research Report Number

FL/DOT/SMO/10-540

Authors
James Greene
Abdenour Nazef
Bouzid Choubane

Date of Publication
December 2010
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... i

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................ ii
Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................................................. 1
Two-Layer Concrete State of the Art .......................................................................................... 2
Research Objectives .................................................................................................................... 3
Project Description........................................................................................................................................ 3
Construction Notes and Measurements......................................................................................................... 3
Asphalt Overlay........................................................................................................................... 4
Control Section ............................................................................................................................ 6
Experimental Sections 1 to 3 ....................................................................................................... 6
Experimental Sections 4 and 5 .................................................................................................... 9
Pavement Foundation ................................................................................................................ 10
Performance Evaluation .............................................................................................................................. 11
Pavement Deflection/Stiffness .................................................................................................. 11
Load Transfer and Corner Deflection ....................................................................................... 13
Joint Faulting ............................................................................................................................. 14
Pavement Smoothness ............................................................................................................... 15
Pavement Cracking ................................................................................................................... 16
Laboratory Data......................................................................................................................... 17
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 18
References ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane ii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 Econocrete aggregate source. ..................................................................................................... 2

FIGURE 2 Truck traffic over the last 30 years. ............................................................................................ 3
FIGURE 3 Paving operation. ........................................................................................................................ 7
FIGURE 4 Econocrete aggregate properties................................................................................................. 9
FIGURE 5 Joint construction details. ........................................................................................................... 9
FIGURE 6 Debonding material used for experimental joint concept (steel reinforcement shown). .......... 10
FIGURE 7 Concrete temperature measurements. ....................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 8 Pavement modulus.................................................................................................................... 13
FIGURE 9 Summary of load transfer and deflection parameters. .............................................................. 14
FIGURE 10 Fault depths. ........................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 11 2007 Roughness summary. ..................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 12 Longitudinal cracking in section 2. ....................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 13 Photographs of control and section 3 cores. ........................................................................... 18

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 Experimental Sections.................................................................................................................. 5

TABLE 2 Standard PCC Section Properties ................................................................................................. 6
TABLE 3 Econocrete Properties................................................................................................................... 8
TABLE 4 Average Foundation Layer Properties........................................................................................ 11
TABLE 5 2007 Crack Summary ................................................................................................................. 16
TABLE 6 PCC and Econocrete Laboratory Properties After 30 years of Service...................................... 18
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In 1978, an experimental two-layer concrete pavement was opened to traffic on State Road 45 near Fort
Myers, Florida. The experimental pavement included a series of two-layer pavement sections with
various design features placed over either a granular or cement treated subbase. These sections consisted
of a 3 inch (7.5 cm) Portland cement concrete (PCC) surface over a 9 inch (23 cm) lean concrete
(commonly referred to as econocrete) layer. The control section consisted of a standard 9 inch (23 cm)
thick PCC with joints spaced 20 feet (6 m) on a cement-treated subbase. After 30 years of service, the
sections constructed over a granular base performed better than those placed over a cement treated
subbase. The distresses on the two-layer concrete pavement sections built on a granular subbase were
minimal irrespective of their slab lengths. In contrast, the control section experienced greater cracking
and moderate to severe spalling.
The findings validates several features of Florida’s current design policies such as limiting joint
spacing to 15 feet and prohibiting cement treated subbases below concrete pavements. Furthermore, this
experimental project has also demonstrated that a two-layer concrete system consisting of a relatively thin
higher quality PCC surface over a lower quality econocrete layer and a granular subbase can be a
sustainable and long lasting pavement design alternative.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane 1

INTRODUCTION

Background

High quality, durable aggregates used to construct pavements are becoming scarce and costly. In return,
the construction industry has begun to focus on methods that promote sustainability while preserving
quality. Sustainable construction methods balance economic, environmental, and social benefits. One
such method is the two-layer concrete pavement system. This system consists of a thin high quality
concrete surface placed on top of a thick econocrete layer of lower quality. This type of composite
pavement allows the designer the ability to balance the need for high quality aggregates for surface
friction and durability with economic and environmental concerns.
Two-layer concrete pavements are not a new concept in the United States (U.S.). In fact, the first
U.S. concrete pavement constructed in 1891 in Bellefontaine, Ohio consisted of a two-layer system (1).
In the past, many states specified two-layer concrete pavements to facilitate the placement of steel-
reinforcing mesh. However, in the early 1970’s the concrete paving industry began to move away from a
jointed reinforced concrete pavement design and the use of mesh has been largely discontinued (2, 3).
Since then, two-layer concrete pavements have been primarily used in experimental or demonstration
projects. The focus of these pavements has shifted to promote the use of recycled materials and maximize
local aggregate sources (4).
In March of 1978, an experimental two-layer concrete pavement was opened to traffic on State
Road (SR) 45 in Charlotte County, Florida. The experimental sections consisted of a 3 inch (7.5 cm)
Portland cement concrete (PCC) surface with a 9 inch (23 cm) lean concrete (commonly referred to as
econocrete) layer. Sections were constructed over either 6 inch (15.0 cm) cement-treated or 6 inch (15
cm) granular subbases. The control section was a standard 9 inch PCC on top of a 6 inch (15 cm) cement-
treated subbase. The econocrete layer aggregate source was located four miles from the project and
consisted of a mixture of rock, sand, and shell produced from the dredging of canals. In the past, this
aggregate source had been used as fill material since it did not meet FDOT’s concrete or base aggregate
specifications. The aggregate was crushed on-site at the dredging location to produce a uniform
aggregate supply and then transported to the batch plant site and stockpiled. FIGURE 1 shows
photographs of the dredged canal, raw material, processing, and crushing of the econocrete aggregate
source.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane 2

A) Canal site B) Raw material

C) Processing material D) Crushing material

FIGURE 1 Econocrete aggregate source.

Two-Layer Concrete State of the Art

Two-layer concrete paving is a wet-on-wet process. That is, the surface layer is placed over the lower
layer while the concrete is still wet. The placement of the surface lift is timed so that the bottom lift is
stiff enough to resist mixing of the materials and still sufficiently wet to promote a good bond so that a
monolithic concrete structure is formed. The time between placing lifts is often no more than 30 minutes
(5). The surface layers have primarily consisted of jointed plain concrete but continuous reinforced
concrete pavement have also been used (2, 5). Dowels for load transfer have been placed with baskets
and dowel bar inserters. Perhaps the two greatest challenges involved in the construction of two-layer
concrete systems include the additional costs and logistics required for two plants to produce different
concrete mixtures and the additional costs for two slip-form paving machines (4, 6). A single slipform
paver was once commonly used in Europe, but Austria and Germany have concluded that two machines
offer more flexibility and control than the current single paver technology (6).
Limited research on the structural and functional performance of this composite pavement has
been performed in the U.S. since interest diminished in the 1970’s. However, federal initiatives have
attempted to leverage the European experience. Some of these initiatives include the 1992 U.S. tour of
European concrete highways and the 2006 International Technology Scanning Program tour of long-life
concrete pavements in Europe and Canada (2, 5). European countries with significant two-layer concrete
paving experience include Germany, Austria, and France (2, 5, 6). These countries use more durable
aggregates in the thin surface layer and less expensive and often recycled materials in the lower layer.
Typical layer thicknesses for highway applications range from 1.5 to 2 inches (4 to 5 cm) for the surface
layer and 7.5 to 10 inches (19 to 25 cm) for the lower layer. A two-layer concrete pavement at the
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane 3

Munich Airport was constructed with a surface layer thickness of 5.5 inches (14 cm) and a lower layer
thickness of 9.5 inches (24 cm) (4).

Research Objectives

The primary objective of this investigation was to determine the structural and functional performance of
a two-layer concrete pavement experimental project after 30 years of service. A secondary objective was
to document historical design and construction information to aid current researchers and designers
develop practical, long-life alternative concrete pavements.

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

The experimental project is located in the southbound lanes of SR 45 in Charlotte County, between Fort
Myers and Punta Gorda. This roadway consists of four 12 foot lanes divided by a grassy median. The
Fort Myers area has an average low temperature of 65⁰ F (18⁰C) and an average high temperature of 84⁰F
(29⁰C). Annual rainfall in excess of 50 inches (127 cm) is typical (8). Truck traffic decreased initially
after the nearby I-75 was opened to traffic in 1981 but has gradually increased as travelers began to use
SR 45 as an alternate route to bypass the growing Fort Myers area. More than 5.1 million trucks (6.2
million 18 kip equivalent single axle loads (ESALs)) have utilized this route since the construction was
completed. FIGURE 2 shows the truck traffic trends over the past 30 years.

350 6,000

Southbound Cumulative Trucks (x 1000)

Southbound Annual Trucks (x 1000)

300 5,000
250
4,000
200
3,000
150
2,000
100
50 1,000

0 0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

Annual Trucks Cumulative Trucks

FIGURE 2 Truck traffic over the last 30 years.

CONSTRUCTION NOTES AND MEASUREMENTS

The construction of the experimental project began in April 1976 and was opened to traffic in March
1978. The following features were considered in the initial design and construction of the various test
sections:

1. PCC joint orientation (right angle and skewed)

2. PCC joint spacing
3. Load transfer methods
4. PCC reinforcement
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane 4

5. PCC/Econocrete bond condition

6. Non-traditional joint concepts
7. Econocrete strength
8. Subbase type

TABLE 1 summarizes the important design parameters for each of the experimental sections. A standard
concrete pavement design was included as a control section. A brief description of each section and
related construction details are presented below. Further in-depth construction information can be found
elsewhere (9, 10). It should be noted that section names are different in these reports.

Asphalt Overlay

Asphalt overlays of a 10 inch (25 cm) limerock base and a 9 inch econocrete base were initially included
in the experimental project. A 6 inch granular subgrade was constructed for these sections. The
subsection with the limerock base received 3 inches (7.6 cm) of asphalt while the econocrete sections
received 2 inches (5 cm). A 1 inch (2.5 cm) friction course was applied to all of the subsections. In
addition to a tack coat, a tine texture was applied to the surface of the econocrete base to promote bonding
with the asphalt. Due to the tine texture, the top 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) of the econocrete base was pulled
up by the tracks of the asphalt paver in some locations.
An evaluation performed after 10 years found rut depths of 0.1 to 0.2 inches (2.5 to 5 mm) in the
standard asphalt section. Reflective transverse cracks were observed in sections with the econocrete base
at 30 to 40 foot (9 to 12 meter) intervals.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane 5

TABLE 1 Experimental Sections

Section Asphalt Overlay Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C
Length, ft 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2900 1700 2000 2000 2000
4 inch
Surface 3 inch HMA 9 inch PCC 3 inch PCC 3 inch PCC
HMA
PCC
NA None None None
reinforcement
Joint spacing/
NA 20 ft/90⁰ 15 feet / skewed 15 feet / 90⁰
orientation
Load transfer NA None None None
PCC/base
NA NA Monolithic bond Monolithic bond
interface
10 inch
Base None
LR
9 inch 9 inch 9 inch Mix 9 inch Mix 9 inch Mix
Econocrete None None 9 inch Mix A 9 inch Mix B 9 inch Mix C
Mix B Mix C A B C
12 in. 6 in. cement
Subgrade 6 inch granular 6 inch granular 6 inch cement treated
granular treated

Section 3A 3B 4A 4B 5A 5B 5C
Length, ft 2000 2000 2050 2100 1023 1023 900
Surface 3 inch PCC 3 inch reinforced concrete 2 inch fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) 3 inch FRC
PCC Various reinforcement designs
None None
reinforcement (steel, wire fabric, and steel fiber)
50 to 75 ft. joint
Joint width / Elastic joint at 8
20 feet / 90⁰ NA 9 to 15 ft. joint inserted into base / 90⁰ inserted into
orientation to 20 feet
base / 90⁰
1 inch diameter x 18 inch long dowels
Load Transfer None None
at 12 inch centers
PCC/base
Monolithic bond Unbonded Bonded Bonded Unbonded
interface
Econocrete 9 inch Mix A 9 inch Mix B 9 inch Mix B 9 inch Mix B 8 inch Mix B
Subgrade 6 inch granular 6 inch granular 6 inch granular
1 inch = 2.54 mm
1 foot = 0.305 meter
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
6

Control Section

The PCC control section consists of a standard 9 inch (23 cm) jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
that utilized a No. 4 nominal size limestone aggregate. Transverse joints were cut at a 90⁰ orientation
and spaced at 20 foot (6 m) long intervals. The foundation included a 6 inch (15 cm) cement-treated
subbase. A review of construction notes and plans revealed no information on whether a bond breaker
was used between the PCC and the cement treated subbase. Cores retrieved in 2007 suggest a weak bond
or no bond was present at the time of coring. This design was considered to be a standard concrete
pavement at the time of construction. TABLE 2 summarizes the PCC properties.

TABLE 2 Standard PCC Section Properties

Property Test Value Standard Deviation n
Compressive Strength, psi 5,110 444 30
Modulus of Rupture, psi 735 52 27
Split Tensile Strength, psi 515 70 20
Modulus of Elasticity, ksi 5,750 270 30
Air Content, % 3.8 0.31 10
Slump, inch 1.6 0.77 10
2
Unit Weight, lb/ft 141 0.78 9
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 lb/ft2 = 16 kg/m3
n = number of samples
Note 1: Strength tests performed at 28 days
Note 2: Tests conducted according to AASHTO test procedures

Experimental Sections 1 to 3

The monolithic composite construction used in sections 1 to 3 required the simultaneous production of
two mixtures. Differentiation of each mixture presented no problems at the roadway. Each delivery truck
was provided a ticket designating the type of material and the concrete surface mix was flagged. Error
was further minimized by maintaining the same trucks and drivers for each mix type. The 9 inch (23 cm)
econocrete layer was placed with a modified spreader. The modifications included the addition of spud
vibrators to consolidate the econocrete, a vibrating pan or screed for striking off excess material, and
trailing forms. In essence, the modifications transformed the spreader into a crude slipform paver. The
econocrete surface was scarified using two deep passes of a transverse tine texturing machine to enhance
the bond with the top layer.
The PCC surface consisted of a 3 inch (7.5 cm) jointed plane concrete pavement (JPCP) of the
same mix design and properties as the control section. The surface layer was constructed using a slipform
paver approximately ½ to 1 hour after placing the econocrete. The result was a monolithic structure with
the econocrete layer bonded to the surface layer. FIGURE 3 shows the paving process and TABLE 3
summarizes the properties of the econocrete mixture. Cement content was varied to achieve three
different strength levels. FIGURE 4 shows the gradation and properties of the aggregates used for the
econocrete.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
7

A) Dowel baskets in f ront of paver B) Roughened econocrete surface

C) In front of surface layer paver D) Behind surface layer paver

FIGURE 3 Paving operation.

A transverse tine texture was applied to the final surface layer. Section 3 specified the placement
of 18 inch (45.5 cm) long and 1 inch (2.5 cm) diameter dowel bars placed at 12 inch (30.5) centers at mid-
depth of the total composite pavement structure. The dowel bars were secured to the subbase in
prefabricated baskets prior to placement of the econocrete. A 30 inch (76 cm) #5 center-line tie bar was
inserted into the fresh concrete at three foot intervals. Transverse joints were cut in a skewed orientation
in section 1, and at right angle in sections 2 and 3. Joints were cut at 15 foot (4.5 m) intervals in sections
1 and 2, and 20 foot (6 m) intervals in section 3. Final transverse and longitudinal joint depths were
specified to be 3.5 inches. A neoprene joint seal was specified for all transverse contraction joints. Hot-
poured joint sealant was specified for all longitudinal joints. Joint details are shown in FIGURE 5.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
8

TABLE 3 Econocrete Properties

Econocrete Mix A Econocrete Mix B Econocrete Mix C
Laboratory
Test Std Test Std Test Std
Test n n n
Value Dev Value Dev Value Dev
Compressive
Strength1,2, 1,955 87 9 1,280 220 24 675 190 15
psi
Modulus of
Rupture1,2, 380 27 9 280 33 26 160 43 15
psi
Split Tensile
Strength1,2, 250 14 6 175 31 16 93 29 11
psi
Modulus of
Elasticity1,2, 2,210 130 9 1,730 260 23 1,290 129 15
ksi
Air
4.1 0.81 3 3.8 0.43 8 4.1 0.54 5
Content2, %
2
Slump , inch 1.8 0.14 3 1.9 0.46 8 1.7 0.32 5
Design
Cement
340 Not Measured 290 Not Measured 220 Not Measured
content,
lb/yd3
Unit
Weight2, 132 0.7 3 133 1.3 8 132 1.8 4
lb/ft2
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 lb/yd3 = 0.59 kg/m3
1 lb/ft2 = 16 kg/m3
n = number of samples
Note 1: Strength tests performed at 28 days
Note 2: Tests conducted according to AASHTO test procedures
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
9

100
90 Absorption 3.3%
80 LA Abrasion 36
70 Specific Gravity 2.50
Percent Passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Log (Seive Size), mm

FIGURE 4 Econocrete aggregate properties.

Note: Dowel bars specified for sections 3A and 3B only.

FIGURE 5 Joint construction details.

Experimental Sections 4 and 5

Section 4 included a 3 inch (7.5 cm) concrete pavement reinforced with either steel or wire fabric. The
concrete was placed a day after the econocrete was constructed. The wire fabric proved difficult to place
uniformly due to undulations and deformations that were impossible to work out. The bond between the
PCC and the econocrete was inhibited in one subsection.
Section 5 included subsections of 2 inches and 3 inches (5 and 7.5 cm) of steel fiber reinforced
PCC. Workability of this mixture was poor and clumping of the steel fibers was widespread. Excessive
bleeding and differential stiffness was typical which resulted in an inability to achieve a satisfactory
surface texture. Several attempts to correct the problems were unsuccessful.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
10

Some subsections of sections 4 and 5 included an experimental crack inducing concept. This
concept required placement of a plastic crack inducing joint insert in the fresh surface of the econocrete.
A debonding agent was applied at various distances before and after the insert as shown in FIGURE 6.
The concept hypothesized that a hairline crack would reflect in the concrete surface layer at the locations
corresponding to the joint insert and debonded interface. Over time, transverse cracks did appear at the
approximate location of the joint insert. However, longitudinal cracks formed perpendicular to the
transverse cracks in most of the sections. Heavy spalling occurred at some of the transverse joints.
Crack sealant was not applied to all of the transverse cracks since they occurred after construction and at
various time periods. Many of these sections failed and were removed within 1 year due to extensive
cracking and the unsightly appearance that resulted from the construction problems noted above.
Furthermore, it was concluded that a bond must be established for thin concrete overlays of rigid
pavements. Current guidelines for traditional concrete overlays call for an unbonded overlay thickness of
4 to 11 (10 to 28 cm) inches and bonded overlay thickness of 2 to 5 inches (5 to 7 cm) depending on
traffic and desired life (11). Some sections with the experimental joint concept were still in service after
10 years of service but their condition ranged from poor to fair.

FIGURE 6 Debonding material used for experimental joint concept (steel reinforcement shown).

Pavement Foundation

The finished pavement profile required approximately 3 feet (1 m) of fill built in 8 inch (20 cm) layers
and compacted to 98 percent of the maximum density as measured by AASHTO T-99. The 6 inch (15
cm) granular subbase was a mixture of shell and limerock that was compacted to a density of not less than
100 percent and not more than 105 percent maximum density as measured by AASHTO T-180. The 6
inch (15 cm) cement treated subbase had a cement content that ranged from 9.0 to 11.5 percent by weight
and was mixed in-place. The average properties measured during construction of the compacted fill,
granular subbase, and cement treated subbase are summarized in TABLE 4.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
11

TABLE 4 Average Foundation Layer Properties

30 inch Plate Limerock
Maximum Optimum Compressive Modulus of
2 Bearing Bearing
Layer Dry Density, Moisture , Strength1,2, Elasticity1,2,
2 Modulus3, Ratio3
pcf % psi ksi
psi (LBR)
Compacted Not Not
109 12.2 27,800 NA
Fill measured Measured
Granular Not
122 9.3 24,800 145 NA
Subbase Measured
Cement
Not
Treated 115 9.6 48,800 880 1,440
Measured
Subbase
LBR = 0.8 x California bearing ratio (CBR)
1 lb/ft2 = 16 kg/m3
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 ksi = 1000 psi
NA = not applicable
Note 1: Strength tests performed at 28 days
Note 2: Tests conducted according to governing AASHTO standards
Note 3: Tests conducted according to modified AASHTO test procedures

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

The performance evaluation summarized herein focused on sections that were still in service (Control and
sections 1 to 3) at the time of the subject investigation. The limited maintenance performed on these
sections included two slab replacements in section 1B and minor patching. The slab replacements were
made to correct extensive scaling due to over-finishing the concrete. The primary parameters used to
evaluate the performance of the experimental sections include:

1. Pavement deflection/stiffness
2. Load transfer
3. Joint faulting
4. Pavement smoothness
5. Pavement cracking
6. Laboratory measurements on cores

Pavement Deflection/Stiffness

Deflection measurements are often used to infer a pavement system’s structural adequacy. A
comprehensive deflection measurement survey was performed in October 2007 to measure pavement
stiffness, joint edge deflection, and loss of support at the slab corner. Daytime and nighttime falling
weight deflectometer (FWD) tests were performed to account for the curling effect of the concrete slab
due to thermal gradients. During testing, temperature measurements were made at the surface of the
concrete and at the bottom of the econocrete. The temperature measurements are summarized in FIGURE
7. A polynomial curve appears to provide a good correlation during this time period. The maximum
positive temperature gradient occurred between 1:00 and 2:00 PM while the largest negative temperature
gradient occurred between 6:00 and 7:00 AM. FWD testing was performed between the daytime hours of
2:00 to 4:30 PM and the nighttime hours of 10:00 PM to 4:30 AM.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
12

120 20

Termperature Gradient, ⁰F
100 15

Temperature, ⁰F
80 10
60 5
40 0
20 -5
0 -10
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00

Time

PCC Surface Temperature Econocrete Bottom Temperature

Temperature Gradient Temp, ⁰f = 9/5(Temp, ⁰C) + 32)

FIGURE 7 Concrete temperature measurements.

Deflection measurements were made in the outside lane at three locations: 1) center of the slab, 2) the
outside corner, and 3) the joint edge along the outside wheel path. The modulus of the overall pavement
system was calculated to determine which overall pavement structure was more substantial in terms of
stiffness. The pavement modulus was determined by loading the center of each slab and utilizing the
following equation (12):

1.5aσ 0
E0 =
d0

Where, E0 = composite modulus of the entire pavement system beneath the load plate
a = radius of load plate
σ0 = peak pressure of the FWD load plate
d0 = peak center FWD deflection

FIGURE 8 illustrates the temperature gradient effect on the pavement modulus. On average, the
day time pavement stiffness was approximately 0.6 times the night time stiffness. Interestingly, the full-
depth concrete pavement structure (control section) was found to be less stiff than the two-layer pavement
structures.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
13

500
1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B

Control
450

Pavement Modulus, ksi

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
269+00 219+00 169+00 119+00 69+00

Station, feet

Day Night Average

Pavement Modulus, ksi

Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B
Avg. 152 186 177 165 205 218 192 188 226
Day

Std. Dev. 9 10 23 15 23 15 15 33 28
Avg. 251 302 329 336 326 364 318 301 303
Night

Std. Dev. 15 16 27 49 49 25 30 22 16
Day/Night
0.61 0.62 0.54 0.49 0.63 0.60 0.61 0.63 0.75
Ratio
1 ksi = 6.9 MPa
FIGURE 8 Pavement modulus.

Load Transfer and Corner Deflection

FIGURE 9 summarizes the day-time load transfer as well as center, edge, and corner deflections. Joint
load transfer measurements were made along the outside wheel path joint. It should be noted that
concrete temperatures measured during testing never dropped below 78⁰ F (26⁰C). The high joint edge
load transfer efficiency (LTE) could be a result of the slabs locking up due to seasonal expansion and is
not likely to be representative of the load transfer performance during the lifetime of the pavement.
Moderate joint spalling was observed in sections 1 and 2 and moderate to severe joint spalling was found
in the control section. Joint spalling may be an indication of excessive horizontal slab movement and/or
infiltration of joint reservoirs with debris. The control section was constructed with 20 foot (6 m) long
slabs which may have also promoted spalling and transverse cracking due to excessive stress from
thermal expansion of the slab. FDOT currently specifies a joint spacing of no greater than 15 feet (4.5 m)
long (13).
Deflection measurements were also made on the outside slab corners. Excessive deflections and
pumping in the control section suggest a loss of support. Slightly higher deflections and pumping were
also measured for section 2. It is interesting to note that these sections included a cement treated subbase.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
14

Deflection and LTE Summary

Experimental
Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B
Section
Center Day 4.8 3.9 4.1 4.5 3.6 3.3 3.8 4.0 3.3
Def., mils Night 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.3 2.4 2.4
Joint Day 4.2 3.5 3.4 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.6 3.6 3.8
Edge
Def., mils Night 4.7 4.0 4.1 3.5 3.6 4.1 4.0 3.5 4.8
Corner Day 5.5 5.1 5.2 4.1 3.8 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.1
Def., mils Night 17.2 10.9 9.9 9.3 11.3 11.2 12.0 10.9 9.9
Edge Day 89 89 90 90 91 91 93 93 92
LTE, % Night 85 87 87 86 88 87 86 87 88
1 mil = 0.0254 mm
FIGURE 9 Summary of load transfer and deflection parameters.

Joint Faulting

Excessive faulting of joints and cracks is a common trigger for many rehabilitation strategies. Florida has
adopted a fault depth of 0.10 inches (2.5 mm) as a trigger for grinding and other maintenance strategies
(13, 14). In general, four conditions must be present for faulting to take place. These conditions include
(13):

1. Poor load transfer of joints and cracks

2. Erodible subbase material
3. Available free water at the slab/subbase interface
4. Traffic

Faulting measurements for 1986, 1996, and 2007 are shown in FIGURE 10. In general, the
faulting rates for sections constructed with the cement treated subbase were found to be greater than that
of the sections with the granular subbase. The greater faulting measurements and corner deflections
suggest, as well as evidence of pumping indicate the cement treated subbase is more erodible than the
granular subbase.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
15

0.20

0.16

Average Fault, inch

0.12

0.08

0.04

0.00
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Cumulative Truck Traffic (x 1000)

Control (Cement Treated) Section 1 (Granular)
Section 2 (Cement Treated) Section 3 (Granular)

Average Fault Depths, inch

Year Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B
1986 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.04
1996 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.06
2007 0.18 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.18 0.04 0.07
1 inch = 25.4 mm
FIGURE 10 Fault depths.

Pavement Smoothness

The smoothness has been evaluated almost every year since construction, and reported in terms of Ride
Number (RN) and International Roughness Index (IRI). The RN is a profile index that rates the
rideability of a road using a 0 to 5 scale that corresponds to a user’s perception of pavement roughness
(14). A RN of 5.0 represents a perfect ride quality while an RN of 0 corresponds to a virtually impassable
surface. In general, the RN has remained above 4.0 for approximately 25 years for all sections except for
sections 1A, 2C, and the control whose RN remained above 4.0 for 15 years. After 30 years, the RN for
section 2C and the control have begun to deteriorate at a faster rate and have just slipped below 3.
The International Roughness Index is a common index that is a function of qualities related to
pavement surface roughness that impact vehicle response (14, 15). A typical IRI value published by the
FHWA to trigger rehabilitation or preservation strategies for a low volume roadway such as SR45 is 89
inch/mile (1400 mm/km) (16). Many of these sections have just recently exceeded this threshold. Only
the control and section 2C were approaching Florida’s terminal IRI of 180 inch/mile (2,840 mm/km) as
per the 2007 survey IRI results shown in FIGURE 11.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
16

200
180
160
140
IRI, inch/mile 120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B

Experimental Section

Traffic Passing Preservation Trigger Terminal IRI

2007 Roughness Summary

Index Lane Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B
Traffic 2.8 3.4 3.4 3.8 3.4 3.5 2.9 3.7 3.6
RN
Passing 3.3 3.6 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.8
IRI, Traffic 172 126 116 81 119 113 166 104 112
in/mile Passing 132 105 93 71 87 89 111 89 99
1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 mile = 1.61 km
FIGURE 11 2007 Roughness summary.

Pavement Cracking

A crack evaluation was performed in 2007 to determine the type and number of cracks. TABLE 5 shows
the result of this survey for the traffic lane. Longitudinal cracking was the most predominant crack type
and was observed primarily in the control section and section 2. Longitudinal cracks were observed in the
wheel paths, along the center of the slab, and near the longitudinal joint. A photograph of longitudinal
cracking observed in section 2 is shown in FIGURE 12. Literature indicates that cement-treated
subbases may promote uncontrolled cracking due to high friction, rigidity, and in some cases, bonding
between the concrete slab and subbase (17, 18). In addition, the compressive strength of the cement-
treated subbase was 880 psi (6 MPa) at the time of construction. The ACPA recommends a compressive
strength of 300 psi (2 MPa) to 800 psi (5.5 MPa) to limit the stiffness and minimize curling and warping
stresses (19). Florida no longer recommends the use of cement stabilized courses below concrete
pavements due to their rigidity, lack of permeability, and the difficulty in achieving non-erodible
properties (13).

TABLE 5 2007 Crack Summary

Percentage of Cracks
Crack Type Control 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B
Corner 6 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Transverse 12 0 1 1 0 0 5 0 3
Longitudinal 17 0 0 1 19 1 45 0 0
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
17

FIGURE 12 Longitudinal cracking in section 2.

Laboratory Data

More than 40 cores were collected in 2007 to verify the long-term structural properties of the PCC and
econocrete. TABLE 6 summarizes the laboratory properties. In general, the properties of the PCC and
econocrete A mixture have experienced little long term change while the econocrete B and C mixes have
increased in strength and now approach those of the A mixture. It should be noted that, in general, there
were less samples tested and more variability in the 2007 test data than the samples measured during
construction. The modulus and strength values for the PCC remain more than double the econocrete.
The considerable bond strength is evidence that the two-layer system is still acting as a monolithic
structure. The slight difference in the PCC and econocrete coefficient of thermal expansion (COTE) (less
than 5 percent) minimized the thermal stress on the bond. Thermal curling and loading stresses would
have been greater and may potentially lead to more cracking had the bond degraded. FIGURE 13 shows
photographs of cores taken from the control sections and section 3. The photographed core numbers
represent a previous numbering system.
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
18

TABLE 6 PCC and Econocrete Laboratory Properties After 30 years of Service

PCC Econocrete Mix A Econocrete Mix B Econocrete Mix C
Laboratory
Test Std Test Std Test Std Test Std
Test n n n n
Value Dev Value Dev Value Dev Value Dev
Compressive
5,653 732 12 2,255 810 4 1,843 294 6 1,763 342 4
Strength, psi
Split Tensile
420 64 24 260 32 8 247 23 9 226 34 5
Strength, psi
Modulus of
Elasticity, 4,724 815 31 1,789 247 11 1,897 177 13 1,946 34 7
ksi
Bonded
Interface
NA NA NA 432 75 3 614 72 4 465 92 2
Shear
Strength, psi
COTE, 5.25E- 2.45E- 5.36E- 2.61E- 5.45E- 2.86E- 5.04E- 3.55
4 12 13 7
in/in/⁰F 06 07 06 07 06 07 06 E-07
n = number of samples 1 psi = 6.89 kPa
Modulus of elasticity (ASTM C469) 1 inch = 2.54 cm
Compressive strength (ASTM C39) Temp, ⁰F = 9/5(Temp, ⁰C) + 32
Split tensile strength (ASTM C496)
Bonded interface shear strength (AASHTO T323)
Coefficient of thermal expansion (AASHTO TP60)

FIGURE 13 Photographs of control and section 3 cores.

CONCLUSIONS

Several sections of a 30 year old experimental two-layer concrete pavement in Florida are still in service
today with minimal maintenance. More than 5.1 million trucks (6.2 million 18 kip ESALs) have utilized
this route since the construction was completed. The better performing two-layer concrete pavement
section (section 3) included 20 foot (6 m) long slabs, 90⁰ joints, dowels, and a granular subbase. The
other section constructed with the same subbase (section 1) and 15 foot (4.5 m) long slabs and skewed
Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
19

joints experienced slightly greater corner deflections and faulting. The distress levels of these sections are
still minimal and are just approaching the level at which good performance can be maintained with a well
planned preservation strategy. Preservation strategies that could be utilized include diamond grinding,
cleaning and sealing joints and cracks, and perhaps load transfer restoration. A more specific evaluation
may be necessary to select the right preservation strategy. Section 2 and the control section constructed
with a cement-treated subbase experienced greater faulting and excessive longitudinal cracking. Pumping
and greater corner deflections were also observed in the control section. The control section, constructed
with 20-foot (6 m) long slabs, experienced greater transverse cracking and moderate to severe spalling.
These observations reinforce Florida’s current recommendation against using cement treated subbases for
concrete pavements and limiting joint spacing to 15 feet (4.5 m). A more extensive rehabilitation strategy
will be required to extend the life of these sections. No significant performance differences were noted
for subsections with differing econocrete strength.
This project has demonstrated that a two-layer concrete system consisting of a lower quality
econocrete layer and higher quality PCC surface is a feasible sustainable pavement alternative with long-
lasting service life.

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Greene, Nazef, and Choubane
20

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