Construction

and
Maintenance
of 
High Speed Railway

October 2015

INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

PUNE - 411 001
Published by :
Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering,
Pune - 411 001

© Copyright reserved with IRICEN, Pune

First Edition : December 2008

Second Edition : October 2015

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 PREFACE (Second Edition)
High Speed Rail is the most anticipated Railway Project in
the country apart from dedicated freight corridor. Population of
India is only a shade lower than china. The population density is
ideally suited for high speed rail. High speed rail will bring speedy
travel as well as large augmentation in line capacity for passenger
transport.
Since the publication of first edition of this book the
scenario of High Speed Railways in the world has undergone shift.
In last 7-8 years China has commissioned close to 19,000 kms of
high speed rail network which is now more than the combined
lengths of high speed network of rest of the world. Lot of action is
going around in India also leading to definitive steps in starting the
work on High Speed Corridor.
The second edition of this book has incorporated updated
information of various high speed networks in the world with
updated and latest photos. The name of book has also been
changed to reflect the change from vision to action.
A new chapter no. 13 has been added compiling current
scenario in High Speed Rail sector in India. Various Budget
speeches of the year have been referenced which capture the
wishes and desire of people of India. The prefeasibility study
report on Pune-Mumbai-Ahmedabad HSR corridor has been
submitted by consultants in April 2010. Extract of the report has
been included in the chapter for appreciation of readers including
projected cost. Updated happening under HSRC (PSU entrusted
with development and implementation of High Speed Rail
Projects in India) has been incorporated in the book.
The book will be of immense use for Railway Engineers
who are yet to see work and or travel on High Speed Rail and will
be able to update their knowledge.

9th October 2015 Vishwesh Chaubey

Director,
Indian Railways Institute of Civil Engineering,
PUNE, INDIA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (Second Edition)
Since publication of first edition of this book lot of events
have taken place. High speed Rail project has moved on from
being a fancy project pursued by Indian Railways to the most
sought after project persued by whole country. MOUs have been
signed with other countries at Government level and studies on
various routes has started.
In this scenario the second edition of the book is being
published. To capture the mood the name of book has been
changed from 'Vision Of High Speed Rail Corridors in India' to a
more action oriented 'Construction and Maintenance of High
Speed Railway'.
Since inception of Human travel speed and travel time has
been the most prominent feature. Readers may be surprised to
note that only in 1804 i.e 210 years ago Trains travelling at 4 kmph
were making world record. Today we are looking at 350 kmph
travel. Very interesting information on evolution of speed on
Railways, Highways and air has been presented in Ch 2 (from
UIC).
Elsewhere all chapters have been reviewed and updated
duly elimination typo errors (if any). A new chapter no. 13 has been
added for presenting the current happenings on the subject in
India. Useful information from Pre Feasibility Study report of Pune
– Mumbai – Ahmedabad High Speed Route has been compiled.
Salient features of recommendations of the report has been
included in the chapter.
We would like to acknowledge sincere gratitude to Sh
Vishwesh Chaubey, Director, IRICEN, Pune for regular guidance
and direction.
Valuable suggestions from the readers are welcome for
further improvement in the next edition. (mail at
[email protected])

Anil Kumar Patel N C Sharda

IRSE IRSE
Professor/Track-1 Dean
IRICEN, Pune IRICEN, PUNE
 PREFACE (First Edition)
High Speed Rails are attracting attention, for almost half a
century, throughout the world especially in the economically
advanced nations. Japan was the first to have started the
'Shinkansen' and the Bullet trains in 1963 followed by other Countries
v.i.z. France, Germany, Italy etc. The high speed Rail has been
generally considered to be competing with air journey and an attempt
by the Private Railways of the countries to retain rider ship which
otherwise prefer to travel by air or cars. The last but a formidable
country joining the elite club has been China, probably for different
reasons. The passengers in India traditionally, had been largely
traveling by trains for short as well as long distances, thanks to
monopoly of Government operated airlines with very high fares and
poor road and vehicle conditions. With improvement of roads, latest
technology cars/ buses and private airlines entering the transport
scene in last few years the traditional assumptions are bound to get
upset. Some private airlines are openly claiming that they are
competing with upper class railway travel, as far as fares are
considered. This appears to be paying dividends also to the airline
sector which is seeing a growth of about 30% annually for last few
years. Simultaneously the rapid growth in Economy has not only
increased the need to travel more frequently but also increased the
paying capacity of the travelers. These factors qualitatively,
strengthen the case for High Speed trains in our country, also.
High Speed Rail is completely a new field for Indian
Railway Engineers and requires understanding and adopting
much different specifications and standards rather a completely
new technology for construction and maintenance. This book is
primarily a study of the available literature and information
available on the high speed railway systems in the world, the
technology adopted by them, and identifying the appropriate
parameters, adoptable for high speed corridors in India. The
experience of High speed Rail on the existing systems is with
standard gauge, so are the guidelines issued by UIC
(International Union of Railway Sector) for High speed Rail,
whereas the National Gauge of India is Broad gauge. Effort has
been made to consider this difference and suggest parameters
suitable for adoption, for Indian Railways.
 The history and the development of high speed rails in the
world, chronologically is covered in chapters 1 to 4. The experience of
other Nations can tell us a lot and the pitfalls to avoid. The focus of the
book however, is on track, formation, tunnels and Bridges. Chapters
6, 7, 8 and 9 give detailed coverage along with analysis and attempts
to answer the questions as to what, why and how? This will be of great
interest to all Railway Engineers in regard to the issues involved in
High Speed Rails and will also give the direction for taking up further
study and research for finalizing the parameters for construction and
maintenance. Salient aspects of electrical overhead Traction and
signaling have been introduced in Chapter 10, which will give the
needed preliminary information to the reader. Chapter 11 deals with
the rolling stock including tilting coaches and Operation of High
Speed corridors.
Indian Railway had appointed, RITES Limited for
'Feasibility Study for introduction of High Speed railway from
Ahmedabad to Mumbai' in 2003-04. Relevant information from the
report including financial appraisal, has also been covered in
Chapter 5. This is though 5 years old and several changes in the
scene have taken place but is an useful document and will be of
interest to planners and Engineers alike. Chapter 12 deals with
the required parameters for maintenance for track as well as OHE
equipment. This is very important in as much as the design of
infrastructure has to be such that it is maintainable and safe for
operations and has to be kept in mind while assigning parameters
for any and every element of the system.
Overall the book presents information on all the aspects
involved in construction and maintenance of High speed
Railways, and fills the gap of non-availability of a single source for
information on Technology of High Speed Rail Corridors. A large
amount of facts and figures from all over the world, colourful
pictures taken from the Public domain material will surely make
this book worth reading for every Railway Engineer.

A.K.GOEL
Director, Indian Railway Institute of Civil Engineering
PUNE, INDIA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (FIRST EDITION)
The subject of “High Speed” is gaining lot of importance in
the recent past. In addition to Europe and Japan, several Asian
countries including our neighbor China has started high speed
operation and is having several projects on the anvil.
In India, thought has started as back as in 1988 but without
any headway. However in recent times, thought has again been
revived.
After realizing the benefit of Uni-gauge policy in India, it will
be needless to mention that high speed corridors should be built
with Broad Gauge only.
Keeping this aspect in mind, I realized the difficulty of finding
the technical information on the subject, as there is neither such
experience available in our country nor in any part of the world.
High speed corridors, historically has started with 1064mm gauge
in Japan and spread worldwide with 1435 mm standard gauge.
Almost all the high speed corridor in the world are with standard
gauge only.
The inspiration for writing this book on “Vision of High Speed
Rail Corridors in India” has come from Shri A.K. Goel, Director,
IRICEN, Pune.
The subject has demanded lot of time for digging out
information by referring to various books in IRICEN Library,
several high speed related web sites, international presentations,
technical information made available by U.I.C., international
codes and manuals, monthly and quarterly journals on high speed
and RITES reports on feasibility of Mumbai-Ahmedabad high
speed corridor.
It was too difficult to get useful technical information, as most of
the world railway sites, journals, magazines, etc. provides
predominantly commercial and operating information. Despite all
the odds the useful information not only have been collected,
edited and transformed, but also converted for Broad Gauge
corridor, as available information were only for standard gauge.

After gathering large amount of information, difficulty was

felt to make it concise and brief which could finally be achieved.

The effort has been to investigate what track standards

could be allowed in order to achieve high speed performance with
use of latest known train technology in the world.

I sincerely acknowledge my gratitude for the time to time

guidance, support and inspiration, extended by Shri A.K. Goel,
Director, IRICEN.

I am thankful to my wife and children for giving support and

allowing me to spend more time for making this book more
concise, informative and useful.

I further thank to the concerned staff of IRICEN associated

with typing and editing work and also to the staff of IRICEN's
Computer Section for their computer related assistance.

This book is expected to be quite helpful in giving an overall

idea about how to proceed in the direction of construction of “High
Speed Rail Corridors' in India.

Valuable suggestions from the readers are welcome for

further improvement in the next edition.

Rajesh Kumar Jaiswal

IRSE
Senior Professor Track - I
Indian Railway Institute of Civil Engineering
PUNE, INDIA
 Contents
Chapter Subjects Page No.

1. Introduction 1-12
1.1. Objective
1.2 Preliminary remark
1.3 Role of UIC
1.4 High Speed Railway Components
1.5 Performance support for High Speed
1.6 High Speed Advantages for Society
1.7 Limitations of High Speed
1.8. High Speed Trains Versus Aeroplanes
2. Historical Milestone 13-22
2.1. Historical of Evolution of speed
2.2 Chronological sequence of event in Japan
2.3 Chronological sequence of event in Germany
2.4 Chronological sequence of event in France
2.5 Chronological sequence of event in Italy
2.6 Chronological sequence of event in Korea
2.7 Chronological sequence of event in
Other Country
3. Future of High Speed Rail 25-27
And World Scenario
3.1. High Speed lines in operation at
250 km/h or more
3.2 New High Speed lines under construction
3.3 High Speed route Km in the world
3.4 Improving the High Speed
4. General Definition of High Speed 28-32
4.1 Definition
4.2 The high speed definition of U.I.C.
4.3 Compatibility of infrastructure and
rolling stock
4.4 Types of High Speed Systems
4.5 Selection of High Speed System
4.6 Why a passenger corridor in India ?
Chapter Subjects Page No.

5. High Speed Scenario in India 33-42

and Cost Appraisal
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Need for High Speed Rail Corridors
5.3 The Challenge for the transportation
sector in India
5.4 Cost of constructing
New High Speed Corridor
5.5 Feasibility study of Mumbai -
Ahmedabad high speed corridor
5.6 Construction and rolling stock cost
5.7 Maintenance and Replacement costs
5.8 Financial Appraisal of Ahmedabad-
Mumbai High Speed Corridor
5.9 Financial Internal Rate of Return
5.10 Sensitivity Analysis
5.11 Conclusion
6. Track Geometry for High Speed
Railways 43-66
6.1. Introduction
6.2 Design track geometry
6.3 Track gauge
6.4 Track cant
6.5 Cant deficiency and cant exess
6.6 Cant deficiency
6.7 Cant Excess
6.8 Rate of Cant and rate of cant deficiency
6.9 Transition curve and super elevation ramp.
6.10 Horizontal curve
6.11 Gradient
6.12 Vertical Curve radius
6.13 Track geometry comparison in tunnels
6.14 Recommendation of RITES for Mumbai-
Ahmedabad high speed corridor
6.15 Track Geometry parameters which may
be considered for Indian High Speed
Corridor
Chapter Subjects Page No.

7. Characteristics of the Transverse section 67-98

and the infrastructure
7.1 Formation width
7.2 Distance between track central lines
7.3 Tunnels
7.4 Safety of maintenance staff
7.5 Bridges
7.6 Environment
7.7 Level crossing / grade separation
7.8 Fencing
8. Parameters relating to track components 99 -114
8.1. Rails
8.2 Sleepers
8.3 Rail Pads, Fastening Systems and
stiffness of the track
8.4 Turnouts for the High Speed
9. Laying the Track 115-138
9.1. The track formation
9.2 Sub-grade
9.3 Sub ballast or protective layers
9.4 Insertion of geotextiles
9.5 Ballast
9.6 Ballast less/Slab track
10. Electrification, Signalling, 139-158
Telecommunications & Other
Line Equipment
10.1 Signalling & telecommunication
10.2 Signalling System on various high
speed world railways
10.3 Electrification
11. Rolling Stock & Operating Conditions 159-178
11.1 Review of High Speed R olling Stock
11.2 Operating Conditions
11.3 Train dimension and seating capacity
11.4 Meteorological conditions
11.5 Disaster Protection
Chapter Subjects Page No.

12. Track Maintenance 179-201

12.1 Life cycle of the Track components
12.2 Theoretical wave length criteria
12.3 Standard values of track tolerances for
maintenance and danger limits for high
Speed on standard gauge
12.4 Accuracy of acceptance
12.5 Existing Track Tolerance in IR
12.6 Proposed track tolerances for High
Speed route corridor
12.7 Ballast Cleaning
12.8 Considerations on the track quality
12.9 Track Geometry Measurement through
transfer function for high speed track
12.10 High Speed Recording car
12.11 Measured parameters and marginal
conditions
12.12 Measurement of the overhead line
12.13 Measurement of the track surroundings
and track inspection
12.14 Multifunctional recording car UFM 160
12.15 Small devices for track geometry
measurement
12.16 Surveyed track- measurement and
calculation of the track correction values
12.17 Automatic guiding computer WINALC
for tamping machines
13. Current scenario of high speed rail in India 202-209
13.1 High Speed Planning in India
13.2 Budget Speech
13.3 High Speed Rail Corporation of India (HSRC)


 Chapter - 1
Introduction

1.1 Objective:
Concept of High Speed train has started developing throughout the
world after the world war-II. Japan has taken a lead in this field followed by
several European Countries viz France, Germany, Sweden etc.
The importance and advantages of High Speed train has been understood
globally viz a viz areoplane and road transport.
During last 50 years enormous advancement has taken place in this field.
Several historical milestones have been achieved by various countries.
However India is lagging behind in this field. The vast size of the country,
population and economic growth strengthen the justification for High
Speed train in our country.
A thought for High Speed Corridors in our country has started in the
year 1987 but without any desirable progress.
However recently Indian Railways has taken definitive steps to identify
potential corridors and has commissioned reputed agencies for feasibility
studies which are underway. “High Speed Corridor” is completely a new
field for railway engineers and practical experience is not available in this
field in India.
Most of the countries of the world having major Railway transport
system are having all the four system i.e. running of convention
mail/express train, freight train, suburban system and also the High Speed
Corridors. It is only India, where though one of the largest railway network
system is existing, but without High Speed Corridor. In the recent part
Asian countries like China, Korea etc have also gone for High Speed
Corridor in a big way leaving India for behind. It is high time now to think
and proceed in this direction so as to enable to keep pace with other
countries.

1
1.2 Preliminary remark :
The high-speed train is a means of transport between cities of
commercial and administrative importance. With 8-9% economic growth
of the country, the transport needs are increasing day by day, specially
between centre of production, trade and commerce. The development of
the networks of high speed must be based on effective modes of financing,
associating all the factors that profit from this type of transport.
The construction of new high speed railway lines is currently being
undertaken in a large number of countries, in particular on the continent of
Europe, Japan and china.
The development of these new lines has been done over a period of
more than fifty years, between the middle of the 1950s and the current
decade. During this period the design criteria have been modified as
experience has been gained with the different aspects of high speed
running.
From the point of view of commercial operation, the experience
available is in the range from 250 to 320 km/h. However, recently lines have
been opened for speeds of 360km/h in a few countries.
1.3 Role of UIC:
UIC, normally brings all its support to its members wishing to develop
high speed, in particular through its activities in the field of the technical
harmonization and interworking, but also by facilitating the exchanges on
the aspects operational, commercial, economic and financial.
The remit of the UIC High Speed group is to coordinate the
activities of the different countries in the field of high speed and thereby
play a part in helping create a true high speed network and promoting high
speed worldwide.
1.4 High Speed Railway Components:
High Speed Railway is a complex system, comprised by state of the art
of all the following components:
 Infrastructure
 Rolling Stock
 Operation rules
 Signalling systems

2
  Marketing
 Maintenance systems
 Financing
 Management
 Legal aspects
1.5 Performance support for High Speed :
The performance which supports high speed for customers are
 Commercial speed, travel with a high level of speed
 Total time of travel, a short travel time from door to door
 Frequency, a high level of available transports
 Reliability, a reliable system of transport, which works independent
in nearly each case of weather
 Accessibility, you can enter a train spontaneous without long check
in times, which supports high level of flexibility
 Price, one does not pay more than, any comparable means of
travel.
 Comfort, there is a higher level of comfort (in terms of space,
accelerations, noise, light, etc.) than in the plane, bus, or a average
car
 Safety, High speed trains are the safest transport medium.
 “Freedom”, during trip, one can go everywhere and every time one
wants, else in the restaurant, to the lavatory, or only for
promenade, seatbelts are not necessary, electronic devices aren't
limited, etc.
1.6 High Speed Advantages for Society:
1.6.1 Social Benefits (Economic externalities):
Externalities are in economic terms costs or benefits which are not
covered by market forces. For example, if you drive to your place of work,
you are producing harmful emissions and adding to congestion which other
people are forced to consume. Left up to a free market economy situation
these costs would never be compensated for, an example of market failure.
The government is left to step in and indeed majority of the price of petrol

3
is tax, to make people pay for the cost of causing emissions and
congestion. This is similar across most of the countries.
1.6.2 Reduced CO2 Emission:
The USA has the highest CO2 emission rates in the whole world. Why
what is crucial different between the USA and Europe/Japan? Is there more
industry in the USA well even if there is it wouldn't account for all the extra
CO2? Perhaps the rate of car ownership is slightly higher in the USA. Well
even that isn't significant. People must use their cars very much more in the
USA accounting for the extra emissions. But why there is one crucial
difference the USA has very little by the way of railways, both high speed
and local. It would seem reasonable to conclude that the more trains you
have, the lower your countries CO2 emissions. Admittedly it's a bit
simplistic but if definitely does seem to be related.
All countries of the world are targeting to curb green house-gas
emissions caused by the transport sector. While in the other sectors, CO2
emission has been stabilizing or even decreasing over the last 15 years.
CO2 emissions caused by transport sector is increasing by 2% per annum.
Overall 20% reduction target by 2020 can only be achieved if transport
sector can be organized in a less polluting way.
1.6.3 Respect for the environment:
Train system gave very efficient use of land. For same amount of
traffic, road may normally need 3 times land as compared to trains.
1.6.4 Economic development:
It helps economic development. High speed rail promotes logical
territory structure and helps contain urban sprawl.
1.6.5 Huge Capacity:
High speed railways have by far the highest capacity per unit land they
use. A high speed rail needs just a double track railway, one rail for trains in
each direction. These have a capacity for 16 trains per hour, each train with
a capacity of 800 passengers. This means a high speed rail has a maximum
capacity of 12,800 passengers per hour and more than 3,00,000
passengers per day, which clearly is enough to satisfy the highest of
demand, only one railway line is needed. This is unlike motorways which
take up a very large amount of space and often cannot satisfy demand fully
at peak times.

4
1.6.6 Reduced Traffic Congestion:
Imagine you have two cities about 500km apart, by car the journey
time will be about 10 hours. The motorways will be jammed full. If you can
provide new rail service of 300km/h between two cities the Journey time by
rail will be about 2 hours. Provided the rail service is well priced, very few
people are likely to drive any more between the cities, causing a massive
decrease in traffic. Of course with a decrease in traffic pollution decreases
too.
1.6.7 Energy Efficiency:
The train offers per passenger energy efficiency that no other form of
transport can achieve. The reason is because steel wheels on steel rails,
because they are hard smooth surfaces, provide very little friction. Also
because the wheels are held by steel ball bearings friction too is very low
even at high speed. Air resistance of a train is not really a problem because
it is thin and long. On the other hand aircraft must burn huge amount of fuel
to even move at all, and in flight the engines have to continue to burn just to
keep the plane in the sky. Once a train is moving even if the engines are
switched off the trains does not even decelerate noticeably even at very
high speeds. Cars as everyone knows are by far the least efficient form of
transport. Journey by plane consumes 9 times and journey by car
consumes 4 times energy as compared to journey by train.
1.6.8 Efficient Land Use:
A three lane motorway will have a capacity of 2 x 7650 passengers per
hour compared to 2 x 8000 passengers per hour for a double track high
speed railway. However, the land width required for a double track will be
only 25 m compared to 75 m for a comparative motorway.
1.6.9 Reduced Pollution:
Because of their efficiency, the pollution that a train makes is very low,
and if the electricity being used for the train is generated by a green source
then there may well be no pollution at all as a result of running the train.
Reduced traffic also reduces pollution, no more cars pumping out gases in
huge amounts, and of course compared to aeroplanes which need to burn
fuel at an astonishing rate just to get thrust. In fact, it has been calculated
that a Eurostar train with a capacity of 800 causes pollution level through
power stations about equivalent to 20 cars. Now most cars carry one
person.

5
1.6.10 Speed:
300km/h is very fast. Imagine the 100 metres running race. Now
imagine doing that in just one second. That is the speed at which these
trains fly along. No time is wasted in getting people to their destinations.
There is no worry about waiting in traffic, or having a long stressful drive.
Also it means that flying can be avoided, which is particularly welcome for
the more ecological people (or people who don't like flying).
1.6.11 Convenience :
While airports are often out of town and hard to access, railway
stations are usually located in the heart of the city. Also with some services
you can just buy a ticket and get straight on the train. Aircraft have
drawbacks such as long check-in times and constant moving around.
1.6.12 Safety :
What is perhaps not known about is that high speed trains are in fact
the safest form of transport. High speed trains are perhaps surprisingly
safer than normal trains. Most use very advanced computer signaling
systems meaning risk of collision is very low, and apart from that there is
not a lot that can go wrong. It is a myth that at high speed trains just fly off
the tracks. They don't, France had tested trains going at 574.8 km/h in the
year 2007, which shows that dangerous, experimental speeds are a long
way off commercial everyday speeds.
1.6.13 Comfort:
With the possible exception of cruise ships, trains are the most
comfortable form of transport. Even at these very high speeds the train
remains about as smooth as an aircraft, and of course very much quieter.
Also there are no limitations, the seats are not cramp like in an aircraft, and
unlike in a car you can get up, walk around, or buy a snack from the buffet
car or have a proper meal in the restaurant car.
1.7 Limitations of High Speed :
1.7.1 Social Drawback (Externalities):
It is only suitable for densely populated areas. Thus medium and
small size towns do not get the benefit of fast connectivity. However,
Japan's Bullet train timetable shows that there are slower services stopping
at smaller stations and there are nonstop services.

6
1.7.2 Economic Drawbacks:
The primary objection is always the cost. High speed railways are very
expensive.
1.7.3 Is high speed rail the most cost-effective way to gain lower
pollution?
High initial costs often mean public money has to be used because the
private sector is usually unwilling to engage in such large projects. As a
result many would argue that the money used to build such rail systems
would be more effectively spent in other projects if the primary objectives
were to reduce traffic congestion / pollution.
1.7.4 Limitation of high speed rail :
High speed rail is only applicable to intercity services in high density
corridors. Having said that connecting trains /metro rail services can deliver
people door to door. This means something very important, in order to work
effectively high speed rail must be backed up by a decent urban/light rail
transit system.
1.7.5 Limitations of Geography :
High speed railway lines need to be as straight and level as possible.
Therefore, often the railways are carried over dips and hills in the
countryside by embankments, viaducts cuttings and tunnels. (Tunnels are
sometimes unsuitable due to wind turbulence problems). However these
greatly increase the cost of the railway, and of course if the landscape is
mountainous then it becomes very difficult to built straight and level.
Naturally railways cannot be built over water for long distances. So railways
across water are likely to remain very much a rarity.
1.7.6 Limiting speed :
High speed rail system can be of two types. Steel wheel running on
steel rail system and Maglev system running with electromagnetic system
by keeping rail wheel just above the rail. In the first system commercial
speed is normally limited to 360 kmph with an upper limit of 400 kmph.
Beyond which, it is likely to be uneconomical by giving due consideration to
the increased input required for maintenance of infrastructure and rolling
stock. On the other hand Maglev system can offer commercial speed
beyond 500 kmph but its exorbitant construction cost, huge energy
consumption and sound produced during operation make it economically
and environmentally prohibitive. That's why it is not becoming popular. In

7
other words, a maximum commercial speed of 400 kmph for steel to steel
contact high speed system is considered to be economically viable by most
of the leading countries of the world.
Presently only two Maglev lines are in commercial operation.
1. SMT high speed airport link in Shanghai for a length of 30
km, with journey time of 8 minutes and maximum
commercial speed of 430 kmph.
2. Low speed Limino line in Nagoya running since 2005.
3. Incheon Maglev will also be a medium to low speed line
with maximum speed of 110 kmph in Korea, second
country to adopt Low Speed Maglev train.
1.8. High Speed Trains Versus Aeroplanes :
1.8.1 Speed:
Modern Jet aircraft can travel at of about 1,000km/h. However, in
commercial use aircraft usually travel in the region of 500 km/h to 800
km/h. The speed at which it flies is calculated based on how much fuel it
will consume at the various speeds.
Trains however travel at a maximum of 360 km/h. This is considerably
less than the aircraft, only about one third of the speed. So how can they
still compete?
Aircraft have crucial disadvantages. Although once cruising up in the
air they may reach very high speeds, it takes a long time to arrange
everything.
1.8.2 What makes aircraft slow?
First of all Airport exist out of town. This is because they take up a
large amount of room, often several square kilometers as with major
airport. To get to the airport people face a journey, often in the region of 60
minutes. Train stations on the other hand usually exist in the centre of
cities, for historical reasons. Even if there is no room for a train station, it
can be built underground, so there would be no reason for a major station
not to be at the heart of the city. Hence journey time to and from stations is
considerably less than to airports.
Secondly there is bureaucracy. Airports require people to check in,
leaving baggage behind, and provide their tickets all the time. People are
usually requested by the airline to arrive early. There is no such thing in

8
trains, you just find out the platform and walk straight onto it. With aircraft
once you get to the other end you have to hang around and wait for the
baggage at the reclaim facility.
Thirdly there is boarding time. Trains have doors down the length of
them. The eurostar with an 800 capacity has 18 doors, that's 45
passengers per door. A Boeing 747 (capacity 400) has at best 3 doors.
(Front, middle rear), that is 133 passenger per door. Since the rear door is
often not used this goes up to 200 passengers per door. While it is possible
to board TGVs in 2 minutes (the general time spent at stations) it can take
as long as 15 minutes to board an aircraft because of the few entry/exit
points. (Note: Peak capacity stations have a platform both sides of the
train, effectively doubling the number of entry/exit points). Another thing
is that before the aircraft can leave the terminal everyone has to be sitting
with all their luggage put away (safety reasons). However, its perfectly
acceptable for a train to start leaving the station while everyone is still
standing up and stowing their bags.
The fourth reason is that aircraft cannot leave immediately. Once
everyone is on board and ready to go the aircraft still has to spend a long
time getting to the runway (taxing). And at busy airports they then have to
wait for clearance to take off, and queues of planes often build up, meaning
you have to wait for aircraft in front to take off. This is the same with
landing, aircraft spend a long time circling around the airport and then
there is the usual time taken to get to the gate. At busy airports sometimes
aircraft have to wait on the tarmac until a gate becomes free.
All of this means that in fact the door to door Journey time for distance
upto 400 km is faster by high speed train than it is for the aircraft. This
usually means bankruptcy for any airline serving to cities connected with
high speed rail.
1.8.3 Well, Why not compete on price?
If aircraft cannot compete with trains on journey time you might think
they could try price. This is very difficult. Aircraft are very expensive to
build and maintain, much more than trains. The most expensive train in the
world is the Eurostar at Rs 16 lacs a seat. Most aircraft by comparison are
Rs.80 lacs per seat! Trains do have costs such as paying for the railway lines
which are expensive, then again, so are airports, and airlines have to pay
airports a lot of money. (Landing charges). Also there is energy, aircraft
consume a hideous amount of fuel when compared to trains, which has to
be paid for. As a result operating costs for airlines two to three times higher

9
than for trains. Offering a cheap and cheerful service is not possible. In
India, aero planes are competing with present train fares of Air condition
second class.
1.8.4 Examples of Aircraft being displaced by trains:
The Paris to Lyon line is the famous example. France's two biggest
cities, about 450 km apart. This was the most obvious section for high
speed rail, and in 1981 the first TGV services on new high speed line
started. The journey time from Paris to Lyon reduced to only 2 hours. This
crippled the airlines, a 40% drop in air travel between the two cities
occurred.
Paris to Brussels high speed line has been completed in January 1998,
a distance of 340 km. By taking a Thalys between the two cities direct,
journey time is a staggering 1 hour 30 minutes! This has crippled air
services too.
Eurostar, London to Paris and Brussels also has stolen large
percentage of the market after construction of channel tunnel rail link by
reducing journey time from London to Paris to 2 hours 30 minutes. The
flight time is 45 minutes, although surveys find, point to point time using
airlines is 3 hours.
1.8.5 Supersonic Aircraft :
They have a top speed of 2316 km/h, roughly twice as fast as the
speed of sound. While technically these are marvelous machines,
commercially they are a complete failure. They are not allowed to travel at
supersonic speeds over land because of the sonic boom they create (they
will never compete with trains!) and use so much fuel and need so much
maintenance prices are very high.
1.8.6 The Environment:
So is it a good thing the aircraft are being replaced by fast trains? From
an environmental point of view it certainly. High speed train produces only
3.2mg of CO2 per passenger, whereas aircraft produces 225mg of CO2 per
passenger.
1.8.7 Energy Consumption:
Trains do have air resistance, but the faster you go the more air
resistance you face. As a result the faster you travel the more energy you
consume between two points since energy=force x distance. Now one
advantage of aircraft is they climb to where the air is thinner, so air

10
resistance is 40% less. But because they go 300% faster than trains, its not
a benefit. Also the design of aircraft makes them more prone to air
resistance. They rely on air resistance to stay in the air. Aircraft use a lot of
fuel to climb about 10km into the air.
The Jet engine is always going to be inefficient too, because it relies on
blasting burnet fuel out of the rear. This means that the vast majority of
energy goes speeding up the air. It does not divide 50/50 because kinetic
energy is a function of the square of velocity (double speed quadruple
energy). So most of the energy is used to make a huge hurricane with a
little left for the actual aircraft. Another reason why it is inefficient is
because it releases heat, so you get a hot hurricane! Not only that but
because there are so many moving parts there is a huge amount of noise.
In short, noise, heat, wind come out of the jet engine as wasted energy,
meaning only about 10% left goes into making the aircraft go.
1.8.8 Emissions:
Electric trains by definition don't produce emissions, although the
electricity has to be generated. Even if it is through oil powered stations as
opposed to cleaner electricity generation because energy efficiency is so
high. Assuming electricity is generated by oil powered stations, aircraft will
produce about 5 times more carbon dioxide than trains, plus producing
toxic nitrous oxides.
1.8.9 Noise:
High speed trains do produce noise, however not that much noise. A
high speed train passing at full speed (360km/h) is still slightly quitter than
a busy motorway. Aircraft are extremely noisy, this occurs because they
have to shoot air out of the back at beyond supersonic speeds. However,
this is only a problem for those living around an airport. Once at altitude
noise on the ground is not noticeable. A high speed railway is noise all
along. However air craft are flying at low altitudes for a considerable
distance around the airport itself, usually over cities. A high speed railway
only affects those near the railway, but more importantly 98% of the noise
from a high speed line can be cut out by building a sound barrier next to the
line.
1.8.10 Capacity:
The largest aircraft is the Boeing 747 series 400. Now this has a
capacity of 400 and if all the first class were replaced with standard this

11
could be increased to 500. The largest train is in Japan with a capacity of
1,400 passengers. Clearly even if every aircraft was this size and was taking
off and landing every 2 minutes it still couldn't match the capacity offered
by rail. New terminals and runways could be built, but this would increase
noise to residents of the city and increase congestion along airport-city
routes. A double decked E4 series shinkansen can carry 1634 passengers,
double than of an Airbus A 380 in all economy class.
1.8.11 Is this good for the consumer?
Well it finally means that we no longer have to rely on people's
environmental conscience to choose the train instead of the aircraft/car
because the high speed train will provide most of the benefits of competing
forms of travel, and more. It will also mean airlines tightening up
procedures to get people through airports faster and will encourage
airports to have better city links so high speed trains will means improved
quality of service for those still traveling by air.
For longer flights, where the aircraft gets to spend longer at its full
speed, the high speed train loses its edge and building a high speed railway
line for exclusive distances much more than 600km would be a mistake
seeing as such a long distance would be incredibly expensive, and air could
probably beat it for time, meaning profits would not be that good. Having
said that, if there were a major city half way down then it would be an
excellent idea since services could stop in the major city and go on. Even if
we do get 500km/h trains, it will not completely mean the end of aircraft
because trains cannot cross oceans obviously, although the channel tunnel
does indicate trains can cross small seas. It is likely as the high speed rail
grows in Europe, flying around will become a way of the past.



12
 Chapter - 2

Historical Milestones

2.1 Historical Evolution of Speed

Speed / travel time is an inseparable feature of human travel. There is
constant desire to reach early at destination and reduce travel time. Technology
has helped us to achieve faster speed of travel in every mode of transport.
The historical evolution of speed for each mode of transport is very well
captured in following graph (UIC).

13
The current speed limit on road in various countries is shown below (from UIC).

Thus it can be seen that the road speeds have stabilized in the range of 90
to 130 kmph across the globe. It will be interesting to see the evolution of speed
record in Railways since its inception.

YEAR SPEED TRACTION LOCOMOTIVE / TRAIN

(km/h)
1804 8 Steam Trevithick’s Locomotive
1825 24 Steam Stephenson’s Locomotive no. 1
1830 48 Steam Stephenson’s Rocket
1848 96.5 Steam Boston & Maine “Antelope”
1901 162 Electric Seimens & Halske Railcar
1903 206.7 Electric Seimens & Halske Railcar
1903 210.2 Electric AEG Railcar
1938 202.8 Steam A4#4468 “Mallard”
1955 326 Electric Alstom Electric Loco CC7107
1955 331 Electric Alstom Electric Loco BB9004
1981 371 Electric TGV-PSE 16
1981 380.4 Electric TGV-PSE 16
1988 387 Electric ICE-V BR-410-001
1988 406.9 Electric ICE-V BR-410-001
1988 408.4 Electric TGV-PSE 88
1990 515.3 Electric TGV-A (Atlantique) 325
2007 574.8 Electric TGV V150 (LGV Est) 4402

Thus Railways are still testing the limits of speed.

14
2.2 Introduction of High Speed Railways :
High speed railway has started from Japan and has spread through
out the world. A chronological sequence of important events in the field of
development of High Speed Railway in different countries of the world is
given in the following paras
2.3 Chronological sequence of events in JAPAN:-
1930 - The popular English name bullet train is a literal translation of
the Japanese term dangan ressha, a nickname given to the
project while it was initially being discussed. The name stuck
due to the Shinkansen locomotive’s resemblance to a bullet and
its high speed.
1940 - The “Shinkansen” name was first formally used for a
proposedstandard gauge passenger/freight line between
Tokyo andShimonoseki, using steam and electric locomotives
with a topspeed of 200 km/h.
1956 - Following the end of World War II, high speed rail
wasforgotten for several years. Passengers of
conventionalMain Line increased and by the mid-1950s, the
linewas operating at full capacity.
Japan began considering the options for reconstruction,
withhigh speed rail already very much part of the plans. 1956
sawthe first feasibility studies conducted for a new line
linkingTokyo to Osaka. It was decided to design the line for a
speed of250 km/h, setting a new record for that era and
representing aremarkable technological leap for a country
equipped with aconventional, 1064 mm gauge network on
which, up until then,trains had been worked at speeds of
around 80 km/h.
1958 - Japan Ministry of Railways decided to revisit the
Shinkansenproject. Government approval came, and
construction of the first segment of the Tokaido Shinkansen
between Tokyo and Osaka started in April 1959.
1963 - Shinkansen – Trail run at 256 km/h
1964 - The Shinkansen is a network of high-speed railway lines in
Japan operated by four Japan Railways Group companies.
Tokaido Shinkansen opened in 1964 running at 210 km/h, in
time for the Tokyo Olympics.

15
 Tôkaidô Shinkansen is the
world’s busiest high-speed
rail line and carries
375,000 passengers a day,
and has transported more
passengers (4.5 billion)
than all other high speed
lines in the world
combined. Though largely The first Japanese
a long-distance transport high speed train
system, the Shinkansen
also serves commuters who travel to work in metropolitan
areas from cities beyond the metropolitan areas.
1965 - Japan was the first country to build dedicated railway lines for
high speed travel. Because of the mountainous terrain, the
existing network consisted of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm)
Construction of the Sanyo Shinkansen between Shin-Osaka
and Okayama was authorized on September 9, 1965 and
commenced on March 16, 1967. Construction between
Okayama and Hakata commenced on February 10, 1970.
1972 - Shinkansen - Trial run at 286 km/h
The Shin-Osaka to Okayama segment opened on March 15,
1972; with an increase in maximum speed to 220 km/h.
1975 - Launch of revenue-earning services on the Sanyo Shinkansen
line between Okayama and Hakata.
1977 - Launch of revenue-earning services between Hakata and
Kokura in Japan.
1978 - HSST-01 - Trial run at 307.8 km/h(Auxiliary rocket propulsion)
1978 - HSST-02 – Trial run at 310 km/h
1979 - Shinkansen – Trial run at 319 km/h
1979 - 500R(unmanned)- Trail run at 504 km/h
1979 - ML- 500R(unmanned) – Trial run at 517 km/h
1982 - Launch of the Tohoku Shinkansen line between Omiya and
Morioka, followed by the Joetsu Shinkansen line between
Omiya and Niigata.
1985 - Launch of Tohoku Shinkansen services between Omiya and
Ueno.

16
1987 - MLU001 (manned) – Trial run at 400.8 km/h
1989 - 100 Series Shinkansen trains, introduced in 1989, boosted
maximum speed to 230 km/h
1992 - Shinkansen – Trial run at 350 km/h
1993 - Shinkansen - Trial run at 425 km/h Tokyo-Hakata Nozomi
services began on March 18, 1993, using 300 Series
Shinkansen equipment.
1994 - Japan celebrated the 30th anniversary of high speed rail with
close to 3 billion passengers carried and no fatalities.
1995 - A major earthquake hit the Kobe region, wrecking part of the
Sanyo Shinkansen line. Three months later, normal service
resumed on the route.
1996 - Shinkansen – Trial run at 446 km/h
1997 - MLX01 - Trial run at 550 km/h
1997 - In Japan, the new line between Akita and Morioka opened in
March, served by Komachi trains, followed in October by the
launch of the Nagano Shinkansen line and its Asama trains. A
new service was launched on the Joetsu Shinkansen line
between Tokyo and Takasaki/Yusawa. In December of the
same year, magnetic levitation tests began, with a world speed
record of 531 km/h set on the Yamanashi test line.
1997 - On March 22, 1997, the 500 Series Shinkansen entered service
on Nozomi services between Shin-Osaka and Hakata, at a
maximum speed of 300 km/h.
1999 - MLX01 – Trial run at 552
km/h
On 14 April, the Maglev beat
its own record by notching
up a speed of 552 km/h on
the Yamanashi test line.
2003 - MLX01 – Trial run at 581 km/h Japanese train MAGLEV

2007 - The N700 Series Shinkansen was launched on Nozomi

services on July 1, 2007, with a top speed of 300 km/h
(compared to 285 km/h for the 700 series).
Fastec 360 became operational at a commercial speed of 360
kmph with potential upto 400 kmph.

17
2014 - Japan celebrates 50 years of high speed rail service with zero
fatality and punctuality loss of less than one minute per train.
2.4 Chronological sequence of events in GERMANY:-
1965 - DB offered daily high speed services at 200 kmph between
Munich and Augsburg.
1974 - EET-01 - Trial run at 230 km/h
1975 - Comet – Trial run at 401.3 km/h
1985 - ICE – Trial run at 300 km/h
1988 - ICE – Trial run at 406 km/h
1988 - TR-06 – Trial run at 412.6 km/h
1989 - TR-07 – Trial run at 436 km/h 0
1991 - Germany launched the first ICE
trains on lines between
Hanover and Würzburg (327
km) and Mannheim and
Stuttgart (100 km), shaving
two hours off journey times and
taking the country into the high
speed rail era. ICE 1 the first German
1993 - TR-07 - Trial run at 450 km/h high speed train

1999 - ICE has become capable of commercial operation at 330 kmph.

2003 - ICE3
Transrapid – Trial run at 501 km/h
2.5 Chronological sequence of events in FRANCE:-
1967 - TGV – Trial run at 318 km/h (gas turbine type)
1974 - Aérotrain – Trial run at 430.2 km/h (high speed monorail train)
1976 - In response to the popularity of high speed rail in Japan, SNCF
had begun investigating options for France in 1966. In 1976,
the planned new 410 km line between Paris and Lyons was
declared to be of public interest.
1981 - TGV – Trial run at 380 km/h
Inauguration of the South-East TGV line in September by
French President François Mitterand, heralding a reduction in
journey times between Paris and Lyons from 4 to 2 hours. The

18
 line quickly proved to be a
success, with annual ridership
figures of 15 million, soon
rising to 20 million.
1986 - Launch of the Atlantic TGV line
spanning 280 km, with two
branches serving Paris-Tours
and Paris-Le Mans. All regions TGV Sud Est, the first
to the west of the country can French High Speed Train
now be served by high speed
train.
1989 - Launch of the Atlantic TGV line
spanning 280 km, with two
branches serving Paris-Tours
and Paris-Le Mans. All regions
to the west of the country can
now be served by high speed
train.
1990 - TGV – Trial run at 515.3 TGV Atlantique
km/h
1992 - France inaugurated its Rhône-Alps TGV line, by passing Lyons
1993 - for onward services to
Valence.Opening of 332 km
North Europe TGV Line,
bringing 1 hour journey
times between Paris and
Lille. The lines run onwards
into Belgium, laying
cornerstone for a veritable
Europe wide high speed
network. Thalys train which link
Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam,
and Cologne/Düsseldorf

19
2007 - TGV – Trial run at 574.8 km/h (Still not broken)

Current rail speed record run of 2007

2.6 Chronological sequence of events in ITALY:-
1970 - Start of construction work in Italy on the Rome-Florence
Direttissima (trunk line). The project took 20 years to complete,
with line sections opened progressively between 1976 and
1992. Journey times on the new line were slashed from three
hours to one.
1976 - The first section of the Rome-Florence Diretissima was opened
in Italy, with further stretched opening at intervals through until
1992.
1978 - Italy - Pendolino – Trial run at 250 km/h
1996 - Work got under way on the Bologna-Florence line in Italy. The
new route would cut across the Appenines and stretch for 79
km, 72 km of it in tunnels, making it the one of the world’s most
expensive lines. Two launch dates are scheduled: 2003 and
2007.
2006 - In 2006, two new high speed lines were inaugurated in Italy,
Rome - Naples and Torino - Novara. Also DB inaugurates the
new high speed line Ingolstadt-Nuremberg bringing 1 hour
journey times between Munich and Nuremberg.

20
2.7 Chronological sequence of events in KOREA :
1989 - Government decided to construct HSR between Seoul and
Pusan
1991 - Call for tenders TGV (Alstom),
Shinkasen (Mitsubishi), ICE
(Siemens)
1992 - Civil construction started
1993 - Selection of TGV technology
1994 - Core system contract for rolling
stock, electrification & signaling
between Eukorail & Korean
authorities
1996 - Problems in construction First High Speed
1999 - First run of the KTX train in Train in Korea
Korea
2000 - 12 train sets arrived in Korea. First run at 300 kmph
2004 - Commercial operation began on 1st April
2015 - A new line from Wonju to Gangneung is under construction to
serve the 2018 Winter Olympics in PYEONGCHANG.

2.8 Chronological sequence of events in OTHER COUNTRIES:

SPAIN
Spain launched its new Madrid-Seville line
and the 1st Eurailspeed World Congress on
High Speed Rail was held in Brussels.

2004 - In 2004, the “classic - new high

speed line between Hamburg and Berlin
was opened to the public admitting Swedish tilting
maximum speeds of 230 km/h. train X2000

21
SWEDEN
1998 - Since its population density did not
warrant major investment in new lines,
Sweden decided to upgrade existing lines
to accommodate speeds of around 200
km/h at a reasonable cost using tilt-body
technology. Journey times on the
Stockholm-Gothenburg line (455 km)
came down to three hours, with four hours Spanish AVE on the
for Stockholm-Malmö (610 km). line Madrid-Séville

CHINA
China has become the powerhouse of high speed rail in last decade. China
has the world’s longest HSR network with over 19,000 km of track in service
as of December 2014 which is more than the rest of the world’s high speed
rail tracks combined. China’s high speed rail system also includes the
world’s longest line, the 2,298 km (1,428 mi) Beijing–Guangzhou High-
Speed Railway. There are more than 16,000 km line further planned and
under construction.
2007 – China – Maglev train for 30 km length became operational at
maximum commercial speed of 430 kmph.
2008 – China – Beijing to Tianin 115 km opened for commercial
operation at 300 kmph on 01.08.08 just before Olympic Games
with potential upto 360 kmph.

TAIWAN
2007 – Taiwan – 345 km corridor opened for commercial operation at
300 kmph with potential upto 360 kmph.



22
 Chapter - 3
Future of High Speed Rail
and World Scenario

3.1 High speed lines in operation at 250 km/h or more:

The speed of construction of High Speed lines is increasing day by day and
several new countries are joining the high speed club. Length of high speed
rail routes and their speeds in various countries is given in the following
table.
(as on Dec 2014)

Total
Network Test run speed Average Speed Of
Length record Fastest Scheduled
Country In kms in kmph Train in kmph
Belgium 214 347 237
China 19369 394 313
France 2036 574 272
Germany 1334 406 226
Italy 923 368 178
Japan 2664 443 256
Netherlands 1200 336 140
South Korea 819 355 200
Spain 3100 404 236
Switzerland 79 280 140
Taiwan 336 315 245
Turkey 1420 303 140
United
Kingdom 1377 335 219
Total 34871

23
3.2 New high speed lines under construction:
Majority of High Speed Railway lines under construction are in China
France, Germany and Japan. In recent past USA and UK and India have
taken definitive steps to create high speed rail corridors. Thus in future
more corridors of high speed rail are expected from these countries apart
from China and Japan.
Following is the length of high speed line under construction in various
counties.

Country Length under Length under

Operation (km) construction (km)
Austria 292 210
Belgium 209 0
China 19369.8 16280
Denmark 5 60
France 2036 757
Germany 1334 428
Italy 923 125
Japan 2664 782
Netherlands 120 0
Poland 85 322
Russia 1496 0
South Korea 819 585
Spain 3100 1800
Switzerland 80 57
Taiwan 339 9
Turkey 1420 1506
UK 1377 0
USA 362 483

Thus a total of 23,400 km of high speed rail length is under

construction out of which 2/3rd is in China.
3.3 High speed route Km in the world
Since 1964, upto the end of 2014, total high speed kilometer is likely to
touch 35,000 kms mark. However, it is envisaged that till the end of the year
2025, high speed route kilometer is expected to increase upto total of
50,000 – 55,000 route kms. Majority of new lines are expected from China
which is annually adding 2000 kms on an average. The pattern of growth of
high speed route kms in the world is shown in the fig. 3.3.

24
 High Speed Route KM. in the World

40000

35000

30000

25000
KMs.
Route

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
2015
2018
2021
2024

Fig. 3.3: High speed route Km. in the world

It can be seen that this projection is now vitiated by the fast paced
construction done by China in last one decade and the progress envisaged
in 2024 has been exceeded in 2015.
3.4 Improving the High Speed:
3.4.1 Speed Potential:
For the here and now speeds are being pushed up to 360km/h in
different countries like Japan, France, Germany, China, Taiwan, Korea etc.
Despite the Speed Record by the French TGV of a whopping 574.8
km/h these speeds are not really viable commercially at the moment for a
number of reasons. First of all, all pantographs have to make contact with
an overhanging wire, when travelling at such speeds vibrations are
immense. Also the dynamic pressures experienced by the track are
overwhelming, and they would be worn out much faster, other than
changing the physical size of the rails there is not a lot that could be done.
Also there are a few other things, tracks and train wheels need to be
absolutely perfect in order to run at such speeds. Already lasers are used in
France to place sleepers millimeter by millimeter to ensure perfect
straightness. However, wheels must be perfectly round too, and that is
another problem. So going over 400 kmph commercially in the near future
seems unrealistic.
People are starting to say that the upper limit for conventional steel on
steel trains is 360 km/h.

25
 Many people see the future in Magnetic levitation (maglev) trains.
These are trains that float on a magnetic field, and are propelled by
electromagnets. This would no longer need physical contact anywhere, so
no wearing out would occur and there would be the capability of aircraft
speeds. However there are drawbacks, a lot of energy would be required to
float the train and one has to beg the question of why not just fly. The major
drawback of course is the lack of infrastructure.
There is also the energy problem with maglev, it would take a lot of
energy to float the trains and now that we are looking at having to conserve
energy it might be the case that they just would not be commercially viable.
Japan is the only country with plan for a commercial maglev service, for
about 500 km track, planned to be completed by 2025.
3.4.2 Do we want trains to go any faster?
The problem is that the faster trains go, the greater the resistive force
in terms of air resistance they face. Vast amounts of energy has to be used
to counteract this force which at speeds over 360km/h can amount to
several tons. To counter this force vast amounts of energy must be
consumed. The whole environmental point about trains is that they use up
a lot less energy (and therefore pollute a lot less) than the equivalent
number of cars on the road. If they go faster than 360km/h they may start
to loose this advantage and may even become more costly in terms of
energy use than the car, like the aero plane. We should not really be
pushing the top speed above 360 km/h. We should instead concentrate on
bringing high speed train travel to more routes.
3.4.3 French Railway has advance from TGV to AGV:
While TGV is already running at 320km/h, AGV is the first train in the
TGV family able to operate at 350 km/h. A standard TGV has two power cars
and eight trailer coaches. AGV have a modular concept, grouping cars in
threes, so that trains can be supplied in various lengths with a capacity
ranging from 300 to 600 passengers. The train-maker ALSTOM \spent 10
years and €100 million ($147 million) to develop the AGV, which it compares
with the Airbus's giant A380 jetliner in terms of innovation and its impact on
the world of transportation. French Railway started AGV services in 2009.
3.4.4 JAPAN Railway has advanced to Fastech – 360:
Earlier in 2007 East Japan Railway's latest high speed test train took to
the rails. Starting a programme of trial running on June 25, fastech 360 S is
a key player in the evolution of the next generation of Shinkansen trainsets.
Fastech 360 S is formed with six motored cars and two trailers. Although
designed for a maximum commercial speed of 360 km/h, it is actually

26
capable of running at 400 km/h. The two end vehicles both have to 16m
long noses, but these are of very different shapes to test their respective
aerodynamic shapes to test their respective aerodynamic performance.
From past experience of Japanese railway we know that current
collection account for a significant proportion of the noise generated by a
high speed train. The existing10-car seriesE2 has two pantographs. To
minimize the aerodynamic noise Japanese are using a single low-noise
pantograph with multi-segment sliders which closely adhere to the
overhead.
Also contributing to better current collection at high speed are
improvements to the overhead line fluctuation propagation speed through
weight saving and increased tensile strength. A newly developed contact
wire with a 10mm2 cross-section is supported at a tension of approximately
20 kN.
Running at 360 km/h increases vibration in the running gear, putting
higher loadings on key elements such as bearings and final drives. For the
load endurance test, we confirmed the reliability of the bogie by running
consecutive 'trips' totaling 600 000 km at speeds of around 400 km/h. The
existing combination of dynamic and mechanical brakes is suitable for
operation at higher speeds.
In the event of an earthquake, the capability of the emergency brakes
to bring a train to a stand as swiftly as, possible is of critical importance. As
well as having upgraded conventional brakes, Fastech 360 S is fitted with
aerodynamic brakes, intended to decelerate the train using 'resistance
boards' that project from the roof of the train.
Using these brakes, we anticipate that the emergency stopping
distance from 360 km/h will be the same as or even less than – required for
Series E2 trains to stop from 275 km/h.



27
 Chapter - 4

General Definition of High Speed

4.1 Definition :
The word "definition" has been used in the plural because there is no
single standard definition of high speed rail (nor even a standard usage of
the term: sometimes it is called "high speed" and sometimes "very high
speed"). The definitions vary according to the criteria used since high
speed rail corresponds to a complex reality.
At all events, high speed is a combination of all the elements which
constitute the "system": infrastructure, rolling stock and operating
conditions.
4.2 The high speed definition of U.I.C.:
4.2.1 Infrastructure:
a) Those built specially for High Speed travel, those specially upgraded for
High Speed travel. They may include connecting lines, in particular
junctions of new lines upgraded for High Speed with town centre stations
located on them, on which speeds must take account of local conditions.
b) High Speed lines shall comprise specially built High Speed lines equipped
for speeds generally equal to or greater than 250 km/h, specially upgraded
High Speed lines equipped for speeds of the order of 200 km/h, and
specially upgraded High Speed lines which have special features as a result
of topographical, relief or town-planning constraints, on which the speed
must be adapted to each case.
4.2.2 Rolling stock:
The High Speed advanced-technology trains shall be designed in such
a way as to guarantee safe, uninterrupted travel, at a speed of at least 250
km/h on lines specially built for High Speed, while enabling speeds of over
300 km/h to be reached in appropriate circumstances, at a speed of the

28
order of 200 km/h on existing lines which have been or are specially
upgraded, at the highest possible speed on other lines.
4.3 Compatibility of infrastructure and rolling stock:
High Speed train services presuppose excellent compatibility
between the characteristics of the infrastructure and those of the rolling
stock. Performance levels, safety, quality of service and cost depend upon
that compatibility.
4.4 Types of High Speed Systems:
It is possible to outline four types of high speed system:

Type 1 is the most classic and the

"purest" high speed system. This
CASE NO 1 constitutes a network of lines used
exclusively by high speed trains which
HS Trains Classical Trains
themselves do not operate on any
other lines. The Japanese Shinkansen
systems are such systems.

HS Lines Classical Lines

CASE NO 2 Type 1 is the most classic and the

"purest" high speed system. This
HS Trains Classical Trains constitutes a network of lines used
exclusively by high speed trains which
themselves do not operate on any
other lines. The Japanese Shinkansen
systems are such systems.
HS Lines Classical Lines

The Spanish system (AVE) constitutes

CASE NO 3 type 3, i.e. a system of high speed
lines which are used not only by high
HS Trains Classical Trains
speed trains (> 250 km/h) but also by
some conventional trains equipped of
changing gauge systems, at lower
speeds - which invariably involves
capacity reductions. On the other
HS Lines Classical Lines hand, high speed trains do not run on
conventional lines.

29
 CASE NO 4 The German and Italian systems are
examples of type 4 which permits all
HS Trains Classical Trains types of train run on the high speed
lines and the high speed trains run on
all types of lines.

HS Liness Classical Lines

4.5 Selection of High Speed System :

The decision on the type of traffic is very important, for it has immediate
and basic consequences for the route of the track, the maximum, permissible
axle loads, the conditions and the equipment for operation and maintenance.
The co-existence of freight traffic and trains with speeds higher than 300 km/h
can pose capacity problems, but also involve serious constraints of the
geometry because of the limitation of cant deficiency.
This initial finding affects the comparative analysis of the parameters
of the line. Such is the case with the maximum gradient, where there is a
very large margin of variation, between 12.5 and 40%0 which clearly shows
that it is impossible to fix a recommended value, because the traffic and the
hills of the region that a new line passes through may play a major role in
the decisions taken.
Heavy freight trains require modest gradients (10 a 12%0) if
ordinary locomotives are to be used. This would cause a very rigid and non-
flexible alignment, both horizontally and vertically. There would be
substantial need for bridges, high embankments and tunnels, depending
on the topography of the landscape. The cost may increase so much that
the project would be unprofitable from the social-economics point of view.
Due to the rigid alignment the project would also run the risk to cause
excessively large infringements in nature and culture environments. The
project could therefore be politically questioned.
Finally once the criteria for the maximum speed have been fixed, the
parameter essential to determine the other geometric characteristic is the
cant deficiency (in the absence of consideration that are sufficiently
validated for the use of speeds greater than 300 km/h for vehicles fitted
with tilting suspension systems).Tilting Trains are not very popular now a
days.
However, it is conceivable, in principle, to design tilting trains in the
future for speeds above 300 km/h which could operate on the high speed
lines with larger cant deficiencies than are allowed for conventional high
speed trains.

30
 It would, therefore, be interesting to consider two questions in
detail:
(1) What would be the characteristics of a high speed line for 350
km/h designed for operation WITHOUT TILT or with tilting
trains.
(2) What should be the technical characteristics of high speed
tilting trains.
The importance of these considerations comes from the fact that the
construction of lines with low radii in plan is less expensive as far as the civil
engineering structures are concerned, especially when the line is built in
the context of a very limiting topographical system. However the tilting
Technology is not something that the major high speed rail operation can
agree upon.
4.6 Why a passenger corridor in India ?
While deciding about type of High Speed Corridor to be built in India
,four kinds of different conditions can be looked at:
1. Track for all types of trains, including heavy freight trains
2. Track for high-speed Passenger trains, conventional
Mail/Express Trains and light freight Trains.
3. Track for high-speed passenger trains and conventional
Mail/Express Trains only
4. Track for high-speed Passenger Trains only
High speed trains and heavy freight trains have different demands on
track standards concerning horizontal alignment, cant, gradients and
vertical curves.
The reasons for constructing entirely new lines for exclusive operation
of high speed passenger trains are not far to seek. By segregating freight
trains from such lines, increase in the capacity of the high speed line is
achieved as follows:
(1) This would allow the speed conflict to be resolved, viz. a very
high speed train would otherwise affect the path of 3 or more
goods trains, if both types of trains were to run on the same
track.
(2) Studies conducted in Europe, for rail failures and deterioration
of Track geometry under both passenger and freight traffic
suggested that it would be impossible to maintain the high
standards needed for running at speeds above 200km/h on

31
 tracks that were also carrying locos with axle load of 23 ton. (on
the TGV, axle loads are restricted to 17tonne only).
There is only one speed for a particular curve for which super
elevation would be correct. For example on a curve of radius 4000m on a
Standard Gauge track, goods trains running at 80km/h would need an
equilibrium cant of only 19mm, whereas high speed passenger trains
running at 300 km/h would required an equilibrium cant of 265mm. Both
these requirements cannot be met by providing an intermediate value of
cant, without exceeding the permissible limits of both Cant deficiency and
cant excess. For the above said reasons, the Japanese Railway decided to
lay entirely new lines for their Shinkansen High Speed lines which were built
on Standard Gauge. Similarly the SNCF also chose to lay a new line between
Paris and Lyon for their TGV operations.
Separation of goods traffic from passenger traffic has been justified in
above paragraphs.
Now the question arises whether to make an exclusive high speed
passenger corridor in India, only for plying of very high speed passenger
trains at a speed of 350 kmph or design the track geometry in such a way as
to facilitate plying of present mail/express trains also on the same corridor.
Mixing of any type of goods train light or heavy may not be desirable from
the maintenance point of view.
As we know construction of high speed corridor will cost a huge sum
for the Indian Railway. Initially in a first few years the traffic demand may be
met only by running a couple of pairs of high speed train, thus leaving huge
line capacity unutilized. It will be therefore desirable to divert most of
present mail/express train running/ passing between the two stations on to
the high speed passenger corridor and utilizing left over path on
conventional routes by running more goods trains. This strategy will help in
justifying the economics of more and more high speed corridors in India
specially between the two major cities about 500 kms apart between which
traffic on existing routes are oversaturated.
However this intermixing of high speed trains with present
mail/express trains will compel to adopt more horizontal curve radii thus
increasing the cost of construction. With the passage of time as the
requirement of number of high speed trains increases, it can be introduced
by re-diverting conventional mail/express trains to their old routs if capacity
permit so.
In India, therefore, it is desirable to adopt a high speed passenger
train corridor with maximum speed potential of 350kmph along with
running of present mail/express train at a minimum speed of 140 kmph
without freight trains. 

32
 Chapter - 5
High Speed Scenario in India
and Cost Appraisal
5.1 Introduction:
In India, a thought for high speed operation was given in the first Governing
Council Meeting (GCM) of RDSO in 1988 when it was decided to develop
technology for operation of passenger services at 160 kmph on specified
mixed routes and at 200 kmph on dedicated routes. A Task Force was set up
in RDSO to study all the aspects of introduction of high speed technology. In
this connection, a feasibility study was conducted with the help of a
Japanese Company (JICA) for Delhi-Kanpur section via Agra (448 kms) to
run the trains at 250 kmph. Report was submitted in 1987. JICA
recommended setting up a new corridor with terminal stations at Delhi,
Agra and Kanpur with an anticipated cost of Rs.2200 crores at 1987 price
indices. Two types of services as given under were suggested in the study
report.
 Super express train at maximum speed to 250 kmph on new corridor
of Delhi-Agra-Kanpur and
 Long distances express trains operating at 160 kmph to utilize
dedicated track with facility of getting in and out of new corridor at
Agra and Kanpur.
A detailed questionnaire requiring answers from manufacturers,
maintenance teams and operators of high speed railway system was
prepared by RDSO. Following three corridors were considered for the high
speed services. :
i. Mumbai Vadodara-Ahmedabad (492 kms.)
ii. New Delhi – Kanpur – Lucknow (507 kms. )
iii. New Delhi – Agra ( 199 kms. )
Detailed studies for anticipated traffic on these routes were also done and
based on these detailed studies. Mumbai-Ahmedabad section was found
having the best potential. However, cost being very high (Rs.4.9 crores per km.
in 1987); if upgraded to the present day cost. It would come out to be about

33
Rs.50 crores per km. Board closed the mission vide their letter no.
98/ER/3400/21/1 dated 28.03.01 addressed to RDSO.
Indian Railway is now again considering going for high speed. The
Integrated Railway modernization plan Nov.2004 for the period 2005-2010
envisages high speed trains running at 250-330 kmph. Ahmedabad-
Mumbai corridor was specifically identified for the feasibility study. In this
regard, RITES Ltd., has carried out a feasibility study and financial
appraisal for Mumbai-Ahmedabad corridor.
Hon'ble MR also envisaged development of high speed passenger
corridor in his Budget speech in February,2007. The then CRB in his
message to railway men after taking over has stated in the future strategy
and plans for Indian Railways as -
“Pre-feasibility studies for construction of high speed Dedicated
Passenger Corridors (one each in Northern, Western, Southern & Eastern
regions of the country ) to run high speed (300-350 km/h) passenger trains”.
As quoted by Indian Express in January 2008, Indian Railways is
buoyed over the fact that not only have nine state governments shown
interest in it, they have even suggested as many as 16 routes, spread over
5,400 km, for constructing such corridors.
While Maharasthra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Delhi, Haryana,
Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal are learnt to have formally
expressed interest in the project, others like UP, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Kerala, Bihar and Jharkhand too are testing the water. Some of the routes
suggested by the states include Mumbai-Ahmedabad (492 kms.),
Bangalore-Mysore (140 kms.), Chennai-Coimbatore (497 kms.), Delhi-
Chandigarh 240 kms.), Hyderabad-Bangalore (763 kms.), Vijayawada-
Vishakhapatnam (351 kms.) and Howrah-Haldia (80 kms.).
The states formally expressing interest have also accorded “in
principle' approval for the pre-feasibility studies needed. From the
beginning, the Railways was keen that State Governments share the cost
of pre-feasibility studies on the project, which is expected to take a
minimum of two years.
5.2 Need for High Speed Rail Corridors:
1) It is seen that high-speed rail corridors are competitive to air traffic
up to a distance of 600 km.
2) It is a safer mode of transport in comparison to road and air
transport.

34
 3) It is environment friendly.
4) Comfort level is much higher
5) It has been accepted as an intercity mode of transport in highly
industrialized regions in Europe and Japan. Many other countries
have also taken lead in this field. These are Taiwan, Korea and
China.
6) Being the fastest growing economy after China and being projected
as a financially very strong economy by 2020, India can not afford to
fall back in developing HIGH SPEED DEDICATED
CORRIDOR.
7) A recent McKinsey report suggest that by 2025, India will be the
world's fifth largest economy after the USA, Japan, China and the
U.K. By then the number of house holds earnings Rs.2 lakhs to
Rs.10 lakhs a year (at the price level of year 2008) will increase from
5 crores to 58 crores.
8) Union cabinet has approved development of DELHI-MUMBAI
INDUSTRIAL CORRIDOR along Dedicated Freight Corridor in the
next 7 to 8 years where in investment of about 100 billion $ is
expected.
By constructing these corridors, the Railways hope to win back
clientele that has migrated to low-cost airlines in recent times. A rough
surveys done on the Mumbai-Ahmedabad and Delhi-Amritsar routes
indicate that a high-speed train would attract enough ridership. Further, the
Railways are keen to market the idea as an important instrument in the
battle against carbon emissions. The Indian Railway's preliminary
estimates suggest that a High-speed Rail consumes 0.933 litres per
passenger of fuel per 100 km travelled, in comparison to the 4.04 litres
consumed by an airplane and 5.69 litres consumed by an economy car.
The estimates further indicate that if one were to commission Mumbai-
Ahmedabad High-Speed Passenger Corridor in 2008, it would result in taking,
2,36,000 cars and 74,000 buses off the roads by the year 2013.
However, the exorbitant costs involved in setting up the infrastructure
for the project has many worried in the Ministry. Rough estimates suggest
an expense of Rs.30,000 crores (excluding the cost of land) for every 500
kms. at the 2008 price level.

35
5.3 The challenge for the transportation sector in India:
 Reduce consumption of oil.
 Reduce congestion and air and noise pollution in urban areas.
 Provide fast passenger travel at fares affordable to the mass of the
users.
 Reduced journey time to minimise use of working/business hrs for
journey
 30% Urban population can afford to travel by high speed trains.
 Fast inter-city travel (in less than 3 hr) )for distances up to 500kms.
 Transportation capacity is likely to increase by about 5 times in the
next 25 years.
To meet these challenges, the option for increasing speed and capacity
is dedicated high speed passenger corridors, (300 to 350 km/h) and also
the option is to upgrade the existing lines for speed upto 200km/h with
conventional stock and 250 km/hr with tilting trains.
The high speed project is a very high techno economic project
requiring huge financial resources. Therefore, Indian Railway has to go for
a balanced approach. However, going for high speed is a demand of the
time specially when India is going through an era of high economic growth.
Hence, Indian Railway cannot lag much behind the other advanced world
railways. Such a project would also give excellent exposure to Railway
engineers of higher technology. It would also benefit in upgrading the
maintenance standards of the existing conventional track. Therefore, it
would require a very close interaction amongst civil engineers in particular
and with other departments of the railways and the rail users in general.
Major challenges for civil engineers would be in laying,
maintaining and monitoring the high speed track. Construction of
embankment would require special attention. Planning and designing the
high-speed corridor would require very detailed and in-depth study.
However, it is hoped that with desired will, determination and cooperation
of all concerned, Railway engineers would rise to the occasion to deliver the
required results.
5.4 Cost of Constructing New High Speed Corridor
(300-350 kmph)

For 8000 km of high speed rails have been laid in the world till the middle of
year 2008, the cost of the same updated to 2008 is approximately 170
billion Euros and the rolling stock 36 Billion Euros. As per the international

36
standards the approximate cost of constructing new H.S. corridor is as
under:

Item Cost Cost in Crore

(Million Euros)/km Rs./km
Infrastructure (Stns., maint. 12 60
Facilities etc.
Track (Formation incl. 3.5 17.5
Ballastless)
Electrification 2.0 10.0
Safety & Signalling 2.5 12.5
Total 20 100
Rolling Stock 2 per coach or 10 per coach
40,000 Euro or Rs.20 lakh
per seat per seat

The cost depends on several factors, like topography, extent of built up

area through which the lines traverse, the standard of access provided at
the stations/terminus etc. and can be reduced to about 60% by judicious
selection of infrastructure and standard of specifications. It may be in the
range of Rs.60-100 Crores per km and additional for special coaches @
Rs.10 Cr. Per coach.
The cost of HSR line between Beijing Shanghai is Rs 90 to 100 crores
per km (due to major portion constructed as elevated track).
The cost of making High Speed line for a speed of 350 kmph is much higher
vis-à-vis cost of upgrading lines for a speed of 200kmph. However since
existing railway lines are saturated and traffic is going to increase many fold.
Construction of many new railway lines is inevitable. It is therefore better to
have some of them as High Speed Corridor in India.
5.5 Feasibility study of Mumbai-Ahmedabad high speed corridor:
RITES have conducted the feasibility study for Introduction of High
Speed Railway from Ahmedabad to Mumbai (492 km) and submitted its
report to Railway Board in October 2005.
Cost Estimates and financial appraisal of the Project has been
incorporated in the RITES's report. A brief of the same is reproduced below.
For more detailed information RITES's report may be referred to.

37
5.6 Construction and rolling stock cost:
The estimate of initial cost of construction excluding maintenance
cost, replacement cost and cost of addition of rolling stock after
commissioning is summarized in Table below:
The estimate of initial cost of construction excluding maintenance
cost, replacement cost and cost of addition of rolling stock after
commissioning is summarized in Table below:
5.6.1 Capital Cost:

(Rs.Cr)
at 2005 price level
Sr.No. Items of Cost Cost
1 DPR & Tender Documents 218.30
2 Land 7532.38
3 Civil 6485.50
4 S&T 2722.89
5 Electrical 1990.34
6 Taxes 109.15
7 Contingencies 592.72
8 Initial year’s Rolling Stock Procurement 700.47
Total: 20351.75

5.6.2 Rolling stock Cost:

Number of trains has been worked on the assumption of 766
passengers per train and it is further assumed that each rake would make 3
trips each way per day.
Number of rakes alongwith the cost as and when required to haul the
projected traffic over the project life have been interpolated between the
horizon years and to avoid the overloading. Cost of one rake is 91.8 crore.
5.7 Maintenance and Replacement Costs:
5.7.1 Infrastructure (Civil Engineering):
Annual maintenance cost of civil engineering works beyond Defect
Liability Period was estimated at Rs.100 Crores based on mechanised
maintenance being proposed for new lines on Indian Railways.

38
5.7.2 Signalling and Telecommunication:
Annual maintenance cost of beyond Defect Liability Period was
estimated as Rs. 0.21 crores based on mechanised maintenance being
proposed for new lines on Indian Railways.
Replacement cost for signalling works was computed based on asset
life of 25 years, as Rs. 1998 Crores in year 2035-36. The replacement cost
for telecommunication works based on life of 13 years is Rs. 208 Crores by
year 2023-24 and Rs. 208 Crores by year 2036-37.
5.7.3 Electrical works and Rolling Stock:
Annual maintenance cost of beyond Defect Liability Period was
estimated as Rs.44.27 Crores for electrical works and Rs.22 Crores for
rolling stock.
5.7.4 Residual and replacement cost of Rolling Stock:
For estimating the residual life at the terminal year (2040-41), the
straight-line depreciation method has been followed.
In addition to the residual value the salvage value @10% for civil,
S&T, electrical and 20% for rolling stock has been considered. Likewise, the
replacement cost has been worked out only for such of the assets whose
economic life is less than the project life of 30 years and the same have
been duly accounted for in the appraisal.
5.8 Financial Appraisal of Ahmedabad – Mumbai high speed
corridor:
5.8.1 The financial appraisal of High Speed Rail corridor between
Mumbai and Ahmedabad has been carried out by RITES from the
implementing agency's point of view viz., Indian Railways. Because the
proposed High Speed Corridor is dedicated to passenger traffic, capacity
released on the existing corridor has also been taken into consideration in
the financial appraisal.
5.8.2 All the costs and benefits that would accrue to the Railways viz. the
implementing agency have been identified, and their values have been
quantified as per base year prices (2004-05).
The project period considered for financial appraisal is 36 years
(2005-06 to 2040-41) comprising five and a half years of high speed
corridor construction and 30 years of operation period.
The cost to be incurred on the project comprise the cost of construction
of the high speed rail link (including its S&T and Electrification components),
Rolling stock and Operation & Maintenance costs.

39
 The project benefits would be earnings that would accrue from
running of the projected passenger traffic on high speed corridor as direct
revenues. However, because of surplus capacity created on the high speed
corridor, it would be possible to divert certain passenger trains running on
congested existing route onto this corridor, thereby releasing capacity on
the existing route to cater to the running of additional freight trains
resulting in the increase in the freight earnings to Indian Railways. Against
the above backdrop the financial viability of the project has been adjudged
under the following two options:
· Option I Relates to the situation when earnings accruing from
movement of High Speed Passengers only are considered.
· Option II Relates to the situation when incremental costs and earnings
as a result of movement of additional freight traffic on the capacity released
on the existing corridor are also considered in addition to high speed
passenger traffic earnings due to shifting of some Mail/express trains from
existing corridor to high speed corridor.
The traffic projections at the rate of 5% per annum has been considered.
For the purpose of the appraisal the passenger projections have been
considered for 20 years from the date of opening of the high speed corridor,
thereafter the traffic has been assumed to be stabilised.
5.9 Financial Internal Rate of Return:
(Option I):
All the costs and benefits that would accrue to the implementing
agency solely on account of running of the High Speed trains on the
proposed High Speed corridor between Mumbai – Ahmedabad have been
considered on year to year basis. As stated earlier, all items included in
costs and benefits of the projects are estimated at constant prices
(Financial Year 2004-05 prices). In other words, throughout the analysis
period, prices are kept at constant values, without any adjustment for
inflation or demand-supply factors. The Discounted Cash Flow technique
has been adopted to arrive at the Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR)
of the project. The financial internal rate of return (FIRR) of the project
under Option I works out to 1.9%.
(Option II):
Financial Appraisal under this Option has been carried out by
considering the net benefits that would accrue to Indian Railways on
account of running of the High Speed trains and additional freight trains on
the capacity released on the existing corridor.

40
 High speed corridor would create additional paths on the existing
corridor by diverting the fast moving passenger trains on the proposed high
speed corridor because of which existing corridor would be able to cater to
more freight trains.
The financial internal rate of return (FIRR) of the project works out to
3.2%.
5.10 Sensitivity Analysis:
An in-depth sensitivity analysis has been carried out to adjudge the effect
of increase in number of passengers and fare rate on FIRR under both the
options. Since the project FIRRs in both the options are not feasible, therefore,
sensitivity analysis has been evaluated to test its worthwhileness from the
viability point of view. In this case, either no increase in capital cost or reduction
in projected passengers has been carried out which would further lower down
the FIRR. One aspect has also been evaluated by assuming the situation if land
is available free of cost through govt.
Change in FIRR (%)

Fare @ Rs 3 Per PKM Fare @ Rs 5 Per PKM

Option I Option II Option I Option II
Increase in Passenger Traffic
No increase in traffic 1.9 3.2 4.3 5.4
10% increase 2.3 3.6 4.9 5.9
20% increase 2.6 3.8 5.3 6.3
30% increase 3.0 4.2 5.9 6.8
40% increase 3.3 4.4 6.2 7.2
50% increase 3.6 4.7 6.7 7.6
Without land cost 3.1 5.0 6.7 8.2

It can be seen from the above table that even if subsidy in capital cost
in the form of grant for land which accounts almost 37% of the capital cost,
the project does not turn out to be viable.
5.11 Conclusion :
The Proposed project of developing a High Speed rail corridor
between Mumbai – Ahmedabad (492 km) yields a FIRR of 1.9% under
option I viz., when the net benefits of the running of high speed passengers
is only considered but it gets slightly improved to 3.2% under option II

41
when the earnings on account of additional freight operations on the
existing corridors is taken into account. As the return is low and the market
rate of interest for long term loans may vary from 9% to 10% p.a., the
project is not found viable for implementation. However, if budgetary
support from Government of India and grants from respective State
governments in incurring majority of expenditure on infrastructure cost is
provided, the project could be implemented. Such projects do need
government subsidy in initial stage.
Financial appraisal of Mumbai-Ahmedabad High Speed Corridor given
by RITES reflects a return of only 3.2% However traffic projection assumed
by RITES is seems to be on conservative side. With present growth
scenario by 2030 passenger traffic is likely to rise to 5 fold and freight traffic
to 7 fold from the current level. It means that the line capacity created
through constructing High Speed Corridor will be full utilized, if not by
running sufficient number of High Speed train, then at least by
diverting/introducing mail express and Rajdhani Shatabdi Trains.



42
 Chapter - 6
Track Geometry for High Speed Railways

6.1 Introduction:
Among the consideration for high speed railway corridor, One of the
first subjects to be considered is the “reserve of speed” that all (or nearly all)
new lines have from the point of view of the route of the infrastructure. It
appears wise to keep this margin for the future because of the different life of all
the parts involved in the operations of a high speed system.
The consideration of the type of traffic is very important, since it has
immediate and basic consequences on the route of the track, on the
maximum axle loads permitted and on the conditions and the equipment
for the operation and the maintenance.
From this point of view, the co-existence of freight traffic and trains
which travel at speeds above 300 km/h does not appear to the very desirable,
because of the possible problems with capacity and excess cant.
In view of this, it is very difficult to recommend values for the route
parameters. The traffic and the presence of hills play an important role in
the decisions that have to be taken for this.
This Chapter deals with a literature survey where a short
introduction is given for track geometry and track/vehicle interaction. After
the introduction, a survey over the present standard and practices in
Europe and Japan is made. In particular the recent proposals for a common
European standard (CEN) and TSI (Technical Specification for
Interoperability) are reviewed. Suggestions for adopting track geometry
parameters in Indian Railway is also incorporated. It is required for Indian
Railways where only Broad gauge system is desired.
The purposes of the Technical Specifications of Interoperability
(TSI) is:
 to specify the essential requirements for the subsystems and
their interfaces,
 to establish the basic parameters that are necessary to meet
essential requirements,

43
  to establish the conditions to be compiled with, to achieve the
specified performances for each of the following categories:
lines specially built for high-speed,
lines specially upgraded for high-speed,
lines specially built or upgraded for high-speed, which have
special features as a result of topographical, relief or town-
planning constraints,
 to establish possible implementing provisions in certain specific
cases.
Furthermore, according to TSI, the performance levels of high-speed
trains can also be enhanced by adopting specific systems, such as vehicle
body tilting.
In Sweden does exists a regulation called Banverket regulation BVF
586.41[5] and a handbook, BVH 586.40[4] concerning track geometry
parameters. The regulations is mandatory while the handbook is informative.
The regulation is called BVF while the handbook is called BVH.
In the following paras different track geometry parameters are
discussed and values adopted and or recommended by different
regulations and leading high speed countries are compared. All these
values are for standard gauge. There is no experience available with B.G.
Accordingly values to be adopted for Indian B.G. high speed corridor are
also arrived and recommended.
6.2 Design track geometry:
Track geometry is very important for the behavior of vehicles. In this
section an introduction to the most common quantities of track geometry
will be presented. These quantities are:
a) Track gauge
b) Track cant
c) Cant deficiency and cant excess
d) Rate of cant and rate of cant deficiency
e) Transition curve and super elevation ramp
f) Horizontal curve radius
g) Gradient
h) Vertical curve radius
6.3 Track gauge:
Every high-speed rail system pioneer in running high speed trains in
the world have 1435mm designed track gauge called STANDARD GAUGE.

44
In India Broad Gauge track is 1673mm, therefore same gauge is desired to
be opted for high speed track also for better utility and interchangeability of
trains from high speed track to conventional track and vice versa.
6.4 Track cant:
Cant or super elevation is the amount by which one rail is raised
above the other in a curve. In a very highly canted curved track, it is
possible that the vehicle standing or traveling over the curve at a very low
speed may overturn about the inner rail. Such overturning can occur on
account of the combination of the following adverse factors:
a) absence of centrifugal force due to very slow speed causing
substantial off loading of the outer rail
b) wind pressure blowing on the vehicle towards the inside of the
curve
c) Vibration and other disturbing forces
6.4.1 Consideration of over turning:
The worst case is when the vehicle is stationary. Taking movement
about the inner rail

where Ca = cant
G =Dynamic Gauge (=1500mm for standard gauge and
=1750mm for Indian BG).
H = Ht of C.G. of vehicle over rail level= 1676 mm for B.G. Indian Coaches.
Taking a factory of safety of 3 against wind pressure and other minor
disturbing forces.

= 304 mm for B.G. Tank

However, before the condition for over turning around the inner rail
are reached, it is more likely that derailment by wheel climbing would occur
if the train is moving.
6.4.2 Consideration of maintainability:
Maintainability of a canted track is yet another important factor, which
determines the limiting values of cant that can be provided. It has been
generally recognized that from consideration of maintainability on lines

45
which are meant to carry only one typed traffic viz high speed passenger
lines, maximum cant shall be limited to G/8. At 180mm cant, it was
considered possible to maintain fairly easily the ballast slopes between the 2
tracks of a curved double line section. Thus maximum permissible value of
cant worked out to be 187mm for standard gauge and 218mm for B.G.
6.4.3 Limiting values of cant due to consideration of overturning
due to wind, vibration, etc:
The Table 6.4.3 indicates the calculated minimum wind velocity
which will overturn the coach in a curve, considering the effect of car
vibration acceleration equal to 0.1g as recommended by UIC at speeds 80
km/h and above.
Table: 6.4.3 Wind velocity (m/sec) to overturn the
train on standard gauge
Radius (m) 3500 4000
Cant (mm) C=180
a C=180
a

Train speed Overturn Overturn Overturn Overturn

(Km/h) to inside to outside to inside to outside
V=0(Stopping) 41.0 54.7 41.0 54.7
V = 80 35.8 49.3 35.6 49.5
V=160 39.0 46.8 38.5 46.8
V=200 41.2 45.0 40.5 45.7
V=250 44.4 42.0 43.5 43.0

It can be seen from the above table that the minimum wind velocity
required to overturn the vehicle inside the curve is 35.6m/sec (129 km/h)
and35.8m/sec (129 km/h) on curves of radii 4000m and 3500m
respectively. These wind speeds are fairly high and hence can be considered
rare enough to cause trouble in train operation. The minimum wind speed
required to overturn the coach outside the curves are still higher viz
43m/sec (155km/h) and 42m/sec (151 km/h) on curves of radii 4000m and
3500m respectively when trains are traveling at the maximum speeds of
250 kmph. From this analysis, it is clear that a maximum cant of 180mm on
standard gauge can be safely provided without fear of the coaches being
overturned either towards the inside or outside the curve by high winds.
6.4.4 Consideration of Derailment:
With curves having very large radii as provided on high speed
corridors, the curving forces were not expected to be large and hence there

46
was no danger of unfavorable Y/Q leading to derailment of the leading outer
wheel of a bogie, even if a train was traveling very slowly on a highly canted
curved track with resultant offloading of the leading outer wheel.
6.4.5 Consideration of Comfort:
At 180mm cant on standard gauge track, passengers do not feel
uncomfortable when the train is stationary or moving at a slow speed.
According to the TSI the cant for new high-speed lines in the design
phase shall be limited to 180mm . Further the TSI says that for tracks in
operation, a maintenance tolerance of 20mm is allowed, without
trespassing a maximum cant of 190mm. This value may be raised to
200mm maximum on tracks reserved for passenger traffic alone in
accordance with the specifications in the CEN provisional standard on
maximum limiting value.
Table 6.4.5 shows values of cant according to CEN.
Table: 6.4.5 Limiting values of cant According to CEN

Traffic Mixed traffic Mixed traffic lines High-speed

categories lines designed with passenger lines with
for passenger train V < 230 ( or dedicated
train 200<V< 250 on upgraded passenger
300 lines) with vehicles traffic
incorporating special 250 < V
technical design < 300
characteristic
Recommended 160 160 160
limiting value
[mm]
Maximum limiting 180 180 200
value [mm]

On the Shinkansen lines (Japan), maximum cant adopted is 180mm.

According to Banverket (Sweden) cant shall not exceed 150mm.
In India, maximum permitted cant for existing B.G. track is 165mm.
Considering the values for S.G. track, for High Speed B.G. track a cant of
200mm may be adopted. However in exceptional cases 220mm may be
considered.
6.5 Cant deficiency and cant excess:
The cant deficiency continues to be the essential parameter to fix the

47
geometric characteristics of the route, once the maximum speed is
established.
Equilibrium speed of a train is the speed at which the effect of
centrifugal force is exactly balanced by the cant provided. Corresponding
cant for a given radius of curve and given vehicle speed (v) is called
equilibrium cant (Ceq)

For standard gauge Ceq =

For Broad gauge Ceq =

Where V is train speed in kmph

And R is the radius of horizontal curve in meters
It is not possible to provide actual cant equal to equilibrium cant due to
various constraint.
For several reasons, fully compensated track plane acceleration can
not be achieved in all cases.
Not all trains have the same speed, therefore, it would not be possible
to achieve fully compensated lateral accelerated for all trains anyway. It is a
possibility that a train stops or runs slowly in a curve. Therefore, the
maximum cant has to be limited. It is then desirable to allow a cant
deficiency i.e. a certain amount of uncompensated lateral acceleration ay
remains in the track plane.
6.6 Cant deficiency:
When the actual cant provided is less than the equilibrium cant Ceq,
cant deficiency arises. The cant deficiency is the additional cant that is
needed to achieve equilibrium cant. Cant deficiency Cd is the difference
between equilibrium cant Ceq and actual cant Ca and is thus determined by
the following equation.
Cd = Ceq - Ca
6.6.1 Safety against over turnings:
When a train is traveling on a curve at a speed higher than the
equilibrium speed for that curve, the excess or unbalanced outward lateral
acceleration will tend to overturn the vehicle around the outer rail. It can be
proved that on the considerations the maximum cant deficiency permissible
2
will be G , assuming a factor of safety of 4 against overturning. Where
8H

48
G=dynamic gauge, H= Height of C.G. of the vehicle above rail. This would
work out to a value of Cd = 228mm for B.G. (G=1750) H = 1676mm for BG
coaches in India. Safety against derailment: Field study conducted by
RDSO (Refer C&M Report No.1 & C-138 of RDSO) have shown that for B.G.
Cd upto 150mm could be permitted without danger of derailment.
6.6.2 Maintainability and Comfort:
Higher Cd is more difficult to maintain due to unbalanced forces. Cd is
an index of discomfort felt by the passengers and on this score only,
through out the world, limits of cant deficiency have been set based on the
studies, the UIC (Union of World Railways) in their Master Plan for the
European Railways have specified that the (unbalanced) lateral
acceleration (P) should be with in 0.4 to 0.7m/Sec2. It is desirable to limit
the lateral acceleration to the lower value of 0.4m/sec2.

.g where Cd is cant deficiency in mm.

G = acceleration due to gravity (=9.8m/sec2)

Cd is worked out for B.G. is 71mm to 125mm and for standard gauge it
is 61mm to107mm.
6.6.3 Standard adopted by different countries:
Table below shows the permissible cant deficiency and its
corresponding lateral acceleration for three different categories of rolling
stock according to Banvedrket (Sweden).
Permissible cant deficiency and the corresponding lateral
acceleration

Train category Permissible cant Lateral acceleration, ay

Deficiency (mm) (m/s)2
A 100 0.65
B 150 0.98
S 245 1.60
The different train categories have the following meaning.
 Category A - conventional vehicles with older running gear and
freight trains;
 Category B – vehicles with improved running gear, according to
approval.
 Category S – vehicles with improved running gear and car body tilt
system.

49
 In Germany different train categories are not used in the same
manner as in Sweden. A classification is used where values are prescribed
with or without permission. Design values for equilibrium cant according to
German standards are shown in Table 6.6.3 :-
Table : 6.6.3 Design values of equilibrium cant, Actual Cant and
Cant Deficiency

Without permission Equilibrium cant

Recommended Ceq = 170mm
Limit Ceq = 290mm
Without permission Actual cant
Recommended Ca = 100mm
Limit Ca = 160mm(ballast track)
Ca = 170mm(ballastless track)
Exception (permission 160mm<Ca<=180mm (ballast track)
necessary) 170mm<Ca<=180mm
(ballastless track)
Ca> 180mm
Without permission Cant deficiency
Recommended Cd= 70mm
Limit C=
d 130mm

Exception (permission C=
d 150mm

necessary)

In France (SNCF) Experiment shows that the non compensated

lateral acceleration should not exceed 0.10g to 0.15 g (1.0 to 1.5 m/sec2)
according to comfort requirements. SNCF allows a cant deficiency of
150mm (exceptional value 160mm).
At SNCF the limiting value of cant is about 160mm and exceptionally
180mm. A cant of 180mm was utilized as limiting value at the high speed
line Paris-Sud Est.
6.6.4 Standard suggested by TSI:
According to TSI the limit values of cant deficiency on plain track is
given in the table 6.6.4 (a), (b), (c).

50
Table 6.6.4 (a) : Cant deficiency for lines specially built for high-
speed without tilt (TSI)

Speed range (km/h) Limiting value (mm)

250 < V < 300 100

V > 300 80

Table 6.6.4 (b) : Cant deficiency for lines specially upgraded for
high-speed and connecting lines (TSI).
Speed range (km/h) Limiting value (mm)
V < 160 160
160 < V < 200 150
200 < V < 230 140
230 < V < 250 130
Table 6.6.4 (c) : Cant deficiency for lines specially built or
upgraded for high-speed involving very strict topographical
constraints for H.S. trains without tilt (TSI).

Maximum limiting Cant deficiency range for which

Speed range Value (mm) the length of curve is limited to
(km/h) 20% of the total curve length
(mm)
V < 160 180 160 < Cd< 180
160 < V < 230 165 150 < Cd< 165
230 < V < 250 150 130 < Cd< 150
250 < V < 300 130 100 < Cd< 130
6.6.5 CEN Provision:
According to the CEN standard the values of cant deficiency and its
corresponding lateral acceleration are based on the following
considerations:
- Track forces and safety;
- Economic aspects of track maintenance
- Ride comfort and roll flexibility coefficients of the vehicles
Table 6.6.5 lists the limiting values of cant deficiency in accordance to CEN
standard.

51
Table 6.6.5 : Limiting values of cant deficiency for high speed
trains without tilt

Recommended Maximum
Traffic categories limiting limiting
value [mm] value [mm]
Freight Passenger Freight Passenger
Mixed traffic 200 < V < 300 100 100 150 150
lines designed
for passenger 250 < V < 300 80 80 130 130
trains
250 < V < 300
Mixed traffic V < 160 110 160 160 180
lines with
passenger
trains V < 230
( or 250 km/ on 160 < V < 200 X 140 X 160
upgraded lines)
With vehicles 200 < V < 230 X 120 X 160
incorporating
special technical 230 < V < 250 X 100 X 150
design
characteristics
High-speed lines V = 250 X 100 X 150
with dedicated V > 250 X 80 X 130
passenger traffic
250 < V < 300
It is always desired to lay a new line exclusively for high speed
passenger traffic. It is possible to see a tendency to reduce the value of the
cant deficiency as the speed increases with a view to ensure more safety for
high speed trains.
In light of the values mentioned in above paras for standard gauge, it will
be advisable to limit Cd on B.G. section to 100 for high speed corridors in India.
However exceptional a value of 125mm may be adopted.
6.7 Cant excess:
Cant excess (Ce )represents the unbalanced in word lateral
acceleration if a train moves at lower speed than the equilibrium speed.
Same discomfort criteria as for cant deficiency should be applied in this
case also for a high speed route exclusively for passenger traffic.

52
 According to Banverket (Sweden) cant excess should not be larger
than 100mm on tracks with radius larger than 1000m. On tracks with radius
less than 1000m cant excess should not exceed 70mm.
SNCF allows a cant excess of 70 to 100mm (exceptional values
between 105 and 135mm), in dedicated high-speed operations, without
freight trains).
The TSI does not discuss cant excess. However, CEN provisional
standard gives as guidance, the following limiting values for cant excess:
- 110 mm as recommended limiting value;
- 130 mm is a maximum limiting value.
In India value of cant excess (Ce) permitted for existing B.G. track is
75mm. However this value is basically for freight train running. On High
Speed Corridor for slowest mail/express train a value of 100mm may be
adopted safely. However under exceptional circumstances it may be
increased to 150mm.
6.8 Rate of cant and rate of cant deficiency
Rate of cant deficiency (rcd) describes the change of lateral
acceleration (in the track plane) as a function of time. Another word for rate
of cant deficiency is lateral jerk.
It is also called the rate of change of unbalanced outward/inward
lateral acceleration. It also has a direct bearing on passenger comfort. The
desirable limit is 0.02g /second; though in exceptional cases, a higher value
of 0.03g/second can be permitted. Incidentally, these values are adopted
for existing B.G. track in India.
Dp/ second = (Cd.g)/G per second
where Dp = unbalanced lateral acceleration
Cd = Cant deficiency
g= acceleration due to gravity
G = dynamic gauge (=1750mm for BG and 1500mm for standard
gauge)
For Broad Gauge :
Cd per second = 0.02g x 1750/g
Cd per second = 35 mm/second
Exceptionally this figure can go up to 0.03 x 1750 = 52.5 mm/second

53
For standard gauge :
Cd per second = 0.02g x 1500/g
Cd per second = 30 mm/second
Exceptionally this figure can go up to 0.03 x 1500 = 45 mm/second
It can be seen that for same rate of change of unbalanced lateral
acceleration the values work out are different for B.G. and S.G. Values for
B.G. are higher than that of S.G.
All out effort should be to work within the desirable rate of change of cant
deficiency (cd) i.e. 35mm/second for B.G.. Only in exceptional cases, where
room is not available to lay the adequate length of transition, we can increase to
the exceptionally permitted limits. These limits of cd are purely on
consideration of comfort. From safety considerations a much higher rate of
change of cant deficiency can be permitted.
6.8.1 CEN standard:
According to CEN standard the limiting value of rate of cant as a
function of time is shown in tables below:
a) Limiting values of rate of cant as a function of time: The values apply
to cant gradient with uniform slope for high speed trains without tilt
b) Limiting values of rate of cant deficiency: The values shown apply

Traffic Mixed traffic Mixed traffic High-speed

categories lines designed lines with lines with
for passenger passenger dedicated
train train speeds passenger
200< V < 300 V < 230 traffic
250 < V < 300
Recommended 50 50 50
limiting value
[mm / sec]
Maximum limiting 60 60 60
value [mm / sec]

54
to all forms of transition curves, high speed trains without tilt.

Traffic Mixed traffic Mixed traffic High-speed

categories lines designed lines with lines with
for passenger passenger dedicated
train train speeds passenger
200< V < 300 V < 230 traffic
250 < V < 300
Recommended 50 50 50
limiting value
[mm]
Maximum limiting 75 90 75
value [mm]

Presently, in India limiting value adopted for B.G. track is 35mm/sec

to 55mm/sec. The corresponding values for standard gauge track is
worked out to be 30 to 45mm/sec which is less and safer than CEN
provision mentioned above.
6.8.2 Sweden standard:
In Sweden used values for maximum rate of cant and rate of cant
deficiency is shown in Table 6.8.2.
Table 6.8.2 - Maximum rate of cant and rate of cant deficiency
Train Maximum rate Maximum rate
category of cant of cant deficietncy
A 46mm/s 46mm/s
B 55mm/s 55 mm/s
S 70mm/s 79mm/s
 Category A - conventional vehicles with older running gear and freight
trains;
 Category B – vehicles with improved running gear, according to
approval.
 Category S – vehicles with improved running gear and car body tilt
system.
6.8.3 Cant gradient:
It indicates the amount by which cant is increased or reduced in a
given length of transition eg 1 in 1000 means that a cant of 1mm is gained
or lost in every 1000mm of transition length.

55
 Cant gradient is governed only by safety consideration. In the design of
transition curves, if the consideration of cant gradient is not taken into account,
and if only rate of change of cant and rate of change of cant deficiency/excess
are considered, then for very slow speeds, the transition length required will be
too small, leading to steep cant gradients, which after all are twists in the track
and are to be limited to some specified values from safety consideration. Cant
gradient is not to exceed 1 in 720 for B.G. In exceptional cases, where adequate
room is not available for providing sufficiently long transitions, the cant gradient
may be increased to 1 in 360. These values of cant gradient are without speed
reference.
Limiting values of rate of cant as a function of length shall apply to the
following values, although not critical at high-speed operations:
Recommended limiting value : 2.25mm/m ie 1 in 444.
Maximum limiting value : 2.5mm/m ie 1 in 400.
In India for B.G. track the following values are adopted. Cant gradient (i) =
1 in 720 desirable and 1 in 360 maximum
Rate of (rcd) = 35mm/sec desirable = 55mm/sec maximum
After comprising these values from the word experiences it may be adopted
for high speed corridor also as these values are much safer than the
corresponding values adopted for standard gauge.
6.9 Transition curve and super elevation ramp:
6.9.1 Length of transition curves in the horizontal plane:
Transition curves are used between tangent track and circular curves
or between two adjacent curves to allow a gradual change in curvature and
lateral acceleration.
Transition curves also introduce cant via super elevation ramps. A
super elevation ramp is a section of the track where the cant changes
gradually.
The length of transition curves in the horizontal plane should,
according to European standard be determined by the limiting values of
rate of cant deficiency as a function of time, and rate of cant as a function of
length.
The change of lateral acceleration with respect to time is called jerk.
The jerk can also be described as a change of cant deficiency with respect
to time. Thus, the length of transition curve is dependent of the allowed
amount of jerk. The allowed rate of cant deficiency is a question of comfort.

56
 According to Banverket (Sweden) transition curves should be arranged
with linear curvature changes (clothoids) and super elevation ramps should
be arranged with linear changes of cant. The transition curve shall coincide
with the super elevation ramp in both shape and position. Generally, the
length of transition curves depends, among others, on the permitted
gradient of cant, which is an important safety aspects because of wheel
offloading and thus the risk of derailment. However, in long transition
curves, which is the case in high speed operations, ride comfort aspects
usually determine the minimum length of transition curves.
In a superelevation ramp the cant changes linearly. The twist 1:n
states the change of rate of cant per unit length. n is called ramp number.
In Japan on the New Tokaido Line (NTL) and subsequently on
shinkansen lines, transition length was determined from the following three
considerations:
(1) Average rate of change of cant (rca) not to exceed 44.8 mm/sec.
(2) Average rate of change of cant deficiency (rcd) not to exceed
37mm/sec
(3) Average cant gradient not to exceed 1 in 400
The above three considerations, give three transition lengths L1, L2,
and L3 respectively as given below and the maximum length out of the three
was adopted.
L1 = 0.0062 Ca Vmax
L2 = 0.0062 Cd Vmax
L3 = 0.0062 Ca
Where Ca, Cd are in millimeters
Vmax = maximum speed in km/h
However, it was realized that since the shape of the super elevation
diagram was a sine curve, the cant gradient and rate of change of cant
would not be uniform over the sine transition and that the maximum cant
gradient and rate of change of cant would occur at the central portion of the
transition, equivalent to 1.57 times the average values of the same. Hence,
in order to keep the maximum cant gradient and maximum rca, on the New
Sanyo Line and other new lines not to exceed 1 in 400 and 44.8mm/sec
respectively (which are the average values for the transitions, the length of
transition from considerations of rca, and rcd viz. L1 and L2 were increased by
1.57 times and fixed as follows:

57
 L1 = 1.57 x 0.0062 Ca Vmax = 0.0097 Ca Vmax
L2 = 1.57 x 0.0062 Cd Vmax = 0.0097 Cd Vmax

L3 was retained as 0.4 Ca, because in high speed transitions, L3 will be

too small to influence the decision regarding the length of
transition to be adopted.
In India the minimum length of transition for existing B.G. track is
being calculated by the following equations.
L1 = 0.008 Ca Vmax
L2 = 0.008 Cd Vmax
L3 = 0.72 Ca
The maximum of these values are provided. These values may be
adopted for Indian High Speed B.G. corridor also.
6.10 Horizontal curve:
The most distinguished parameter for a circular curve is the radius.
The parameters that shall be considered in the determination of the
minimum curve radius according to CEN standard are:
- The maximum and minimum operating speeds;
- The applied cant;
- The limiting values for cant deficiency and cant excess
The minimum allowable curve radius for the maximum operating
speed shall be calculated using the following equation:

for standard gauge

for Broad Gauge

The minimum allowable curve radius for the minimum operating

speed shall be calculated using the following equation:
for standard gauge

for Broad Gauge

The minimum curve radius should be optimized so that the values of

cant, cant deficiency and cant excess comply with the limits specified and

58
satisfy the following conditions:
for standard gauge

for broad gauge

Where Ca = actual cant in mm

Cd = Cant deficiency in mm
Ce = cant excess in mm
Vmax = maximum speed in kmph
Vmin = minimum speed in kmph
R = Radius in m
6.10.1 Horizontal curve radius:
The recommended horizontal curve radius in Banverket (Sweden) is a
value calculated with cant Ca = 150mm and cant deficiency Cd = 100 mm in
the formula for equilibrium cant. For new lines it is recommended that the
dimensional speed is multiplied with a speed factor y = 1.3. This factor is
used to get a margin with respect to ride comfort and increased speed in
the future.
Recommended and minimum horizontal curve radius adopted in
Sweden
Speed 200 250 280 300 330 350
km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Recommended 3200 5000 6300 7200 8700 9800
radius [m]
Minimum radius (m) 1888 2950 3700 4248 5240 5782
The recommended horizontal curve radius according to DB (GERMANY) is
shown in Table below. This recommendation is based on an equilibrium cant of
170mm, i.e. 100mm of cant and 70mm of cant deficiency.
Recommended horizontal curve radius in Germany

Horizontal curve 200 250 280 300 330 350

radius km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Recommended radius 2776 4338 5542 6247 7559 8503

59
The limit of horizontal curve radius (without permission) is based on an
equilibrium cant of 290mm.
Limit value of horizontal curve radius in Germany

Horizontal curve 200 250 280 300 330 350

radius km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Limit radius [m] 1628 2543 3190 3662 4431 4984
According to DB (Germany) a value of horizontal curve radius where
permission is needed is based on an equilibrium cant of 330mm with a cant
of 180mm and a cant deficiency of 150mm.
Permission on value of horizontal curve radius in Germany
Horizontal curve radius 200 250 280 300 330 350
km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Permission value [m] 1430 2234 2803 3218 3894 4380
Examples of optimized cant and optimized horizontal curve radius
Vmax Vmin Cd Ce Ca R[m]
[km/h] [km/h] [mm] [mm] [mm] [m]
300 80 100 110 126 4696
300 120 100 110 150 4247
300 160 100 110 193 3618
350 80 80 110 120 7209
350 120 80 110 135 6713
350 160 80 110 160 6017
Planned alignment and track parameters of new lines of the
second generation high-speed railways
max max max
Line V Rmin ca cd Unbalanced lateral
[km/h] [m] [mm] [mm] acceleration [m/s]2
DBa 300 3200 200 130 0.85
b
JR 350 4000 200 160 1.05
a
SNCF 350 4000 200 160 1.05
Gentle horizontal curves are generally adopted on high speed tracks.
Gentle curves become necessary in view of restrictions on maximum values
of cant deficiency and cant excess. The minimum radius of curvature for
the various high speed lines in other countries generally varies from 4000m
to 7000m for standard gauge.

60
 For Broad Gauge for a maximum speed of 350 kmph, it is proposed to
adopt minimum curvature as 1000m. However, due to constraints at few
locations near important bridges, stations etc radius of curvature to be
adopted may be 5000m. On such location suitable speed restrictions shall
be imposed.
6.11 Gradient:
The topographical conditions usually require some kind of vertical-
longitudinal gradients, along the way. Building bridges and tunnels is a very
expensive way to manage the topography constraints. In particular heavy
railway traffic has problems to overcome large longitudinal gradients.
Therefore restrictions for the amount of gradient are needed. The following
requirements need to be considered because they have an effect on railway
traffic.
- The power supply and energy consumption will increase with large
gradients.
- Braking distances increase for high-speed in an descending
gradients.
Thus, large gradients result, principally, in heavier locomotives,
increased locomotive power, and/or reduced speed and line capacity,
and/or requirement of higher braking capacity, and/or larger signalling
distances.
According to TSI, gradients as steep as 35%o shall be allowed for
main tracks at the design phase, provided the following requirements are
met:
- The slope of the sliding average profile over 10 km is less than or
equal to 25%o;
- The maximum length of continuous 35%o gradient does not
exceed 6 km.
Those recommended limiting values shown above apply only to high-
speed lines dedicated to passenger traffic. Exceptions are made for France,
which already has gradients up to 40%o on one line (Paris-Sud-Est).
Furthermore, the new line between Cologne and Frankfurt is also using
gradients as high as 40%o.
Banverket (Sweden) prescribes a largest permissible gradient of 10%o on
track with heavy freight trains. 12.5%o can be permitted if the mean value does
not exceed 10%o over each kilometer. On track with only passengers trains and
light freight trains higher values may be allowed.

61
 DB (Germany)have prescribed a largest permissible gradient of 12.5%o
for mixed traffic main lines. For commuter lines and secondary lines. the
maximum gradient is 40%o. Also, in the new-build high-speed lines the higher
gradient 40%o is used. Normally for high speed passenger corridors EMUs are
used for faster acceleration and deceleration.
6.11.1 Ruling Gradient:
Though the steeper gradients are allowed on high speed lines than
the conventional lines but considering the possibility of using existing locos
and coaches on the high-speed corridor for running of long existing
passenger trains also a gradient of 1 in 150 has been considered for the
design of high speed corridor.
6.12 Vertical Curve radius:
Introduction of vertical curves at the junction between two gradients
(whether the junction is a summit or sag) is a highly desirable feature from
two considerations.
a) Safety against off-loading of axles
b) Passenger comfort
However comfort is the primary consideration, similar to the lateral
acceleration to which passengers are subjected while transversing a horizontal
curve, passengers are subjected to vertical acceleration while vehicles
negotiate vertical curves. This vertical acceleration (up ward in the case of
summit and downward in the case of sags) causes discomfort to the passengers
if its intensity exceeds some specified limits. The limits have been laid down as
0.3 to 0.45 m/sec2 according to the UIC Master Plan and can be accepted as a
general guide line for design of vertical curves.
The radius of the vertical curve can be worked out based on the
following relationship between speed of the vehicle, radius of the vertical
curve and permissible value of vertical acceleration.

where Rv = radius of vertical curve in meters

V = Speed of the vehicle in M/sec
av = permissible vertical acceleration in m/sec2
It is suggested that the minimum radius of vertical curves on the
Indian Railways should be laid down in such a way that equivalent vertical
acceleration gets limited to 0.3m/sec2. If vertical curves are provided with this

62
consideration, then in addition to ensuring comfort to passenger, it will also
ensure that off loading of wheels is kept well within acceptable limits on
summits. Vertical curves do not have much of significant at lower speed but at
high speed they have great significance and must be accurately provided.
As per Banverket (Sweden) regulation the vertical curve radius
shall be in accordance to the following equation.
Rmin>0.16V2
Minimum vertical curve radius as per Banverket (Sweden)
regulation

Speed 200 250 280 300 330 350

km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Minimum vertical 6400 10000 12544 14400 17424 19600
radius [m]

Banverket prescribes in their handbook a recommended vertical curve

radius:
Rec>0.25(1.3V)2
Recommended vertical curve radius as per Banverket (Sweden)
regulation

Speed 200 250 280 300 330 350

km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h km/h
Recommended 16900 26500 33200 38100 46100 51800
vertical curve
radius [m]

As per Germany regulation vertical curve radius are as follows:

Design value for vertical curve radius as per Germany regulation
Without permission
Recommended minimum value Rv = 0.4 V2
Limit value Rv = 0.25 V2
Permission necessary
Rv = 0.16 V2 on a crest
Rv = 0.13 V2 in a hollow
Rv ≥ 2000 m

63
As per CEN standard limiting values of vertical acceleration and Radius are
as follows: .
Limit values of vertical acceleration (CEN standard)

Traffic Mixed traffic Mixed traffic High-speed

categories lines designed lines with lines with
for passenger passenger passenger
train train speeds traffic
200< V < 300 V < 230 250 < V < 300
Recommended 0.22 0.22 0.22
limiting value
[mm]
Maximum limiting 0.44 0.31 0.44
value [mm]
Limit values of vertical acceleration (CEN standard)
Traffic Mixed traffic Mixed traffic High-speed
categories lines designed lines with lines with
for passenger passenger passenger
train train speeds traffic
200< V < 300 V < 230 250 < V < 300
Recommended 0.35V2 0.35V2 0.35V2
limiting value
[mm]
Maximum limiting 0.175V2 0.25V2 0.175V2
value [mm]
6.13 Track geometry comparison in tunnels :
Comparison of latest provided Track Geometry in CTRL 2 section and TGV
Moditerran Section are given in the following table:

Track parameters CTRL Section 2 TGV Moditerran

Maximum cant 156mm 160mm
Normal cant deficiency 85mm 110mm
Normal minimal radius of 21000 m 16000 m
vertical curve
Exceptional minimal radius of 19000 m 14000 m
vertical curve
Horizontal radius of curve 6000 m 4000 m

64
6.14 Recommendation of RITES for Mumbai –Ahmedabad high
speed corridor:
RITES in their feasibility report for Mumbai - Ahmedabad Corriodor has
suggested track geometry parameters, described belows.
a) Gauge: The high speed trains will run on double line dedicated tracks
which will have inter-connection with Western Railway main line tracks at
Vadodara and Surat. Considering the proposal to operate other fast express
trains such as Rajdhani, Shatabdi etc on the same track, Broad Gauge track
is proposed along the dedicated corridor.
b) Speed Potential: The high-speed corridor has been designed for a
maximum speed of 270 kmph, so that conventional express trains running
at speeds of 100 Kmph or more can also use the same track.
c) Ruling Gradient: Though the steeper gradients are allowed on high
speed lines than the conventional lines but considering the possibility of
using existing locos and coaches for plying of existing Rajdhani/ Shatabdi
trains also on the high-speed corridor, a gradient of 1 in 150 has been
considered for the design of high speed corridor.
d) Curves: For Broad Gauge it is proposed to adopt minimum curvature
as 5000 m. However, due to constraints at few locations near important
bridges, stations etc. radius of curvature to be adopted may be less than
5000 m. On such location suitable speed restrictions shall be imposed.
e) Maximum cant, Cant deficiency, Cant Excess, Cant Gradient:
In order to run he existing locos and coaches on high speed corridor, it is
proposed to keep these parameters as same as recommended for group `A'
routes. Thus these parameters shall be as under:
i. Maximum Cant: 165 mm
ii. Maximum Cant deficiency: 100 mm
iii. Maximum Cant excess: 75 mm
iv. Maximum Cant Gradient: 1 in 720
These parameters are not very much justified in context with the
parameters derived for Broad gauge track, on the basis of High Speed
experience on standard gauge world wide.

65
6.15 Track Geometry parameters which may be considered for
Indian High Speed Corridor
Track geometry parameters has been discussed in detail from para 6.4 to
6.12 of this chapter. Parameters desired for High Speed Corridor on Broad
Gauge track has also been arrived at, where ever possible. The gist of all
the track geometry parameters (recommended and exceptional) derived in
Para (6.4 to 6.12) for Broad Gauge High Speed Corridors are enumerated in
the table below. They are differing from the proposed parameter by RITES.
These parameters may be adopted for Broad gauge High Speed Corridor in
India.

Track geometry parameter Recommended Exceptional

Value Values
Track gauge 1673 mm —
Track Cant (Maximum) 200 mm 220 mm
Cant Deficiency 100 mm 125 mm
Cant excess 100 mm 150 mm
Cant gradient 1 in 720 1 in 360
Rate of changed cant & 35 mm/sec 50 mm/sec
cant deficiency
Maximum speed 350 kmph —
Minimum speed 140 kmph —
Horizontal curve radium 7000 m 5000 m
Gradient (maximum) 1 in 150 1 in 100
Vertical curve radius 19600 m 51800 m
(minimum) in meter
max
Length of transition L1 = 0.008Ca V
Curve (minimum) = L2 = 0.008Cd Vmax
Maximum of L,1 L 2& L 3 L3 = 0.72 Ca



66
 Chapter - 7
Characteristics of the Transverse
Section and the Infrastructure
7.1 Formation width:
The typical transverse sections of leading world railway are given in
Table-7.1. It can be seen that the most significant parameters from the
point of view of the increase in speed are the distance between the track
centre lines, the cross sectional area of the tunnels and the position of the
walkways for the maintenance staff.
Table-7.1: Comparison of the cross section of high speed lines:

Railway SNCF SNCF DB AG FS GIF SNCB

Speed (km/h) 300 350 300 300 350 320
Distance between track 4.5 5.0 4.5 5.0 4.7 4.5
centre lines (m)
L (Half Width of 6.95 7.40 6.05 6.80 7.00 6.96
Subgrade) (m)
E (half Distance between 2.25 2.50 2.25 2.50 2.35 2.25
track centre lines) (m)
D (Safety Distance) (m) 2.30 2.50 2.20 2.80 2.95 2.91
P. Walk Way (work Zone) (m) 1.40 1.40 8.00 0.70 0.90 0.80

7.1.1 The general geometrical characteristics of the new lines given in

table 7.1.1 for different world railways gives an idea for deciding the
transverse section.
Table-7.1.1: Design criteria for some infrastructure parameters:
Country
Parameter France Germany Italy Spain Belgium STI
Speed in Kmph 300 350 300 350 300 350 300 350 320 350
Minimum distance 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.0 4.3 4.7 4.5 4.5
between track
centre lines (m)

67
 Country
Parameter France Germany Italy Spain Belgium STI
Speed in Kmph 300 350 300 350 300 350 300 350 320 350
Width of 13.9 14.2 12.1 13.3 13.6 13.6 13.3 14 13.9 —
subgrade (m)
Section of tunnels
for double track 70 100 92 103 82 100 75 100 150 103
(m)2
Distance from the
side of the service
track to the 3.00 3.00 2.21 2.71 2.15 — 2.21 2.72 2.75 —
external side of
the rail (m)

RITES has proposed bank formation of 12.20m width with 2H:1V side
slope with minimum bank height as 2.5m for Mumbai – Ahmedabad high
Speed Corridor.
Formation width for conventional B.G. double line track being
adopted in India is 12.155m for embankment and 11.555m for cutting.
It may be desirable to adopt 14.5m formation width for B.G. high
speed corridor for B.G. high speed corridor in India.
7.2 Distance between Track Centre Lines :
The most significant parameters from the point of view of the
increase of speed are the distance between track centre lines (with
economic implications that can be expensive), the cross section of tunnels
and the position of the paths for maintenance staff (an extremely important
point for safety).
Wide spacing between the lines is important for high-speed track
because when two trains pass each other, the speed difference can be as
much as 700 Km/h. If two trains are too close together, there is burst of air
pressure when they first pass and then a drop of pressure between the
carriages. Although this is not enough to push the trains off the track,
repeated stress on the windows may cause fatigue, which result in
breakage of window glasses. Wider spacing between tracks has economic
implications. Minimum distance between track centre adopted by some of
the high-speed networks using standard gauge is given in table 7.1.1.

68
 The STI specifies a minimum distance of 4.50 metres for standard
gauge between track centre lines ( for speeds greater than 300 km/h). This
value could be decreased and adapted according to the performance levels
and could be 4.20 m if 250 < V = 300 km/h and 4.0 m if speed V = 250 km/h.
Different railways have adopted figures that are in some cases
different without the reasons being clear in every case.
The economic implications can be considerable if the transverse
section is increased. Studies show that an increase of 30cm in the width of
the sub-grade would involve an increase in cost of the civil engineering
works by 1%.
Track distance most frequently used in Sweden is 4.50 metres,
although there are exceptions in both directions.
Indian Railways adopt spacing of 5.30m between tracks of broad
gauge for new construction projects, which may be considered as sufficient
for high speed routes also up to 350km/h.
7.3 Tunnels :
The cost of construction of tunnels are much higher as compared to
cutting and embankment construction. But tunnels are unavoidable due to
curvature and gradient constraints especially for high speeds alignments
where site conditions are not feasible. In high speed routes, sharp curves
are not desirable and therefore, change in alignments will be further
restricted. In such cases it is inescapable to have tunnel in the alignment.
Some times, for high speed routes, artificial tunnels are required in thickly
populated areas to avoid noise pollution in surroundings.
In the part of the Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI)
which deals with the infrastructure parameters, it is important to mention
that the section of tunnels must meet the criteria for the maximum
variations of pressure allowable. For this reason it is specified that tunnels
should be designed so that the maximum pressure variation that exists
along an interoperable train should not exceed 10 kPa while the train is
running through the tunnel at the maximum permitted speed.
This restriction is for the case where the sealing system fails and the
values are based on consideration of the health of the passengers not on
their comfort.
In the two track tunnels of mixed traffic lines, the running of freight
trains raises two problems the aerodynamic effects and safety in the case of
an accident. This is why it is necessary to consider the reduction of speed of
high speed trains in tunnels or to avoid mixed traffic at the same time and to

69
organize the running of freight trains and highs speed trains at different
times of the day.
The lining of tunnels is favourable from the point of view of the
aerodynamic effects.
The question of the safety of trains running inside tunnels must be
dealt with by UIC from the point of view of the infrastructure, as well as
their suitability for the emergency cases.
In view of this, a question to discuss is that of the permissible length for
tunnels, the maximum length in double track . It appears that the present
trend is to build independent tunnels for reasons of safety, for speeds above
300 km/h with internal connection for two way working, emergency exits.
Geometry of Tunnels will be guided under the influence of various
features discussed here:-
Tunnel cross sections on high speed lines will be guided by the
aerodynamic phenomena in the tunnel during passing of trains with other
structural and dimensional features.
Air compression waves generate while passing the trains through the
tunnel at very high speed and therefore the aerodynamic air drag is
considerably higher than in the open air. Tunnel air friction will also play a
considerable role in pressure variation along the length of tunnel.
When train enters into the tunnel with very high speed, a compression
wave is formed at the entrance of the tunnel. This compression wave
propagates inside the tunnel and when it reaches at the exit, a portion of it
radiates outside as a pulsed compression wave. The pressure gradient of
the compression wave at the tunnel entrance is related with cubic of the
train speed. This causes the generation of micro pressure waves which is
proportional to pressure gradient These micro pressure waves cause
explosive sound during the entry and exit of train in tunnel with heavy
vibrations in train doors.
To reduce this effect, tunnel hoods are specially designed with
pressure release shafts. The diameter of the hood is kept 1.4 to 1.5 times of
the diameter of tunnel. This is also advisable to provide separate tunnels for
separate lines to avoid the combined effect of micro pressure waves due to
simultaneous passing of trains.
At high speeds, airwaves are generated inside the tunnels, which can
be detrimental to the health of passengers. To mitigate all these issues,
following features become essential requirement during the design of
tunnels:-

70
  Increased cross-sectional area of the tunnel to reduce the
sharpness of aerodynamic forces. Excess aerodynamic forces and
generation of air compression waves have adverse effect on safety
of trains besides requiring extra tractive efforts.
 Avoiding double line tunnels. During simultaneous passing of trains
on double lines in tunnel, aerodynamic air drag will be considerably
higher.
 Operating only air sealed coaches to prevent interface of airwaves of
tunnel with the coach inside. Compressed airwaves generated
during passing of trains through tunnels are detrimental to
passenger health.
 Provision of pressure release shafts along the tunnels and Provision
of pressure release shafts along the tunnels and specially designed
tunnel hoods as required.
Special shape of the tunnel entrance is designed to smoothen the
application of aerodynamic forces during entry of train into the
tunnel. Train's bow is also designed streamline to reducethe
aerodynamic drag
A combination of above things is adopted depending upon the
requirements. Existing clearances are to be checked for new high speed
tracks.
7.3.1 Avoidance of Tunnels:
Generally speaking engineers try and avoid tunnels on high speed
lines. This is because a train causes large pressure changes when it enters
a tunnel at speed. This can be painful and harmful to passengers'
eardrums. A solution to this was to pressure seal trains as with the TGV
Reseau. However with very high speed trains (350km/h) the pressure
changes can be so large that it can shatter the windows, particularly when
two trains pass in opposite directions in a tunnel with a closing speed of
700km/h in a confined space. However German and Italian high speed
lines include tunnels but they have subsequent speed restrictions. As a
result the best average speeds along German (200km/h) and Italian
(165km/h) lines are considerably lower than in France (254km/h) and
Japan (262km/h), and even a British conventional railway outperforms the
Italian high speed line in terms of speed with an average of (180km/h)
between London and York.

71
7.3.2 A Case study: Construction of Channel Tunnel Rail link
section-2 in London (CTRL-2):
In selecting a route into London – section 2 – it was concluded that a
tunnel was the only realistic option. The cost and risk of a surface railway
running at high-speed through a densely built up urban area ruled it out. Safety
has been at the heart of the design of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL)
Project in London – now called as High speed I – but perhaps nowhere more so
than in the complex section 2 of the route, more than half of which is in tunnel.
The open route is traditional ballast and some sleeper construction, identical to
the already open section 1. The track in all these tunnels is slab track, utilising
booted twin block sleepers cast into a concrete slab. The boots are rubberised
to minimize ground borne vibration and have varying stiffness, dependant on
the location.
7.3.3 CTRL-2 Tunnel Design Concept:
A long tunnel, and originally the tunnel route was 20km long,
considered to be unsafe, unless it had a service tunnel and or escape shafts
at 1 km spacing, which also made it too expensive and very difficult to find
shaft sites. The solution was found by splitting the tunnel into two elements
with an open section approximately 1 km long in the middle, at Stratford.
The Stratford box was necessary to provide an open air escape facility for
the long tunnel. The box also provided a site for high speed cross over to
replicate the cross-over caverns of the Channel Tunnel, thus allowing one
section of the tunnel to be closed for maintenance or incident, with bi-
directional running in the adjacent bore. This way the maximum length of
tunnel became 10 km and it was possible to show that shafts at 3 km
separation and cross passages at 375m between the two bores provided
passenger escape facilities were adequate to deal with emergencies. Unlike
the Channel Tunnel, a service tunnel is not required as the non-incident
tunnel is used to provide a place of relative safety, a safe haven. It is
suggested that the CTRL design is safer than the existing railways and tube
lines, and safer than alternative modes of travel, as a place of relative safety
is provided (the cross passing and non-incident tunnel), unlike on airlines
and ferries, they do not provide an escape route at 10 000m up or in mid-
Channel.
7.3.4 Cross passage spacing in CTRL-2 Tunnel:
A very significant decision in terms of cost benefit was the distance
between cross passages. The original intention was to provide cross
passage spacing at 375m nominal intervals as per the Channel Tunnel,
however the Jubilee line and Heathrow Express tunnels, which are of

72
similar design to the CTRL, provide escape points at 1000m intervals. Using
data from early risk analysis of cross-passage spacing schemes, it was
noted that, as cross spacing was increased up to 1200m, there was a
negligible increase in safety risk to tunnels users. However due to other
considerations, such as the maximum distance that a fireman could walk
using breathing apparatus, and the requirement to allow flexibility in the
selection of locations and ground conditions where the cross passages
were to be dug by hand, it was decided to focus on a maximum distance of
750m. In terms of safety benefit, the additional cost of providing cross-
passages at 375m spacing was grossly disproportionate compared to the
benefits gained. Spacing at 750m provided the optimum safety benefit at
least cost.

Fig.7.3.4 : Cross-passages between the tunnel bores at

maximum 750m intervals
7.3.5 Ventilation in CTRL-2 tunnel – normal operation:
The ventilation control system (VCS) uses specially developed
software to provide comprehensive control, monitoring and reporting for
the equipment that controls the movement of air in the London and Thames
tunnels. It also monitors the position of each cross-passage door during
normal operation and whether it is locked as mandated during engineering
work to prevent accidental access into the tunnel that is open for normal
train operation. Normally the passage of trains provides sufficient
ventilation to the long, twin bored, London and Thames tunnels. If during
normal operations one or more trains are perceived to be stationary or

73
moving very slowly, the operator can select automatic supplementary
ventilation mode.
This mode is provided by jet fans operating in the direction opposite to
train travel, to pass air over stationary or slow moving trains in a tunnel
bore. This is done automatically when the VCS detects any train moving less
than 10km/h (from track circuit occupancy data) and will be switched off
when all trains are moving at more than 20 km/h.
No ventilation system is provided in the North Down and Pepper Hill
tunnels. Being single bore twin track tunnels, they are considered to be of
sufficiently large cross section to permit natural ventilation.

Fig. 7.3.5 Bi-directional jet fans at the London tunnel portals

automatically pressurize the non-incident tunnel during an
emergency, allowing passengers to escape along the evacuation
walkway (right) without risk of smoke following them
7.3.6 Design Challenges in CTRL-2 Tunnel - Tunnel Track design:
Section 2 of CTRL is unique in that it spends most of its length under a major
city, rather than doing either round it or joining existing lines into it. Most
major cities have very little, if any, space for expansion of over ground
railway lines, leaving just three options; use existing corridors, go under, or
create an out-of-city parkway station with light rail transit into the centre.
CTRL goes under emerging just over 1 km from the buffers of the terminus.
From a design point of view, this is a major challenge, threading through
existing underground infrastructure and, more importantly, not impacting
on the people living above, either during construction or in the life of the
railway. This means innovative use of a track system that delivers the high

74
speeds necessary but with minimal radiated noise or vibration. On CTRL
this was achieved with a slab track system, similar to the one used on LGV
Mediterran, but with an incredibly soft pad system having a dynamic
stiffness of 10 MN/m per block as opposed to the 35MN/m used on the
SNCF line. This has the effect of significantly damping the radiated vibration
but may impact ongoing rail life with predicted life reduced by about 30%.
7.3.7 Slab / ballast transitions CTRL-2 Tunnel:
While slab is used throughout the London tunnels and under the Thames,
the ends of the tunnels have transitions to ballast either side, including for
the 1.5km through Stratford station. These transitions are designed to
minimise the maintenance effect of settlement of the ballast under load.
This is achieved by using a reduced ballast side (nominally 250mm) with an
increasing depth until the full depth is achieved. This restricts the possible
ballast compaction under load while still allowing for tamping. Adjustable
fastenings either side of the transition allow small changes in level to be
accounted for locally (up to 16mm of settlement can be accommodated as a
maximum). Under sleeper pads and a ballast mat are also included to
create the necessary system characteristics, moving from the dynamic
stiffness of the slab, to that of 'normal' open route track.

Slab Track Ballasted Track

Typical Adjustable fastenings Reduced thickness of Increased thickness of Ballast

Slab Track (20 m) Ballast (25 cm) (from 25 to 45 cm)

35 cm

Sleepers with Polyurethane pads

and adjustable fastenings (20 m) Typical
thickness of
Ballast
(45 cm)
Ballast Mat

Fig.7.3.7: Slab/Ballasted transition

75
7.3.8 Comparison of the construction of three tunnels is shown in
table 7.3.8 :
Table No.7.3.8 Tunnel Track Design

Description SATEBA System

Mitigation level TGV S1 S3

Mediterrance (Thames (London
tunnel) tunnels)
Sleeper Type SATEBA SAT SATEBA SAT SATEBA
S312 NAT S312 V SAT S312 V
Description Twin-Block Twin-Block Twin-Block
Length of one
concrete block 660 660 660
(lower part)(mm)
Height below 215 215 215
rail seat (mm)
Complete length of
the sleeper (mm) 2250 2298 2298
Sleeper/Block
Mass (kg/sleeper) 186 186 186
Rail pad thickness
(mm) 10 9 9
Sleeper resilient
pad vertical 35 32 10
dynamic stiffness (thickness (Thickness (Thickness
(MN/m pr block) 12 mm) 12 mm) 16 mm)
Second stage
concrete thickness 150 (average) 174 180
(mm)
7.4 Safety of Maintenance Staff :
An extremely important question for the safety of maintenance staff
is that of the distance between the internal side of the service track and the
external side of the rail. Once again a wide range of criteria were found for
the specification of this parameter.
The STIs specify that trainsets at 250 km/h shall not cause an
unacceptable slipstream on people 2 meters away.

76
 For high speeds, each railway must consider the possibility of
introducing additional precautions, such as higher distances screens, etc.
7.5 Bridges :
Bridges as well as bridge approaches are the vulnerable points, where
a thorough analysis for structural adequacy is required in view of running of
high speed trains from safety and comfort criteria.
It is proposed to forbid the placing of piers close to points. In addition
it seems advisable to provide protection for the columns in underground
stations adjacent to high speed lines due to the possibility of derailments.
The design of long viaducts must aim (as far as possible) to reduce the
number of expansion devices (or even to do away, with them completely),
which also raises problems for maintenance
7.5.1 Dynamic effects on Bridges :
After the first high speed lines were taken into service, problems were
experienced on certain bridges due to the appearance of defects in the
ballast bed which caused destabilizations of the track and the deterioration
of its geometry. This implied a certain risk for trains in service.
A detailed study of this problem showed that it was associated with
vertical accelerations of the deck (of the order of 0.7g to 0.8g) caused by
trains running at certain speeds (not necessarily the maximum speeds).
The bridges were designed in accordance with the UIC 71 load cases
and UIC Leaflet 776-1.
The theoretical and experimental analysis of this question showed:
a) With vertical accelerations of the order of 0.7g to 0.8g, the ballast
tends to be reduced to a liquid and as a result loses its capacity to
resist the loads applied on the track.
b) The introduction of an elastic mat between the deck and the ballast
increased the accelerations in the ballast and, as a result, made
this problem worse.
c) Accelerations of the order of 1.0 g on decks which do not have
ballast (directly laid track) can reduce the Q forces of the wheel-rail
contact down to acceptable limits (even to wheel lifting off the
rail).
d) The regular and repeated distribution of the wheel sets of high
speed train sets in certain speed ranges can produce resonance

77
 situations in the deck, with large amplifications, both in the
deflections and in the vertical accelerations.
e) Among the actual trains that have been used for the definition of
the UIC 71 load cases, and the dynamic coefficient to be applied,
only one train (300 km/h turbo train) reached the speed indicated.
This train was made up of two vehicles, with a total length of 38.4
metres, and 8 axles each loaded to 170kN. Modern high speed
train sets can be up to 400 metres long (according to the STIs) and
have total weight of 10 000 kN, with speeds in excess of 300 km/h.
As a result it is essential to check, when the civil engineering works are
designed, how the railway structures which have to carry the high speed
trains will behave. In particular it is necessary to check that :
1) The vertical acceleration on the track bed of ballasted track will not
exceed the value of 0.35g (with a safety factor of 2) in the
frequency range below 20 Hz.
2) The vertical acceleration on the track bed of non-ballasted track
will not exceed the value of 0.5g (with a safety factor of 2) in the
frequency range below 20 Hz.
These checks must be done for the trains specified.
The new high speed lines are particularly sensitive to the
transitions between earthworks and the civil engineering structures
(bridges, viaducts and tunnels). These are a delicate points of the
infrastructure which can have two types of problems, subsidence and
change of stiffness. The subsidence problems are normally associated with
different amounts of setting between the two types of structure which
affect the longitudinal level. This gives rise to additional maintenance costs,
mainly in the first few years of operation of the line. After this the problem
reduces. The change of vertical stiffness is directly affected by the speed
and is due to an increase in the Q forces in the interaction between wheel
and rail, deterioration of the track and ballast and also the increase in
maintenance costs. It also affects passenger comfort.
The problem also occurs on non-ballasted track.
There are several solutions to this problem, especially on the basis
of the use of selected and / or treated granular materials (technical blocks)
with variable geometry, composition and dimensions depending on the
country. The costs of construction are generally high. Given the large
number of civil engineering works in new high speed lines, it appears

78
advisable to carefully consider the solutions and dimensions necessary for
these transition items.
7.5.2 Bridges design criteria: RITES report for proposed high
speed corridor between Ahmedabad and Mumbai :
Identified the following Design Criteria for bridges proposed to form
part of the HSR so as to maintain the safety of operation and to ensure the
comfort of passengers:
(i) Vertical acceleration of the deck;
(ii) Twist of the deck
(iii) Rotation at the end of the deck;
(iv) Horizontal deflection of the deck (for curve alignment).
(v) If the train speed is higher than 220 km/hr or the natural
frequency of the structure is outside the specified limits, the deck
vertical acceleration shall be checked to ensure the stability of the
ballast. It is derived in the transient dynamic analysis under
actual trainloads with only one track loaded.
7.5.3 Introduction to Bridge design for HSR in India:
The classical way to take into account the dynamic effects in bridge
design being used in Indian Railways is to use a dynamic factor (based on
few dynamical parameters) and to multiply all static effects (deflection,
moments, stresses etc.) with this dynamic factor. However, detailed
dynamic analysis has confirmed that this method does not cover some
resonance effects caused due to excitation caused by high-speed rails with
regularly spaced bogies. High Speed Railway Vehicles, crossing long span
bridges or multi span viaducts produce much higher displacements and
accelerations of bridge superstructure as compared to the loads acting
statically.
These effects increase rapidly with speed and have become well
known in design of high-speed railway structures. The consequences of
increase of displacements and indeed those of accelerations are two fold.
Force resultants, stresses and deformation of Bridge structure increase
rapidly with train speeds and loading models may become inaccurate or
under estimate the effects of real train vehicles. In addition, the bridge deck
accelerations may exceed the values at which track ballast looses its
cohesion and behaves as liquid leading to instability of long welded rails. On
other hand, deformations and accelerations of superstructure may on their
turn be transmitted to the train cars. Interference of the train car

79
movement with these time dependent quantities cause increasing resulting
train car accelerations and discomfort to passengers. As a consequence,
passengers can feel nauseated.
To account for the above the bridges shall be designed for Modified
Broad Gauge loading of Indian Railways as per existing norms of Indian
Railways and checked for various serviceability limits for actual High Speed
Rail vehicle loading. In absence of any guidelines from Indian Railways for
high-speed lines, European Standards (EN1991-2) shall be used to account
for dynamic behaviour of bridges.
7.5.4 Design Criteria:
a) Serviceability Criteria for Bridges:
For railway bridges, it is necessary to consider specific additional
criteria in order to check the deformations and displacements of
the bridge decks.
The requirements limiting the deformation of structures carrying
rail traffic to maintain the safety of operation and to ensure the
comfort of passengers are:
i. Vertical acceleration of the deck;.
ii. Twist of the deck
iii. Rotation at the end of the deck;
iv. Horizontal deflection of the deck (for curve alignment).
It is also necessary to ensure that any deformations remain within
the elastic limits of the materials used.
b) Design Requirement for Train Speeds < 220 km/hr:
This section specifies the limits of deformation and acceleration to
be considered in the design of bridges for the train speeds up to
220 km/m.
 Vertical Acceleration of the Deck
When the train speed V is less than 220 km/hr and the natural
frequency of the structure is within specified limits, excessive
acceleration is unlikely to occur.
Nevertheless, for some values of deflection excessive accelerations
can occur. As a first approach it is recommended that the limits of
deflection, given in the table of subsection below, should be
satisfied.

80
 Twist of the Deck
The twist of the bridge deck is to be calculated under actual high
speed train loading multiplied by the dynamic factor.

The maximum twist measured over a length of 3 m of the track gauge

S shall not exceed the following values.

Train speed - V (km/hr) Maximum twist “t”

V < 120 t < 4.5 mm / 3m
120 < V < 220 t < 3.0 mm / 3m

 Rotations at the End of the Deck for Ballasted Tracks

The angular rotations at the end of the deck under actual high speed train
loading multiplied by the dynamic factor and combined with differential
temperature loading shall be limited to values given in Table 7.5.4.1.

Table 7.5.4.1: Limiting Rotation

 (rad) 1 + 2 (rad)
Type of bridge for transition between between two
the deck and the adjacent consecutive decks
earthwork

Single track bridges 6.5 x 10 - 3 10 x 10 - 3

Double track bridges 3.5 x 10 - 3 5 x 10 - 3

81
 Horizontal Deflection of the Deck
For the curved alignment, the horizontal deflection of the deck h, shall be
checked for:
- Actual high speed train load multiplied by the dynamic factor
- wind loads
- nosing loads and
- centrifugal forces.
The limit values of the angular variation h and the horizontal curvature
radius R = L² / (8 h), are given as in Table 7.5.4.2
Table 7.5.4.2: Limiting angular variation

Train speed Maximum Minimum radius of curvature (m)

angular
V (km/hr) Single deck Multi-deck bridge
variation
(rad)

V < 120 0.0035 1,700 3,500

120 < V < 220 0.0020 6,000 9,500

 Vertical Deflection of the Deck

The limiting values for the maximum vertical deflection are governed by the
comfort of passengers and the train speed. Passenger comfort as classified
in Table 7.5.4.3 is a function of the vertical acceleration inside the coach
during travel.
Table 7.5.4.3: Passenger comfort

Level of comfort Vertical acceleration

Very good 1.0 m/s²
Good 1.3 m/s²
Acceptable 2.0 m/s²

To ensure passenger comfort, the maximum vertical deflection (d) of

railway bridges, under UIC 71 loads has been established as a function of
the span length L and the train speed V. The ratio d/L shall not exceed the
values given in Table 7.5.4.4.

82
 Table 7.5.4.4: Limiting Vertical Deflection

Train speed Span L (m)

V (km/hr) L < 15 15 < L 30 < L 50 < L 90 < L
< 30 < 50 <90 < 120
V < 120 1/800 1/900 1/800 1/600 1/600
120 < V < 160 1/900 1/1200 1/1200 1/800 1/600
160 < V < 200 1/1000 1/1400 1/1500 1/1300 1/600
200 < V < 280 1/1200 1/1500 1/2100 1/2100 1/1400

The values in the table are established for successive simply supported
structure, with the number of span “n” > 3 and a maximum vertical
acceleration of 1.0 m/s².
The limiting values should be multiplied by:
- factor of 1.1 for continuous structures
- factor of 2.0 for structures with 1 span and
- factor of 1.5 for structure with 2 spans
- limiting vertical acceleration when greater than 1 m/s².
In no case, should the maximum deflection exceed L/600 for single track
and L/800 for double track.
c) Requirements for Train Speeds > 220 km/hr :
In addition of the criteria applicable for train speeds up to 220 km/hr, the
following additional analysis and checks shall be performed. If the train
speed is higher than 220 km/hr or the natural frequency of the structure is
outside the specified limits, the deck vertical acceleration shall be checked
to ensure the stability of the ballast. It is derived in the transient dynamic
analysis under actual trainloads with only one track loaded.
·Need for dynamic Analysis
The EN 1991 –2 standard gives a flow chart (Fig.7.5.4.1), which helps to
decide whether dynamic analysis is required. All bridges where the
Maximum Line Speed is greater than 200 Km/hr, dynamic analysis shall be
carried out. Dynamic analysis shall also be performed where train speed is
less than 200 Km/hr, but the natural frequency of structure is not within
upper & lower limits of Fig. 7.5.4.2.

83
 START

yes
V < 200 km/h

no Continuous yes
bridge (5)

no Simple
structure (1)

yes

yes
L > 40m

no n within yes
no limits of figure
6.10 (6)

no yes
n > 1.2 n

For the dynamic analysis Use Table F1 and F2 (2)

use the eigenforms for
torsion and for bending

Eigenforms no yes
v/n ( v/n ) lim
for bending
(2) (3) (7)
sufficient

Dynamic analysis required Dynamic analysis not required.

Calculation bridge deck At resonance acceleration check
acceleration and p etc and fatigue check not required.
in accordance with 6.4.6 use Ø with static analysis in
(note 4) accordance

Flow chart for determining weather a dynamic analysis is required

Fig. 7.5.4.1 – Need for dynamic analysis

84
Frequency
Natural

[Hz]

40

20
Upper limit of
natural frequency

10
8

4
Lower limit of
natural frequency

Span
1
2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100 L [m]

Fig 7.5.4.2 – Limits of bridge natural frequency n0 [Hz] as a

function of L (m)
The parameters of this chart are the following:
- maximum speed of the line
- simplicity of the structure;
- span
- first natural bending frequency n0
- first natural torsional frequency nT
For high speed lines, for simply supported structures where L > 40m and n0
within limits of Fig 7.5.4.2, no dynamic analysis is required.
Dynamic calculations will be carried out in order to verify that the dynamic
effects of train traffic are covered by the dynamic factor F and to determine

85
the acceleration and displacement of deck under the actual trainloads.
1) When the train speed is higher than 220 km/hr.
A dynamic analysis of bridge under actual trainloads is to be performed.
The dynamic effect factor is:
F r= Max [stat /dyn] for 0 < V < Vmax
- If r actual load < 2 UIC load, the bridge must be designed
considering V< 220 km/hr
- If r actual load > 2 UIC load, r with actual train load will
be considered or the structure will be redesigned for finding
r actual load < 2 x UIC load.
2) When the natural frequency of the structure is not within the upper &
lower limits, even if V < 220 km/hr, a dynamic analysis of bridge under UIC
loads is to be done. The dynamic effect factor, in this case, is determined by
following expression:
r = Max [stat / dyn]
If r > 2, r will be used instead 2 or the structure will be redesigned.
 Structure Displacement
Under traction and braking forces, including reduction factors, the relative
longitudinal movement between two decks or between one deck and the
abutment shall be limited to:
- 5 mm, without a rail expansion joint
- 30 mm, with a rail expansion joint.
Under seismic actions, the relative longitudinal movement between two
decks or between one deck and the abutment shall be limited to:
- 25 mm, without a rail expansion joint
- 100 mm, with a rail expansion joint.
 Rail Structure Interaction
The continuous welded rail is stressed by temperature variations and by
local loads due to the train wheels. This governs:
i. The possible locations of the structural expansion joints;
ii. The maximum rotation of the bridges at the structural expansion joints;
iii. The possible displacements under traction/braking forces and the
rigidity (sizes, shapes) of foundations, pier shafts and bearings.

86
In general it is desirable to limit the number of expansion joints in the rails
and this may require the introduction of additional joints in the structure.
There is a limit to the relative longitudinal movement that can be tolerated
between the deck and the rail and this is one of the criteria that governs the
position of structural joints.
The structural expansion length of the deck is the distance from the
structural joint to the centre of deck expansion. The combined expansion
length at a joint is the sum of the expansion lengths of the two decks (one
only for an abutment) which meet at the joint.
For continuous tracks, without any rail joints or turnouts, the structural
expansion length shall be limited to:
- 60 m for steel structures supporting ballasted track without special rail
attachments;
- 90 m for concrete or composite carrying ballasted track.
 Track Behaviour
The resistance of the track against longitudinal displacements is a function
of the displacement of rails relative to its supporting structure. Bi-linear
conditions, compatible to that of Pandrol fastening system, shall be
considered as representing track resistance. These conditions are shown in
the figure below:

Loaded Track
Resistance k of the track

Unloaded Track

Displacement u (mm)

87
The characteristic values for ballasted track are assumed as follows:
Displacement between elastic and plastic zone u0 = 2mm
Resistances k per unit of length for one track in the plastic zone:-u0 = 2mm
Resistances k per unit of length for one track in the plastic zone:
- k = 20 kN/m for unloaded track;
- k = 60 kN/m for loaded track.
 Design Forces
The following thermal effects shall be taken into account in the combined
structure and track system. The reference temperature for bridges is the
temperature of the deck when the rail is fixed.
- The temperature variation from the reference temperature shall be
limited to ± 35°C in the deck and to ± 50°C in the rail.
- In case of track with an expansion device, the difference in
temperature between deck and track does not exceed ± 20°C.
In case of CWR a variation in the temperature of the track does not cause a
displacement of the track and thus is no interaction effect due to the
variation in the temperature of the track.
 Traction and Braking Forces
The characteristic values of traction and braking shall be multiplied only by
the factor á as defined above for the actual high speed train load model.
- For a deck, which carries two tracks, the longitudinal force on the deck
shall be evaluated with traction force on one track and braking force on
the other.
- For the deck, which carries one track, braking and traction forces shall
be assumed to act in either direction.
 Bending of the Deck
Traffic loads cause flexure in the deck, which introduces a rotation of the
end sections and displacement of upper edge of deck. The loads applied for
RSI analysis are those of actual high speed train load model as defined
above without impact effects.
Note that other actions such as creep, shrinkage and temperature gradient
shall be neglected for a ballastless track wherever provided. Creep and
shrinkage are assumed to be complete at the time of track construction
phase unless it is laid immediately after concrete placement.

88
Load Case Combination

For the calculation of the total support reaction and in order to compare the
global equivalent rail stress with permissible values, the global effect is
calculated as follows:

Where: and  are combination factors. For the calculation of the global
values of rail stresses and displacements, all factors equal to 1 for
continuous or simply-supported decks.
 Rail stress due to Rail Structure Interaction
For track with at least 300 mm ballast under concrete sleepers which have a
maximum spacing of 650 mm, and using UIC 60 rail (tensile strength 900
N/mm2) or for equivalent track construction, the maximum allowable
additional stress in the rails due to Rail Structure Interaction are limited as
follows:
+ maximum compression :72 N/mm2
+ maximum tension : 92 N/mm2
7.5.5 Bridge Configurations for various spans:
Bridges may be ballasted decks. For bridge superstructures, the
general rules as listed in Table 7.5.5 shall be applied.

Table 7.5.5 : Bridge configuration

Length in m Structure
L<6 Box culverts
6 < L < 10 Steel I – beams with concrete deck or
Prestressed concrete slab (Fig. 7.5.5.1)
10< L< 20 Prestressed concrete box girder for each track
or Prestressed concrete T - beams with
reinforced Concrete slab (Fig. 7.5.5.2)
20 < L < 30 Prestressed concrete box girder for each
track(Fig. 7.5.5.3)
30 < L< 45 Prestressed concrete box girder for both tracks
(Fig. 7.5.5.4)

89
Fig.7.5.5.1 Typical Cross section of PSC slab spans 6mto10m

Fig.7.5.5.2: Typical Cross section of PSC T Beam girder spans

10m to 12m

Fig.7.5.5.3: Typical Cross section of PSC box girder for spans

20m to 30m (each track)

90
 Fig 7.5.5.4: Typical Cross section of PSC box girder spans 30m
to 45m (for both tracks)
For Substructure, the design of pier caps may consider that any jacking of
deck (e.g. in case of bearing replacement) will be undertaken with the bridge
closed to traffic. Well foundations are proposed for major bridges on rivers. For
ROBs & RUBs pile foundations or rafts shall be used.
7.5.6 Bridge Approches (Embankment – Bridge Transition) :
The transitions between earth works and civil engineering structures
are the cause of problems due to the change of stiffness. This change of
stiffness is directly affected by the speed and is the cause of an increase of
forces which result in the deterioration of the track and the ballast as well as
reduction of comfort.
The difference in track stiffness on embankment & bridge affects the
vertical movement of vehicle resulting in increasingly pronounced vertical
acceleration in vehicle, which may mean that the criteria for passenger
comfort or maximum dynamic track force are not met. A marked increase in
forces lead to accelerated deterioration of track geometry and hence to
additional maintenance.
The effect of change in stiffness of track on embankment and bridge
is less relevant for train speeds less that 160 km/hr. However the
discontinuities become relevant for train speeds between 200-300 km/hr.
Therefore, it is important that the transition structures are designed in such
a way as to result in :

91
 - A smooth transition between embankment and rigid structure :
(hereby a smooth transition over a relative short distance results in
a larger limitation of the dynamic load on the train than small
discontinuities in a longer transition structure).
- A uniform decrease of settlements and a uniform increase of
stiffness of embankment and the sub soil in the direction of the
rigid structure.
Various methods adopted for smooth transitions are :
i. Using cement lime stabilization of transition portion of embankment.
ii. Provision of approach slabs resting on conventional abutments.
iii. Use pile/raft system under transition portion with varying stiffness.
Typical section and effect of rail pad stiffness on transition are shown in Fig.
7.5.6.1 and 7.5.6.2.
The detailed design of transition including the system to be adopted shall
depend on actual location and shall be based on Soil-structure Analysis which
shall include soil stiffness at the location based on actual ground data.

Fig.7.5.6.1: Typical Longitudinal section of Embankment –

Bridge transition

92
Fig.7.5.6.2 Effect of the rail pad stiffness on a transition bridge-
embankment
7.5.7 Construction Methods:
This sub-sections describe the principal construction methods that
may be used in the construction of the bridge structures/embankment :
i. Cast-in- Situ-Decks
The decks are entirely cast-in-situ using scaffolding. The pre-stressing
of the deck is done by means of post-tensioned tendons located in the
webs and in the slab. This solution requires a large working area below
the deck and usually leads to a poorer quality of the concrete.
ii. Pre-cast, Post-tensioned Decks
The decks are entirely cast and pre-tensioned in the plant area. They
are moved to their final location using trucks (usually moving on the
already built deck) and launched using gantries. This solution is limited
by the self weight of the deck.

93
iii. Pre-cast Post-tensioned Beams and Cast in Place Slab
The construction method could be an alternative to the pre-cast, pre-
tensioned deck in case of transportation problems.
iv. Embankments
The height of embankment on proposed alignment varies from zero to
8.0m. If one account of any reason, enough land acquisition is not possible,
Reinforced Earth embankments shall be used.
Entire base soil has to be properly treated wherever soil quality is poor.
These will however be based on detailed soil investigations in field to be
carried out at detailed design stage. The earth to be used in the
embankment will be imported good quality soil, which is free from
expansive and organic material.
The primary objective at all times will be to strictly control the post-
construction settlement of embankment.
7.6 Environment :
The aspects which concern the environment (the noise in particular)
must also be considered when a new line is designed for speeds which
exceed 300 km/h.
The aspect of the environment, mostly affected by the increase in
speed is the subject of noise. In fact, the nature and source of the noise
changes with the speed. At a speed of 120 kmph, noise of train is
predominant. But at a speed of 160 kmph, noise of track will also play a role
and further at a speed of 300/350 kmph, the noise of pantograph and
aerodynamic noise will also come into picture.
In case of high speed trains, when the speed increase, the intensity of
Noise & Vibration pollution increase and become a major environmental
problem for the nearby residents.
7.6.1 Problem of noise from high speed trains:
Noise problems of High Speed trains have been determined through
extensive measurement programs conducted by researchers in many
countries. Noise level from high speed trains increase exponentially. Rail
wheel noise generally increases as the cube of velocity up to a transition
speed where aerodynamic noise sources on the body surface begin to
dominate; above the transition speed the noise level increases as the sixth
power of speed.

94
7.6.2 Noise emission level:
Noise emission regulations pertaining to rail road operations are given in
Environmental Protection Agency (SA) for Rail road l safety standards.
Unacceptable level - 80 dB(A) for 60 minutes or more in 24 hr. period. -
75 dB(A) for 8 hours or more in 24 hours period.
Normally acceptable level - 65 dB (A) for 8 hours in 24 hours period.
The rolling stock STI specifies the noise emission by the value at 25
metres.
By way of example, the maximum levels of noise to be met in France
on the front of dwelling close to high speed lines are 60dB during the day
(6.00 am to 10.00pm) and 55 during the night.
In Spain, the limitations for noise are as follows:
55 dB , between 10.00 pm and 07.00am
65 dB , between 07.00 am and 10.00 pm
A further limitations (still in Spain) is that there is a limit of 90 dB,
measured 2 metres from the front of buildings ( 85 in zones of high acoustic
sensitivity.
7.6.3 Noise emission Sources:
The noise radiated by the track is strongly related to the stiffness of
the rail fastening, in particular the rail pad between the rail and the sleeper.
Soft pads minimizes noise from the sleeper but allows the rail to vibrate
more freely. Conversely, with stiff pads the contribution from the rail is
reduced but that from the sleeper is increased, A compromise can be
reached when the sleeper contribution is equal to the rail component.
When rail corrugations form on the rail head, the noise from both
tread-braked and disc-braked stock increases. The normal remedy is to
grind the rail.
The use of disc brakes and the elimination of supplementary block
brakes on high-speed trains, such as the ICE and the latest-generation TGV,
is largely responsible for the fact that these trains are no noisier at 300 km/h
than traditional (tread-braked) stock at conventional speeds of 140-160
km/h.
Propulsion Noise from electric traction motors, control units &
associated cooling fans contributes at high speed. Aerodynamic noise due
to air flow over train and aerodynamic noise from pantograph itself also
contributes considerably at high speed.
For high speed trains, Pantograph noise is a big issue from noise
pollution aspect. Pantograph noise has three compositions-

95
 - Aerodynamic noise from pantograph itself
- Spark noise caused by contact loss
- Sliding noise generated between the contact strips and the
overhead contact lines
Special attention should be given to assessment systems for the level
of noise. Regarding the limitations, each country has its own regulations
and the limits are very different.
To overcome the problem of Pantograph noise, Shinkansen-Japanese
Railways has developed a new type of pantographs like PS207, PS9037,
PS9038, single arm type pantograph and <-shape pantographs. These
pantographs have been provided with multi segment contact body
structure with enhanced insulation system. Central part of contact strips
are set on a leaf spring made of titanium and it is moveable. Contact strips
are set on glass fibre reinforced silicon rubber to provide dampening like
effect to sound generation.
7.6.4 Vibration Problems for High Speed Trains :
In comparison with noise, ground borne vibration is less widespread
as an environmental problem. People exposed to vibration, tend to be those
whose homes or places of work are near a city street with buses or trolleys,
or near a highway or railway. When a vehicle passes by, these people may
experience feel able movement of the building floors, rattling or windows,
shaking of items on shelves or walls, and rumbling sounds, all of which can
lead to annoyance when the events happen many times during a day and
night.
7.6.5 Measures to Control Noise and vibrations:
For keeping noise pollution and vibrations within control following
measures may be adopted:
 Reduction of Rail Pad stiffness by providing soft pad
 Rail Shape optimization by reducing rail height/width
 Reduction of rail corrugation.
 Reduction of rail roughness & wheel roughness.
 Increase of Contact area & decrease of contact stiffness.
 Layout away from inhabited areas
 Noise protection walls
 Noise protection embankments
 Artificial sound barriers/acoustic baffles
 Covered sections
 Artificial tunnels for noise protection.
 High and modified maintenance practices

96
  Modification in rolling stock
 Modified Pantographs
7.6.6 Noise reduction measures in Japan:
Japan has some of the strictest noise, pollution standards of any
country, and this has a major influence on acceleration strategy.
The principal sources of noise and vibration are the current collection
system, the under floor area (wheel/rail and bogie noise), aerodynamic
noise from the upper part of the car body, noise from the nose area, and
structure-borne noises. Current collection represents the biggest share of
the noise generated by Shinkansen trainsets. As well as changing from two
collectors to one, Japan has developed two types of low noise pantograph.
One has a dogleg-shaped main frame and the other has a 'straight stick'
shape. Both have streamlined lower parts. In addition, noise insulation
shields around 7m long are installed on both sides of the pantograph. The
cross section of these panels was chosen through acoustic testing to
maximise the noise reduction effect.
Noise barriers are fitted along most of the high speed lines to diffuse
the sound coming from the lower parts of the trains, but these do not mask
it completely. Sound waves bounce between the walls, and are diffracted
and attenuated, before bouncing over the walls and away from the track
area. To try and tackle this problem, Japan has fitted sound-absorbing
materials on the lower exterior and underside of the vehicles for the first
time on a Shinkansen trainset. To reduce aerodynamic noise from the nose
and upper body shell it is necessary to make the roof, side and nose
completely smooth. Paying particular attention to the joints between
vehicles, Japan has developed a metallic covering for the gap, with a
removable linkage inside. These are fitted between all vehicles in the
prototype train set.
When a Shinkansen train enters a tunnel at full speed, a compression
wave is created. This is transmitted through the tunnel at the speed of
sound, and creates a shock wave at the other portal. To minimise the effect
of these so called micro-pressure waves, Japan has already optimised the
nose shape on their various trains, and installed buffering at the entrance of
the tunnels.
For any future speed increases, it will be necessary to suppress the
micro-pressure waves to below the current level. For Fastech 360, Japan
extended the length of the noses to 16m, and optimised their shapes using
3D CFD analysis. Japan has also reduced the cross sectional area of the car

97
body .At locations where these changes cannot deliver the target noise
reductions, Japan is developing low cost buffering and pressure wave
attenuation measures to be installed inside the tunnels.
Electromagnetic actuators have been installed between each bogie
and the car body, providing an active suspension which has a large thrust
and good responsiveness to suppress lateral oscillation and improve ride
comfort. This augments the air bag secondary suspension which is derived
from that already in use on the Series E2 sets. Fastech 360 is one of the first
Shinkansen trainsets to feature an 'air-spring-stroke' tilt system, to reduce
the centrifugal force experienced by passengers and improve ride comfort
and improve ride comfort through curves.
Depending on the radius of the curve and the speed of the train, extra
air is pumped into the airbag secondary suspension on the outer side of
each bogie, tilting the car body inward by up to 2. To minimise interior noise
levels, the sound insulating properties of the car body have been greatly
improved.
7.7 Level crossing / grade separation:
No level crossing will be provided for high speed train operation and
therefore, for road transport, either road over bridges or road under bridges
needs to be planned. LGVs are fenced along their entire length to prevent
trespassing by animals and people are not permitted and bridges over the
line have sensors to detect objects that fall onto the track. All LGV junctions
are with tracks crossing each other using or eliminating crossing other
tracks on the level.
7.8 Fencing :
On high-speed lines, trespassing is very risky and thus not at all
permitted. Therefore, the entire high-speed track is to be provided with
fencing. It is noticed from the experience of high speed corridors, world
around that at very high speeds, track ballast stones sometimes fly off and
hits the surroundings. To avoid such incidences, track fencing is required to
be provided.



98
 Chapter - 8
Parameters Relating to Track Components

8.1 Rail :
There is general agreement between the various railways on the fact
that it is not necessary to use different types of rail for different speeds.
Thus both for 300 km/h and for 350 km/h, it is the rail type UIC 60 which is
recommended. There is the same agreement on the grade of steel (900 A).
The quality of the rail is not, in principle, affected by the increase in
speed above 300 km/h, if the rail to be laid is of the “top of the range” type.
However, it is recommended that attention should be paid to the aspects :
acceptance, assembly, welding, surface defects etc.
Certain railways consider that the length of the individual rails should
not be close to 36 meters, to avoid running on some particular points due to
the welding which have a critical wave length. Standard length of 25m in
Japan, 54m/62m in Germany and 108m in France has been utilized. CWR is
used to improve the ride quality and to reduce noise and vibrations.
The inclination of the rail is 1:20 as is normally used in all the countries
concerned, with the sole exception of Germany which uses 1:40. The STIs
recommend 1:20 for speeds above 280 km/h. However now for high speed
1 in 40 is being recommended and used.
The STIs specify the values of the distance apart, inclination and
wheel profiles which enable the lowest possible equivalent conicity to be
obtained above 280 km/h (without distinction between 300, 350km/h, etc.)
Other things being equal, the higher the speed, the less should be the
equivalent conicity. It is necessary to study the wear profile, vis-à-vis the
economy of operation and to observe the equivalent theoretical conicity.
Generally 60 kg/m rail track is considered acceptable all over the world
for high speed corridor. Thus, it is proposed to have 60 kg 90 UTS FF UIC
new rails with CWR/LWR over the entire stretch as per the provision of
permanent way manual for Indian High Speed Corridor.
There is no problem with the quality of the rail, but attention needs to
be paid to aspects such as, acceptance assembly, welding and surface
defects. The equivalent conicity should be further and further reduced as
the speed is increased and the wear profiles should also be monitored

99
8.2 Sleepers :
Prestressed concrete sleepers have been a better choice as they have long
life of 50 to 60 years. Sleeper density of 1660 is being used over Indian
Railway and is adequate for high speed route as this is the maximum
density to carry out machine maintenance.
Table 8.2 shows the parameters of the different type of sleepers used by the
railways.
SIT
Country

100
 One difference that can be identified between the various railways is
that of the weight. Except in Spain, no distinction is made in the other
countries for trains running above 300 km/h.
The height of the sleepers used in Spain (242mm) is greater than
those used in other countries.
The effective surface area of the sleepers is an essential factor for the
distribution of the vertical forces exerted on the ballast, but the magnitude
of this surface area and its possible variation depending on the speed have
not been dealt with in an explicit manner. There is no obvious problems for
sleepers (checking of the bearing surface only).
8.3 Rail Pads, Fastening Systems and Stiffness of the Track :
The stiffness of the track must be limited in order to reduce the vertical
dynamic forces between wheels and rails, by the use of rail pads under the
rail with appropriate characteristics. There is lot of interest on the other
hand for rail pads, in particular with respect to their stiffness (stiffness of
the rail pads and overall stiffness of the track).
Double elastic rail fastenings are necessary for the concrete sleeper
track. Rubber pads are used as cushioning material between the rail and
sleepers fastened by leaf spring/wire spring/TGV Nabla/ICE Vossloh fittings
for distribution of vertical load and for dampening the vibrations. SNCF uses
two types of rubber pads. Normal rubber pads of 9mm thickness with a
resistance of 90 KN/mm and soft type rubber pads of same thickness with
low resistance of 56 KN/mm. Soft type rubber pads are mainly used for
noise mitigation.
As far as ballasted high speed lines are concerned (according to the
STI), the dynamic rigidity of the rail pads under the rail must not exceed 600
MN/m.
Similarly, the total dynamic stiffness of slab track systems must not
exceed 150MN/m.
Rail pads are generally formed of rubber or elastomer elements and
one of their main characteristics is the vertical stiffness. It is especially
critical on bridges, tunnels and slab track. Table 8.3 summarises the
existing criteria in each country and indicates the thickness of the rail pads
used.

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TABLE 8.3 : Thickness and Static Vertical Stiffness of the Rail
Pads
Country
Parameter France Germany Italy Spain Belgium
Speed in Kmph 300 350 300 300 350 300 350 320
Thickness (mm) 9 9 10 10 10 6 7 10
Static vertical 100 100 27 100 100 500 100 50-100
stiffness
(kN/mm)
NOTE : It is necessary to check that all the stiffnesses are calculated in
accordance with the same standard.
The analysis of the above data shows that there are important
differences between the values used from country to country, both
regarding the thickness of the rail pads and for their vertical stiffness. The
optimum value stiffness of the track(as an assembly)is found to be
50KN/mm for 200 kmph and 78KN/mm for 300 kmph. An excessive
increase in the stiffness of the rail pads can have negative consequences on
concrete sleepers. The stiffness of the existing 6 mm rubber pads being
used in Indian railway is between 150 to 250 KN/mm.
In view of the importance of the vertical stiffness of the track in the
track-vehicle dynamic system, this point should be carefully considered so
that the optimum value can be found for each variable.
Germany has opted to have reduced track stiffness in future and has
established a correlation between the weight of the sleepers and the
stiffness of the rail pads (it is necessary to specify that it is the secant
stiffness, measured between two given values of load).
A fastening system has been developed with a distribution plate on an
elastic pad with a surface area double that of the rail pad under the rail.
There is a tendency to choose an overall stiffness of around
100kN/mm. In France, the same characteristics have been selected and
have not been changed by the increase in speed.
The homogeneity of the stiffness values needs to be checked all along
the line.
In order to assess the ability of the track to carry trains running at
speeds of more than 300 km/h, with a minimum maintenance cost it is
necessary to try to establish a reference value both for the vertical stiffness
of the track and for its damping capacity.

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8.4 Turnouts for High Speed :
When the speed on straight track is above 250 Kmph, High speed
turnouts with speed on curved track from 80 to 100 Kmph are warranted.
The main factors affecting design of turnout are
(i) Kink in the turnout route at the toe of switch rail
(ii) Entry from straight to curve without transition
(iii) Lead curve without super-elevation
(iv) Entry from curve to straight without transition
(v) Gap at the V of crossing
As the wheel negotiates the toe of switch, there is abrupt change in
direction resulting in lateral jerk on bogie and corresponding heavy lateral
force on tongue rail. The magnitude of force primarily depends on switch
entry angle. By reducing the switch angle, entry gets smoothened and
flange force gets reduced. The small switch angle is obtained by providing
curved/ tangential switches. In tangential type, very small switch angle is
possible. Tangential types of switches are used over foreign railways for
HSR. As per D72 ORE report and trials over SNCF railway, higher speed can
be permitted over T/out by reducing SEA.
Absence of super elevation over Turnout causes unbalanced lateral
acceleration and affects safety and comfort. In high speed turnouts, Switch
Entry Angles are small and the permissible cant deficiency on the TO curves
becomes main criteria for evaluating the permissible speed.
Up-gradation in turnout technology in the railway system has been
guided by the following considerations:
(i) Higher speeds on straight and curved tracks with reasonable level
of passenger comfort. Designs have been evolved for a speed up
to 230 Kmph on turn out track.
(ii) Least life cycle cost with minimum traffic interruption for
repairing.
(iii) Track geometry maintainability comparable with the normal track
(iv) Safety and comfort
(v) Planned maintenance without emergencies
The result of the trial made on the SNCF Railway have given very
favorable results by adopting

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 (i) Adoption of tangential layouts for higher speeds and Thick web
switches.
(ii) Flatter Switch entry angle by tangential layouts thereby reducing
the angle of attack and reduced lateral forces resulting in
increased passenger comfort.
(iii) Use of spring operated switch setting device to ensure proper
flange way clearance.
(iv) Use of movable nose crossings housed in a specially designed
cradle, thereby avoiding gap at crossing.
(v) Introduction of transition curves thereby improving the running
characteristics of the curved tracks.
(vi) Use of asymmetrical profile section ZU- 1in 60 forged to standard
rail profile (UIC 60) at the end.
(vii) Continuation of canting of rails through turnout resulting in
smoother ride over turnouts.
(viii) Use of higher UTS steel, further hardened to reduced wear.
(ix) Effective holding of stock rail.
(x) Use of non greasing eco friendly base plates.
(xi) Use of specially designed synthetic rail pads for reduced
vibration of switch assembly.
(xii) Use of flatter angle of crossing i.e. 1 in 32 or 1in 24. Sophisticated
pulling techniques including introduction of hydraulic systems.
(xiii) Surface hardening of load bearing areas.
By above modifications, the forces, accelerations and rolling
movements, were less than the normally allowed limits. Further the actual
sensation felt by the passenger was very good. Based on the above data
turnout for HSR can be designed.
8.4.1 Rail Wheel Dynamics and noise over the Turn Outs:
As speed increases, the dynamics of rail wheel interaction become
more sensitive to geometry. Dynamics in turnouts are further more
sensitive due to inherent imperfections in turnouts like discontinuity at
crossing portion, thinning of rail section at switch.
At higher speeds, noise is another parameter that comes into play
which is normally not a parameter at all at lower speeds. Due to
imperfections at turnouts, the noise levels at these points is further more.

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Even a slight geometrical imperfection causes increase in noise levels.
Rail wheel dynamics need to be simulated to evolve the design
methodologies.
Various manufacturers world over, based on their own research came
out with their own designs of turnout systems i.e switches, crossings,
sleepers, signaling systems etc. These designs need to be customized for
adoption in India. Most of these designs are patented and for standard
gauge. For Indian scenario, if these patented designs are directly adopted,
it will be a huge drain on finances. Thus adoption of any design is a techno
economic decision and the implications are huge.
A Ballastless turnout (1 in 38) used in Japanese Railways is shown in
Fig. 8.4.1.1 which allows 160 kmph on turnout side.

Fig. 8.4.1.1: 1 in 38 Turnout in Japanese Railway

Ballastless turnout with lead radius of 10,000 m in Beijing – Tianjin
line of China where the main line speed is 350 kmph is shown in Fig. 8.4.1.2

Fig. 8.4.1.2: A turnout used in China High Speed Railway

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 Fig. 8.4.1.3: An under construction high speed turnout
Various high speed railway uses mostly turnout designed and
manufactured by the following firms:-
(i) Vossloh Cogifir / France
(ii) VAE GmbH / Austria
(iii) BWG / Germany
(iv) Balfour Beatty Rail Track Systems Limited / UK
(v) Rail.one / Germany (turnout sleepers manufacturers)
8.4.2 Important critical design factors for high speed turn outs:
The following design factors are to be considered for high speed
turnout.
(a) Crossing Angle :
Crossing angle is the major factor for deciding the speeds on turnouts.
Flatter the crossings, more are the speeds allowed and more the costs.
Japan used 1 in 38 turnout with lead curve radius of 4200m and overall
length of 135m. This allows 160 kmph on turnout side. On SNCF, 1 in 43
turnouts are used. For new lines, crossing angle can be decided based on
the speed requirements. But for existing lines, to change the crossing
angle, is a major decision and has got severe financial and operational
repercussions. Therefore, crossing angle for new lines as well as on existing
lines has to be judiciously decided taking into account various factors.

106
(b) Switch Entry Angle and Toe of Switch :
Switch entry angle is primarily responsible for wear and damage to
the thin switch portion. The lesser the switch entry angle, the lesser is the
damage to switch and higher is the permitted speed. Ideally, switch entry
angle and thickness of Toe should be ZERO. In SNCF Railway, 00 4' 23”
switch angle is adopted for a speed of more than 200 kmph on turnout.
(c) Switch Radius and Transition:
One of the major constraints of our conventional turnouts is non
transitioned lead curve. With this design, at higher speeds, limiting the jerk
to the desired level of 1 m/s³ is difficult. BWG's high speed turnout design
uses a non-constant radius. To reduce jerking at the transition from the
straight to the curve, the switch is modified using clothoid transition
whereby the initial radius reduces continuously towards the final switch
radius. At the outer end of the divergence, another clothoid section
increases the radius infinity. This design reduces the maximum jerk at the
start of the turnout to 1 m/s³, ensuring a good ride quality and improved
tangential stability.
(d) Inclined points & Crossings:
In the conventional turnouts being used in India canting/inclination is
not provided throughout the turnout. It results in poor rail wheel dynamics
and more noise. By providing inclined running table by creating desired
switch profile, the turnout for high speed guarantees perfect continuity of
running over the points and crossings. It reduces maintenance, avoid
jolting, thus improving passenger comfort.
(e) Lubrication free Switches and the environment:
Vossloh Cogifer uses two ways of elimination of the lubrication of
switches or movable switch diamonds to reduce pollution:
Roller Slide Chairs : Manufactured with quenched steel rollers and
Cast Iron cages, roller slide chairs reduce mechanical stress and enable
points to be moved easily. They are easy to fit and can be adopted for
vertical or inclined mounting.
Nickel Chromium Treatment : A Nickel chrome metallization is
applied to the switch sliding surfaces. The surface treatment applied to cast
iron, engineering steel or carbon steel is obtained by ultra high speed
projection of metal powder with high nickel and chrome content.

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(f) Movable Manganese mono block crossing:
Conventional Crossings get lot of impact due to discontinuities. This
impact causes loosening of packing, fittings, fast wear of crossing & wing
rail. Manganese mono block crossings effectively addresses this problem by
providing continues guided path to the wheel.
It produces less noise, have longer life cycle and eliminate check rail. It
allows operating speed of more than 320 kmph on through track and 230
kmph on turnout track.

Fig. 8.4.2.1: Movable manganese monoblock crossing

(g) Manganese mono block crossing with welded legs:
This is the most important innovation in the field of Manganese
Crossings. It is an industrial process for welding rails to the crossing rather
than fish plating them, thus ensuring perfect continuity on straight or
curved track.
RDSO has already developed a design for this and some firms are also
approved for manufacturing these crossings.

Fig. 8.4.2.2: Manganese monoblock crossing with welded legs

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(h) Curved Gauge Face of Crossing:
If the straight portion of leg of the crossing is made “ZERO”, radius of
lead curve increases and speed potential increases. Eliminating kink at
weakest point (of gauge face discontinuity) will greatly reduces the impact
on the crossing assembly. Curved gauge face crossing of one of the high
speed Railway systems is shown in fig. 8.4.2.3

Fig. 8.4.2.3: Curved Gauge Face of Crossing

(i) Divided sleepers in Crossing portion:
During machine packing, alignment and level corrections are first
made in the main line. When packing machine is shifted to turn out side,
correcting Alignment is very difficult because any attempt to correct turn
out alignment disturbs the main line alignment due to the rigid and longer
sleepers in crossing portion.
With the result, the turnout side alignment can not be corrected. To
take care of this problem, the crossing sleeper is divided and connected by
a mechanical system. With this system designed by BWG/Germany, the
turnout alignment can be corrected independent of Main Line alignment. By
this divided sleepers technology, handling and transportation of sleepers
also become easier. Principle of the splitted sleepers is shown in Fig.
8.4.2.4.

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 Fig. 8.4.2.4: Principles of splitted sleepers

Fig. 8.4.2.5 Picture of a turn out laid with splitted sleepers

(j) More Ease for Machine Packing:
For machine packing of P&C in the existing design, some difficulty is
experienced due to fixing point machines away from the switch and using
the rods to give the point pull. If the point machine is an integral part of an
ordinary sleeper, the machine packing becomes very simple. Such
integrated design developed by Vossloh Cogifer is shown in fig. 8.4.2.6.
This electromechanical cum hydraulic operation device is integrated into a
P&C sleeper which is exactly same as the sleepers on either side; It can
provide point, heel or movable crossing control. Its shape makes
mechanical packing considerably easier.

110
 Fig. 8.4.2.6: Electromechanical cum hydraulic device

(k) Improved Design of fittings:

Improved stock rail fittings and improved check rail for high speed
turnouts are shown in Fig. 8.4.2.7 & Fig. 8.4.2.8

Fig. 8.4.2.7: Improved design of check rail brackets

111
 Fig. 8.4.2.8: Elastic slide chair
(l) Improvements to Signaling and Interlocking:
For allowing higher speeds, signaling and interlocking needs
upgradation. Multiple point pull, Hydraulic pull, clamp lock, moveable point
lock, traffic detector, solid state interlocking etc are some of the
improvements needed to improve the reliability of interlocking as well as
increasing the speeds. Movable point lock is shown in fig. 8.4.2.9

Fig. 8.4.2.9: Movable point lock

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8.4.3 Challenges in transportation and laying of high speed
turnout assembly:
Due to the longer lengths, heavier weights and precision, handling
turnouts from production spot to final location is a big challenge.
For Taiwan high speed lines, all turnouts were produced, tested and
approved in Germany, and then dismantled for shipment to Taiwan.
The turnouts were re-assembled at the China Steel Machinery Corp
premises in Kaohsiung, with Taiwanese technicians. Modules up to 55 m
long weighing as much as 50 tons were transported by road for distances of
up to 300 km.
Taiwanese developed a special road trailer for the largest assemblies.
All routes had to be assessed in advance, and obstacles such as walls
and traffic lights removed temporarily to allow for the passage of the
vehicle. Special permits had to be obtained to carry out these movements
at night to ensure that the material was available on-site for the next
morning.
At some locations, soft ground required extensive earth work. Special
equipment was developed in Germany to unload the individual parts and
maneuver them onto site. In some places two 200 ton cranes were needed
to lift the switch units. A technique was developed to make the installation
of preassembled switches more efficient. The Turnout Shifting System
allowed a quick initial alignment of switch assemblies to an accuracy of ±5
mm in both horizontal and vertical directions. A modular temporary track
allowed the switch components to be transported along the line from
unloading site to final position - in some cases as much as 1·5 km.
In other cases, assemblies were moved along the newly-installed
running rails. Measuring and final alignment of the switch modules was
completed using an electronic system developed for high speed lines in
Germany. The final co-ordinates of each switch were analyzed using a
manually-operated measuring vehicle, and all alignment data logged. A
second check was undertaken before the start of concreting. Switch
transportation wagon and relating machine shown in fig. 8.4.2.10 &
8.4.2.11.

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Fig. 8.4.2.10 : Switch transportation wagon WTW

Fig. 8.4.2.11 : Switch relaying machine WM 500



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 Chapter - 9
Laying the Track

9.1 The Track Formation

At high speeds, requirement of track quality during service is very
high. The track right from the subsoil, formation protection layer, sub-
ballast, ballast bed, sleepers and track components is to be considered as
one system. The main task of these components is to transmit load and
divert forces caused by the trains to the sub soil with least possible
disturbance to the track geometry.
Though for high speed passenger corridors, axle load is normally not
more than 18t, yet the formation plays a very important role for stability
and durability of strict track geometry.
The typical parameter for formation is the modulus of deformation
(E) derived from the plate load bearing test.
A schematic diagram showing the transfer of load and resultant
stresses is shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig 9.1 : Typical wheel load distribution into the track structure

115
9.2 Sub-grade:
Formation can be divided in two distinct entities i.e. substructure/sub-
grade and protective layers/sub ballast. The basic aim of formation design
is to minimize formation settlement.
Sub grade /substructure settlement can result from various reasons such as
a) Excessive plastic deformation.
b) Consolidation and massive shear failure.
c) Progressive shear failure.
d) Excessive swelling and shrinking.
e) Frost heaves and thaw softening.
f) Sub grade attrition.
For the high-speed tracks, quality of sub grade/substructure plays very
important role. Any weakness or deficiency in the sub grade may likely to
disturb track geometry. Therefore, good quality of sub grade is of prime
importance.
There are four alternatives for the improvement of the sub-grade:-
a) Altering sub grade properties of new formation by
grouting lime slurry pressure injection or by electrical
treatment.
b) By compaction and admixture stabilization with cement,
lime, bitumen and fly ash.
c) By asphalt-concrete applications
d) Slip stabilization, by improving drainage, by providing
retaining structures and by giving suitable and stable slopes
including benching.
Formation improvement measures should ensure constant modulus of
elasticity of at least 4.5 kN/cm2 – optimum value – 12 kN/cm2 over the entire
track length. The modulus of elasticity should decrease continuously,
otherwise mud would be pumped up. It should have life time of more than
20 years and low installation costs. The only method to meet all these
requirements is the insertion of a formation protective layer.
9.3 Sub ballast or protective layers :
Sub ballast or protective layers are provided to fulfill the following
functions:
a) Supporting layer : The load distribution effect protects the subsoil
from too high a stress, if its bearing capacity is insufficient.
b) Frost protective layer : Its thermal insulating effect protects

116
 frost-sensitive soils from frost, if the soil below the formation is also
sensitive to frost
c) Filtering and separating layer : Prevents the ballast from mixing
in with the substructure and fines from rising into the ballast
d) Equalizing layer : If due to extreme differences in bearing capacity
the track is supported unevenly or if, e.g., on rocks no plane
formation of the respective cross slope can be established, and
e) Covering layer with low water permeability: Protects soil
sensitive to water from surface water.
Figure 9.3(a) shows the usual definitions of track structure.

Fig. 9.3(a) : Layers of the track structure on earth formation

Figure 9.3(b) schematically compares a track with a formation protective
layer and a track without it. The figure shows that the pressure on the
formation without a formation protective layer is much higher because the
force transmission area is much smaller. This makes high demands on the
bearing capacity of the soil. Soil fines coming up contaminate the ballast
bed, the pressure propagation angle is reduced (friction between the
ballast grains decreases) and pressure on the subsoil increases. As the
ballast bed is contaminated, the durability of tamping deceases – cleaning

117
has to be performed more frequently. The picture on the right hand side
shows the advantages of a formation protective layer. Water is led away
through the formation protective layer and therefore cannot soak into the
subsoil. A formation protective layer of sufficient thickness prevents frost
damage. The formation protective layer acts as a filter and prevents fines
from rising. The durability of tamping is very high, cleaning becomes
necessary less frequently.

optimum
drainage

subsoil PSS/FSS
inclination
(1:20)
unvavourable load distribution
higher formation pressure
track without formation protective
layer (PSS) and frost protective layer

track with PSS and FSS

Fig. 9.3(b): Pressure distribution on formations with and

without protective layers.
The subballast formation protective layer has:
a) To be impermeable to water to such an extent that the majority of the
rain water runs off the formation,
b) To be a stable filter against the substructure or the subsoil. If this
requirement is not met, a geotextile should be inserted or the
formation protective layer should be made thicker by 100 mm.
c) To be at least of 200 mm thickness and up to 450 mm thick.
d) To make the elasticity as uniform as possible from the ballast to the
subsoil,
e) To be inserted in layers and compacted, each layer should not be more
than 150 mm thick prior to compaction.
f) To have a layer of at least 200 mm thickness on geotextiles.

118
The following geometrical requirements have to be met by the formation:
Its cross slope has to be at least 1:20 or 5% with a tolerance of 0.5%.
The formation must not deviate by more than + 20 mm from its design
position, and
The formation must be level in its longitudinal direction (<20 mm over a
longitudinal basis of 4m), there must not e any troughs or traces of traffic.
9.3.1 Placement of Sub ballast/Protective layer :
After designing proper protective layer/sub ballast material, the same
would be spread and roller compacted in layers at suitable moisture content
after compacting sub grade surface. The main factor in deciding the quality
of formation is the bearing capacity of the track. UIC recommends a
thickness upto 450mm.
9.4 Insertion of geotextiles :
Geotextiles contribute a reduction of stress and deformation so as to
improve and maintain the bearing capacity of inserted protective layers
over a long terms. Geotextiles are inserted between the underlying soil and
the formation or frost protective layer. They are laid on the compacted and
regulated formation and covered by the protective layer. They have to
withstand the static and dynamic stresses of railway operation. They are
stressed by hydraulic and mechanical process and have to prevent fines
from being pumped up (filtering effect). The function and characteristics of
geosynthetic as well as of geotextile are given in table 9.4.1 and 9.4.2.
Table 9.4.1: The main functions and characteristics of
geosynthetic are as under:-

Types of Primary Function

Geosynthgetic Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage Containment
material
Geotextiles Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Geogrids No Yes No No No
Geonets No No No Yes No
Geomemberanes Yes No No No Yes
Geocomposits Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

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Table 9.4.2: Tentative specification of Geotextile are given
below:-

Composition Polypropylene/Polyester
Mode of Manufacture Non woven, needle punched
Thickness 3mm and above
Weight 400 gm/sqm. and above
Tensile strength Min 60 kg
Elongation at Break 40-100%
Pore size Max 120 micron
Roll width Single roll width preferred
Roll Length As per site requirement

Fig. 9.4.1 : Laying of geotextile

120
 Fig. 9.4.2 : Laying of sub ballast / protective layer
9.4.3 Designed Properties of Geosynthetics:
 It must be tough enough to withstand rigorous placement during
Installation process-tensiles strength, shear strength, resistance
to ultraviolet light.
 It must be strong and tough enough to withstand static and
dynamic loads – burst strength, puncture strength, abrasion
resistance, elongation at failures.
 It must be resistant to excessive clogging or blending –
permeability.
 It must be resistant to rot. Insects and rodents and to chemicals
and diesel fuel.

9.5 Ballast :
In general, in Europe, the majority of the tracks of high speed lines
(about 90%) are laid in ballast. Neverthless, DB AG also uses ballastless
track, for speeds above 200km/h. This type of track is also used in France in
the underground sections where trains run through at a speed more than
220 km/h.

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 The characteristics of the ballast (size distribution, minimum
thickness) and sub ballast are given in Table 9.5 for different countries.
There are no significant differences between countries regarding the
smallest size of the particles used for ballasting high speed lines. The
differences measured are often the consequence of the (national)
standards applied.
Particular attention is drawn to the presence of fines in the ballast. It is also
required to consider the mechanical characteristics of the ballast. Among
these can be mentioned : the hardness (Los Angeles coefficient, overall
hardness coefficient, etc.) resistance to attrition, dimensions, rate of fines,
etc.
Table 9.5: Characteristics of the ballast on the high speed lines

Parameter Country
France Germany Italy Spain Belgium
Speed in Kmph 300/350 300 300 300 350 320
Size distribution 25/50 22/63 30/60 32/63 32/63 25/50
of the ballast
(1): minimum/
maximum
size (mm)
Minimum 300 350 350 300 350 350
thickness of the recomm-
ballast (mm) ended
400
Minimum
thickness of 300/700 300 120+ 250 300 500/700
the sub 300(2)
ballast(mm)
(1) Size distribution as specified in a national standard
(2) 120mm with bitumen sub ballast and 300mm compacted sub layer
Other things being equal it is possible to conclude that the high quality
ballast which exists today could be used without problems for trains that
run at 350km/h. In fact, the requirements do not vary greatly between 300
and 350 km/h.
The behaviour of the ballast under vibrations (the possibility of
becoming fluid) depending on the speed should also form the subject of an

122
analysis, which should determine at the same time whether it is necessary
or not use anti-vibration mates. In general, these mats are not widely used
on high speed lines, but are employed by SNCF in some specific cases for
use in certain tunnels as well as by DB AG, in tunnels and on bridges
(o.10N/mm3, thickness 1 cm).
Some important aspects, such as the attrition of the ballast or other
particles on the rail, the effect of the slipstream or the ballast being blown
away and the definition of a typical profile for the layer of ballast (which is
important, among other things, to prevent the slipstream) must also be
considered when speeds are increased.
Grills should be provided on certain bridges to prevent ballast being
thrown on the road.
Studies conducted at FAST (Facility for Accelerated Surface Trials,
Pueblo USA) have demonstrated that track geometry correction
requirement both for alignment and profile variations were least for test
sections having ballast depth of 300mm and it has increased for test section
having ballast depth both lower (150mm) and higher (450mm) than based
on the above discussion, it can be concluded that for high speed corridor at
a speed of 250 to 350 kmph, the following specification shall have to be
considered apart from properties of ballast metal:-
 Ballasted track on PSC sleepers can be adopted.
 Depth of ballast of the order of 300mm is adequate.
 Higher size of the ballast is preferred.
 Ballast material should be Granite / Basalt only.
 About 150mm thick Sub- ballast layer preferably of bituminous
ballast is necessary.
 The shoulder ballast may be increased to 500-700mm.
 The various design parameters should not be decided on the basis
of initial cost of laying but on the basis of principles of life cycle
costing.
Generally the thickness of ballast cushion varies form 30 to 35 cm
over high speed tracks. It is proposed to adopt a thickness of ballast of
35cm along the entire corridor. This ballast cushion should be laid over the
sub ballast of thickness 30 cm. The same has been proposed by RITES for
Mumbai –Ahmedabad High Speed Corridor.

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 Fig. 9.5: Profile of protective layer/sub ballast and ballast
Ballasted track for high speed lines should have low average
settlement of only 0.3-0.4mm under an axle load of 20 tons, this
corresponds to a coefficient of ballast of 0.3-0.5 N/mm2 .
The advantage of ballasted tracks are considered to be low
construction costs, low noise emission, short construction time, the
possibility of further development, short repair times in case of damage,
cost-effective automated and mechanized maintenance, the fact that the
system has been in use for many decades, and the possibility to change
superelevation and geometry.
9.6 Ballast less/Slab track:
Certain railways (DBAG, FS, SNCF, JR) have developed high speed
ballast less track. In particular, in Germany the decision has been taken
recently to build sections of high speed lines ( or lines with speeds above
200km/h) by using ballast less track, except for the zones where the train
sets must travel at speeds of less than 200km/h, such as stations, etc.)
At first sight the cost of building these tracks greatly exceeds the cost
of building tracks on ballast, but experience shows that, especially in
tunnels, the maintenance costs are less than the costs of ballasted track (of
the order of 1/5th), due to the slower degradation of the geometrical
parameters of these track.
The German experience shows that the cost of building slab track is
between 50% and 75% higher than that for ballasted track.

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 According to Spanish estimates, the cost of slab track would be double
and the maintenance cost would be half. These estimates assume a life of
60 years for slab track against 30 years for ballasted track.
Ballastless/slab track is also used in Francee in the underground
section where trains run through at a speed of morethan 220kmph.
In ballastless/slab track, ballast as the load distributing element is
replaced by another material which has stable position, such as concrete or
asphalt. The plastic deformation of these materials is very low in regular
circumstances. The necessary elasticity has to be provided by inserting
elastic elements below the rail or the sleeper, as the concrete or asphalt
layer is very stiff.
9.6.1 Requirements of ballastless/slab track:
(a) Non-setting formation/subsoil:
The ballastless/slab track, as opposed to the ballasted track, requires
a subsoil which is virtually free of settlement. Due to the small overall height
and the lower construction cost resulting from this fact, the slab track is
used, above all, in tunnels. Ballasted track requires embankments with a
maximum settlement of 2 cm over a track section length of 10m. The
resulting waviness of the rail surface may be easily compensated by
sophisticated permanent way machinery. These requirements are too low
for slab track. The substructure of ballasted track has to be secured by
earthwork measures down to a depth of 0.5m below the frost protective
layer. On the other hand, the substructure of slab track has to be secured
down to a depth of 2.5m blow the bearing plate by earthwork measures.
It is a challenge for the designers of the ballastless track to figure out
the suitable and adequate system of the earthwork construction.
The frost protective layer of slab track should not be less than 70 cm
(the thickness of the formation protective layer can be taken into account).
For embankments, the lower bearing layer of at least 1.8m thickness is
made up of the top layer of the filling, for cuttings – of the soil below, or the
soil has to be exchanged, if the bearing capacity of the existing soil is
insufficient. Soft, cohesive or organic soils in the subsoil should be
exchanged at a depth of at least 4m below the upper edge of the track. The
consequences of structural measures, such as digging or filling the ground
or lowering the groundwater level, must be considered and checked to a
higher extent for slab track than for ballasted track.
On earthworks these requirements lead to far higher construction and
material costs than those for ballasted track. The line which separates

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permanent way and substructure is the upper edge of the frost protective
layer or the lower edge of the hydraulically bonded bearing layer. For slab
track, the ballast is replaced by a concrete bearing layer or an asphalt
bearing layer.

One layer of cohesive and one layer of non-cohesive soil material

(sandwich layers) – shall be avoided. Nevertheless, if alternating cohesive
and non-cohesive soil material layers are necessary, every layer of cohesive
soil material will be built with a subgrade surface which has a transversal
gradient of 2.5% to the outer side.

Differences in settlement for a narrow range, between +26mm and -

4mm, may be compensated by the rail fastenings (by inserting rail pads of
different thickness). The lateral position may be corrected within a range of
0-9mm.
Codes provide only a little information about slab track construction
concepts. At the moment, only a few safe methods exist to assess the long-
term settlement behavior. The life time of slab tracks is still too short to get
clear statements on the settlement behavior. Experience gained in road
construction shows that higher settlement of high embankments cannot be
fully excluded.

In cuttings, the same strict regulations apply. Similar to the

requirements for the embankment, the required arrangement of layers and
compaction must be guaranteed for at least 3m under the rail. The subsoil
must be durable and have a suitable bearing capacity combined with small
settlement behavior in time. Soft, cohesive soil must be replaced or other
subgrade treatment has to be provided to avoid the influence of soft soil
material in the subsoil. The soft soil is responsible for big and uncontrolled
settlement, depending on the water ratio and the capacity for dewatering.
These necessary measures to lay foundations on soft soil are mostly
complex foundation methods. Thus layers of soft soil can be worked
through by bored or driven piles to set up a foundation in deeper soil layers
with sufficient bearing capacity. A drainage system is normally necessary in
cuttings on both sides of the track. The angle of the slopes must be built
according to the regulations or adequately reinforced with anchors, piles or
other improvement measures.

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(b) Precise construction and strength of the upper bound bearing
layers:
Concrete bearing layer:
The required profile tolerance on the surface of concrete bearing
layers is + 2mm. The cement content in the concrete is between 350 and
370 kg/m3. The proportion of reinforcement to limit the formation of cracks
must be between 0.8 and 0.9% of the cross section of the concrete. This is
to ensure that the width of cracks on the surface remains below 0.5mm.
The typical overall height amounts to 200mm. In the case of designs
without sleepers the surface is cut at intervals of about 2m to achieve
controlled crack formation. The concrete bearing layer can be loaded only
after the concrete has hardened and reached a minimum resistance to
pressure of more than 12N/mm2. An increasing thickness of the concrete
layer leads to higher bending loads. A minimum thickness of 180 mm
should be observed.
Asphalt bearing layer:
Asphalt bearing layers are applied in 4 layers with a total standard
thickness (on earth structures) of 300mm. The required construction
tolerance on the surface is +2mm. These requirements are significantly
higher than the requirements for road construction. Running on the asphalt
bearing layer is allowed, when the proper temperature of the asphalt is
below 50oC. Asphalt is sensitive to UV-rays, therefore its surface must be
covered by stone chips, gravel or similar materials.
Hydraulically bonded bearing layer:
A so-called hydraulically bonded bearing layer is inserted below the
concrete or asphalt bearing layer. The typical layer thickness is 300mm. A
hydraulically bonded bearing layer is a mix of mineral aggregate (mix of
natural sandstone, crushed sand and stone chips) of graded grain size
(maximum grain size 32mm), compacted by a hydraulic bonding agent.
Portland cements are used as a bonding agent. The content of the bonding
agent is about 110 kg/m3. A minimum width of the hydraulically bonded
bearing layer of 3.8m should be observed.
The stiffness which grows from top to bottom thus increasing the
total bearing capacity of the entire system is gradually adjusted by the
hydraulically bonded bearing layer. The entire system and together with it
also the hydraulically bonded bearing layer is designed in such a way as to
ensure a modulus of deformation of E > 120 N/mm2 on the surface of the
unbound top layer (frost protective layer). The hydraulically bonded
bearing layer is inserted with road finishers.

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(c) Precise construction and strength of the lower unbound
bearing layers:
Frost protective layer:
The frost protective layer also serves to compensate for the
differences in stiffness of the various layers towards the subsoil. It consists
of fine gravel which is resistant to weathering and frost. Its capacity-
breaking property has to prevent water from rising from the subsoil.
Furthermore, it has to lead surface water away rapidly. For this purpose
values of permeability between 1x10-5 m/s and 1x10-4 m/s are required. A
modulus of deformation of E > 120 N/mm2 is required for new track and of
> 100 N/mm2 for upgraded track.
Subsoil:
Extensive soil investigations have to be carried out, before a slab track
can be built on earth structures. For this purpose a soils survey has to be
performed every 50m upto a depth of 6m.
The surface of the subsoil for new tracks has an E = 60 N/mm2 and for
upgraded lines an E = 45 N/mm2. These parameters of bearing capacity are
achieved by consolidating the subsoil, using lime or cement to stabilize it.
The subsoil has to be compacted to a depth of 3m.
Construction on soft soil:
Measures for sub-grade improvement –
In the design phase one often discuss and calculate many possibilities
to improve the subsoil by different compaction methods. The soil is
compacted through pushing the lateral surrounding soil. Settlement
behaviour and the time for abating of settlement have to be calculated and
execution manuals for compaction have to be designed. But a sophisticated
and also simple method is the use of CFG (cement, fly ash and gravel
mixture) columns and simple stone columns (Fig. 9.6.1).
CFG uses a type of auger to build cement columns by displacement of
the surrounding soil. The soil laterally displaced leads to an improvement of
the surrounding solid itself. The method can also be used nearby to
sensitive structures as existing buildings or structures under construction.
The possibility to control the compression modulus of the cement
grout leads to a load-distribution effect between the soil and the CFG
columns. Thus allows considerable savings in the required column depth.
Contrary to stone columns, there is no limitation of the internal stress in the
CFG columns. Hence, there is no risk that the loaded column deforms due

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to poor bedding conditions of the surrounding soil. The ability to control the
effective compression modulus of the grout allows maintaining a
reasonable ratio between the modulus of the soil and the column.
A load distributing layer is possible to be arranged on top of the CFG
columns. This is avoiding expensive pile cap and concrete slabs. In the
classical piles approach, the soil modulus is negligible to the concrete
modulus. It means the load applied on the top of the ground is shared
between the columns and the soil itself according to the ratio of modules
previously defined.

ballastless track
hydraulically bound layer

embarkment

load spreading layer

with good compaction

soft soil

soil with sufficient

bearing capacity
CFG-piles

Figure 9.6.1: CFG Piles for subsoil improvement (Cement Fly ash
Gravel piles)
(d) Sound protection requirements:
The noise radiation of slab track is significantly higher than that of
traditional ballasted track. Compared with ballasted track, structure-borne
noise on the rail is distinctly increased within the frequency range of 250-
1000 Hz. In connection with noise reflections this leads to the stated
increase in airborne noise on the surface of slab track which amount to +5
dB. The reason is the uncoupling of the rail by the elastic rail fastening and
the lack of noise-absorption of the ballast bed. The sound emission values
of the traditional ballasted track can be achieved only by large-scale noise
protective measures (covering the slab track by noise-absorbing material,
noise protective barriers, etc.). The simplest method has proven to insert
bulky absorbing material and to subsequently compact the surface. The
use of soled sleepers (“Acoustically Innovative Slab Track” – AIFF) leads to
a great reduction of the noise level. As opposed to slab track, the sound
radiation of the railway wheel is effective on ballasted track. Many

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experiments with a wide variety of noise absorbing media have been
carried out. But most of them did not show the required lasting stability or
were too much expensive.
(e) Transition from slab track to ballasted track:
Transition areas between bridges, artificial and earth structures as
well as between slab track and ballasted track are particularly problematic.
Special structural measures, such as additional rails for load distribution
purposes and / or gluing the ballast in the transition area are applied.
The standard solution for the transition area from bridges to earth
structures is to insert a hydraulically bonded wedge, if necessary, together
with a sliding plate, behind the abutment of the bridge.
(f) Requirements for the signaling systems:
As opposed to ballasted track, the corresponding free spaces for the
erection of signaling equipment have to be provided in advance. That is to
say that the design of the signaling equipment has to be completed, before
the slab track is built.
(g) OHE Requirements:
The necessary free spaces for the OHE installations have also to be
provided. So their planning has also to be completed before starting to
build the track.
The operational currents have to be led back via the rails and, partially
in parallel, through the earth.; The permitted voltage difference between
the surrounding earth and the rail must not exceed a certain human contact
voltage depending on time. Therefore, lower diffusion resistance has to be
the aim. All reinforcement parts and other items with metal elements, such
as masts, bridge railings and bridges, etc., have to be connected with the
railway earth.
On the other hand, a high bedding resistance between the two rails is
desirable for signaling equipment. These two contrary requirements have
to be coordinated for track building.
A special feature, compared to the ballasted track, is that
reinforcement parts, if present, have to be well connected to each other
electrically In order to prevent the occurrence of voltage differences.
Therefore, the reinforcement of slab track has to have such dimensions as
to safely lead away reverse current and short circuits without destroying or
damaging the structure. Reinforcement parts have to be earthed at each
catenary pole. Some railways use a separate return transmission line.

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9.6.2 Slab track in tunnels:
For a tunnel the simplest solution is to build a slab track. The asphalt or
concrete bearing layer may be inserted directly on the tunnel base and,
provided that corresponding calculations can be proved, its thickness can
be reduced, compared to slab track on earth structures.
9.6.3 Comparison between ballasted and ballast less/slab track:
The laying of the track (track on ballast compared with track without
ballast) still forms a subject for discussion for which the question is not
restricted to checking the cost of the life cycle of each, but also the
implications with many parameters and elements.
Provided high quality ballast is used it can be concluded at first sight
that the requirements do not vary much between 300 and 350km/h.
However, the main problem with ballast at very high speed are the
proliferation of fines and the segregation of the material, the behaviour of
the ballast under vibrations (possibility of becoming fluid), the attrition of
the ballast or other particles on the rail and the slip stream effect or flying
ballast when trains go by.
An essential criterion for a technical comparison is the stability of the
track geometry. Here the slab track shows advantages as against the
ballasted track. A disadvantage of the ballastless/slab track is the higher
airborne noise emission value. This means additional economic cost for the
required active or passive noise protective measures which lower the
economic efficiency. The slab track is often economically efficient in
tunnels, because here the insertion of matting below the ballast is
prescribed for ballast track with higher speeds. Furthermore the slab track
requires a lower total height.
Further advantages of the slab track are more favourable locations of
the lines which can be adapted to the terrain and to existing structures by
applying higher superelevation and cant deficiency values. Another
advantage is the lower expense for vegetation control.
But on the whole, the ballastless/slab track on earth structure,
compared to the ballasted track, is not as effective economically, because
the construction costs are too high.

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 Fig. 9.6.3 Comparison between standard cross section of
ballasted track and ballastless/slab track of Rheda design
9.6.4 Advantages of slab track:
The most important advantages of the ballastless/slab track today are
seen in the reduced maintenance cost and, consequently, the lower traffic
hindrance costs, compared to ballasted track.
The expected life cycle of the slab track (50-60 years) is longer than
that of the ballasted track (30-40 years).
The ballastless/slab track ensures a more cost-effective line
positioning, as narrower curves at high superelevation and cant deficiency
can be applied.

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 No ballast or solid particles are whirled up on slab track. As the safety
against lateral forces is very high, the eddy current brake can be applied
without problems. The advantage must, however, be regarded as relative,
as the majority of repeated breakings occur only in certain place, e.g., near
signals or at station entrances, and is usually of no advantage as against the
ballasted track on plain line track.
9.6.5 Disadvantages of slab track:
Cement concrete slab tracks are rigid bearing layers, which can break
after their operational strength has been reached – this might be compared
to the occurrence of rail fracture. The deterioration of the track geometry in
this case occurs suddenly and unforeseeably.
The quality of slab track has to be guaranteed by appropriate high-
level quality assurance measures. This means extra cost and time for the
construction works and their control. Any quality defect would remain for
the entire expected life cycle (50-60 years) and can be eliminated only by
applying costly measures.
The rigid structure of the slab track allows only few improvements in
the future. Adaptations to changed conditions, such as changes in track
geometry, can be performed only with difficulty and at high cost. In case of
accidents, damage is considerable.
A slab track cannot be built in certain geological circumstances, such
as deep cuttings in clay soils, embankments on soft peat layers, or in
earthquake areas.
9.6.6 Types of Ballast less tracks:
A multitude of different design types of the slab track has been
developed in the world. A few important and popular one are discussed
below:
9.6.6.1 The Rheda design:
The name “Rheda” originates from the first slab track constructed in
1972 in the Rheda-Wiedenbruck station. The “Rheda” design is free of any
patent rights. Therefore, during the past years a multitude of structural
versions have been developed by various contractors.
Renewal attempts, apart from positive experience during operation,
were not convincing. Repairs require a longer track closure. Lever
corrections of a greater magnitude can hardly be carried out. In practice,
individual sleepers cannot be replaced due to the existence of a through
longitudinal reinforcement. The sleeper cribs cannot be used to insert
sound absorbing materials.

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Common to all design types is the fact that concrete sleepers of 2.60m
length are inserted on trough-shaped or through concrete bearing layers.
The required exactness of track position is achieved by vertical and
horizontal adjustment. After the adjustment the sleeper position is fixed by
filling in with concrete. In order to prevent a change in the sleeper position
during the hardening of the concrete due to temperature influence, the rail
fastenings have to be released.

Fig. 9.6.6.1 : Rheda design

9.6.6.2 Rheda 2000 Design:

The Rheda - 2000 design uses modified twin-block sleepers with
untensioned braced girder reinforcement. No concrete trough is used. The
aim of this sleeper type is to achieve a better adhesion between the
reinforcement of the track plate and that of the sleeper. The longitudinal
reinforcement of the track plate is integrated into the braced girders of the
twin-block sleeper. The sleeper reinforcement, braced girders, projects at
the lower surface of the entire sleeper system and therefore can hold the
reinforcement of the concrete bearing plate. All elements are cast in
concrete in one go without a gap. This is an advantage against the previous
Rheda designs, where undesirable gaps could develop between the casting
concrete and the trough-shaped concrete bearing plate. Another
advantage is the small overall height. This is the most popular slab track
system in the world and is being used most extensively.

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 Fig. 9.6.6.2 (a) : Rheda - 2000 system

Fig. 9.6.6.2 (b) : Rheda - 2000 construction

9.6.6.3 SATO design:

The SATO (Studiengesellschaft Asphalt-Oberbau) design type lays Y-steel
sleepers on an asphalt bearing layer. The steel sleepers are welded to a flat
steel strip running in a longitudinal track direction by using Nelson bolts (tie
bolts). The flat steel strip together with the tie bolts is embedded in the
asphalt bearing layer. In this expensive structure the Y-steel sleepers are
fixed in both their horizontal and vertical directions.

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 Fig. 9.6.6.3: SATO design of slab track
9.6.6.4 Bogl design:
The Bogl design uses pre-fabricated concrete plates made of steel
fibre concrete which are 20 cm thick and 6.5m long. The width of the plates
is 2.55m. A characteristic feature of these pre-fabricated plates are
breaking points arranged between the supporting points (notches every
0.65 cm). They prevent random crack formation. Due to the specific crack
development the plates turn into a system of wide sleepers coupled in a
longitudinal direction.
The projecting threaded steel elements of the pre-fabricated plates
are coupled in a longitudinal direction by turnbuckles. Exact level and
alignment are produced with the help of an adjustment device integrated
into the assembly plates. After adjustment a bitumen cement mortar is cast
into the space below the assembly plates. After hardening, the gaps
between the plates are filled up with sealing concrete. After the cast gaps
have hardened, the turnbuckles are closed and tensioned. Then the broad
gaps are also sealed. Track settlement up to 26mm can be compensated
within the rail fastenings. If larger settlement occurs, the assembly plates
can be separated from the sealing material by a cable saw. Readjustment is
carried out with the help of the integrated spindle. The developing cavity is
then sealed again with bitumen cement mortar. The weight of the plates
without rail fastening is about 9 t.
Figure 9.6.6.4 (a) and (b) shows the standard cross section with pre-
fabricated plates of the Bogl company. This design attaches particular
importance to the most effective drainage possible. 5 cm of the outer
lateral projecting edges of the hydraulically bonded bearing layer were laid

136
below the plate edges. Thus, the penetration of water below the plates is
significantly impeded. The usual 5% is applied for the cross fall of the track
formation.

Fig. 9.6.6.4 (a) : Bogl design with assembly plates

Fig. 9.6.6.4 (b): Standard cross section, Bogl design on earth

structures

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9.6.6.5 FFYS design:
The FFYS (Feste Fahrbahn Y-Stahlschwelle) design is a further
development of the SATO system. Two web plates located below the
sleeper (cross beams) engage in a groove milled into the asphalt bearing
layer and are connected to the asphalt bearing layer by a sealing
compound. This enables lateral forces to be transmitted.

Fig. 9.6.6.5 : FFYS design slab track

9.6.6.6 BTD design :
The BTD (Betontragschicht mit Direktauflagerung) design uses
mono-block sleepers only. Every second sleeper has a hole in its centre
through which a steel dowel is inserted. The steel dowel engages in a bore
in the concrete bearing layer and thus tensions the sleeper. The bore is
made after alignment of the track grid.

Fig. 9.6.6.6 : BTD Design



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 Chapter - 10
Electrification, Signalling,
Telecommunications & Other
Line Equipment
10.1 Signalling and Telecommunication :
At present Continuous Train Control System called CATP system in
used for high speed train operation. This uses track circuits for detecting
the position of trains and AC current in rear of the train is coded/modulated
suitably according to its position from the track occupied by the train.
Antennas or Pick up coils installed ahead of the First shunting axle of
following train pick up this information which is suitably decoded by the On
board equipment and is converted into speed code at which the train can
travel in the track section. This information is fed to the continuous speed
control system on board which causes brakes to be applied automatically if
the actual train speed is higher than the permitted speed and the driver
ignores the command to reduce speed.
10.1.1 Principles:
The principles that were laid down by the first railway system in the
world to exceed 200 kmph in commercial service – the JNR on the new
Tokaido line, form the basis for the proposed High Speed Railway. These
principles are as follows:
1. The practice of installing the line side signals is abandoned. There
are two basic reasons for this:
· Firstly, observation of the signals by the driver becomes difficult at
speed above 200 kmph.
· The second reason is connected with the lengthening of stopping
distances, which increase with rather more than the square of the
speed. Therefore alternatively signalling indication must be
available to the driver at his driving position, which is called cab
signalling.
2. Track to train transmission of signalling information must be
continuously available in cab in the form of continuous pre-set
speed accompanied with braking sections by indication of target
speed and target distance. The appearance in cab of any
information relating to a speed reduction must be accompanied by
an audible alarm signal.

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 3. The signalling must not merely be indicatory, it must be mandatory
that main cab signalling must be associated with a speed check
and application of automatic brake whenever the actual speed
exceeds the set speed limit.
10.1.2 Means of adherence to the Principles:
The automatic mechanism of speed control is defined below:
a) Spacing of trains – protection of danger points:
The spacing of trains must be automatically controlled. The
spacing used, must guarantee a minimum time interval between
trains. This value can be set individually for each line. The spacing
system used must automatically control the consequences of a
coupling breakage (protection of rear portion of the train).
The spacing of trains is guaranteed on the basis of line being
divided into sections where entry into a section under normal
running conditions is blocked when it is occupied. The entrance to
a section then constitutes a stop point. The signalling system must
be capable of providing the cab tractive unit with information
commanding them to stop before this stop point using service
braking.
b) Protection of unexpected obstacles:
Since the traditional means (flags, lanterns, detonators etc) used
to protect unexpected obstacles by staff becomes ineffective at
high speed, it must be possible immediately to provide this
protection by some other means.
To this effect, trains must be equipped with ground/ train
communication line (e.g. ground/ train radio). The
communication system can also be used for conveying
information to the driver regarding unexpected obstacles.
An expected obstacle may be:
i. Discovered by the train driver
ii. Discovered by a staff member on ground
iii. Signalled at the nearest station or traffic controller
iv. Detected automatically
v. Detected and signalled by a distributed control position
The time equipment must enable the train driver who discovers the
obstacle to emit signal carrying the immediate stop of train on his
own line or an adjacent lines within a given distance.

140
 In case a staff member who discovers an obstacle on site (broken
rail etc) under all circumstances will have access within a
reasonable limit through some local means of giving the stop
command to the cab of train on each track and in each direction.
Similarly, the station or traffic controller must be able to command
the immediate stopping of all trains on each track and in each
direction.
c) Speed Limits:
The signalling system must be able to provide in the cab of tractive
units the following necessary information with regard to speed
limits.
1. Permanent speed limits on sections of some lengths and
permanent speed limits on short section (curves, etc)
2. Speed limits that vary depending on the route (facing points),
they must be indicated automatically in the cab by signalling
system depending on the route.
3. Temporary speed limits that are planned (track works) or
unexpected obstacles.
It is desirable for the signalling system to show in the cab both
temporary and permanent speed limits so as to avoid any recourse
to line side signals.
d) Speed Controls:
The role of speed control is to act such that when speed limit is
exceeded, particularly during braking period, the excess speed
automatically brings out, before safety is compromised the
emergency braking that is more powerful than service braking and
is capable of bringing the train to regulation running condition.
The nature of the control depends on the interaction in the
form of speed code information supplied through interactive unit to
the signalling system.
e) Miscellaneous Requirements:
A new high-speed line shall not have level crossings.
It must be possible to carry out locally controlled shunting
movements using special information received in the cab.
It must be possible to link the signalling system to various

141
 safety devices such as hot axle boxes detectors, detectors of
obstacles falling on line, damaged catenary etc whose role is to
trigger an alarm wherever necessary resulting in trains slowing
down or stopping.
The signalling system must have overall availability and
reliability such that the quantity and regularity is at least equal to
what can be obtained on the best existing lines.
Regarding the signaling systems, it has been shown that the
ERTMS (European Rail Traffic Management System) is in principle,
valid up to 500km/h.
f) Location of signals:
Location of signals and track vertical alignment is instrumental in
deciding the location of neutral sections. Besides the location of
overlaps is dictated by the stop signal locations. The OHE
structures and other trackside traction equipment may hinder
signal visibility and therefore their location vis-à-vis location of
signals needs to coordinated particularly on curves so that the line
of sight is clear of such obstructions. The location of signals have
also to be electrically clear of the overhead equipment wire runs
and have to be provided with appropriate safety measures like
earthed safety screens etc.
10.2 Signalling System on various high speed world railways:
10.2.1 Shinkansen System (Japan):
(a) Intelligent Technology:
The Shinkansen system incorporates various types of
telecommunications and communications technology for improving the
reliability of train operation and passenger services, and for optimizing
system maintenance like:
(i) Various types of information (text news and radio broadcasts) are
supplied to the passengers over a communication line.
(ii) The operating conditions of onboard devices are transmitted by a
mass transmission system (spectrum diffusion system).
(iii) The standard running pattern is displayed on the operation
support information device to support efficient train operation.
(iv) The operating conditions of various devices are displayed on the
monitor on the driver's desk.

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 (v) Operational information is transmitted from the driver's desk to the
control center via a communication line (LCX or Leaky Coaxial
Cable).
(vi) The monitoring system allows the driver to ascertain conditions of
the underfloor devices, car doors, air conditioning equipment,
failed devices etc from his desk.
(b) Traffic Control System:
The high density operation of more than 291 trains per day has been
made possible by the combination of the traffic control system, advanced
system management technology, and operational expertise.
COMTRAC (Computer aided Traffic Control) was introduced in 1972 to
effectively respond to the increase in the number of Shinkansen trains
operated and the increased complexity of vehicle management. COMTRAC
can constantly monitor the condition of all trains in operation on the basis
of the operating conditions of each individual train. If any train is not
operated as scheduled, the COMTRAC issues an alarm calling for suitable
adjustments.
A new traffic control system called COSMOS (Computerised Safety
Maintenance and Operation system of Shinkansen), based on conventional
COMTRAC, has been introduced. It is a highly integrated, next-generation
system that performs transport planning, and traffic control, manages
equipment, vehicles, and maintenance, controls information.
The Shinkansen Control Centre precisely controls huge volumes of
traffic information to coordinate all transport operations.
(c) Automatic Train Control:
The Shinkansen has no wayside signals. It has an on board interactive
type Automatic Train Control (ATC) system. The train is provided with a
database, which contains all the information necessary for train speed
control, including line conditions and vehicle performance. The wayside
ATC device transmits the position of the preceding train, the condition of
the turnout, and other information to the onboard ATC device via digital
signals. The onboard ATC device next retrieves the appropriate braking
pattern from the database and performs the prescribed calculation for
optimum brake control.
10.2.2 TGV system (France):
TGV system exclusively uses in-ca signalling for high speed running.
TGV lines do not have line side signals; they are too difficult to read at

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speed. All signalling information is transmitted to the train through the rails,
and appears to the engineer in the cab. In general, TGV trainsets are heavily
computerized, and many important functions are controlled digitally.
The nerve centre of the TGV operation is situated behind the
maintenance depot at Lille Flandres in the north of France. Such is the
power generated by a TGV train that each has to be fitted with an
interference current monitoring unit, to ensure electrical interference does
not exceed safe levels.
Trains are fitted with automatic train protection systems, which
automatically apply the brakes if a signal is not responded to or passed at
danger. TVM430 (Transmission voie-machine, or track-to-train
transmission) is a cab-based signalling system which monitors train
progress and informs the driver of the maximum speed possible at any
given time to maintain headways between trains. Belgium's high speed rail
system also uses the same TVM430 technology.
Information is transmitted to trains via electrical pulses sent through
the rails, providing speed, target speed, and stop/go indications directly to
the driver via dashboard-mounted instruments. This high degree of
automation does not eliminate driver control, though there are safeguards
that can safely stop the train in the event of driver error.
The boundaries of signalling block sections are marked by distinctive
boards. The line is divided into signal blocks of about 1500m with the
boundaries marked by blue boards with a yellow triangle. Dashboard
instruments show the maximum permitted speed for the train's current
block and a target speed based on the profile of the line ahead. (with
steadily decreasing speeds permitted in blocks closer to the rear of the next
train), junction placement, speed restrictions, the top speed of the train
and distance from the end of the LGV.
As trains cannot usually stop within one signal block, which can range
in length from a few hundred metres to a few kilometers, drivers are alerted
to slow gradually several blocks before a required stop.
10.2.3 DB AG System (Germany):
Frankfurt-Köln line boasts of a pioneering signalling system,
completely dispensing with traditional lineside signals on two thirds of the
route in favour of a radio-controlled system. A derivative of automatic train
protection, known as Computer Integrated Railroading (CIR).
The NBS high speed line in Germany is controlled by two computerised
interlockings at Inglostadt Nord and Nürnberg-Fischbach. Trains on the

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300km/h line are controlled by moving block cab signalling which keeps
trains at a safe distance from each other by indicating to drivers the
maximum speed they should attain. GSM-R communications have also
been specified in line with European Union interoperability rules for high-
speed lines. On the ABS (Ausbaust recke) section south of Ingolstadt, all
signalling has been renewed and replaced with a computer-based
interlocking at Petershausen, north of Munich.
10.2.4 AVE (Alta velocidad Espanola) system of spain:
German technology of cab signalling system coupled with a
continuous speed control facility is used on Madrid-Seville and Barcelona-
Narbonne speed sections. Siemens has supplied on ISDN communication
system, which transmits speech, data, text and images. Tilting trains
between Madrid and Valencia (RENFE) is fitted with the ASFA200 in cab
signaling system.
10.2.5 Pendolino Systems (Italy):
The first generation of new rolling stock ETR500s (300 kmph) are
fitted with automatic train control and protection systems. However, the
ETR460 and 480 trainsets (250 kmph) run on conventional absolute block
signalling, with in-cab warning system. It is planned that the Naples-Rome
line will use signalling to the highest specification, Level 2 ERTMS.
10.2.6 Signalling and Communications (Finland):
Internal facilities provided on the Pendolino (220 kmph) include an
office compartment containing telephones, fax machines and overhead
projectors for business class passengers; information monitors in each
coach. Signalling up gradation on the route has involved renewal of the
multiple-aspect colour light signalling.
10.2.7 Signalling/Communications (USA):
The provision of control systems for the Acela project (240 kmph) is by
Alstom and North American systems specialist GRS. Trainsets will be
equipped with a two-frequency, nine aspect cab signalling system, which
receives information transmitted through the rails in the form of electrical
signals, and is displayed to the traincrew in the cab. The driver is supervised
by an Automatic Train Control (ATC) system, and the trains are also
governed by Amtrak's own ACSES (Amtrak Civil Speed Enforcement
System) equipment, which automatically adjusts a train's speed within
lineside speed restrictions.

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10.2.8 Signalling/Communications system in China:
The existing Beijing-Shanghai corridor is 1,463km long, and equipped
with automatic fixed-block signalling.
The prototype high-speed train is fitted with an LKJ-93 automatic train
protection system, used in conjunction with lineside equipment to monitor
and record train speed. As the current fed to the motors can be varied
continuosly, the driver is able to maintain constant speed automatically.
10.2.9 Signalling/Communications in Portugal:
Major upgrading has also been carried out on the Porto Lisbon route.
Speed raised from 180 to 220 kmph. The former relay-based automatic
fixed block signalling is replaced by 31 electronic and three central traffic
control installations. Facilities include PA system and personal headphones
at each seat, audio-visual channels, etc.
10.2.10 Signalling And Communications system in Netherland:
Signalling standards on the Netherlands high-speed line confirm to
the standard European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS). It
incorporates a high-speed communication link between trackside and train,
enables continuous transmission of information from interlocking and
traffic management systems directly into train cabs. Lineside and in-cab
signalling control movements, and a form of automatic train protection
(ATP) is fitted to trains. To further enhance safety, there is no level crossings
with bridges built to take existing roads over the new rail line.
10.2.11 Signalling and Communications system in Switzerland:
Signalling systems on the routes to be used are basically unchanged
over many years. The trains are governed by an absolute block system, and
run under multiple (three or four) aspect colour signalling.
A pilot ETCS train control system is being installed on the Olten-Luzern
route, as well as on several major new lines planned for the country, such as
that from Mattstetten to Rothrist.
10.2.12 Signalling/Communications system proposed for Indian
High Speed Corridor:
The new system is to involve the adoption of a modern system of SSI-
type interlockings, which will allow route-setting and locking functions to be
performed at the various stations and depots along the route. A network of
axle counters are being installed at the trackside, in the vein of a similar

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system used on the German ICE high-speed network. A central control
centre will monitor the entire line and its systems, and will use artificial
intelligence and a modern, efficient communications network to manage
and supervise all train movements.
10.3 Electrification
10.3.1 System of electrification:
While a majority of Indian Railways electrified network is at 25 kV AC
booster system, 2x25 kV AT system is also in use over about 400 track kms
and 1500 V DC system in and around Mumbai.
As the power requirement of high-speed trains is very large- P=f (V3),
the system of electrification has to cater to these high power requirements.
The indicative power requirement of three typical high speed routes
catering to speeds of 270 kmph, 300 kmph and 350 kmph are shown below

Maximum speed Headway Installed Power per

route km of line
270 Kmph 5 Minutes 0.7 MVA
300 Kmph 3 Minutes 1.2 MVA
350 Kmph 3 Minutes 2.0 MVA

The high-speed trains are characterized by high peak power demand

and low load factor compared with conventional lines. While various
traction system voltages and frequency have been in use with AC as well DC
system, most can be broadly classified into 1500 V DC or 3000 V DC, 25 kV
AC and 2x25 kV AC system. Apart from these conventional systems
magnetically levitated train technology is capable of achieving speeds
beyond 500 kmph.
(a) DC System:
Figure 10.3.1.1 shows the basic configuration of such a system. The
1500/3000 V DC systems because of lower voltage compared with 25 kV
systems have to handle very large currents for a given power demand. This
results in large voltage drops and very close spacing of the feeding points.
Such a system is characterized by heavy conductors and structures. The DC
system also results in galvanic corrosion requiring elaborate safety

147
measures to be taken by the utilities near the rail corridor. This system is
therefore considered suitable for speed upto 200 kmph only where it
existed prior to introduction of high-speed services.
On all new high-speed routes only AC system is being generally used.

STRUCTURE OF A DC FEEDING SYSTEM

Fig. 10.3.1.1 : D.C. System

(b) 25 KV Booster System:
Figure 10.3.1.2 shows the basic configuration of such a system. The
conventional 25 kV booster systems are not designed to cater for very high
power requirements associated with the high speed trains. This system also
suffers from some infirmities when adopted for high-speed trains.
Though the conventional 25 kV system can cater to the power
requirements of the high speed trains under limiting conditions upto around
250 Kmph, the voltage profile of such systems is not suitable for high speed
trains as the train would lose time due to adverse voltage profile for such
large drawl of power.
Trains running at high speed drawing large power results in arcing at
booster overlaps as the train pantograph temporarily short circuits the
boosters while negotiating the overlap. While this is not a serious problem
at lower speeds and comparatively lesser power, special arrangements
have to be provided at booster locations to overcome this problem for high-
speed operation.

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 The booster system has high impedance compared to the
conventional simple feeding system thus resulting in higher voltage drops.
The voltage regulation of the line is therefore poor with 25 kV Booster
system in view of the very high power demand, which adversely affects the
train running. To provide for acceptable voltage levels, traction sub stations
in the conventional system have to be placed close to each other thus
neutralizing any cost advantage which conventional system might have
over 2x25 kV AT system. Series compensation to improve the voltage
profile of the line is not considered desirable as this results in increased fault
current.

STRUCTURE OF RC-BASED BT FEEDING SYSTEM

Fig. 10.3.1.2 : 25 KV Booster System

Large AC currents associated with high-speed line results in strong
magnetic field in the vicinity of the OHE for which special measures have to
be adopted.
(c) 2x25 KV Auto transformer (AT) system:
Figure 10.3.1.3 shows the basic configuration of such a system. The
2x25 kV AT system employs a negative feeder through out the
section and Autotransformers at an interval of 10-15 kms. As a result
of effective 50 kV network, the voltage profile of the line is very good
and the negative feeder is quite effective in suppressing the
magnetic field of the line. Most countries particularly where high
speed has been introduced recently have therefore opted for 2x25
kV AT system of electrification which offers a better voltage profile
and interference level.

149
 It has following characteristics compared with other forms of
traction for high-speed routes:
(i) Lower impedance levels of around 0.12 Ohms/km compared
to around 0.3 Ohms /km for conventional BT system leading too
considerably lesser voltage drops and consequently longer sub station
spacing.

STRUCTURE OF AT FEEDING SYSTEM

Figure 10.3.1.3: 2x25 KV Auto transformer

(ii) Less EMC Disturbance
(iii) Reduced longitudinal induced e.m.f.
(iv) More symmetrical loading
(v) About 30% higher cost of Overhead equipment
(vi) More complicated to construct and operate compared with BT
feeding system
(vii) Ability to provide for very high power demands
(viii) Better voltage balance

(d) Feeding Scheme:

In both the BT system as well as the AT system, several feeding
schemes are possible. Figure 10.3.1.4 shows the scheme of feeding
adopted by some of the Railways and the scheme of feeding adopted for
conventional BT feeding section on IR.

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 AC FEEDING SYSTEM

Fig. 10.3.1.4 : AC Feeding Scheme

10.3.2 Type of overhead equipment :
Figure 10.3.2 shows the basic configuration of various Overhead
equipment used in high-speed routes. The OHE configuration adopted for
conventional AC electrified lines of Indian Railways generally corresponds
to that shown for French TGV except that a maximum span of 72 meters is
permitted for green wind zone.

OVERHEAD LINES OF WORLD HIGH-SPEED RAILWAYS

18.0m 18.0m
1.8m

5.0m
50.0m 5.0m 9.0m
SHINKANSEN 65.0m
GERMAN HIGH-SPEED LINE
15.0m 15.0m

2 2
3.5 4.5 4.5 3.5
4.5 1.0m 6.0m
3.5 4.5 3.5
63 m
FRENCH TGV SOUTHEAST
1.4 m

60 m

ITALIAN HIGH-SPEED LINE

9.0m
63

FRENCH TGV ATLANTIC

Fig.: 10.3.2 : Type of over head equipment

The type of overhead equipment to be adopted is dependent on the
requirement of power transfer, maximum operating speed, spread of speed
among various trains in the corridor (i.e. whether the high speed corridor is
being used for mixed operation or for dedicated high speed running),

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number of pantographs per train and their spacing. If a majority of the line
passes on via ducts, running an earth wire becomes a necessity. Following
general comments apply to the overhead equipment configurations:
 The net copper cross section under contact wire worn conditions
should correspond to the thermal capability of the overhead
equipment arrived from the traction power simulations.
 Wave velocity: The train speed should generally be lower than
80% of the wave velocity.
 Uniform elasticity of the overhead equipment results in better
current collection performance. Therefore the change in
elasticity should be minimum.
 Higher tension in conductors result in better current collection
performance.
 Multiple pantograph operation results in deterioration in current
collection performance of second and subsequent trailing
pantographs, results in more contact wire wear for the same
number of trains but results in lower localized wear of the contact
wire compared to single pantograph operation.
 The percentage contact loss should be limited to less than 1%
with maximum uplift not exceeding 30 cms.
 Fm - 3 > 0 Newton's where Fm is the mean contact force and is
the standard deviation.
The system height, tension and configuration of the overhead
equipment govern the basic performance of the overhead
equipment at high speeds. The tension in contact wire and catenary
are in the range of 15 kN (In French high speed lines) to 20 kN (In
Shinkansen lines). The contact wire material is either tin copper,
silver bearing copper or copper clad steel wire (For tensions of 20
kN). Most lines adopt a 3-pulley arrangement with a mechanical
advantage of 5.0 for auto tensioning equipment employing a wire
rope break safety latch. Some high speed designs employ separate
tensioning equipment for catenary and contact wire to prevent the
change in geometry from changing with the change in temperature
and wear of the contact wire.
The various configuration of the overhead equipment in use in
various countries is given in the Table 10.3.2.

152
Table 10.3.2 :Comparison of Overhead Line Constants on
Dedicated High-speed Lines in the world

153
 Belgium Railway have used 2 x 25 KV A.C. current for new high speed
lines, with catenary cable of Cu-Ag (Vmax < 300 kmph) and Cu-Mg (Vmax
>=300 kmph)
Almost all high speed electric rolling stock now employ AC-AC
system of electric traction with asynchronous traction motors, VVVF control
and IGBT's / GTO employing extensive regenerative braking and eddy
current disc brakes with low unsprung mass and low power to weight ratio
(of the order of 1.5kg/kw). Most traction equipment is under slung to
provide for most optimum utilization of floor space.
With the exception of Germany, where the voltage is 15 KV at
162/3 Hz, other main countries have decided to adopt the system of 2 x 25
KV, at 50 Hz. Both these power systems can be used to increase the train
speed up to 350 km/h.
The mechanical force necessary (in the catenary) varies between
15 KN at 250 km/h and 30 KN at 350 km/h, passing through 20 KN at 300
km/h. This increase in the mechanical force is possible due to the
development of new alloys.
The height of the contract wire in the various countries is within the
values specified by the Technical Specifications (STI), either 5.08 or 5.30m.
To run at higher speeds, the power must logically be greater, and
as a result in certain cases, it is essential to plan for a reduction in the
distance between sub-stations.
The overhead system installed on most sections of IR is regulated
conventional. For speeds in excess of 180 Kmph current collection
performance deteriorates considerably for such a suspension arrangement.
Therefore a stitched catenary system and higher size 150 sq. mm silver
bearing or copper clad steel contact wire tensioned at 20 kN, with deep
curved registration suitable for a speed potential of upto 300 Kmph has
been proposed for the high speed corridor.
Automatic neutral sections (Track side and locomotive borne
equipment based) have been proposed to avoid manual switching of
locomotive power while negotiating the neutral sections.
The distributed power based electric traction is considered superior
to concentrated power based (Push-pull arrangement) traction due to the
flexibility it offers, smaller axle loads leading to less track maintenance,
superior traction and braking characteristics even under adverse weather
conditions, better space utilization, more reliability and better energy
efficiency on account of improved regeneration characteristics.

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 Taking a long-term view with possibilities of further increase in
maximum speed, the traction sub-stations are proposed to be equipped
with 50 MVA transformers. Since the conventional superfast trains are
contemplated to run over the high speed corridor.
Though at lower speeds this distinction generally blurs as the
powering ratio required is low-around 25% for 250 Kmph, however at
higher speeds above factors assume considerable significance. Thus from
the stand point of reliability, improved traction and braking characteristics
and better space utilisation distributed power system is considered more
appropriate for high speed trains.
10.3.3 Pantographs:
Pantograph design is dictated by following considerations:
 Maximum power transfer per pantograph
 Maximum speed
 Type of Overhead equipment configuration
 Noise, and
 Number of pantographs per train
As pantograph and insulators installed on the roof of the car are
major source of noise at high speed, simple light weight single arm
pantographs or wing shaped current collector which significantly contribute
in the noise reduction are employed. Suitable pantograph cover has also
been used to reduce the airflow around the pantograph thereby restraining
the occurrence of aerodynamic sound from the pantographs. Reducing the
number of pantographs by employing 25 kv bus couplers also results in
better current collection as well reduction in the noise. In French-TGV's the
trailer power car collects current from the overhead line equipment and
feeds power to the leading power unit as well through a power cable
running along the roof. The single pantograph arrangement prevents the
leading pantograph from disturbing the contact wire for the following
pantographs and thus improves the current collection performance. Some
of the pantographs in use for high-speed trains are quite sophisticated
employing active damping. Active pantographs have recently been tried
out in Germany enabling higher speeds to be achieved on conventional
catenary system.
10.3.3.1 Power Supply on French railway:
LGVs are all electrified at 25 kV 50 Hz AC. Catenary wires are kept
at a greater mechanical tension than normal lines because the pantograph

155
causes oscillations in the wire, and the wave must travel faster than the
train to avoid producing standing waves that would cause the wires to
break. This was a problem when rail speed record attempts were made in
1990; power wire tension had to be increased further still to accommodate
train speeds of over 500 km/h. On LGV, only the rear pantograph is raised,
avoiding amplification of the oscillations created by the front pantograph.
The front power car is supplied by a cable running along the roof of the
train.
Eurostar trains are long enough that oscillations are damped
sufficiently between the front and rear power cars, so both pantographs
can be raised – there is no interconnecting high-voltage cable along the 400
m length of the train.
10.3.4 Issues of Interoperability for Indian High Speed Corridor:
Since it is desirable that some passenger trains from existing
sections may also run on the HS corridor, following issues need to be
addressed:
a) Traction Power Supply: Since in India existing traction power
supply arrangement is of 25 kV booster system, the location of
new traction sub-stations and sub-stations at the boundary of
conventional and AT System has to provide for flow of power
from one system to the other. Similarly the SCADA systems of
conventional line and high speed line has to provide for a fault
segregation philosophy which prevents the high speed section
services to remain unaffected by fault in the conventional
section and vice-versa. In regard to the sufficiency of power in
the normal as well as emergency feed situations the new high-
speed line shall be independent of the conventional line.
b) Overhead equipment: The 2x25 kV Overhead equipment
which has an additional 25 kv feeder and possible earth wire
throughout the section shall have to be interfaced with
conventional line with a return conductor and boosters. Suitable
interfacing arrangements in this regard has to be done.
c) Contact wire height: As the new high speed corridor shall not
have any level crossing gates a considerably lower contact wire
height compared to the conventional system can possibly be
employed depending on whether any bi-level train operation is
proposed in future. However since the contact wire height of the

156
 conventional system is 5.5 meters, the contact wire will have to
be graded in the interfacing zones.
d) Pantograph: The pantographs of high-speed trains are
generally lighter and may differ in geometry compared to the
pantographs of conventional electric rolling stock. If
conventional stock is also to run on the high-speed corridor, the
overhead equipment design particularly over the turnouts,
under the bridges/tunnels and neutral sections has to cater to
both the pantograph profiles and pantograph pressure. Similarly
the neutral section lengths have to consider the inter-panto
distance of conventional as well as high-speed trains.
e) Similarly it may not be possible to adopt carbon current
collection strips for the HS rolling stock due to mixed running of
HS and conventional stock.
f) Trains/Locomotives nominated to run on the high speed route
shall be equipped with all the cab equipment in regard to cab
signaling, automatic neutral section switching, ATP
transponders and communication equipment to enable the
stock to run on the high speed line.
g) The high-speed stock may be wider and have different kinematic
profile compared with conventional stock. Therefore the
platform design has to cater for both type of stock.
10.3.5 Suggested parameters by RITES are summarized in table
10.3.5.
Table 10.3.5: Proposed Key Parameters

157


158
 Chapter - 11
Rolling Stock & Operating Conditions

11.1 Review of High Speed Rolling Stock:

The major brands of rolling stock developed in connection with High
Speed Railways around the world are reviewed in this section. The major
brands of rolling stock are as follows:
ICE, KTX, Shinkansen, TGV, THALYS
Talgo and Other Tilting Trains
11.1.1 ICE:
In the summer of 1991 Germany introduced the concept of “ICE”
(InterCity Express) high speed lines.
DB introduced its first ICE-T tilting trains in 1998. Developed with the
involvement of Siemens Transportation Systems, the trains have a top
speed of 230km/h even over rough terrain. Diesel and electric versions of
the tilting ICE have reduced journey times and drastically improved
passenger comfort on several 'classic' routes.
To introduce ICE comfort and speed to non-electrified routes, DB has
acquired a small number of four-car tilting DMUs, known as ICE-TD.
The first experimental ICE train, introduced in 1995, ICE-2, was
ordered in 1994, ICE3, introduced from 1999, ICE3 features a distributed
traction package with every second vehicle powered, rather than the end
power cars used for ICE1 and 2.
A consortium of Bombardier Transportation and Siemens in May 2000
delivered ICE 3 electrical multiple units to German Rail (DB AG) and Dutch
Railways.
Each ICE3 trainset consists of two eight-vehicle half sets. Eight of each
train's 16 bogies have both axles powered. Although ICE3 is single voltage,
the ICE3M version can operate on any of the four main power supply
systems on the European mainland: 15kV 16.7Hz; and 25kV 50Hz AC,
1.5kV DC and 3kV DC.
These multiple unit trains are being used primarily on German Rail's
new high-speed lines, e.g. Frankfurt-Cologne, and run at speeds up to

159
330 km/h. The four-system units are intended for operation on the DB AG
railway network and for cross-border service with the Netherlands, France,
Belgium, and Switzerland as well as for operation on the European High-
Speed Network.
The ICE 3 is a multiple unit train, which means the traction equipment is
distributed over the full length of the train; it is possible to obtain a high
acceleration as well as low adhesion coefficient. The extensive under floor
electrical equipment allows for more space available for passengers. A lounge
in each of the two end cars gives passengers a clear view of track ahead and is a
clear deviation from conventional designs. Features of a typical system are as
indicated in Table 11.1.1
Table 11.1.1: Features of ICE Stock
Parameter Value
Length 200,000 mm
Width 2,950 mm
Max. Speed 330 km/h
Seated Passengers 416
11.1.2 Korean High Speed Train KTX: Rotem's high speed trains
christened "Korea Train Express" (KTX) is running with maximum speed of
300km/h on the nation's main trunk line from April 2004.
The technological features are as in Table 11.1.2
Table 11.1.2: Features of KTX Stock
Parameter Value
Train Composition PMC-M-16T-M-PMC
Max. Speed 300 km/h
Main Power Supply 25,000V AC
Max. Weight (PMC) 74 tons
Train Control ATC
Traction Rating 1,130 kW
Brake System Pneumatic + Regenerative + Rheostatic

11.1.3 Shinkansen: The series 500 trains has now a top operating speed
of 300 km/hr.
In the development of the Tokaido Shinkansen, the EMU system was

160
adopted employing a distributed traction system, in which all the cars of a
train are equipped with traction motors, in order to lighten the axle load,
reduce noise and vibration, cut the maintenance cost (because of less
impact on the tracks) and increase the reliability of train operation (at
speeds exceeding 200 km/hr).
By employing the EMU system, trains can be split up or joined together,
and formed into long or short trains, all the while ensuring top running
performance.
For a high speed railway, decreasing the vehicle weight is extremely
important from the viewpoint of reducing ground vibration and improving
the acceleration/ deceleration performance of the train.
The car body of the Shinkansen meets safety requirements in both its
strength and durability, while being lightweight enough for a high speed
train.
The car body has a larger cross section than the world's other high
speed rail systems. The car body is 3,400 mm in width and 4,500 mm in
height from the rail top and therefore permits a layout of 5 seats (2 + 3) per
row. The variation is reflected in Table 11.1.3.1 and 11.1.3.2.
Table 11.1.3.1: Seating Configuration

Country Type Width (m) Height (m) Seat interval

(mm)
France TGV-PSE 2.814 3.42
TGV-Atlantique 2.904 3.48 850
TGV-Duplex 3.91 4.50
Germany ICE-1 3.02 3.84
ICE-2 3.02 3.84 900
ICE-3 2.95 3.85
Japan Series 0 3.38 3.975
Series 500 3.38 3.69
Series 700 3.38 3.65 1,040
Series E2 3.38 3.70
Series E4 3.38 4.485
The most common car body of the Shinkansen is made of hollow,
extrusion-formed aluminum alloy members. This car body does not require

161
any support pillars. Since the aluminum car body is comparatively easy to
build with being light weight, which reduces car body weight and increases
car speed, and has good soundproofing performance, it has come to be
widely used for many new Shinkansen cars (the 700 and subsequent series).
Much consideration is given to aerodynamics when designing the car
body of the Shinkansen. The entire car body is sleek wherein, the nose is
shaped to minimize air resistance and pressure change when the train runs
into a tunnel. Even when the train runs with the nose at the rear end it is
free from rolling. Since the under floor profile also affects air resistance, it is
made as smooth and flush as possible. On the roof, parts that are
absolutely necessary (e.g., the pantograph cover) are installed to minimize
sources of noise.
Each Shinkansen train is equipped with an obstruction guard at the
front end to minimize the impact of collision with obstructions weighing up
to several hundred kilograms. This guard absorbs the energy of the
collision and protects the front end of the car body.
The bogies for Series 300 and later are not provided with bolsters,
and the car body is supported directly by air springs. The elimination of the
bolster has simplified the bogie construction, reduced its weight, and
improved running performance. Other improvements made on the
conventional bogie construction include the use of a smaller-diameter
wheel, a hollow axle, and aluminum alloy for the axle box. As a result, the
weight of a bogie, including the motor, has decreased from about 10 tons
to about 7 tons.
The introduction of a controlled bogie and the control of rolling and
the yawing by dampers installed between car bodies have improved the
riding comfort of the Shinkansen. A car-end damper is installed in Series
300 and later to prevent rolling, a damper to restrain yawing is installed in
Series 700, E2 and E3, a pre-compressed outer bellows is installed in Series
E2 and later and a car body tilting device will be introduced in Series N700.
The series 300 (developed in 1992) and subsequent Shinkansen cars
use asynchronous (AC) motors. An AC motor is more compact, higher
output, less than half in weight than a DC output and is easily maintainable.
The AC motors in use now require overhaul about every 3 million km.
The present Shinkansen cars use air supplement control that controls
the brakes of the motorcars and trailing cars simultaneously. In the high
speed range, the regenerative brakes of the motor cars are fully utilized,
whereas the mechanical brakes of the trailing are not used. In the low
speed range, the mechanical brakes of the trailing cars are applied only

162
when the regenerative braking capacity alone is insufficient. By increasing
the regenerative braking capacity, it has become possible to save energy
and reduce the burden of the mechanical brakes. This in turn has reduced
the wear of the lining and other parts of the mechanical brakes.
Standard class cars are equipped with five seats (2+3) seats per row
and first class cars with four (2+2) seats per row. The space between seats
in contiguous rows is 1,040 mm for standard class and 1,160 mm for the
first class. The vehicle vestibule is level with the platform for ease of small
children and elderly and the vestibule areas are equipped with toilets,
washbasins, telephones, vending machines and specially designed
benches, toilets, washbasins and compartments for handicapped persons.
The air conditioning system is a two-stage cooling type that does not
require much duct space but is extremely energy efficient exhibiting stable
performance. Salient specifications of the rolling tock are listed in Table
11.1.3.2.
Table 11.1.3.2 : Specifications of Shinkansen Rolling Stock

Series 700 Series 300

Electrical System AC 25kV, 60 Hz AC 25kV, 60 Hz
Configuration 12M4T 10M4T
Seating Capacity Economy Class: 1,123 Economy Class: 1,123
First Class: 200 First Class: 200
Total: 1,323 Total: 1,323
Weight 708 ton/train set 711 ton/train set
Maximum Operation 270 km/hr 270 km/hr
Speed (Tokaido Line)
270 km/hr (Sanyo Line)
and over
Start-up Acceleration 1.6 km/hr /sec 1.6 km/hr /sec
Capacity (Tokaido Line)
2.0 km/hr /sec
(Sanyo Line)
Power Running VVVF VVVF
Control System Induction electoric Induction electoric
motor drive with motor drive with
VVVF control VVVF control

163
 Series 700 Series 300
Brake Control System AC regenerative AC regenerative
brake system and brake system and
electrically-controlled electrically-controlled
air brake system air brake system
Body Construction Large-sized hollow Large-sized
extrusions of extrusions of
aluminium alloy aluminium alloy
Bogie Bolsterless bogie Bolsterless bogie
Wheel diameter: Wheel diameter:
860 mm 860 mm
Wheel base: Wheel base:
2,500 mmGear 2,500 mmGear
ratio: 2.93 ratio: 2.93
Traction Motor AC 3-phase cage AC 3-phase cage
asynchronous motor asynchronous motor
48 motors/train set 40 motors/train set
275 kW/motor 300 kW/motor
Total Output Total Output
13,200 kW /train set 12,000 kW /train set
Pantograph Single-arm pantograph Diamond-shaped
2 pantographs/train set pantograph
Single collector shoe 2 pantographs/train
set
Double collector shoe
ATC Double frequency Double frequency
system system

11.1.4 TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse):

The most striking aspect is the aerodynamic styling of the nose.
Perhaps the most interesting feature of a TGV trainset is its articulation. The
cars are not merely coupled together; instead, they are semi-permanently
attached to each other, with the ends of two adjacent cars resting on a
common two-axle truck. It is thus more appropriate to speak of 'trailers'
than of 'cars'.

164
 Fig. 11.1.4 French TGV Double Decker
TGV trainsets are essentially symmetric and reversible, with a
locomotive, also called power unit or power car, coupled at each end. The
trailing power unit collects power from the overhead electric catenary, and
feeds power to the leading power unit through a cable running along the
roof of the train. This single-pantograph arrangement prevents one
pantograph from disturbing the wire and thus disrupting the contact for the
following pantographs. The pantographs themselves are among the most
sophisticated, some featuring active damping.
The brakes are suited for running at high speed. They are capable of
dissipating a very large amount of energy. The locomotives each have
dynamic brakes, in addition to brake shoes for emergency stops. The
trailers are equipped with four disks per axle, and in some cases backup
brake shoes. Future models might include magnetic induction track brakes.
11.1.5 Talgo :
Some of the Technological Principles of Talgo systems are:
 Lightweight construction
 Articulated connections between coaches
 Single-axles wheel sets equipped with independent wheels
 Steered axles on track at zero angle and
 Low height.
Talgo has also made four technological developments for
improvements and better performances for this type of transport.

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  The "Talgo RD" system for automatically changing the distance
between wheels on axles
 Talgo Tilting suspension for naturally tilting the carbodies on
curves,
 Damper system between carbodies and
 Talgo XXI with integrated traction and variable gauge axles.
The passenger carbodies are made from large sections of light
aluminum alloys welded together. It can be claimed that, nowadays,
weight per seat in Talgo trains is possibly the lowest of all trains in their
class, which means major reductions in railway operating energy
consumption. This reduction favours economic operating results and from
an ecological point of view, diminishes consumption of energy resources.
With this type of connection, standardized and easily identified on all
generations of Talgo trains, wheel set components are installed between
the car bodies instead of "under" them as in classical design cars, thereby
providing a series of very important structural and geometric benefits for
development of other Talgo technological features.
Among these it should be emphasized that Talgo technology makes
use of available space in coupling between coaches for installation of some
simple, but very sturdy components, whose effectiveness has been
demonstrated in several unfortunate accidents and which, to the benefit of
safety, resists isolated overturning and overlapping of coaches.
Talgo railcars are shorter than conventional design rolling stock. The
Talgo Tilting, Talgo XXI and Talgo High Speed generations, in particular, are
approximately half the length than conventional cars.
Due to this characteristic and their light construction, Talgo trainsets
only have one axle per coach, with the subsequent economic benefit this
represents by halving the number of axles per train length unit. These
axles also have independent wheels, a practical solution, unique in the
world, which has the great advantage of eliminating dangerous axle
hunting movement, with all the corresponding benefits this implies for
operating safety, especially at high speed, and for reducing wheel-rail
friction.
From a maintenance economy viewpoint this feature is also very
favourable since on these axles it is not necessary for the two wheels to
have the same diameter nor the same wheel profile, which is the case for
conventional integral axles.

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 Fig. 11.1.5.1 Talgo tilting train

Fig. 11.1.5.2 High Speed bogie

A robust mechanism, formed by articulated rods, maintains the axles
equidistant from the carbodies they are integrated into, in such a way that
the wheels, both on straight track as well as on curves, remain constantly
parallel to the rail. These features increase operating safety levels whilst
also reducing wear on wheels and rails.
The location of wheel unit components and the reduced space
occupied by the axles enable the railcar level to be lower benefiting dynamic
operating stability and preventing them moving forward. Coach floors are
also moved closer to platform level, facilitating passenger access to coaches.
11.1.6 Talgo Tilting suspension for naturally tilting the carbodies
on curves:
Since 1980, all Talgo rolling stock is equipped with original Tilting type
suspension, developed by Talgo for the Talgo Tilting family of trains, which
entered commercial service.

167
 All vehicles, when travelling along a line on curved track, are
naturally pushed sideways to the outer part of the curve which, in the case
of railway vehicles, is translated into a tendency to lean outwards and for
the carbodies to turn in the same direction. With Talgo Tilting suspension
this movement is reversed, so that on Talgo Tilting trains, the cars lean
naturally "inwards" when negotiating curves.

Fig. 11.1.6 Talgo tilting arrangement

This inclination, which on other "tilting car bodies" is forced, artificially
produced by means of complicated equipment and systems, favours
passenger comfort considerably since lateral forces when negotiating a
curve are greatly reduced.
Due to this improvement, it is possible to increase operating speed of
vehicles equipped with this feature, always bearing in mind the track
infrastructure quality and vehicle operating conditions. In the case of Talgo
trains, the axle guidance system together with other notable dynamic
features, makes it possible to increase operating speed by as much as 25%
with respect to authorised speeds for conventional design vehicles.
Compared with other forced carbody tilting systems, the Talgo natural
Tilting, produced by centrifugal forces has the advantage of being
completely reliable and at low functional cost, as well as naturally
comfortable and economic to manufacture and maintain, since the system
is essentially based on a simple elevation of car support levels above the
Centre of Gravity, which does not involve any cost.

168
11.1.7 Other Tilting Trains:
Tilting trains were developed by British Rail in the 1970s and led to the
creation of the Advanced Passenger Train. Prototypes of these operated on
the West Coast Mainline in the 1980s, before the project was abandoned in
1986. But the concept was taken up, notably in Italy and Sweden, which
went on to develop successful tilting trains.
It costs many times more per unit distance to build a dedicated high
speed line than it does to upgrade existing lines for tilting trains. This is
what makes tilting trains option attractive. However there are
disadvantages too. The speed of 230km/h is about as fast as trains go when
not on dedicated lines and then they have to be fitted in with slower moving
traffic. Problems of railways reaching saturation point has forced new lines
to be built. This is why despite the success of the Italian Pendolini, a new
high speed line with 300 km/h trains were built, because existing lines were
at saturation point.
11.1.8 Switzerland's ICN:
Swiss Tilting Train is as InterCity Neigezug (ICN) or InterCity tilting
train.
Swiss Federal Railways has undertaken a co-ordinated modernisation
programme in an effort to ensure that standards are lifted uniformly across
the whole network under which Swedish X2000 and Italian 'Pendolino'
high-speed trains for use on the twisting, undulating terrain of the Swiss rail
system have been introduced. The new tilting trains are supplied by a
consortium of major manufacturers comprising Adtranz (now Bombardier),
Fiat-SIG and Schindler Wagon.
The chosen rolling stock design is a sleek, streamlined seven-car EMU,
with a seating capacity of 463 and a top design speed of 200km/h
Each trainset weighs 355t and is 188.8m long. Power is supplied at
15kV AC, with the transformer accommodated in the third vehicle. The only
vehicle not to carry any traction equipment is the centre car, the only one
containing exclusively first class accommodation.
Monocoque aluminium bodies are used to minimise weight, and the
vehicles' dimensions are carefully designed to ensure there is no resonance
with the running gear and underfloor-mounted equipment, so ensuring a
smooth ride.
Each vehicle is mounted on an H-frame bogie, including Geneva-
Biel/Bienne-Basel from 2004 driven tilting mechanism, centrally-located
secondary suspension, and radially-steered wheelsets. The transformer in
each three-car section feeds a GTO converter, powering four self-ventilated

169
171traction motors. Power for auxiliary and passenger accommodation is
supplied at 1.4kV 50Hz from an inverter in the train's traction converter.
Data between the two halves of each trainset is transferred via a wired train
bus, using a system based on that used in the IC-2000 double-deck inter-
city rolling stock.
The tilting equipment specification has very tight parameters. The
leading cab has a processor, which calculates the degree of tilt needed as
the train enters each curve. The interior design incorporates novel features.
There are no car-end doors between passenger seating areas and the
gangways, which are pressure-sealed. The first-class seating is located in
the centre of the train, and a 26-seat dining car with serving area in the
third car.

Fig. 11.1.8.1 WCML - Pendolino

Fig. 11.1.8.2 Korean High Speed Train

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11.1.9 United Kingdom :
West Coast main line pendolino tilting trains: Franchised train
operator GNER operates a fleet of 31 6,090hp (4,540kW) Class 91
locomotives built by BREL (now Adtranz) at Crewe Works. These work in
push-pull mode with 31 nine-car Mk4 coaches plus driving van trailers built
by Metro-Cammell (Now Alstom). The trains were introduced from 1991;
designed to run at (225kmh) and could be retro-fitted with tilt because they
have chamfered bodysides.
11.1.10 Eurostar :
The Eurostar launched in 1994, was Europe's first international train,
designed to take advantage of the Channel Tunnel, to provide a high speed
rail service between London and the UK to destinations in Continental
Europe.
 Top Commercial Speed 300 km/h
 Top speed in England 160 km/h
 Top speed in the Channel Tunnel 160 km/h

Fig. 11.1.10.1 Euro Star Train

The train is 20 cars long, some 400 meters long with a passenger
capacity of 800. It is made up of an engine at each end and 2 buffet cars
with 2nd class at each end, and the 1st class sandwiched in between the
buffet cars and 2nd class in the centre. Like the TGV it is a fixed trainset, and
the coaches all share a common bogie. However unlike a TGV the two
coaches in the centre of the train do not share a bogie so that it can be

171
broken up in the middle. This is for safety reasons when running in the
tunnel.
The traction motors were assembled in the UK and use British
asynchronous traction drivers instead of synchronous traction motors as
used in France to cope better with the 3rd rail power supply. Also various
signalling controls of the train are British, necessarily to cope with the
British signalling system. In fact, the Eurostar is capable of operating under
7 different signalling systems. Also the Eurostar had to be built to British
specifications which are more strict than in France, which meant the TGV
design couldn't be used it had to be completely started from scratch.
The Eurostar has a very small windscreen for the driver, and has no
side windows at all. Infact inside the car the driver sits quite far back from
the small windscreen. This is because it was found that going down a tunnel
at a fast rate for several minutes induced a hypnotic effect on the driver
The Eurostar is the only high speed train to have shoes which are
needed to pick up electricity from the 3rd rail in England. It has two
pantographs on top, one for French 25kV AC systems and one for Belgium
3kV DC systems
The nose of the Eurostar has been specially designed for operation in
the Channel Tunnel, where aerodynamics is of greatest importance.
In the UK, the Eurostar runs on existing Kent Lines but is limited to
160kmph. The lines in Kent are extremely good straight and flat but there is
a fundamental problem that the double track lines are spaced very close to
each other. Often when two trains pass each other there is as little as 30 cm
or a foot between them. This means there is an overall speed limit of
160kmph. If two trains pass just a few centimetres from each other at a
relative speed of significantly greater than 320kmph, then there is a risk
that the resulting pressure wave could blow out windows in the train.
In the Channel Tunnel the train runs at about 160kmph which is the
speed also of the "le Shuttle" trains which ferry cars across the tunnel. In
France and Belgium the Eurostar is free to run at up to 300km/h.
Eurostar is the costliest train system in the world. It works out at
£30,000 per seat or US $40,000 which is a world record for a train. Having
said that, for an average airliner it is about £150,000 per seat or US
$200,000.
11.1.11 Active Tilting Technology:
The active tilting technology is more complicated than the passive

172
tilting technology, nevertheless more popular. In this, the inclination of the
car frame is managed by electromechanical or hydraulic systems that get
data and orders from an electronic component. To calculate the optimal
tilting angle, the following variables, put at disposal by acceleration sensors
and gyroscopes, have to be put in consideration: actual speed, curve
radius, centrifugal acceleration and track level. In early tilting systems each
car had its own sensors and computer that calculated the values only for
itself. As mainly multiple units are equipped with active tilting systems,
newer models of tilting systems only have sensors in the first and last car.
The computer calculates the delay on which the orders are forwarded to the
following cars (Master - Slave - principle). Older models of hydraulically
tilting systems took much space away, in newer models the whole tilting
system is located in the bogies and allows the usage of the whole space in
the passenger cell. There is a special problem on electrical powered tilting
trains, especially electrical multiple units (EMU), with the pantographs. If
the pantograph were installed in a solid way on the roof it would loose the
contact with the catenary in curves. To avoid this the pantograph can be
coupled solid with the bogie or a special hydraulic system can be added to
compensate the inclination of the car frame.
Some of the popular tilting sub-systems are made by Alstom and Fiat.
a) Alstom System :
Alstom has developed his own tilting system, which - comparable with
the system by CAF, initiates the inclination of the car frame before reaching
the curve. The train is located only by gyroscopes and accelerometers. In
practice this means, that the on board computer has to know the geometry
of the whole line. If a train, equipped with the tilting system by Alstom, runs
for the first time on a line it does not even know the geometry of the line. In
this case the tilting technology works reactively (penduler réactif) and the
data is saved in the on board computer. After this first run each time the
tilting train enters this specific line the computer recognizes the line
geometry and the tilting system can work in advance (penduler anticipatif).
This is much more comfortable to the passengers.

b) Fiat System :
The most popular tilting system is developed by Fiat Ferroviaria. As most
other tilting systems it works reactively. Tilting trains equipped with the
Fiat-System are called Pendolino.

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11.1.12 Spain :
AVE brand (Alta velocidad española) owned by the Spanish National
Railways, RENFE.
The different technical features of the high speed line as compared to
the conventional network mean that the AVE trains are “captive”, i.e.
completely restricted to these lsections.
11.1.13 Italy: Eurostar:
The first generation of new rolling stock was the ETR450 Pendolino,
built by Fiat Ferroviaria. However, the latest derivative, the ETR500 non-
tilting variant, has been designed and built by Gruppo Ferroviario Breda at
its factory in Pistoia.
The later ETR460/480 trains were the first to offer restaurant facilities
in a tilting train. and capable of speeds up to 250km/h. The ETR500 is a 13-
vehicle unit seating 590 passengers. Introduced in 1996, this is capable of
300km/h.
11.1.14 Belgium - Thalys PBKA High Speed Network:
Running standards are similar to French National Railways (SNCF)
with 17t axleloads, 25kV AC electrification and cab signalling.
It is provided with 17 four-voltage trains known as TGV PBKA Thalys
trains were built by Alstom in the late-1990s.
11.1.15 Sweden :
X 2000 Tilting Trains The first X2000 tilting train was delivered from
ADtranz in 1990
Each X2000 formation consists of one 4400hp power car, powered at
15kV ac. Each unit can be made up of up to 16 intermediate vehicles with a
maximum capacity of 1,600 passengers, but a typical train has only five
intermediate trailers.
The secondary routes are served by a second generation of X2000,
the X2-2. While the current network is geared for 200km/h, there are long-
term plans for upgrading to allow 300km/h operation.
Each X2000 trainset is mounted on 'soft' bogies, which adjust
automatically on curves and mean a train can run up to 40% faster without
exerting extra stresses on the track. An accelerometer measures lateral
acceleration on curves and the main computer in the leading vehicle
calculates the amount of tilt required and sends instructions to the
computer in each coach.

174
 X2000 is fitted with an advanced system of Automatic Train Control
(ATC), which provides a series of information about the line up to 4km
ahead of the driver. If there is no response, the train brakes are
automatically applied.
Each train also has three independent braking systems, an electric
regenerative brake for speed adjustments down to standstill; air-operated
disc brakes for normal and hard braking, and a magnetic track brake for use
in emergencies.
Electronic anti-slip devices and parking brakes are also fitted. The
standard train brake gives stopping distances of 1,750m from 200km/h,
(1,100m) from 150km/h, and (700m) from 130km/h. A full emergency
application of the magnetic brake will bring the train to a stand from
200km/h in 1,100m.
11.1.16 Train Formation suggested by RITES for Indian High
Speed B.G. Corridor:
The computer simulations carried out suggest that 2M+6T
configuration with passenger capacity of around 766 with design similar to
E-2-1000 Shinkansen series is able to achieve 250 Kmph. However a
formation of 3M+5T with a cost index per passenger marginally higher
(107.59 compared to the base 100 for 2M+6T and 138.61 for TGV type
push-pull formation) is recommended for adoption in view of greater
allowance for make up margin and no deterioration in run time even under
conditions of failure of one of the motor coach.
As the energy consumption forms a significant component of
operating costs, possibility of accommodating the maximum number of
passengers has been explored. In this context it is noted that the duplex
TGV has a width of (3.886 m) and the Shinkansan E-2-1000 has a width
3.354 m leading to a considerable increase in the passenger capacity
compared to 2.946 m wide German ICE's. Thus considering our wider
gauge, running of bi-level 3.886 m wide stock (similar to Duplex TGV's) may
be considered for above formation to further reduce the operating cost per
passenger.
11.2 Operating conditions:
Details of maximum axle load, maximum design speed and maximum
operating speed in different countries pioneer in high speed operation is
given in table 11.2 below:

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Table 11.2: Operating Conditions - Axle load maximum design
speed & operating speed.

Country
PARAMETER France Germany Italy Spain Belgium
(Km/h) 300 350 300 300 350 300 350 300 350 300
Type of Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass- Pass-
traffic enger enger enger enger enger enger enger enger enger enger
freight freight

Maximum Axle load

for the maximum
line speed, high 17 17 17 17 16 17 17 17 18 17
speed trainsets (t)
Maximum Axle load None None 20 None None 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 22.5
for locomotives (t)
Maximum Axle load None None 22.5 None None 22.5 22.5 None None 22.5
for freight wagons (t)
Maximum design 350 350 300 300 350 250- 350 270 350 320
speed of the lines (tunnels(tunnels
(km /h) 330 330
Maximum operating 300 320 300 300 330 300 350 270 >300 300
speed of the lines (300)
(km/h)

11.3 Train dimension and seating capacity:

Train dimension and seating capacity of a few high speed system is
given in the table 11.3 below:
Table 11.3: Train dimension and seating capacity

Equipment Top Seating Overall Width WeightPower Power

type speed capacity length to weight
TGV Sud-Est 270 km/h 345 200.2m 2.81m 385 t 6,450 kW 16.7 W/kg.
as built
300 km/h
rebuilt
TGV Atlantique 300 km/h 485 237.5m 2.90m 444 t 8,800 kW 19.8 W/kg
TGV Reseau 300 km/h 377 200m 2.90m 383 t 8,800 kW 23.0 W/kg
EurostarThree 300 km/h 794 393.7m 2.81m 752 t 12,240 kW 16.3 W/kg.
Capitals
Eurostar North 300 km/h 596 318.9 2.81m 665 t 12,240 kW 18.4 W/kg.
of London

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11.4 Meteorological conditions:
Other things being equal the vulnerability of trains (from the point of
view of the stability) to side winds increases with the speed. In addition,
wind has an effect on the catenary, and in order to increase its resistance to
the side wind, it is necessary to increase the mechanical tension.
DB AG imposes speed restrictions when the lateral component of the
wind speed exceeds 90 km/h and traffic is discontinued, due to the
catenary, when that component exceeds 120km/h.
SNCB limits the speed to 170 km/h when the wind speed is more than
108km/h, in whatever direction.
In certain cases, anti wind screens can avoid a speed restriction in
order not to risks overturning high speed train sets. SNCF has introduced a
software programme on the new TGV Mediterranean line, to examine the
wind parameters.
11.5 Disaster Protection:
(a) Speed reduction during maintenance:
Depending on the choice of the distance between track centre
lines and the definition of the dangerous zone for the staff
(variable depending on the country), when maintenance staff
are working on the line the speed in service may have to be
reduced below 350km/h.
(b) Safety precautions on Shinkansen:
(i) The Shinkansen has no level crossings with roads. The tracks are
laid out exclusively on the right of the way (on an embankment
or viaduct), or in each cut section, an overpass has been
created. In addition, entry of unauthorized persons onto tracks
is completely prohibited by law. Also, a protective fence is
installed on each side of the line, excepting tunnels and viaducts
and over passes have fences to prevent automobiles and the like
from falling onto the tracks.
(ii) Effective measures for prevention of slope collapsing,
installation of anemometers, and rainfall measurement gauges
are provided along Shinkansen routes.
(iii) For snow protection, Sprinklers for melting snow, snow plow
along front skirt of the leading car, and a body mount system in
which the underfloor equipment is housed inside the carbody
are adopted.

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(iv) In the Shinkansen system, a seismograph is installed in each of
the substations and sectioning posts erected along the line at
interval of 20 km. If any of the seismographs detects an
earthquake of 40 gal or more, it automatically shuts off the
power supply and the train running in the section stops
completely. An ingenious system, which utilizes the seismic
mechanisms called the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm
System (UrEDAS), has been developed for the early detection of
earthquakes, in order to enable proper control of train operation
during an earthquake.



178
 Chapter - 12
Track Maintenance

12.1 Life cycle of the Track components:

The life cycle of the track components is limited, depending on stress and
length of use. They have to be replaced after this period has elapsed.
The following maintenance cycles/service life periods approximately apply
to normal main-line tracks of high speed track components:

Tamping 40-70 mio. t 4-5 years

Grinding 20-30 mio. t 1-3 years
Cleaning 150-300 mio. t 12-15 years
Rail replacement 300-1000 mio. t 10-15 years
Replacement of concrete sleepers 300-700 mio. t 30-40 years
Rail fastenings 100-500 mio. t 10-30 years
Replacement of ballast 250-500 mio. t 20-30 years
Rehabilitated subsoil > 500 mio. t > 40 years

Nowadays, the DB AG expects maintenance cycles of 8 years of primary

track. Cleaning is performed only during renewal (about every 30 years for
tracks on concrete sleepers). The lifetime of the rails is about half the
lifetime of the track (approx. 15 years) and this limit is usually not caused by
rail wear, but by defects on the rail surface. The ballast is usually replaced
during track renewal (i.e., after 30 years).
12.2 Theoretical wave length criteria:
Track geometry is described by track profile, cross level, alignment and
gauge. As a vehicle travels, it responds to track geometry variations and
irregularity. The chord length of 9.6 m and 7.2 m for measurement of top
and alignment respectively are grossly inadequate in correctly assessing
the track irregularity for high-speed operation.

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 The wavelength of track irregularities, which leads to sway the coach,
depends on the natural frequency of the vehicle and speed. The relation
among these three parameters can be expressed mathematically in the
following form:
V = f
Where
V = Speed of vehicle in meter/second
f = Natural frequency of the vehicle in hz
 = wavelength of the track irregularity causing sway/resonance in the
vehicle in meters.
For natural frequency value of one, the vehicle proposed to run on the
particular line, the wavelength for different speeds are as follows:
(a) For high speed v=200 kmph & f=1Hz
 = 55.55m
(b) For high speed v=250 kmph & f=1Hz
 = 69.45m
(c) For high speed v=300 kmph & f=1Hz
 =83.33m
(d) For high speed v = 350 kmph & f = 1Hz
 =97m
Hence, track defects of wavelength 80-100 m are prone to create
resonance for very high speed.
All the vehicles plying on any line will not have a uniform natural
frequency and speed on whole route can not be uniform due to various
reasons the wavelengths to be controlled remain in a band width. On IR,
the frequency of ICF coaches is 1 Hz approximately. On Japanese Railway
passenger rail vehicles tend to sway at natural frequencies between 1.0 to
1.5 hzs.
Since the natural frequency of carriages designed for high-speed is low,
generally less than 1 Hz long wavelength anomalies provide dynamic input
to the high-speed passenger vehicles and can excite car body modes at
high speeds. At speeds of 350 km/h track irregularity up to 100 m
wavelength would be important.

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12.3 Standard values of track tolerances for maintenance and
danger limits for High speed on standard gauge:
For high speed routes it is very necessary to know the limit of track
parameters in the form of tolerances, so that track can be maintained
accordingly.
If the standard values for maintenance are exceeded, maintenance
should be planned and carried out. If the danger limit is exceeded, the
defect has to be remedied immediately or a speed restriction has to be
applied. Standard value for maintenance and danger limits concerning the
track position are given in table 12.3.1, 12.3.2 and 12.3.3.
Table 12.3.1: Standard value for maintenance and danger limits
concerning the track position on standard gauge.

Table 12.3.2: Standard maintenance values for defects on the rail

surface on standard gauge.

Type of defect Wavelength Standard Max.

range maintenance admissible
(mm) value (mm) (mm)
Corrugation 10-100 0.05 0.15
Short waves 100-300 0.1 0.3
Long waves 300-3000 0.4 -

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Table 12.3.3: Standard maintenance values – cross profile of the
rail head.

V Admissible radial deviations

(km/h) (mm)
120 < v < 140 + 1.5
140 < v < 160 + 0.7
> 160 + 0.5

12.4 Accuracy of acceptance:

After maintenance the track geometry has to meet the following
requirements:
Table 12.4.1: Maintenance Tolerances for high speed corridor

The following tolerances apply to tracks with marked survey points

and have to be observed:
Track level allowance referring to the marking: + 10mm / - 20 mm
Allowed track distance referring to the marking + 10mm
Besides, the following tolerances apply:
Sleeper spacing: Loose sleepers + 20mm < 5%
Level of track joints (1.5-m basis) + 2.0 mm upwards,
0 mm downwards

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Table 12.4.2: Acceptance limits – longitudinal profile after
grinding

Type of defect Range of Acceptance limits

Wavelengths (mm)
(mm)
Roughness < 10 0.01
Corrugation 10-30 0.01
Short waves 30-300 0.02
Long waves 300-1000 0.13
1000-3000 0.30

Table 12.4.3: Acceptance limits – cross profile of the rail head

V Acc eptance limits

(km/h) (mm)
V < 140 + 0.7 / - 1.0
140 <= v < 160 0.5 / - 0.3
V >= 160 0.3 / - 0.3

12.5 Existing Track Tolerances in IR:

The track tolerances for operation of passenger trains at a
maximum speed of 160 km/h with WAP3 locomotive on Mark-IV bogie and
coaching stock with IR-15 bogie coaches has been done by RDSO is
described below :

Track Parameter Standard Maximum peak

Deviation Exceedences
Unevenness (Base 9.6m) 5.0 mm 15 mm
Alignment (Base 9.6m) 3.5 mm 10 mm
Twist (base 4.8m) 3.0 mm 09 mm
Gauge 2.3 mm 08 mm

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12.6 Proposed track tolerances for high speed route corridor :
Track Parameter Standard Maximum peak
Deviation Exceedences
Unevenness (Chord 40m) 3.00mm 5mm
Alignment (Chord 40m) 2.00mm 5mm
Twist (base 4.8m) 2.0mm 5mm
Gauge 2.00mm 5mm

12.7 Ballast Cleaning:

The ballast has to be cleaned when the mean value of the specimen
measured as undersized particles through a 20 mm square-mesh sieve
indicates a contamination of =30 percent in weight.
12.8 Considerations on the track quality :
When the intervention threshold (desirable driving comfort) is
reached, the track is tamped and the standard deviations of track defects
decrease. This period is followed by a period of fast exponential growth of
the track defect, before it “gets saturated” and shows a linear course of
deterioration – this period is approximately 0.5-2 GMT. The rapid decrease
of track quality during the first 0.5-2 GMT of operational load is called initial
settlement. This rapid initial deterioration can be reduced by controlled
settlement using the Dynamic Track Stabiliser.
Subsequently, the defect increased linearly. This linear rate of
deterioration finally passes to exponential growth, depending on the
operational load and structural design of the track grid. This happens
particularly if cleaning is performed too late or in the case of subsoil
problems (rising fines etc.). When the ballast gets contaminated, it loses its
load-distributing effect. Then the ballast pressure under the sleepers and
the pressure on the subsoil is increased and the effect of tamping does not
last. At the same time the achievable initial quality decreases.
12.8.1 The initial quality:
The higher the initial quality, the higher the wear reserve and the
longer it takes to reach the intervention threshold again.
The figure 12.8.1 shows the development of track quality according
to the exponential law for rate of deterioration. A poor track (upper limiting
value of the scatter) has a low achievable initial quality. The figure shows
that the quality of a poor track deteriorates rapidly, that its position cannot
be maintained even by repeated tamping, but decreases faster and faster.

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The typical maintenance cycles for such tracks are between 0.5 – 1.5 years.
High rates of deterioration can be found for tracks with a contaminated
ballast bed, poor subsoil conditions, or for tracks where the structural
design has not been adapted to the operational loads, High-speed tracks or
main tracks with high bearing capacity of the subsoil (with sufficient track
formation and frost protecting layers) show lower rates of deterioration –
these correspond to the lower limiting line of the scatter. The initial quality
of such tracks is high, their rate of deterioration is low, an unchanged, good
and durable track position can be reached for long periods by tamping. The
typical maintenance cycles for such good tracks are more than 5 years.
longitudinal level standard deviation (mm)

7
poor track
6

1
high-speed track
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
operational load [M tons]

Fig. 12.8.1 Development of track quality depending on the rates

of deterioration
Studies have shown that the position of a good track can be improved
more in comparison to a rather poor track. The condition and high standard
of high-quality tracks with good track position can be maintained more
easily and economically than poorer tracks. The higher the initial quality of
the track after laying, reconstruction or maintenance, the lower the
subsequent maintenance cost. A precise geometric track position
significantly influences the initial quality of the track.
12.9 Track Geometry Measurement through transfer function for
high speed track:
Versine measurement system are linear and of invariant location.
Their specific property is that for periodic defects in track position they

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generate in their turn periodic signals of the same frequency, but of
different amplitudes and phase position.
This means that in a measurement with an asymmetrical 15-m chord
(with a division relation 1:2), e.g., a long-wave defect of 70m wavelength and a
maximum amplitude of 10mm is shown only with an amplitude of 3.5mm and a
phase displacement of 8.5o (or a imaginary displacement of the maximum by
1.6m). This behaviour is described mathematically by the so-called transfer
function of the versine measurement system.
12.10 High Speed Recoding Car:
High-speed track recording cars for high-speed lines are equipped with
contactless inertial measuring system which allow long-wave track defects to
be assessed in accordance with their amplitudes. Apart from the relative
exactness of the track position, which is expressed by standard deviation of the
measured parameter, it is necessary to record the track position absolutely in
order to assess its safety in regard to track buckling.
Therefore, high-speed lines are usually surveyed tracks. The distance
and the level of the track referring to fixed or reference points are monitored.
A track recording car has to record defects according to the state of
the art and as far as possible in accordance with amplitudes and phases.
The range of possible wavelengths, which differ from parameter to
parameter, is between mm and 100m. The measured amplitudes are within
the range from mm to m. Nowadays, recording cars are produced for a
range of measurement speeds between 5 km/h and 250 km/h.
12.10.1 Multifunctional recording cars:
There are many advantages of simultaneous measuring and
recording of various track parameters.
In order to ensure efficient maintenance and planning of track
reconstruction, railway apply the method of interdisciplinary cooperation
between various fields. Track work is increasingly performed in a
coordinated way to ensure a minimum of operational hindrance.
Therefore it seems obvious also to carry out the recording of the
individual parameters, which are important in several areas,
simultaneously and with the same recording vehicle. Furthermore, this
simultaneous approach offers the advantage of putting greatly varied track
defects into correlation with one another in order to detect interactions. A
defect in track level could, e.g., be connected to a increased wear of the
overhead line. As the costs for the use of a recording car are about the same
for the measurement of one or of several parameters, it is obvious that the

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economic efficiency increases with the number of parameter measured at
the same time. Multifunctional recording cars offer the additional
advantage that all measured parameters are correctly listed in real time for
each location.

12.11 Measured parameters and marginal conditions:

12.11.1 Permanent way parameters :
Table 12.11.1 shows a list of the parameter which are relevant for
permanent way and marginal conditions according to the state of the art.

Table 12.11.1 Relevant parameters for permanent way

For contact measurement, measuring wheels or sensors are used.

Contactless measurement uses optical laser-aided triangulation
measurement device, but also later scanners, video-systems with image
evaluation, and inertial measurement system.
The absolute position of the recording car can be determined during
the run by using the DGPS (Omn/STR – European service for GPS correction
signals). So, nowadays, the position may be determined with an exactness
of upto 0.5-1m.

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 Fig. 12.11.1 : Monitor image of recorded track geometry
12.11.2 Subsoil parameter:
Nowadays, subsoil properties, like water content, statements on the
layer structure, etc., can be recorded continuously only by georadar. The
measuring speeds are restricted to 30-50 km/h.
12.11.3 Ballast parameters:
At the moment there are only contactless measurement systems
which measure the ballast bed profile by using scanners. The thickness of
the ballast bed can be determined by using georadar.
12.11.4 Rail measurement:
Table 12.11.4 shows a list of track parameters which can be recorded,
as well as its marginal conditions according to the state of the art.
Video imaging and high-resolution fast digital cameras can
automatically recognize and evaluate defects of the rail surface and of the
rail fastenings.
Corrugation measurement is performed by inertial measurement
using a softly sprung mass on which a laser distance measurement device
is installed. The measurement signal of corrugation is of much higher
frequency than the natural vibration of the system.
The rail profile is measured by illuminating the rail head through a
laser slot and recording it digitally, usually stereoscopically. The measured
rail profile is determined by comparing it to stored target profiles.

188
Subsequently, the measured actual profile is compared to the target profile
to calculate the rail had wear. With the help of these digital photographs it
is also possible to determine the rail inclination and track gauge. There are
also adapted systems which are able to determine the groove width and
the diamond gap of switches.
Table 12.11.4 Rail Measurements

12.12 Measurement of the overhead line :

Table 12.12 below gives a lit of parameters which can be recorded for the
overhead line, as well as their marginal conditions according to the state of
the art.
Table 12.12 : Maximum recording speed

Non-contact optical laser scanners are used to determine the

horizontal position (zigzag) and the level of the overhead line. The
measure and record in real time up to 4 contact wires. Sinusoidally
modulated laser beams are used for this purpose. The light reflected by the
overhead line is collected by a detector. The distance can be determined

189
from the phase displacement between the emitted and the received light.
The horizontal position and the level of the contact wires can be calculated
by using the scan angle and the distance measured. Figure 12.12.1 shows
the laser scanner for the determination of the contact wire position in the
centre and on the left and right-hand sides the measuring equipment for
the determination of the position of the masts.
Due to the use of laser radar technique for mast recognition (and
the position of the contact wire bracket) the system becomes insensitive to
external light (such as daylight or darkness). Therefore, measurement can
be performed also in tunnels and on bridges. If two mat recognition unit are
used, the position of the masts can be determined exactly even if there are
interfering objects. Digital cameras are used to measure the wear of the
contact wire. The resolution of the measurement is 0.1mm.

Fig. 12.12.1 : Determination of the position of the overhead line

and mast recognition

The horizontal and vertical contact forces, the position of the contact wire on
the slippers, the acceleration at the current collector and the position of
entering and exiting contact wires of intersection catenary suspension on the
current collector can be measured with contact load sensing devices. Force
sensors are fitted at the ends of pantograph slippers (wire strain gauge
technique) and the total of both measured signals of a slipper equals the acting
contact forces. The position of the entering and exiting contact wires of
intersecting catenary suspensions is measured with the help of inductive
proximity sensors in the horn of the pantograph.

190
Fig. 12.12.2 : Monitor image of an overhead line determination
12.13 Measurement of the track surroundings and track
inspection :
Table 12.3 Shows a list of the parameters which can be recorded
during a measurement of the track surroundings, as well as their marginal
conditions, according to the state of the art.
Colour video systems which record the railway track and its
surroundings exist for track inspection purposes. The exact location of each
individual video image can be identified by superimposition of the current
position data. Thus, the system can provide general information on the
track structure, the ballast bed, the vegetation, the catenary, tunnels and
bridges, etc.
Table 12.13: Parameters of track surroundings and track
inspection

191
 Other video inspection systems with subsequent image evaluation
determine defects of the sleepers and rail fastenings. Images showing
defects are classified and stored together with track data and kilometric
data.
12.14 Multifunctional recording car UFM 160:
The UFM 160, Fig. 12.14 shows a modern version of a universal
recording car.
This vehicle was built for use in the German Federal Republic, the
Netherlands and Great Britain. It is a recording car consisting of two
vehicles. Both vehicles are connected to each other via a passage. The
recoding car runs on four pneumatically cushioned bogies, a special
development of Plasser & Theurer for speeds of up to 200 km/h. The bogies
are equipped with disk brakes, antiskid and antislip systems. Two bogies
are powered and ensure a self-propelled running speed and measuring
speed of 160 km/h. The drive unit consists of two low-emission 12-cylinder
underfloor diesel engines with an output of 550 kW each, two
hydrodynamic turbo-gearboxes and two axle gearboxes each.

Figure 12.14 : Two-piece multifunctional recording car UFM 160

The following are the essential recording systems:
 measurement of the track geometry parameters with inertial
measurement systems and GPS and 2 optical track gauge
measurement systems. Measurement and recording of track
gauge, super-elevation, longitudinal level, alignment, cross level
and track twist,

192
  an additional rapid track gauge measurement system working
according to the laser method of dissecting (allows track gauge to
be recorded also for switches in the area of the check rails),
 GPS (OmniSTAR) location and orientation system,
 rail profile and rail wear measurement system,
 inertial corrugation measurement system with automatic rail
centre follower device,
 video analysis of the rail surface and the rail fastenings,
 measurement of the horizontal position and the level of the
overhead line,
 adjustment and measurement of the pantograph pressure,
 measurement of the position of the masts,
 measurement of the track surroundings by four high-resolution digital
colour video cameras and one high-resolution bland-and-white digital
video camera-recording on four digital tape recorders,
 measurement of the vehicle body acceleration,
 detection of automatic train stop magnets, and
 ambient temperature measurement.
12.15 Small devices for track geometry measurement:
Apart from large self-propelled recording vehicles smaller systems
exist which are moved along the track by hand. These devices can record
the vertical profile, superelevation, versine and track gauge. The vertical
profile is recorded via a symmetric versine measurement for the left-hand
and right-hand rail (chord length:1 m) and additionally via an inclinometer
recording the absolute level in a longitudinal direction. Superelevation is
recorded by an additional inclinometer fitted in a transversal direction. The
maximum measurement speed of these devices is usually 5 km/h (75 kg
dead weight of the device). Such systems are advantageous when the track
condition has to be recorded after accidents, to remedy individual defects
and, in general, in all cases where the use of an electronic track recording
car does not make sense for time or economical reasons.
12.16 Surveyed track – measurement and calculation of track
correction Values:
The DB AG, the OBB, the SBB, the SNCF, the RENFE, the FS and
railways of other countries survey fixed geodetic points along their tracks.

193
Stable reference points are marked on both sides of the track at the
distance of the catenary masts (figure 12.16).

Fig. 12.16: Principal sketch of track survey points

12.16.1 Track surveying car EMSAT
The EMSAT measurement system has proven a success in practical use
since 1990.
As the EMSAT uses mechanized measuring methods as against the common
manual-optical method, a cost saving by more than factor 5 is achieved.

Fig.12.16.1: EMSAT (Network Rail) with on-track laser satellite

194
The EMSAT is used for:
 planning and determination of tamping and lining sections,
 surveying for subsequent tamping,
 surveying for the elimination of individual defects by an individual-
defect-tamping machine,
 measurement during track reconstruction (checking the laid track
in level and alignment) before and after the tamping / lining
operations, and
 acceptance of newly built tracks in order to determine whether
long-wave defects exist.
The EMSAT continuously detects particularly long-wave track defects
in level and curvature (alignment). The resulting actual values are
documented for technical and economic purposes in a record (analog
chart) referring to target geometry and made available to the tamping
machine for further processing.
Long-wave track defects are defects in track level and curvature
(alignment) with larger wavelengths upto 250m.
The advantages of an EMSAT measurement compared to manual
surveying are its high precision and measuring speed, the measurement
and detection of long-wave defects on the basis of an extended chord, the
detection and possible elimination of changes in position and level of the
existing geodetic points, the high reliability of data without a media break
(through data flow), safe working places for the crew where dangers
deriving from railway operation are avoided.
Description of the track surveying car EMSAT:
 The EMSAT determines alignment and longitudinal level referred to
an extended measuring base), a stationary laser chord,
 It determines superelevation and cross level by an inclinometer,
 It determines the curve length covered between two
measurements by measuring wheel, i.e. distance, and
 Measures the track gauge with a measuring axle.
Working range and measuring accuracy:

195
Working range:
alignment versines: max 1000 mm
longitudinal level versines: max 400 mm
length of the laser chord: max approx. 250 m
measurement output: 1.3-2.6 km/h, depending on
the length of the laser chords
Measurement accuracy:
versine: 1 mm repeating accuracy
mutual cross level: 1 mm
track gauge: 1 mm
distance measurement 0.1 m/100 m
The EMSAT is available with an additional 8-channel measurement
recorder and geometry measurement equipment (measuring chord with
mechanical measuring axles). Due to this additional measuring and
recording equipment track geometry can be documented analogously to
the tamping machines.
Use of the EMSAT for track and switch renewal:
The EMSAT is also used for track renewal. Here, the described
measurements are performed immediately before the passing of the
tamping machine.
For tamping of newly laid track the measurement is performed immediately
before the tamping machine passes.
12.16.2 Description of the Fixed-point Measurement Device:
The fixed-point Measurement Device is used to exactly determine the
absolute track position, i.e. to determine the values of track lifting and
displacement in the area of geodetic points (markings by bolts, of bottoms
of curves, by pegs etc.).
This device is a combination of an electronic tachymeter for infrared
distance measurement and angle measurement and a precision
inclinometer for superelevation measurement. The frame is an aluminium
light-gauge construction and can be easily and rapidly dismantled into
three part. Therefore, the device can be transported in any common
passenger car and operated by one person. The device is equipped with a
micro-controller with report printer and data storage card for the evaluation
of the measured values.

196
 Fig. 12.16.2 Electronic fixed-point measurement device
Working range and measuring accuracy of the fixed-point measurement
device:
Working range:
Distance measuring device: > 1.3 m
Measurement output: 1.1-2.6 km/h depending on the distance
of the geodetic points ad the purpose of
the measurement (actual track
position/span)
Measurement accuracy:
(for individual close-range measurements, according to the manufacturer):
level measurement: 1-3 mm (1.5 m – 5 m)
distance measurement: 1-3 mm (1.5 m-15 m)
The use of the EMSAT in switches
The EMSAT and the Fixed-point Device can be used for checking the outer
geodetic points in switches and switch connections.

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12.16.3 Measurement evaluation and decision on necessary
measures:
The contractor makes the true-to-scale graphic record (measuring
chart) of lifting and slewing value including cross level, which is made up by
the computer system, available to the network operating organization
which then determines the required measures to be taken. The operating
organization of EMSAT offers technical advice. After an evaluation of the
date the network operating organization chooses the start and end of
tamping in such a way as to ensure a harmonic transition to the untreated
sections in track level, as well as in curvature (alignment).
A zero lifting value can be accepted at high points, if the slew in this
area is small and the deviation of cross level is < 5 mm. In such a case a
ramp with a gradient of 1:2000 is built for cross level.

12.16.4 T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d s t o r a g e o f m e a s u r e m e n t
documentation :
The contractor of the tamping works is given the target geometry
values, the lifting and slewing values, as well as the nominal distance and
the nominal level referring to the geodetic points on a data carrier (e.g.
CD/DVD/Pen Drive).
Furthermore he is given a digital printout of the lifting and slewing
values, so that he can use them, if necessary for manual control of the
tamping machine (in case the computer system should fail).

12.16.5 The GPS satellite measurement technique for the

measurement of surveyed tracks :
Nowadays, the Global Positioning System (GPS) offers new
opportunities for measuring the current track position. Track construction
usually requires accuracies which may be achieved only in relative mode
(i.e. by reference like measurement).
The GPS allows relative position accuracies of approximately max. +6
mm to be achieved. The accuracy of the level measurement is lower by a
factory of 1.5-2. GPS is too inaccurate to replace laser long chord
measurement.
However, the GPS offers the economical solution of transferring high-
precision local laser long chord date to absolute coordinates.

198
 Fig.12.16.5: GPS aerial on the roof of the EMSAT
12.16.6 Application of the combined EMSAT-GPS system :
The actual track is measured by long laser chords ad at the same time
by GPS, which enables the long laser chord (operating in a local system of
coordinates) to be determined by absolute coordinates and the high-
precision relative data of the long laser chord to be transformed to absolute
coordinates.
12.16.7 The combination of the EMSAT with a Ballast Profile
Measurement system :
The actual ballast profile on the spot is a significant parameter for the
planning of the practicable lifting values on the basis of measured lift
correction values. The contactless Ballast Profile Measurement System
determines an excess or deficiency of ballast.
12.17 Automatic guiding computer WINALC for tamping
machines :
The geometry guiding computer WINALC has to guide the
permanent-way machines through the existing track geometry. Therefore,
the device has to offer the possibility of entering the target geometry data
by hand via keyboard or from a CD. The geometry-dependent correction
values for the measurement and control systems of the machine have to be

199
calculated. Unknown target geometry has to be measured, optimized and
transferred to the track as a new target position. The displacement limits in
constraints (bridges, level crossings) and reference points, as well as pre-
set minimum lifting values, have to be taken into account.
The system has to offer the possibility of storing and printing the
results of the measurement records and the optimization calculations. A
desirable feature is the recording of the geometric position reached while
the tamping machine is working. This offers the opportunity to train the
personnel in the office, to prepare geometry data in the office and to
transmit them on floppy discs to the geometry guiding computer of the
tamper.
Functions of the WINALC :
12.17.1 Entry of target geometry data :
The target geometry data (radii, length of transition curves, shape of
transition curve, ramps, changes in gradients, superelevation, etc.) are
entered into a WINALC table, and this entry is immediately represented
graphically. The target track geometry data can also be entered and
modified in a graphical representation mode. The modification of a
geometry element can be made by mouse-clicking the corresponding
element; the parameter is then changed in the window that appears.
12.17.2 Electronic versine compensation and track geometry
optimization :
In this working mode an existing track position is recorded during a
measuring run of the working machine. It measures versine values for
alignment and level, as well as superelevation (via inclinometer),
represents them graphically and stores them.
This measurement is the basis for an optimization of track geometry
which smoothes the course of versines for alignment and level. The
correction values (displacement and lifting values) are calculated from this
smoothed curve by comparing its values to the measured actual versine.
Smoothing and calculation are carried out in an automatic process. The
operator can set the following line classes:
0 (up to 80 km/h)
1 (80-120 km/h)
2 (120-160 km/h)
3 (160-300 km/h)

200
Standard deviations for a compensation length of 35 m for the track classes
0-3 are defined in the programme. Furthermore standard deviations for a
compensation length of 70 m are defined for the track classes 2 and 3.
during optimization, the programme continue the smoothing process, until
the value remain below the preset standard deviations. Apart from the track
class, the operator also has to enter the constraint conditions of the line
section.
The entire calculation procedure is started at the touch of a button
and performed automatically, no interaction of the operator is required.
It is possible to carry out track measurement while the machine is
transiting to the work site, after optimization has been carried out the
machine will start tamping in this case beginning from the end point of
measurement. This is a way of saving the run back to the starting point of
measurement. Wavelengths of upto 100m were recorded correctly.



201
 Chapter - 13
Current Scenario of High Speed
Rail in India

13.1 High Speed Planning in India

The Ministry of Railways published a white-paper 'Vision 2020' submitted

to Parliament on December 18, 2009. The document envisages the
implementation of regional high-speed rail projects to provide services at
250-350 km/h, and planning for corridors connecting commercial, tourist
and pilgrimage hubs. It says "India is unique and alone among the major
countries of the world in not having a single high-speed rail corridor capable of
running trains at speeds of over 250 kmph. High Speed corridors have played a
major role in revitalization of Railways in Japan and Europe. Of late, high speed-rail
networks are also getting built in China, Taiwan, and USA. Indian Railways would
follow a two-pronged approach in this respect. The first approach would be to raise
the speed of segregated passenger corridors on trunk routes using conventional
technology to 160 to 200 kmph. The second approach would be to identify a number
of intercity routes, depending on viability, and build state-of-the-art high-speed
corridors for speeds up to 350 kmph through on PPP mode in partnerships with the
State Governments. Partnerships with the State Governments would be crucial as
real-estate development would be a key element of viability of these high-cost
projects. By 2020, at least four corridors of 2000 kms would be developed and
planning for 8 other corridors would be in different stages of progress."
Seven corridors have already been identified for technical studies on setting
up of high-speed rail corridors they are:
 Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar (450 km)
 Mumbai-Ahmedabad (527 km)
 Hyderabad-Dornakal-Vijayawada-Chennai (664 km)
 Howrah-Haldia (135 km)
 Chennai-Bangalore-Coimbatore-Kochi (850 km)
 Delhi-Agra-Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna (991 km)
 Ernakulam – Trivandrum (194 km)

202
These high-speed rail corridors will be built as elevated corridors in keeping
with the pattern of habitation and the constraint of land. The routes are
plotted on map of India in fig 13.1 for appreciation.

Fig 13.1 Proposed high speed Rail routes in India

Currently feasibility studies are being conducted on all these routes.
13.1 Budget Speech
Budget speech 2014
It was stated in parliament that “an effort will be made to increase the
speed of trains to 160-200 kmph in select sectors so as to significantly
reduce travel time between major cities.” The identified sectors are:

203
Delhi-Agra
Delhi-Chandigarh
Delhi-Kanpur
Nagpur-Bilaspur
Mysore-Bengaluru-Chennai
Mumbai-Goa
Mumbai-Ahmedabad
Chennai- Hyderabad and
Nagpur-Secunderabad.
Budget Speech 2015
The honorable MR announced in his speech "we will continue to pursue
with vigour our special projects like High Speed Rail between Mumbai-
Ahmadabad. The feasibility study for this is in advanced stage and report is
expected by the mid of this year. Quick and appropriate action will be taken
once the report is available with us. Regarding the other high speed routes
on the diamond quadrilateral, studies are being commissioned. "
"In the proposed investment plan for the period 2015-19 an allocation of
Rs.65000 crore has been made for High Speed Rail & Elevated corridor."
13.2 Pre Feasibility Study of High Speed Rail Corridor between
PUNE – MUMBAI – AHMEDABAD
This Pre Feasibility Study was done by a consortium of RITES, SYSTRA
and ITALFERR. The report was submitted in Apr'2010. The scope of study
included (a) Review of passenger market abroad. (b) Assessment and
selection of High Speed Rail technology and construction standards. (c)
Ridership forecast on the proposed route and optional route. (d) Optimized
route alignment. (e) Basic drawings of various components. (f) Concept
Design. (g) Costs and revenues estimations. (h) Environmental impact
assessment. (i) Assessment of financial and economic viability. (j)
Structures of implementation and financing the Project.
Speed: The speed considered for project is 350 kmph and commissioning
period has been taken as 2021.
Traffic forecast: The outputs of the traffic forecast studies show a total
number of 26.6 millions passengers per year for the whole Project at the
2021 horizon year, including 2.5 million passengers on the part of the
existing network operated by the High Speed trains. Traffic and revenues
are maximized for a fare of 7 Rs per Km for 75% of the traffic and 4.5 Rs per
Km for the remaining 25%. The 2021 HSR traffic is estimated to double

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within less than 10 years and to possibly reach 104 million passengers in
year 2041.
Track Gauge and alignment: The report envisages a BG ballastless
track. Alignment specifications have taken into account a minimum
horizontal curve radius of 6425 m which optimizes integration of the Project
in the environment and minimizes construction costs .
Civil Works: The study estimated 550 km of earth work 72 kms of bridges
and viaducts and 22 kms of tunnel (total three in nos with 18.3 km long
Lonavala tunnel being the longest followed by vashi and Mumbai approach
tunnels).
Signaling: ERTMS level 2 is recommended as the International reference
signalling system for HSR worldwide.
Overhead Catenary System and Power Supply: Either the French or
the German/Chinese systems in the 2x25 KV version has been
recommended.
Travel Time: Travel times have been calculated for every possible case
(without and with stops ) . The best travel times at 350 Km/h operation
speed (without stops) come at 0 H 40 min between Pune and Mumbai and 1
H 52 min between Mumbai and Ahmedabad. 80 trains circulations per day
and per direction are expected on SU1 branch at horizon year 2041.
Rolling Stock: The full level of interoperability with existing network has
been recommended. Therefore a wide gauge rolling stock (1676mm) with a
3300mm wide car body has been recommended. The R&D cost for such
rolling stock has been envisaged to be covered with first order of 30 – 40
train sets.
Alignment: Three alternatives have been studied.
Stations: AT Mumbai station has been proposed at Wadala or Kurla. At
Pune proposed station will be near to existing Railways station. At
Ahmedabad either near existing Railway Station or near Bopal.
Intermediate stations have been proposed at Surat, Mumbai airport and
Vadodara.
Cost: The average construction cost per kilometer of double track line
comes between Cr. Rs. 76 and 84 depending on alignment option (base
year 2009). The total construction cost ( base case) has been estimated to
Cr. Rs 49,000 (economical conditions 2009) Investment in Rolling stock
(base case) comes at Rs. 6,800 Cr (economical conditions 2009).
Total Investment Cost: The landed project cost for the entire project and its

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two major sections are given in table below. The total project cost includes
rolling stock requirement for the first year of operations only.
Project Phasing: Based on the technical study, the construction period

Particul ars Pune - Pune- Mumbai-

Mumbai- Mumbai Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad
Basic construction 59,708 Cr 26,239 Cr 46,256 Cr
cost (Civil, Bridge,
Track, S&T, OHE,
Energy and other EPC
cost)
Initial Rolling Stock 8,253 Cr 4, 343 Cr 3,909 Cr
Total Sub Cost 67,961 Cr 30,582 Cr 50,165 Cr
Cost Escalation 11,133 Cr 5,010 Cr 8,217 Cr
Interest during 5,865 Cr 2,641 Cr 4,336 Cr
construction
Preliminary Expenses 597 Cr 262 Cr 462 Cr
Total Investment 85,556 Cr 38, 495 Cr 63,180 Cr
Costs

considered is 7 years. The project phasing is given in table:

Operation and Maintenance Costs: Following is the maintenance cost

at 2009 prices.

Item Total Cost (2009 prices – Rs Cr/Year)

Description Pune – Mum Pune – Mum Mum - Ahm
– Ahm
Rolling Stock Rs 148.6 Cr RS 55.5 Cr Rs 90.7 Cr
Maintenance
General Rs 210.7 Cr Rs 85.2 Cr Rs 135.7 Cr
Operation and
Maintenance
Infrastructure Rs 254.5 Cr Rs 81.6 Cr Rs 186.3 Cr
Maintenance
Total RS 613.8 Cr Rs 222.3 Cr Rs 412.7 Cr

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13.1 High Speed Rail Corporation of India (HSRC)
High Speed Rail Corporation of India Limited (HSRC) has been
formed on the directions of Ministry of Railways, Government of India, for
development and implementation of high speed rail projects.
This Special Purpose Vehicle has been incorporated in 2012 as a
subsidiary of Rail Vikas Nigam Limited which is a Mini-Ratna public sector
enterprise of Government of India. The objectives of HSRC is as following
 To undertake feasibility studies and techno-economic
investigations and prepare Detailed Project Reports and
Bankability Reports of selected corridors for introduction of High
Speed trains in India.
 To plan, design and freeze technical parameters for High Speed
Rail Systems including fixed assets, rolling stock and operations.
 To develop financing models, explore PPP options, coordinate with
stake holders and funding agencies and obtain various
Government approvals.
 Project development, project execution, construction,
upgradation, manufacture, operation and maintenance of High
Speed Rail Systems on existing as well as new rail corridors.
 To enter into and carry on all businesses related to High Speed Rail
Systems and other rail based traffic as may be approved by
Government of India or RVNL or any other Authority created by the
Government for such activities.
HSRC has awarded contract for the consultancy of feasibility study for
diamond quadrilateral network of high speed rail corridors
MUMBAI-AHMEDABAD :
Rail Vikas Nigam limited/High Speed Rail Corporation of India limited have
been assigned the implementation of High speed rail projects. Mumbai-
Ahmedabad is the first corridor which has been undertaken for
implementation.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF MUMBAI - AHMEDABAD HIGH SPEED
CORRIDOR:
An MOU has been signed between JICA and Ministry of Railways on
07.10.2013 for conducting a joint feasibility study for Mumbai - Ahmedabad
high speed rail system. Railway Board has decided to associate High Speed
Rail Corporation of India Ltd (HSRC) in this study. JICA has submitted its

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Final Report of Feasibility Study of this corridor to Ministry of Railways in
July 2015.
DELHI-CHANDIGARH-AMRITSAR :
Pre-Feasibility study of this High Speed Rail Corridor is in progress. Interim
Report-II has been submitted by the consultant M/s Systra of France in Sep
2015.
Delhi-Chennai:
Delhi-Nagpur section of this corridor is being taken up as Phase I under
Government to Government cooperation. Planning study report for this
High Speed Rail Corridor by China Railway SIYUAN Survey and Design
Group Co. Ltd has been completed. Project Feasibility Study Report is yet to
be taken up by Siyuan shortly. High Speed Rail Corporation of India Ltd is
the counterpart agency.
CHENNAI-BANGALURU-MYSORE :
Feasibility Study for Speed raising on this section in cooperation with China
Railway Eryuan Engineering Group is in progress. China Railway Eryuan
Engineering Group has submitted Interim Report in June 2015. High Speed
Rail Corporation of India Ltd is the counterpart agency
DIAMOND QUADRILATERAL
Delhi-Mumbai (Package-I)
Feasibility Study Contract awarded to a Consortium of M/s The Third
Railway Survey and Design Institute Group Corporation (CHINA) and
Lahmeyer International (India) Pvt. Ltd, India
Mumbai-Chennai (Package-II)
Feasibility Study Contract awarded to a Consortium of M/s SYSTRA
(FRANCE) - RITES- Ernest &Young LLP.
Delhi-Kolkata (Package-III)
Feasibility Study Contract awarded to a Consortium of M/s INECO (SPAIN) -
M/s TYPSA- M/s Intercontinental Consultants and Technocrats Private
Limited.
13.4 Kerala High Speed Rail Corporation Ltd (KHSRC)
The state government has formed a new public limited company - Kerala
High Speed Rail Corporation Ltd - to implement a high speed rail network.
The 630-km network will connect Thiruvananthapuram with Mangalore.
The Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation (KSIDC) has been

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appointed the nodal agency to develop the project, and Delhi Metro Rail
Corporation (DMRC) has been assigned with a pre-feasibility study.
The new company was formed on the basis of a pre-feasibility report
submitted by DMRC. Further technical studies and economic evaluation are
currently being planned. The proposed high speed corridor will have two
parallel tracks in the standard gauge system as in the Delhi Metro Rail. The
high speed corridor will have an alignment independent of the existing
alignment of the Indian Railways.
The project will be implemented as a joint venture between the state
government and a private partner which will be selected at a later stage.
The company will undertake detailed feasibility report for the project and
identify suitable rail technology to implement the high speed corridor. Steps
have also been initiated for the release of a notification for the acquisition of
land needed to implement the project. The width of the land required to be
acquired for the rail corridor is 13 metres. The high speed corridor will use a
greenfield route to keep the rehabilitation task to the minimum

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