CS1302 COMPUTER NETWORKS

PART A
UNIT – I
DATA COMMUNICATION

1. What is mean by data communication?

Data communication is the exchange of data (in the form of 1s and 0s) between
two devices via some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable).
2. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security.
Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w.
Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from the failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
3. What are the three fundamental characteristics determine the effectiveness of
the data communication system?
The effectiveness of the data communication system depends on three
fundamental characteristics:
Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
4. What are the advantages of distributed processing?
Advantages of distributed processing include security/encapsulation,
distributed databases, faster problem solving, security through redundancy and
collaborative processing.
5. Why are protocols needed?
In networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems.
Two entities cannot just send bit streams to each other and expect to be
understood. For communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.
6. Why are standards needed?
Co-ordination across the nodes of a network is necessary for an efficient
communication. If there are no standards, difficulties arise. A standard provides
a model or basis for development to which everyone has agreed.
7. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a
mesh and ring topology?
Mesh topology – n (n-
1)/2 Ring topology – n
8. What is the difference between a passive and an active hub?
An active hub contains a repeater that regenerates the received bit patterns
before sending them out. A passive hub provides a simple physical connection
between the attached devices.

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9. Distinguish between peer-to-peer relationship and a primary-secondary
relationship.
Peer-to-peer relationship: All the devices share the link equally. Primary-
secondary relationship: One device controls traffic and the others must
transmit through it.
10. Assume 6 devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are
needed? How many ports are needed for each device?
Number of cables=n (n-1)/2=6(6-1)/2=15
Number of ports per device=n-1=6-1=5
11. Group the OSI layers by function.
The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups. Physical, data link
and network layers are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects
of moving data from one device to another. Session, presentation and application layers
are the user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software
systems. The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.
12. What are header and trailers and how do they get added and removed?
Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just
below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are added
to the message at the layers 6,5,4,3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer2. At the receiving
machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending
layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken.
13. The transport layer creates a communication between the source and
destination. What are the three events involved in a connection?
Creating a connection involves three steps: connection establishment, data
transfer and connection release.
14. What is the DC component?
Direct current is a zero-frequency signal with constant amplitude.
15. How does NRZ-L differ from NRZ-I?
In the NRZ-L sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific
meanings: positive for 0 and negative for 1. in the NRZ-I sequence, the voltages
are meaningless. Instead, the receiver looks for changes from one level to
another as its basis for recognition of 1s.
16. Using HDB3, encode the bit stream 10000000000100. Assume the number of
1s so far is odd and the first 1 is positive.
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Amplitude

Time

17. What are the functions of a DTE? What are the functions of a DCE?
Data terminal equipment is a device that is an information source or an
information sink. It is connected to a network through a DCE.

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 Data circuit-terminating equipment is a device used as an interface between a
DTE and a network.
18. What does the electrical specification of EIA-232 describe?
The electrical specification of EIA-232 defines that signals other than data
must be sent using OFF as less than -3 volts and ON as greater than +3 volts.
The data must be transmitted using NRZ-L encoding.
19. Discuss the mode for propagating light along optical channels.
There are two modes for propagating light along optical channels, multimode
and single mode.
Multimode: Multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths. Single mode: Fiber with extremely small diameter that limits
beams to a few angles, resulting in an almost horizontal beam.
20. What is refraction?
The phenomenon related to the bending of light when it passes from one
medium to another.

UNIT-II
DATA LINK LAYER

1.What are the responsibilities of data link layer?

Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following.
a) Framing
b) Physical addressing
c) Flow control
d) Error control
e) Access control
2. Mention the types of errors.
There are 2 types of errors
a) Single-bit error.
b) Burst-bit error.
3. Define the following terms.
Single bit error: The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data
unit (such as byte character/data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
Burst error: Means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 from
0 to 1.
4. What is redundancy?
It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits
or extra bits may be appended at the destination of each unit.
5. List out the available detection methods.
There are 4 types of redundancy checks are used in data communication.
a) Vertical redundancy checks (VRC).
b) Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).
c) Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
d) Checksum.
6. Write short notes on VRC.
The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical
redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this technique a redundant bit

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called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in
the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even.
7. Write short notes on LRC.
In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is divided into rows
and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
8. Write short notes on CRC.
The third and most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the
cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) CRC is based on binary division. Here a sequence
of redundant bits, called the CRC remainder is appended to the end of data unit.
9. Write short notes on CRC generator.
A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division.
° In the first step, the 4-bit divisor is subtracted from the
first 4 bit of the
dividend.
° Each bit of the divisor is subtracted from the
corresponding bit of the
dividend without disturbing the next higher bit.
10. Write short notes on CRC checker.
A CRC checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data
appended with the CRC it does the same modulo-2 division. If the remainder is all
0’s the CRC is dropped and the data accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of
bits is discarded and the dates are resent.
11. Give the essential properties for polynomial.
A polynomial should be selected to have at least the following properties.
a) It should not be
b) It should be divisible by(x+1).
12. Define checksum.
The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called
checksum. Checksum is based on the concept of redundancy.
13. What are the steps followed in checksum generator?
The sender follows these steps
a) The units are divided into k sections each of n bits.
b) All sections are added together using 2’s complement to get the sum.
c) The sum is complemented and become the checksum.
d) The checksum is sent with the data.
14. List out the steps followed is checksum checker side.
The receiver must follow these steps
a) The unit is divided into k section each of n bits.
b) All sections are added together using 1’s complement to get the sum.
c) The sum is complemented.
d) If the result is zero.
15. Write short notes on error correction.
It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in 2 ways.
a) When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the
sender retransmit the entire data unit.
b) A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which
automatically corrects certain errors.

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 16. Mention the types of error correcting methods.
There are 2 error-correcting methods.
a) Single bit error correction
b) Burst error correction.
17. What is the purpose of hamming code?
A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths.
So the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must
be redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction.
18. Define flow control.
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data.
The sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.
19. What is a buffer?
Each receiving device has a block of memory called a buffer, reserved for
storing incoming data until they are processed.
20. Mention the categories of flow control.
There are 2 methods have been developed to control flow of data across
communication links.
a) Stop and wait- send one from at a time.
b) Sliding window- send several frames at a time.
UNIT III
NETWORK LAYER

1. What are the network support layers and the user support
layers? Network support layers:
The network support layers are Physical layer, Data link layer and Network layer. These
deals with electrical specifications, physical connection, transport timing and reliability.
User support layers:
The user support layers are: Session layer, Presentation layer, Application layer.
These allow interoperability among unrelated software system.
2. With a neat diagram explain the relationship of IEEE Project to the OSI model?

Other layers Other layers

Network Network
Logical Link Control
Data link
Media Access Control
The Physical IEEE Physical has subdivided the data
link layer into two sub layers:
* Logical link control (LLC)
* Medium access control (MAC)
LLC is non-architecture specific. The MAC sub layer contains a number of distinct
modules, each carries proprietary information specific to the LAN product being used.
3. What are the functions of LLC?
The IEEE project 802 models takes the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it
into 2 sets of functions. One set contains the end user portion of the HDLC frame - the

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 logical address, control information, and data. These functions are handled by the IEEE
802.2 logical link control (LLC) protocol.
4. What are the functions of MAC?
MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains
synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move
information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of the next
station to receive and route a packet.
5. What is protocol data unit?
The data unit in the LLC level is called Protocol Data Unit (PDU). It contains four
fields.
Destination Service Point Address (DSAP)
Source Service Access Point
Control field
Information field

DSAP SSAP Control Information

6. What are headers and trailers and how do they get added and removed?
The control data added to the beginning of a data is called headers. The control data
added to the end of a data is called trailers. At the sending machine, when the message
passes through the layers each layer adds the headers or trailers. At the receiving machine,
each layer removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to the next layer.
7. What are the responsibilities of network layer?
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet across
multiple network links. The specific responsibilities of network layer include the following:
Logical addressing.
Routing.
9. What is a virtual circuit?
A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The
connection is made after both computers do handshaking. After the connection, all
packets follow the same route and arrive in sequence.
10. What are data grams?
In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even
when one packet represents just a place of a multipacket transmission, the network treats it
although it existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.
10. What are the two types of implementation formats in virtual circuits?
Virtual circuit transmission is implemented in 2 formats.
Switched virtual circuit
Permanent virtual circuit.
11. What is meant by switched virtual circuit?
Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in
circuit switching. In this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed
and exits only for the duration of specific exchange.
12. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit?
Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching.
In this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a
continuous basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses.
13. Define Routers.

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 Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. They Route
packets from one network to any of a number of potential destination networks on
Internet routers operate in the physical, data link and network layer of OSI model.
14. What is meant by hop count?
The pathway requiring the smallest number of relays, it is called hop-count
routing, in which every link is considered to be of equal length and given the value one.
15. How can the routing be classified?
The routing can be classified as,
Adaptive routing
Non-adaptive routing.
16. What is time-to-live or packet lifetime?
As the time-to-live field is generated, each packet is marked with a lifetime,
usually the number of hops that are allowed before a packet is considered lost and
accordingly, destroyed. The time-to-live determines the lifetime of a packet.
17. What is meant by brouter?
A brouter is a single protocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes act as a
router and sometimes act as a bridge.
18. Write the keys for understanding the distance vector routing.
The three keys for understanding the algorithm are
Knowledge about the whole networks
Routing only to neighbors
Information sharing at regular intervals
19. Write the keys for understanding the link state routing.
The three keys for understanding the algorithm are
Knowledge about the neighborhood.
Routing to all neighbors.
Information sharing when there is a range.
20. How the packet cost referred in distance vector and link state routing?
In distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of link state
routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security
levels, traffic or the state of the link.

UNIT IV
TRANSPORT LAYER

1. What is function of transport layer?

The protocol in the transport layer takes care in the delivery of data
from one application program on one device to an application program on
another device. They act as a link between the upper layer protocols and the
services provided by the lower layer.
2. What are the duties of the transport layer?
The services provided by the transport
layer End-to- end delivery
Addressing
Reliable delivery
Flow control
Multiplexing

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3. What is the difference between network layer delivery and the transport layer
delivery?
Network layer delivery Transport layer delivery

The network layer is responsible The transport layer is responsible

for the the source-to-destination for source-to-destination delivery
delivery of packet of the entire message.
across multiple network links.

4. What are the four aspects related to the reliable delivery of data?
The four aspects are,
Error control
Sequence control
Loss control
Duplication control
5. What is meant by segment?
At the sending and receiving end of the transmission, TCP divides long
transmissions into smaller data units and packages each into a frame called a segment.
6. What is meant by segmentation?
When the size of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for
the network layer datagram or data link layer frame to handle, the transport protocol
divides it into smaller usable blocks. The dividing process is called segmentation.
7. What is meant by Concatenation?
The size of the data unit belonging to single sessions are so small that several
can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol combines them
into a single data unit. The combining process is called concatenation.
8. What are the types of multiplexing?
The types of multiplexing are,
Upward multiplexing
Downward multiplexing
9. What are the two possible transport services?
Two basic types of transport services
are, Connection service
Connectionless services
10. The transport layer creates the connection between source and
destination. What are the three events involved in the connection?
For security, the transport layer may create a connection between the
two end ports. A connection is a single logical path between the source and
destination that is associated with all packets in a message. Creating a
connection involves three steps:
Connection establishment
Data transfer & Connection release.
12. What is meant by congestion?
Congestion in a network occurs if user sends data into the network at a
rate greater than that allowed by network resources.
12. Why the congestion occurs in network?

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 Congestion occurs because the switches in a network have a limited
buffer size to store arrived packets.
13. What is meant by quality of service?
The quality of service defines a set of attributes related to the
performance of the connection. For each connection, the user can request a
particular attribute each service class is associated with a set of attributes.
14. What are the two categories of QoS attributes?
The two main categories
are User Oriented
Network Oriented
15. List out the user related attributes?
User related attributes are
SCR – Sustainable Cell
Rate PCR – Peak Cell Rate
MCR- Minimum Cell Rate
CVDT – Cell Variation Delay Tolerance
16. What are the networks related attributes?
The network related attributes
are, Cell loss ratio (CLR)
Cell transfer delay (CTD)
Cell delay variation (CDV)
Cell error ratio (CER)
17. What is the difference between service point address, logical address
and physical address?
Service point Logical addressing Physical addressing
addressing
The transport layer If a packet passes the If the frames are to be
header includes a type of network boundary we distributed to different
address called a service need another addressing systems on the network,
point address or port to differentiate the source the data link layer adds
address, which makes a and destination systems. the header, which defines
data delivery from a The network layer adds a the source machine’s
specific process on one header, which indicate address and the
computer to a specific the logical address of the destination machine’s
process on another sender and receiver. address.
computer.

17. What are the rules of nonboundary-level masking?

The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 255 in the mask
will be repeated in the subnetwork address
The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 0 in the mask will
change to
0 in the subnetwork address
For other bytes, use the bit-wise AND operator
19. Define Gateway.
A device used to connect two separate networks that use different
communication protocols.

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20. What is LSP?
In link state routing, a small packet containing routing information sent by a
router to all other router by a packet called link state packet.
UNIT – V
APPLICATION LAYER

1. What is the purpose of Domain Name System?

Domain Name System can map a name to an address and conversely an
address to name.
2. Discuss the three main division of the domain name space.
Domain name space is divided into three different sections: generic
domains, country domains & inverse domain.
Generic domain: Define registered hosts according to their generic behavior,
uses generic suffixes.
Country domain: Uses two characters to identify a country as the last
suffix. Inverse domain: Finds the domain name given the IP address.
3. Discuss the TCP connections needed in FTP.
FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is
used for data transfer, the other for control information. The control connection
uses very simple rules of communication. The data connection needs more
complex rules due to the variety of data types transferred.
4. Discuss the basic model of FTP.
The client has three components: the user interface, the client control
process, and the client data transfer process. The server has two components:
the server control process and the server data transfer process. The control
connection is made between the control processes. The data connection is
made between the data transfer processes.
5. What is the function of SMTP?
The TCP/IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer (SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other
computer users based on e-mail addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange
between users on the same or different computers.
6. What is the difference between a user agent (UA) and a mail transfer agent
(MTA)?
The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the
message in the envelope. The MTA transfers the mail across the Internet.
7. How does MIME enhance SMTP?
MIME is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent
through SMTP. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII
data and deliverers it to the client SMTP to be sent through the Internet. The
server SMTP at the receiving side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to
MIME to be transformed back to the original data.
8. Why is an application such as POP needed for electronic messaging?
Workstations interact with the SMTP host, which receives the mail on behalf of
every host in the organization, to retrieve messages by using a client-server protocol
such as Post Office Protocol, version 3(POP3). Although POP3 is used to download

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messages from the server, the SMTP client still needed on the desktop to
forward messages from the workstation user to its SMTP mail server.
9. Give the format of HTTP request message.

Request Line

Headers

A Blank Line

Body
(present only in
some messages)

10. Give the format of HTTP response message.

Status Line

Headers

A Blank Line

Body
(present only in
some messages)

11. Write down the three types of WWW documents.

The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad categories:
static, dynamic and active.
Static: Fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a
server. Dynamic: Created by web server whenever a browser requests
the document. Active: A program to be run at the client side.
12. What is the purpose of HTML?

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 HTML is a computer language for specifying the contents and format of a
web document. It allows additional text to include codes that define fonts,
layouts, embedded graphics and hypertext links.
13. Define CGI.
CGI is a standard for communication between HTTP servers and
executable programs. It is used in crating dynamic documents.
14. Name four factors needed for a secure network.
Privacy: The sender and the receiver expect confidentiality.
Authentication: The receiver is sure of the sender’s identity and that an imposter
has not sent the message.
Integrity: The data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was sent.
Non-Reputation: The receiver must able to prove that a received message came
from a specific sender.
15. How is a secret key different from public key?
In secret key, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this
key and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key
and the corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data.
In public key, there are two keys: a private key and a public key. The
private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
16. What is a digital signature?
Digital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. It is
similar to that of signing transactions documents when you do business with a
bank. In network transactions, you can create an equivalent of an electronic or
digital signature by the way you send data.
17. What are the advantages & disadvantages of public key
encryption? Advantages:
a) Remove the restriction of a shared secret key between two entities. Here each entity
can create a pair of keys, keep the private one, and publicly distribute the other one.
b) The no. of keys needed is reduced tremendously. For one million users to
communicate, only two million keys are needed.
Disadvantage:
If you use large numbers the method to be effective. Calculating the cipher text using
the long keys takes a lot of time. So it is not recommended for large amounts of text.
18. What are the advantages & disadvantages of secret key
encryption? Advantage:
Secret Key algorithms are efficient: it takes less time to encrypt a message. The reason
is that the key is usually smaller. So it is used to encrypt or decrypt long messages.
Disadvantages:
a) Each pair of users must have a secret key. If N people in world want to use
this method, there needs to be N (N-1)/2 secret keys. For one million people
to communicate, a half-billion secret keys are needed.
b) The distribution of the keys between two parties can be
difficult. 19. Define permutation.
Permutation is transposition in bit level.
Straight permutation: The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved.
Compressed permutation: The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped).
Expanded permutation: The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated).

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20. Define substitutional & transpositional encryption.
Substitutional: A character level encryption in which each character is replaced
by another character in the set.
Transpositional: A Character level encryption in which the characters retain
their plaintext but the position of the character changes.

PART B
UNIT I
Data communications

1. Explain ISO/OSI reference model.

₃ Physical layer
₃ Data link layer
₃ Network layer
₃ Transport layer
₃ Session layer
₃ Presentation layer
₃ Application layer
2. Explain the topologies of the network.
₃ Mesh topology
₃ Star topology
₃ Tree topology
₃ Bus topology
₃ Ring topology
3. Explain the categories of networks.
₃ Local Area Network(LAN)
₃ Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
₃ Wide Area Network(WAN)
4. Explain coaxial cable & fiber optics.
₃ Coaxial cable
₃ Coaxial cable standards
₃ Coaxial cable connectors
₃ Fiber optics
₃ Propagation modes
₃ Fiber sizes
₃ Cable composition
₃ Light sources for optical cable
₃ Fiber optic connectors
₃ Advantages & disadvantages of optical fiber
5. Explain line coding (digital to digital conversion).
₃ Unipolar
₃ DC component
₃ Synchronization
₃ Polar
₃ Non return to
zero(NRZ) NRZ-L
NRZ-I

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 ₃ Return to zero
₃ Biphase
Manchester
Differential Manchester
₃ Bipolar
₃ Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)
₃ Bipolar 8-zero substitution(B8ZS)
₃ High-Density Bipolar 3(HDB3)

UNIT II
Data link layer

1. Explain error detection and error correction techniques.

₃ Types of errors
₃ Single bit error
₃ Burst error
₃ Error detection
₃ Vertical redundancy check(VRC)
₃ Longitudinal redundancy check(LRC)
₃ Cyclic redundancy check(CRC)
₃ Checksum
₃ Error correction
₃ Single-bit error correction
₃ Hamming code
₃ Burst error correction
2. Explain error control mechanism.
₃ Stop and wait ARQ
₃ Sliding window ARQ
₃ Go back-n
₃ Selective-reject
3. Explain the flow control mechanism
₃ Stop and wait
₃ Sliding window.
4. Explain the timers and time registers in FDDI.
Time registers
₃ Synchronous allocation(SA)
₃ Target token rotation time(TTRT)
₃ Absolute maximum time(AMT)
₃ Timers
₃ Token rotation timer(TRT)
₃ Token holding timer(THT)
6. Explain about Ethernet.
₃ Access method :CSMA/CD
₃ Addressing
₃ Electrical specification
₃ Frame format
₃ Implementation:

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 ₃ 10 base 5 :Thick Ethernet
₃ 10 base 2 :Thin Ethernet
₃ 10 base T :Twisted-pair Ethernet
₃ 1 base 5 :Star LAN
UNIT III
Network layer

1. Explain the two approaches of packet switching techniques.

₃ Datagram approach
₃ Virtual circuit approach
₃ Switched virtual circuit(SVC)
₃ Permanent virtual circuit(PVC)
₃ Circuit – switched connection versus virtual – circuit connection
₃ Path versus route
₃ Dedicated versus shared
2. Explain IP addressing method.
₃ Internetwork protocol (IP)
₃ Datagram
₃ Addressing
₃ Classes
₃ Dotted decimal notation
₃ A sample internet
3. Define routing & explain distance vector routing and link state routing.
₃ Distance vector routing
₃ Sharing information
₃ Routing table
Creating the table
Updating the table
Updating algorithm
₃ Link state routing
₃ Information sharing
Packet cost
Link state packet
Getting information about
neighbors Initialization
Link state database
4. Define bridge and explain the type of bridges.
₃ Bridges
₃ Types of bridges
₃ Simple bridge
₃ Multiport bridge
₃ Transparent bridge
5. Explain subnetting
₃ Subnetting
₃ Three levels of hierarchy
₃ Masking
₃ Masks without subnetting

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 ₃ Masks with subnetting
₃ Finding the subnetwork address
₃ Boundary level masking
₃ Non-boundary level masking
UNIT IV
Transport layer

1. Explain the duties of transport layer.

End to end delivery
Addressing
Reliable delivery
Error control
Sequence control
Loss control
Duplication
control Flow control
Multiplexing
3. Explain socket in detail.
Introduction
Explanation
program
4. Explain UDP & TCP.
₃ User Datagram Protocol(UDP)
₃ Source port address
₃ Destination port address
₃ Total length
₃ Checksum
₃ Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
₃ Source port address
₃ Destination port address
₃ Sequence number
₃ Acknowledgement number
₃ Header length
₃ Reserved
₃ Control
₃ Window size
₃ Check sum
₃ Urgent pointer
₃ Options and padding
5. Explain about congestion control.
₃ Congestion avoidance
₃ BECN
₃ FECN
₃ Four situations
₃ Discarding
6. Explain leaky bucket and token bucket algorithm
₃ Leaky bucket algorithm

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 ₃ Leaky bucket
₃ Switch controlling the output rate
₃ Flowchart
UNIT V
Application Layer

1. Explain the functions of SMTP.

System for sending messages to other computer users based on e-
mail addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange between users on
the same or different computers.
User Agent
Mail Transfer Agent
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
Post Office Protocol
2. Write short notes on FTP.
Transfer a file from one system to another.
TCP connections
Basic model of FTP
3. Explain about HTTP.
HTTP transactions
HTTP messages
URL
4. Explain the WWW in detail.
Hypertext & Hypermedia
Browser Architecture
Categories of Web Documents
HTML
CGI
Java
5. Explain the type of encryption/decryption
method. Conventional Methods:
Character-Level Encryption: Substitutional & Transpositional
Bit-Level Encryption: Encoding/Decoding, Permutation, Substitution, Product,
Exclusive-Or & Rotation
Public key Methods

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